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NATURE 


A     WEEKLY 

ILLUSTRATED  JOURNAL  OF  SCIENCE 

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VOLUME    XVII. 

NOVEMBER    1877    to    APRIL    1878 

"  To  the  solid  ground 

, 

Of  Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  builds  for  aye" — Wordsworth 

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BREAD  STREET  HILL,   QUKBN  VICTORIA  STREET 


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Nature^  May  30,  1878] 


INDEX 


Aach,  the,  and  the  Danube,  233 

Abercromby  (Hon.  Ralph),  the  Eurydke  Squall,  466 

Abney  (W.  de  W.,  F.R.S.),  "A  Treatise  on  Photography," 
378 ;  the  Acceleration  of  Oxidation  caused  by  the  Least  Re- 
frangible End  of  the  Spectrum,  518 

Absolute  Pitch,  Lord  Rayleigh,  F.K.S.,  12 

Ackroyd  (W.),  on  the  Telephone,  330 

Acoustic  Repulsion,  515 

Acoustical  Effects  of  Atmospheric  Pressure,  G.  Rayleigh  Vicars, 

244 

Adulteration :  in  Berlin,  91 ;  Anti-Adulteration  Society  at 
Leipzig,  91 

^olian  Harps,  33 

Africa:  H.  M.  Stanley's  Exploration  of,  17,  49,  90,  193,  270, 
297 ;  International  African  Exploration  Society,  71,  346 ; 
French  Exploration  of,  91 ;  Italian  Expedition  to,  132  ;  Ex- 
ploration of  Lake  Albert  Nyanza,  192,  364 ;  the  Bel^an 
Expedition  to,  193,  346,  467 ;  Dr.  Hildcbrandt's  Expedition, 
194;  Herr  Gerhanl  Rohlf*s  Expedition  to  the  Sahara,  211 ; 
the  Marquis  Antinori's  Expedition,  211,  249;  an  Early  African 
Explorer,  270;  Mr.  Stanley  in  England,  270;  D'Anvers* 
History  of  North  African  Discovery,  280 ;  Proposed  Language 
Map  of,  293  ;  Herr  Schiitt's  Expedition,  308 ;  Prof.  Oliver's 
"Flora  of  Tropical  Africa,"  319;  German  Exploration  of, 
324;  Mr.  Stanley's  New  Work  on,  364;  Exploration  of 
South- West  Africa,  364;  African  Dwarfs,  364;  Proposed 
New  Expedition,  383  ;  Ancient  Maps  of  Central  Africa,  383 ; 
Dr.  Efiendi's  Expedition,  408 ;  the  Lake  Nyassa  Region,  435  ; 
Exploration  of  Angola,  453 ;  Dr.  Bastian  on  African 
Weapoac,  455 ;  Trollopc's  •*  South  Africa,"  463 ;  Church 
Missionary  Society  Expedition,  467;  Exploration  of,  279, 
383,  468;  Geographical  Note?,  489;  New  Map  of,  489; 
French  Expedition  to,  508 

Agassiz  (Alex.),  North  American  Starfisher,  98 ;  Cruise  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  151,  192,  454 

Agriculture,  Henderson's  Manual  of,  280 

Agriciiltural  Society,  the  Royal,  301 

Air-Pump,  Improvement  of  the,  310 

Aitken  (John),  on  a  Means  for  Converting  the  Heat  Motion  pos- 
sessed by  Matter  at  Normal  Temperature  into  Work,  260 

Aix-la-Chapellc,  the  Polytechnic  at  335 

Albert  (Herr  Josef),  Photography  of  Natural  Colours,  92 

Albert  Nyanza,  Exploration  of,  364 

Aldebaran,  New  Companion  to,  488 

Algse,  Green,  289  '<*•  • 

Algae  of  the  White  Sea,  345 

Algebra  and  Chemistry,  Prof.  J.  J.  Sylve:,ter,  F.R.S. ,  284,  309 

Algeria,  Proposed  Schools  in,  393 

Allen  (J.  A.),  on  the  American  Bison,  127 

Alloys  of  Tin,  &c..  Hardening  of,  311 

AUuard's  New  Condensing  Hygrometer,  14,  28 

Alpine  Club,  German,  468 

Amber,  Production  of,  132 

Amblyomis  inorftata^  no 

America  :  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art,  18,  293  ; 
American  Science,  18,  39,  113,  213,  293, 438,  497 ;  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  37 ;  American 
Bison,  127;  American  Philosophical  Society,  Proceedings 
of,  199;  Entomology  in,  222;  American  Naturalist,  232, 
293 ;  American  Journal  of  Mathematics,  293 ;  American 
Geographical  Society,  346,  409 ;  the  Inland  Fisheries,  382 ; 
American  Longitudes,  408;  American  Geological  Surveys, 
Prof.   A.  Geikie,   F.R.S.,  431;    Bibliographical  Index  o^ 


North  American  Plants,  514.   See  also  United  States,  New 

York,  Philadelphia,  &c. 
Amines,  Halogen,  Derivatives  of,  151 
Amsterdam  and  St.  Paul,  the  Islands  of.   Prof.  E.   Perceval 

Wright,  326 
Analogies  <rf  Plant  and  Animal  Life,  Francis  Darwin,  388,  41  x 
Ancient  History  from  the  Monuments,  George  Smith,  119 
Angara,  Exploration  of  the,  308 
Angola,  Exploration  of,  453 

Animal  and  Plant  Life,  Analogies  of,  Francis  Darwin,  388,  411 
Animal  Eggs,  the  Earliest  Changes  in,  509 
Annalen  der  Physik  und  Chemie,  39,  214,  254,  294,  394 
Annuaire  Bureau  des  Longitudes  of  France,  211 
Anthony  (John  G.)f  Death  of,  39,  133 
Anthropology:    Anthropological  Exhibition  in  Moscow,    16; 

Anthropological  Institute,  76,  171,  176,  215,  315,  355,  415, 

470y  499  >   Anthropolc^ical  Literature,  1876,   133;  Anthro- 

pologiscbe  Gesellschaft  of  Berlin,   438;    Anthropology   in 

Moscow,  171 ;  of  Central  Asia,  172 ;  Russian  Collection  at 

the  Paris  Exhibition,  350 
Antibes,  Thuret's  Garden  at,  351 
Antimony,  Atomic  Weight  of,  293,  439 
Antinori  (Marquis),  Supposed  Death  of,  71,  no;  his  African 

Expedition,  no,  21  x,  249 
Antiquity  of  Man,  315 
Antiseptic  Vapours,  the  Action  of  Certain,  on  the  Ripening  of 

Fruits,  150 
Ants,   the  Habits  of.  Sir  John  Lubbock,  F.R.S.,  355;   the 

Agricultural  Ants  of  Texas,  433 
Apiculture  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  309 
Apothecaries,  Society  of.  Prizes  in  Botanv,  109 
Appunn  and  Koenig — Beats  in  Confined  Air,  Alex.  J.  Ellir, 

F.R.S. ,  26 
Aquatic  Respiration,  290 

Ararat,  Prof.  Bryce's,  Prof.  A.  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  205 
Archibald  (E.  D.),  Indian  Rainfall,  505 
Archiv  for  Mathematik  og  Naturvidenskab,  172 
Arctic  Auronc,  T.  Rand  Capron,  162 
Arctic  Exploration :    132,    271,    290,    324,   408,   468 ;    Prof. 

Nordenskjold's  Expedition,  90 ;   Discovery  of  Arctic  Fossil 

Plants,  115;  the  Howgate  Expedition,  153 
Arctic  Fauna,  155 
Arctic  Map,  the  Zenis',  71 
Artesian  Well  at  Pesth,  109 

Articulate  Speech,  Elements  of.  Dr.  W.  H.  Corfield,  447 
Artificial  Flowers  and  Insect?,  133,  162 
Arthropods  Sound-producing,  W.  Saville  Kent,  11 ;  Origin  cf 

Trachese  in,  284,  340 
Ascidians,  Deep  Sea,  289 
Asseline  (M.)>  Death  of,  490 
Astronomy:   Proctor's  ** Myths  and  Marvels  of  Astronomy," 

180 ;  Wolf's  History  of  Astronomy,  J.  R.  Hind,   F.R.S., 

259;    English  Translation  of,   J.  R.  Hind,  F.R.S.,   359; 

Astronomisches  Jahrbuch,  Berlin,    507  ;   Our  Astronomical 

Column,  14,  36,  46,  63,  82,  104,  129,  149,  163,  189,  209, 

231,  247,  269,  288,  306,  323,  343,  363,  381,  407,  432,  452, 

418,  507  ;  Astronomical  Society,  see  Royal 
Athintic  Shells,  Wollaston's,  503 
"  Atlas  Celeste,"  Ch.  Dien,  141 
Atmospheric  Movements,  307 
Atmospheric  Pressure  of  Europe,  15 
Atmospheric  Pressure,  Acoustical  Effects  of,  G.  Rayleigh  Vicars^ 

244 


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IV 


INDEX 


[Nature^  May  30,  1878 


Atirora  Atistralis,  Spectrum  of,  Commander  J.  P.  Maclear,  1 1 
Atirora  Borealis,  Extent  and  Principal  Zone  of  the,  373 
Australia  :  C.  H.  Eden's  **  Fifth  Continent  with  the  Adjacent 

Islands/*  121 ;  Exploration  of,  271  ;  Meteorology  of  Western, 

363 ;  Bees  in,  372  ;  Australian  Monotremata,  E.  P.  l^amsay, 

401 
Austria:  the  Austrian  Comet  Medal,  129;  Education  in,  155; 

University  Libraries  of,  374 
Autopsy,  the  Society  of  Mutual,  490 
Avalanches  in  St3nria,  273 
Aveling  (E.  B.)i  Physiological  Tables,  5 
Azimuth  Instrument,  a  New,  308 

Babylonia,  the  Primitive  Culture  of,  415 

Bacteria:  Prof.  J.  Burdon  Sanderson,  F.R.S.,  84 ;  Prof.  Tyndall 

on,  134 ;  in  Water,  G.  F.  DowdesweU,  323 ;  in  Oxygen,  393 
Baker  (J.  G.),  "The  Flora  of  Mauritius  and  Seychelles,"  77 
Balfour  (Prof.)  Proposed  Portrait  of,  393 
Balloon,  the  Tuileries  Captive,  330,  454,  491 ;  Balloons  and 

Arctic  Exploration,  171 
Ballot  (Dr.   Buys),   on  the    Mean   Atmospheric   Pressure   of 

Europe,  15 
Baltic  and  German  Oceans,  Physiography  of,  41 1 
Baltimore,   Johns  Hopkins  University,  Axmiversary  of,  459; 

Feliow^ipsat,  517 
Barkas  (T.  P.),  the  Daylight  Meteor  of  March  25,  1878,  467 
Barnard  and  Mayer,  the  Sources  and  Reflection  of  Light,  405, 427 
Barometric  Osculation,  135 
Barrett  (Prof.  W.  F.),  a  Cheap  Telephone,  193 ;  New  Form  of 

Gasholder,  253 ;  Early  Electric  Tdephony,  510 
Bary  (Dr.  En^in  von).  Death  of,  71 
Barvta,  Lime,  and  Strontium,  Crystallisation  of,  372 
Bashforth  (Rev.  Francis),  Trajectories  of  Shot,  401,  506 
Batcfaelor's  Patent  Working  Drawings — Trunk  Engine,  160 
Bathing-Place  at  Harrow  School,  Arthur  G.  Watson,  487 
Beachbuiy,  Earthquake  at,  212 
Becquerel  (Antoine  C^sar),  Obituary  Notice  of,  244 
Beer,  Adulteration  of,  251 
Bees  killed  by  Tritoma,   Alfred  R,  Wallace,  45;   Bees  and 

Flowers,  John  B.  Bridgman,  102 ;   and  Gentiana  ascUpiadea^ 

F.  M.  Burton,  201 ;  Apiculture  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  309 ; 

Australian  Bees,  372,  411 
Beetles  of  St.  Helena,  E.  C.  Rye,  338 
Beibiatter  zn  den  Annalen  der  Physik  und  Chemie,  39 
Belgrand  (M.),  Death  of,  473 
Bell  (Prof.  Graham),  on  the  Telephone,  135 
Bell  (I.  Lowthian,  F.R.S.),  Separation  of   Phosj^orus  from 

Pigiron,  459 
Bell  (Prof.  T.,  F.R.S.),  "  White's  Natural  History  of  Selbomc," 

399 
Bentham  s  «  Flora  Australiensis,"  212 
Bergen,  proposed  University  at,  95 
Berlin  :   Death  of  Pongo  at  the  Aquarium,  70 ;  Geographical 

Society  of,  91, 194,  271,  409,  411 ;  New  Polytechnic  at,  155  ; 

University    Intelligence,    175,    214,    254;    the    University 

Library,  194 ;  the  Telegraphs  in,  251 ;  A<^emy  of  Science, 

252 ;  Arms  and  Weapons  at  the  Royal  Museum,  330 ;  Anthro- 

polo^ische  Gesellschaft,  350 ;  *'  Commers  "  at,  393 ;  Botanical 

Specimens  in,  454 
Berliner  astronomisches  Jahrbuch  and  the  Minor  Planets,  507 
Bermudas,  the  Fauna  of  the,  18;  Bermuda  Lizard,  G.  Brown 

Goode,  425 
Bern,  University  Statistics,  374 
Bernard  (Claude),  Obituary  Notice  of,  304 ;  Funeral  of,  329 ; 

Monument  to,  370,  409 
Bessemer  (Henry),  Glass  for  Reflectors,  241 
Bettany  and  Parker's  «*  Morphology  of  the  Skull,"  3 
Biggs- Wither  (T.  P.),  **  Pioneering  in  South  Brazil,"  423 
Binary-Star  Castor,  the,  105 
Biological  Notes,  127,  221,  289,  344,  382,  433,  508 
Birchall  (Edwin),  the  Insects  of  Chili  and  New  Zealand,  221, 

260 
Birds :  the  Protection  of,  in  Germany,  251 ;  Mimicry  in,  361, 

380,  438  ;  Poaching,  509 
Birkbeck  Institution,  334,  391 
Bismarck  (Prince)  and  the  Telephone,  91 
Bison,  the  American,  127 
Blackbirds,  Exportation  of,  from  Corsica,  309 
Blakesle^  (T.  H.),   Phoneidoscopic  Reproentation  of  Vowels 

and  Dip^ong^,  486 


Bland  (Thos.),  Great  Waterfalls,  361 

Bleeker  (Dr.  P.),  Obituary  Notice  of ,  286  ;  his  "Atlas,"  309 
Blood  Corpuscle,  the  Structure  of,  20 
Bolivia,  Capt.  Musters  on,  90 

Bonavia  (Dr.  E,),  Contribution  to  the  Sun-spot  Theory  of  Rain- 
fall, 61 ;  Nocturnal  Increase  of  Temperature  with  Elevation, 

lOI 

Bone,  Transformation  of  Cartilage  into,  345 

Bonomi  (Joseph),  Death  of,  370 

Bonn,  Prof.  Kekul^'s  Address  on  Chemistry,  55 

Booth  (Rev.  James,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.),  Death  of,  5x3 

Boracic  Acid,  Origin  and  Formation  of,  150 

Borneo,  Volcanic  Phenomenon  in,  A.  H.  Everett,  200 

Bosanquet  (J.  Whatman),  Death  of,  212 

Botanical  Exchange  Society  at  Buda-Pesth,  437 

Botanical  Specimens  in  Berlin,  454 

Botany :  in  Germany,  158 ;  Prizes  in,  for  Young  Women,  314 

Boulders,  Preservation  of,  in  France,  391 

Bournemouth,  the  Eocene  Flora  of,  J.  S.  Gardner,  47  ;    Fossil 

Hunting  at,  J.  S.  Gardner,  369  ;  the  Bournemouth  Beds,  395 
Brahe  (Tycho),  Star  of  1572,  129 

Brain  of  a  Fossil  Mammal,  222  ;  Prof.  O.  C.  Marsh  on,  340 
Brake,  the  Westinghouse,  410,  507 
Brandeis  (Dr.  Richard  C),  PhiUuielphia  Diplomas,  221 
Braun  (Alex.),  Sale  of  his  Herbarium,  410 
Brazil,  Mr.  H.  H.  Smith's  Exploration  of,  308 
Brazil,  Pioneering  in  South,  T.  P.  Biggs- Wither,  423 
Breaks,  the  Telephone  as  a  Means  of  Measuring  the  Speed  of 

Hig^  J.  E.  H.  Gordon,  424 
Brehm  (Dr.  A.  E.),  Thierleben,  "  Die  Saugethiere,"  41 
Breslau,  University  Statistics,  374 
Bridgman  (John  B. ),  Bees  and  Flowers,  102 
Brisbane,  Hailstorm  at,  455 
Bristol :  Museum  and  Lil^ary,  16 ;  University  CoU^e,  20, 134  ; 

Naturalists'  Society,  193,  292,  311 
British  Archaeological  Association,  350 
British  Association,  1879  Meeting,  192,  232 
British  Channel  Tunnel,  109 

British  Flora,  the  Future  of  our,  A.  Craig- Christie,  62 
British  Medical  Association,  Grants  of  the,  90 
British  Museum,  the  Salaries  of  the  Officers  in  the,  197 
Broun  (J.  Allan,  F.R.S.),  the  Sun's  Magnetic  Action  at  the 

Present  Time,  183 ;    Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism, 

262,  280 
Broun  (Prof.  W.  Le  Roy),  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  281 
Browning's  Absorption  Bands  Apparatus,  513 
Briiggemann  (Dr.  F.),  Death  of,  473 
Brunswick,  New  University  Buildings  at,  75 
Brussels,  the  Rojral  Observatory,  288 

Bryce  (James,  LL.D.),  '*  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat,"  25,  205 
Bryozoa,  the  Shell  of  the,  355 
Buchan  (Alex.),  Sun-spots  and  Rainfall,  505 
Buda-Pesth,  Centenary  of  the  University,  195;  Botanical  Ex- 
change Society  at,  437 
Buddhism,  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,  239 
Buchanan  (J.  Y.),  Oxygen  in  Sea- Water,  162 
Burbidge  (F.  W.),  **  Horticulture,"  142 
Burial-Ground,  Discovery  of  a  Prehistoric,  near  Berlin,  391 
Burton  (Capt.),  Exploration  of  the  Land  of  Midian,  53,  132 
Burton  (F.  M.),  Insects  and  Artiflcial  Flowers,  162 ;  Gentiana 

asclepiadea  and  Bees,  201 
Bushman  Drawings,  Prof.  G.  Fritsch  on,  350 
Butterflies  in  Iceland,  No,  243,  260 
Byrne  (Oliver),  the  Geometry  of  Compasses,  199 
Byssus  in  the  Mussel,  289 


Cairo,  Geographical  Society,  468 

Callao,  Waterspouts  in,  372 

Calmy  (Dr.),  Eucalyptus,  283 

Cambridge :  University  Intelligence,  39,  74,  95,  1 34.  IS4»  294, 
393 ;  Science  at,  39 ;  Philosophical  Society,  96,  416 ;  the 
Mathematical  Tripos,  275  ;  Science  Exhibitions,  334 ;  Wood- 
wardian  Geological  Museum,  354 ;  Report  of  the  University 
Commission,  415 ;  Report  on  the  Teaching  of  the  University, 

497 
Cameron  (J.),  Sound  and  Density,  507 
Canada,  Extraordinary  Rain-storm  in,  490 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  (>bservatory,  269 
C^ipello  (Joas),  Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  488 


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Naiwe,  May  30,  1878] 


INDEX 


Capron   (J.    Rand),    Arctic   Aurone,    162;    "Photographic 

Spectra,"  259 
Carbon  of  Plants,  J.  W.  MoU*s  Researches  on,  344 
Camac,  Archaeological  Researches  at,  Tames  Miln,  379 


Camivoroos  Plants,  Francisco  Ginez,  63 

I  of  Shells,  513 
Carpenter  (Wm.  B.,  F.R.S.)»  the  Radiometer  and  its  Lessoas 


Carpenter  (Dr.  P.  P.),  his  Collection  of  Shells,  513 


26,  61 ;  Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay,  81,  loi,  122 
Carpmael  (W.),  Telephone  Experiments,  342 
Cartilage,  Transformation  of,  mto  Bone,  345 
Caspian,  Prof.  Grimm  on  the  Famia  of  the,  345 
Cassell's  Natural  History,  Vol.  i ,  365 
Castleton,  Local  Museum  at,  454 
Castor,  the  Binary  Star,  105 
Caucasus,  Prof.  Abich's  Work  on  the,  309 
Causation  of  Sleep,  124 

Cavendish  (Henry),  his  Writmgs  on  Electricity,  75 
Cazin  (Prof.),  Death  of,  i6 
Cecil  (Henry),  Hearing  and  Smell  in  Insects,   102,  381 ;  the 

Wasp  and  the  Spider,  448 
«*  Celestial  Atlas,"  Dicn's,  141 
Cerf  (Mdlle.  HenrietU),  Death  of,  71 
Cesnola  (Gen.  L.  Palma  di),  "Cyprus,"  397 
Chadwick  Museum,  272 

Challms:er,  the.  Estimates  of  the  Volume  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 

T.    Mellard    Reade,    144;    in    the    Atlantic,    Sir  Wyville 

Thomson's  Account  of,  145,  185 ;  Laboratory  Experiences  on 

the,  394 

Channel  Islands,  a  Zoological  Station  for  the,  W.  Saville  Kent, 

102,  475 
Chappell  (Wm.,  F.S.A.),  Music  a  Science  of  Numbers,  32 
Charkow,  University  of,  195 
Chamwood  Forest,  the  Rocks  of,  294 
Cheeseman  (T.  F.),  Fertilisation  of  Glossosiigma,  163 
Cheijan  (Omer),  Translation  of  the  Poems  of,  351 
Chemistry :  Chemical  Society,  40,  75,  134,  215,  255,  315,  394, 
439,  499,  519;  the  Researdi  Fund,  291,  309,  454;  Anniver- 
sary Meeting  of  the  Society,  479;  a  Problem  in  Chemical 
Affinity,    151;   Chemical  Notes,  150,  269;   Die  chemische 
Industrie,  251 ;  Fowne's  Manual  of,  24 ;  Prof.  Kekul^  on  the 
Position  of^  55 ;  N.  N.  Lubavin  on  Physical  Chemistry,  240 ; 
Institute  of,  291,  309 ;  Chemistry  and  Algebra,  Prof.  J.  J. 
Sylvester,    F.R.S.,   284,   309;    Frankland^s  Researches  in. 
Prof.  }.  Emerson  Reynolds,  318;  Dictionaries  of,  455,  514 
Chester  Society  of  Natural  Sciences,  16 

Chili:  Insect-Fauna  of,  R.  McLachhm,  F.R.S.,  162;  A.  R. 
Wallace,  182 ;  the  Insects  of  Chili  and  New  Zealand,  221, 
260 
Chimpanzee  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  153 
China  :  Telegraphy  in,  3x0 ;   Exploration  of,  346 ;  the  Tele- 
phone in,  392  ;  Mr.  Saber's  Report  of  the  Grosvenor  Mission, 
434 ;  Geographical  Notes,  452  ;  Chinese  Remedy  for  Cynanehe 
ionsi/laris,  47$;  "Gray's  China,"  484;  Chinese  Plants  and 
Aninoals  in  Paris,  513 
Chloride  of  Silver  Battery,  Dr.  De  la  Rue's  Researches  on  the 

Electric  Discharge  with,  214 
Chronometers,  Trial  of  German  and  Swiss,  409 
Cinchona,  Cultivation  of,  410 

Cissbury  :  Exploration  of  the  Cave-Pits,  53,  171,  215,  409 
Clark  (Xenos),  Singing  in  the  Ears,  342 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  251 
Cliff-Dwellers  in  the  United  States,  409 
Climatolo«7  :  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  248 ;  of  the  Fiji  Islands, 

248 ;  of  India,  307 ;  of  English  Sea-side  Resorts,  356 
Clock,  a  Watchman-Controllii^,  292 
Clusters  and  Nebulae,  Literature  of  the,  288 
Cobalt  and  Nickel,  lodates  of,  150 
Cochin  China,  the  French  Colony  in,  492 
Coggia's  Comet,  497 

Cohesion  Figures  in  liquids,  Difiusion  of,  124 
Cole  (Alan  S.),  State  Aid  to  Music,  474 
"Coleoptera  Sanctae- Helena,"  WoUaston's,  338 
CoUey  (Prof.  R.),  Electrical  Experiment,  282 
Collieries,  Telegraphic  Warnings  in,  16 
Colonies,  Exploring,  290 
Colorado,  Atlas  of,  371 

Colours,  Comparison  of  the  Intensity  of  Light  of  Various,  438 
Colour  Sense  of  the  Greeks,  Prof.  W.  Robertson  Smith,  100 
Columbus,  the  Burial-place  of,  17 
Comets :  De  Vico's,  15 ;  of  Short  Period  of ,  1878,  36 ;  of  1873, 


46 ;  the  Comet  of  1672,  63 ;  the  Austrian  Comet-Medal,  129 ; 

Donati's  Comet  of  1855,    149;  the  Comet   1106,  189;  the 

Comets  of   1618,   247;   the  Periodical  Comet   1873,   344; 

Tempel's  Comet  of  Short  Period,  408 ;  Coggia's  Comet,  497  . 

Encke's  Comet  in  1878,  507 
Compass  Adjustment  in  iron  Ships,   Sir  William    Thomson, 

F.R.S.,  331,  352,  387 
Compasses,  the  Geometry  of,  Oliver  Byrne,  199 
Congo,  the  Vallala  Rapids  on  the,  62 
Connaissance  des  Temps  for  1879,  70 
Conrad  (Timothv  Abbott),  Death  of,  39 
Conservation  of  Energy,  Lecture  Experiment,  W.  A.  Shen- 

stone,  45 
Cooke  (C.  J.),  Landslips  near  Cork,  425 
Cooke  (Conrad  W.)  Cumulative  Temperatures,  322,  448,  486 
Cooling  Powers  of  Various  Liquids,  132 
Cooper  (Robt.)  Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay,  183 
CopeUnd  (Ralph),  Meteor,  29 
Corbett  (Dr.  Joseph  Henry),  Death  of,  410 
Cordoba  Observatory,  83,  209 

Corfield  (Dr.  W,  H.),  Elements  of  Articulate  Speech,  447 
Cork,  Landslip  near,  C.  T.  Cooke,  425 
Corpse,  Spasms  in  a  GuiUotined,  437 
Corsica,  Exportation  of  Blackbirds  from,  309 
Coryphodon,  Brain  of  a  Fossil  Species  of,  222 
**  Cotton  Goods,  the  Sizing  of,"  Thomson,  4 
Cotton  (Dr.  R.  P.),  his  Collection  of  llford  Fossils,  231 
Crabs,  Horse-Shoe,  289 

Craig-Christie  (A.),  the  Future  of  our  British  Flora,  62 
Crawfish,  Artificial  Culture  of,  133 

Crenunen,  Discovery  of  a  Prehistoric  Burial  Ground  near,  391 
Croll  (Dr.  James,   F.R.S.),   Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to 

Evolution,  206,  321,  464 
Crookes  ^William,  F.R.S.),  the  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons,  7, 

43;  and  Eva  Fay,  81,  loi,  122,  183,  200 
Cruelty  to  Animals  Act  and  Physiological  Teaching,  Frank  W. 

Young,  45 
Crustaceans,  Classification  of  Decapod,  127 
Cryptogams,  Hofmeister's  work  on,  344;  Cryptogamic  Society 

of  Scotland,  133 ;  Cryptogamic  Society  of  Italy,  491 
Cumberland  Association  of  Literattu'e  and  Science,  133 
Cumulative  Temperatures,  308,  322,  448,  486 
Curious  Phenomenon,  10 
Cyanide  of  Gold,  Double  Salts  with,  151 
Cycadex,  Structure  of,  222 
Cyclones  and  Anti -Cyclones,  134 
Cynanehe  tonsillaris^  Chinese  Remedy  for,  475 
**  Cyprus,"  General  L.  Palma  di  Cesnola,  397 

D'Albertis*  and  Beccari's  Voyage  Round  the  World,  53 

D'Albertis'  Exploration  of  New  Guinea,  383 

Danish  Greenland,  Dr.  Henry  Rink,  57 

D'Anvers  (N.),  "  History  of  North  African  Discovery,"  280 

Danube,  the,  and  the  Aach,  233 

D* Arrest's  Spectroscopical  Researches,  311 

Darwin  (Charles,  F.R.S.),  Conferring  an  Honorary  Degree  on 
at  Cambridge,  52,  64 ;  Fritz  Miiller  on  Flowers  and  Insects, 
78;  Proposed  Memorial  to,  95,  350;  "Different  Forms  of 
Flowers,"  44S 

Darwin  (Francis),  Insectivorous  Plants,  222;  Analogies  of 
Plant  and  Animal  Life,  388,  41 1 

Darwin  (G.  H.),  Geological  Time,  509 

Davids  (T.  W.  Rhys),  Buddhism,  239 

Davyum,  Senjius  Kern,  245,  292  , 

Dawson  (G.  M.),  Drowned  by  a  Devil  Fish,  282 

Deaf  and  Dumb  Language,  479 

Decapod  Crustaceans,  Classification  of,  127 

Declination  Ranges  and  Sun-spots,  Prof,  Balfour  Stewart, 
F.R.S.,  326 

Deep-Sea  Asddians,  289 

Deer,  Prof.  Boyd  Dawkins  on  the,  of  the  Miocene  and  Pliocene 
Strata,  255 

De  la  Rue's  Diaries  and  Calendars,  11 

De  la  Rue  (Warren,  F.R.S.),  Researches  on  the  Electric  Dis- 
charge with  the  Chloride  of  Silver  Battery,  214 

Dendritic  Gold,  283 

Denning  (W.  F.),  Meteor  of  October  19,  1877,  10;  Shootinor 
Stars,  201 

Density  and  Sound,  J.  Cameron,  507 

Development  in  Plants,  the  First  Stsjges  of,  433 


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VI 


IMDEX 


[l/aiure,  May  30,  1878 


Dc  Vico*s  Comet  of  Short  Period,  15 

Devil  Fish,  Drowned  by  a,  27,  282 

Dien's  "Celestial  Atlas,"  141 

Diet,  A  Physician's  Experiment,  305 

Diffusion  Figures  in  Liquids,  87,  loa,  124 

Diflflision  of  Gases,  92 

Digital  Reduction,  the  Laws  of,  128 

Digits,  Hereditary  Case  of  Six,  372 

Dimetian  and  Pebidian  Rocks  of  Pembrokeshire,  155 

Dispersal,  Means  of,  W.  L.  Distant,  124 

Distont(W.  L.),  Means  of  Dbper^d,  124;  Oriental  Affinities 

in  the  Ethiopian  Insect  Fauna,  282 
Distillation  of  Oi-g^nic  Liquids  by  Means  of  Steam,  270 
Dixon  (Charles),  Towering  of  Wounded  Birds,  45 
Doberck  (Dr.  W.).  Ole  Romer,  105 
Dog- Fish,  Capture  of  a,  251 

Dohm  (Dr.  Anton),  the  Zoological  Stotion,  Naples,  329,  360 
Donati's  Comet  of  1858,  149 

Donisthorpe  (Wordsworth),  Change  of  Habits  in  Toads,  242 
Dorpat,  University  Intelligence,  354 
Dorset,  Earthquake  in,  38 
Double  SalU  with  Cyanide  of  Gold,  151 
l>)uble  Stars,  407 

Dowdeswell  (G.  F),  Bacteria  in  Water,  323 
Downing  (A.  W.),  Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  242 
Draper  (Dr.  Henry),  Oxygen  in  the  Sun,  339 
Dresden,  the  Polytechnic,  354 
Drosera  rotundifolia^  the  Nutrition  of,  222 
Drought  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  436,  447,  454 
Drury's  '*  Chronology  at  a  Glance,"  253 
Dublin,  the  Royal  Society,  46 
Dtmias*  Lectures  on  Chemical  Philosophy,  193 
Duncan  (Dr.  P.  Martin),  Cassell*s  Natural  History,  365 
Dandee  Naturalists'  Society,  54 
Dun  Echt  Observatory  Publications,  432 
Dust,  Explosive,  283 
Dwarfs,  African,  364 
Dyer  (Prof.  W.  T.  Thiselton),  the  Rain-Tree  of  Moyobamba, 

349 

Early  Man,  Traces  of,  in  Japan,  89 

Ears,  Singing  in  the,  Xenos  Clark,  342 

Earth,  Age  of  the,  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie,  465 

Earthquakes,  330 ;  at  Lisbon,  17  ;  in  Dorset,  38 ;  New  York,  38 ; 
at  Iquique,  90;  in  Canada,  90,  no;  in  Nebraska,  no;  the 
** Ionia  Volcano,"  no;  at  Beachburg,  212;  in  Jersey,  272; 
of  January  28,  1878,  292 ;  at  Liesthal,  475 ;  at  St  Stefano, 

514 

Earthquakes  and  Seiches,  Dr.  F.  A.  Forel,  281 

Earthworm  in  Relation  to  the  Fertility  of  the  Ground,  18,  28, 
62 

Earthworm,  Supposed  Gigantic,  325 

Earwigs,  128 

Easter,  the  Date  of,  433 

Eastern  Excavations,  307 

iEdipse  Photography,  the  Use  of  the  Reflection  Grating  in,  J. 
Norman  Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  354 

Eclipses:  Solar  of  February  2,  1878,36;  Total  Solar  Eclipse 
of  A.D.  418,  163 ;  the  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  July  29,  1878, 
250^  269,  381,  452,  453  ;  the  Coming  ToUl  Solar  Eclipse,*  J. 
Norman  Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  481,  501 

Eden  (C.  H.),  "The  Fifth  Continent  with  the  Adjacent 
Islands,"  121 

Edinburgh  :  University  Buildings  Extension  Scheme,  95,  114; 
University  Intelligence,  154,  294,  517;  University  Sutistics, 
214 ;  Royal  Society,  216,  276,  439,  480 ;  University  Chemi- 
cal Society,  296,  500,  526 ;  New  School  of  Medicine  at,  354 ; 
Proposed  Portrait  of  Dr.  Balfour,  393 

Edison's  Phonograph,  90,  190,  291,  469 

Educational  Travel,  324 

Education,  Female,  in  Germany,  478 

Education  in  Fnmce,  170 

Education,  Technical,  Prof.  Huxley  on,  97 

Edwards  (M.  Milne),  appointed  President  of  the  French  Scien- 
tific A^ociation,  152 

Eggs,  the  Earliest  Changes  in  Animal,  509 

Egvpt,  Flint  Flakes,  &c.,  from,  2x5 

Eidum,  a  Submerged  Village,  232 

Eimer  (Prof.),  on  the  Nervous  System  of  Mcdusw,  Geo.  J. 
Romanesi  200 


Elasmobranchs,  the  Fins  of.  Prof.  St.  G.  Mivart,  F.R.S.,  355 
Electrical  Analogies  with  Natural  Phenomena,  226,  385 ;  Elec- 
trical Experiments,  180,  282 
Electrical  Nerves,  Social,  305,  346 
Electric  Battery,  a  New,  455 

Electric  Lighting,  156,  310,  437 

Electricity,  Gas  Lighting  hy^  495 ;  and  Li^t,  Experiment  on, 
233 ;  and  Railway  Collisions,  371  ;  and  Railway  Working, 
W.  E.  Langdon,  461 

Electro-Generator,  Electromotive  Force  of,  514 

Electro-Magnets,  20,  40,  56,  76,  96 

Electrometer,  New  Form  of  Absolute,  115 

Electromotive  Force,  252 

Electrostriction,  Prof.  Mills,  F.R.S.,  on,  235 

Elliot  (James),  a  Meteor,  425 

Ellis  (Alex.  J.,  F.R.S.),  Appunn  and  Koenig— Beats  in  Con- 
fined Air,  26 ;  the  Phonograph,  4, 85 

Elton  (Capt.),  Death  of,  383 

Encke's  Comet  in  1878,  507 

Ei^lish  Lake-Dwellings  and  Pile  Structures,  Prof.  T.  Rupert 
Jones,  F.R.S.,  424 

Entomology :  Entomological  Society,  75,  176,  256,  395,  459 ; 
Entomology  in  America,  229;  Entomological  Exhibition  at 
the  Westminster  Aquarium,  351,  391,  402;  Entomological 
Queries,  467 

Eocene  Flora  of  Bournemouth,  J.  S.  Gardner,  47 

Erlangen,  University  Statistics,  214 

Esquimaux  in  Paris,  54,  309 

Ethiopian  Insect  Fauna,  Oriental  Affinities  in  the,  W.  L. 
Distant,  282 

Ethnoeraphv,  Lectures  on,  in  Paris,  330 

Ethnological  Literature  of  1876,  133 

Ethnology  of  North  America,  53 

Ethylen  Oxide,  New  Modes  of  Forming,  150 

Euodyptus :  Prince  Pierre  Troubitzkoy,  10 ;  Arthur  Nicols, 
loi,  342 ;  used  for  Checking  Fire,  38 ;  Dr.  Calmy,  283 ;  as 
Fuel,  392 ;  the  Uses  of,  514 

Euplectella  Sponges,  222 

Euphrosyne,  the  Minor  Planet,  36 

Eurydice,  the  Meteorological  Conditions  Affiscting  the  Wreck  of 
the,  437,  466 

Eva,  the  Minor  Planet,  210 

Everett  (A.  H.),  Volcanic  Phenomena  in  Borneo,  20O 

Everett  (Prof.  J.  D.),  "Shorthand  for  General  Use,"  17  ;  Under- 
ground Temperature,  476 

Evolution,  Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to,  J.  I.  Plummer,  303, 
360 ;  Dr.  James  Croll,  F.R.S.,  321,  464 

Evolution  of  Heat  durii^  Muscular  Action,  Prof.  A.  Fick,  285 

Exner  (Prof.),  on  the  Diffiision  of  Gases,  92 

Exploring  Colonies,  290 

Explosions  in  Mines,  W.  Galloway,  2 1 

Explosioas,  A.  Mackennah,  123 

Explosive,  Discovery  of  a  New,  436 

Explosive  Dust,  283 

Eyck  (Jan  van).  Colossal  Bronze  Statue  of,  490 

Eye-brows,  Supplementary,  W.  Ainslie  Hollls,  124 

Eye-motions  during  Sleep,  &c.,  371 

Falb  (Dr.  Rud).,  his  Travels  in  South  America,  513 

Faraday  (Prof.),  Bust  of,  291 

Faraday's  "  Experimental  Researches,"  Sylvanos  P.  Thompson, 
304,  361  ;  Bernard  Quaritch,  342 

Faunas  and  Floras,  the  Comparative  Richness  of,  tested  Numeri- 
cally, Alfred  R.  Wallace,  100 

Fay  (Eva),  Mr.  Crookes  and  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  F.R.S.,  81, 
122 ;  Alfred  R.  Wallace,  loi 

Faye  (A.  E.  A.),  elected  Minister  of  Instruction  for  France, 

91 
Female  Education  in  Germany,  478 
Ferment  in  Plants  455 

Ferns  and  Mosses,  Hofmeister's  work  on,  344 
Fem-s  J.  Smith's  British  and  Foreign,  43 
Fertilisation  in  Thyme  and  Marjoram,  127 
Fertilisation  of  GlossosHgma^  J.  F.  Chesseman,  163 
Fertilisation  of  Plants,  221 

Fetichism  in  Animals,  Geo.  J.  Romanes,  168;  C.  G.  O'Brian,  402 
Fick  (Prof.  A.),  on  the  Evolution  of  Heat  Daring  Muscular 

Action,  285 
Fidden  (Capt.),  on  the  Qtf^xn^  of  the  Arctic  Regions,  473 
Field-mice,  or  Rats,  Plague  <^  in  Smyrna,  437 


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Nature^  May  y>»  1S78] 


INDEX 


Vll 


**  Fifth  Continent  and  the  Adjacent  Islands,"  C.  H.  Eden,  121 

Figuier*s  "  Les  Six  Parties  du  Monde,"  17 

Fiji  Islands,  the  Climatology  of  the,  248 

Films,  Experiments  on  Fluid,  44,  61 

"Fire.BaU,"Fallof  a,  10 

Fire-damp,  Commission  on  Explosions  from,  252 

Fires,  Tel^^phic  Warnings  of,  in  Paris,  91 

Fisheries,  of  the  Rhine,  212 ;  the  American  Inland,  382 

Fishes,  the  Distribution  of  Freshwater,  128 ;  Prof.  E.  Perceval 
Wright  on  Fishes'  Tails,  286 ;  Glacial  and  Post-glacial  Fishes 
of  Norway,  509 

Fittig*s  "  Organic  Chemistry,"  French  Translation  of,  233 

Fitzgerald  (Geo.  Fras.),  the  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons,  199 

Flame,  Vibrations  of  a.  Experiments  on,  54 

Flame  Spectra,  Observing  the  Coloured  Lines  of,  273 

Flames,  Temperature  of,  269 

Flammarion  (M.)  on  Stellar  Systems,  82 

Floating  Magnets,  Alfred  M.  Mayer,  487 

Flora,  British,  the  Fnture  of  Our,  A.  Craig-Christie,  62 

"Flora  of  Tropical  Africa,"  Prof.  D.  Oliver,  F.R.S.,  319 

Floras  and  Faunas,  the  Comparative  Richness  of.  Tested 
Numerically,  Alfred  R.  Wallace,  100 

Flower  (James),  Death  of,  37 

Flower  (Prof.,  F.R.S.),  Hunterian  Lectures,  350 

Flowers,  Darwin's  Different  Forms  of,  445 

Flowers  and  Bees,  John  B.  Bridgman,  102 

Flowers  and  Insects,  1 1  ;  Fritz  Miiller  on,  78 

Fog-Signals,  Dr.  Tyndall,  F.R.S.,  456 

Forbes  (Henry  O.),  Selective  Discrimination  of  Insects,  62 

Forbes  (Prof.  Geo.),  the  Telephone  as  an  Instrument  of 
Precision,  343 

Forel  (Dr.  F.  A.),  Seiches  and  Earthquakes,  281 

Forests,  the  Air  of,  515 

Forficulidae  (Earwigs),  128 

Fossils:  Discovery  of  Fossil  Plants  in  Grinnell  Land,  115; 
Fossil  Fungus,  127  ;  the  Brain  of  a  Fossil  Mammal,  222,  340  ; 

.  Preparing « Fossils,  369;  Fossil  Hunting  at  Bournemouth, 
J.  S.  Gardner,  369;  London  Clay  Fossils,  487;  Fossil 
Insects,  508 

Foster  (Prof.  G.  Carey,  F.R.S.),  the  Radiometer  and  its 
Lessons,  5,  43,  80,  142 

Foucault's  Pendulum  Experiments,  loS 

Fownes*  "  Manual  of  Chemistry,"  24,  46 

Fox  (Gen.  A.  Lane,  F.R.S.),  the  Arrangement  of  Museums, 
484 

France ;  French  Geographical  Society,  17 ;  Association  Poly- 
technique,  54 ;  Statistics  of  Suicides  in,  54 ;  Bequest  to  the 
French  Institute,  70 ;  Universities  in,  1 14  ;  French  Acclima- 
tisation Society,  132;  Education  in,  193,  214;  the  Scientific 
Association  of,  232,  271 ;  French  Association  for  Uie  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  2^1, 350 ;  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
273 ;  Distribution  of  Prizes,  271 ;  Proposed  Exploring  Expe- 
ditions, 329  ;  Agricultural  Weather  Warnings,  371  ;  Statistics 
of  Wine  Production,  372 ;  Preservation  of  Boulders  in,  391 ; 
Drought  in  the  South  of,  475 ;  Soci^tes  Savantes,  490.  See 
also  Paris,  &c. 

Frankland's  Researches  in  Chembtry,  Prof.  J.  Emerson 
Reynolds,  218,  318 

Freiburg,.  University  Statbtics,  334 

French  Guayana,  508 

French  Popular  Science,  120 

Freshwater  Fishes,  the  Distribution  of,  128 

Fries  (Elias  Magnus),  Death  of,  329 ;  Obituary  Notice  of,  343 

Fruit,  Fungoid  Disease  of,  91 

Fmits,  the  Action  of  Certain  Antiseptic  Vapours  on  the  Ripen- 
ing of,  150 
Fungoid  Disease  of  Fruit,  91 

Fungus,  a  Fossil,  127 

Gabb  ( W.  M.),  Sense  in  Insects — Drowned  by  a  Devil  Fish,  282 

Gabriel  (M.  Delafosse),  Illness  of,  370 

Galileo,  was.  Tortured  ?  Sedley  Taylor,  299 

Galloway  (W.),  Explosions  in  Mines,  21 

Gannister  Beds  of  Northumberland,  Marine  Fossils  in  the,  Prof. 

G.  A.  Lebour,  320,  352 
**  Gardener  Bird, '^ the,  no 
Gardner  (J.  S.),  the  Eocene  Flora  of  Bournemouth,  47 ;  Fossil 

Hunting  at  Bournemouth,  369 
Gamett  (William),  Leidenfrost's  Phenomena,  466 
Gas-Hold^,  New  Form  of.  Prof.  W.  F.  Barrett,  253 


Gas-Lighting  by  Electricity,  495 

Gases :  Diffi^ion  of,  92 ;  the  Liquefaction  of  the,  117,  265  ;  the 
Last  of  the,  177 ;  Experiments  on  Spread  of,  through  Bodies, 

393 
Geikie  (Prof.  A.,  F.R.S.),  Prof.  Bryce's  Ararat,  205  ;  American 

Geological  Surveys,  431 ;  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Western 

Europe,  471 
Gems  ^m  Russia,  72;  the  Production  of  Artificial,  55,  136, 

152 
Geneva,  Lake  of.  Earthquake  near,  234 
Geneva  Society  of  Physics  and  Natural  History,  136 
GetUiana  asclepiadea  and  Bees,  F.  M.  Burton,  201 
Geography :  Geographical  Notes,  249,  270,  290,  306,  324,  364, 
383,  4oi8,  434,  452,  467,  489,  508 ;  Geography  at  French 
Railway  Stations,   no;    Geographical  Magazme,   132,  293, 
468  ;  Geographical  Bibliography,  324 
Geology :    Geological    Congress,   International,    65  ;    Hauer*s 
"  Die  Geologic,"  78;  Geological  Society,  ns,  136,  155.255, 
294.  335.  374.  395.  5^8;  Geological  Work  of  the  United 
States  Survey  under  Dr.  Hayden  during  the  Summer  of  1877, 
129 ;    Geological  Surveys  of  America — ^Missouri,   Prof.  A. 
Geikie,  F.R.S.,  431 ;  Geologists' Association,  47^  Geologi- 
cal Time,  G.  H.  Darwin,  509 
Geometrical  Teaching,  the  Association  for  the  Improvement  of, 

89.2S> 

"Geometry  of  Comjpsses,"  Oliver  Byrne,  199 

Geometry  of  Three  Dimensions,  Theorems  Relating  to.  Prof.  S. 
Newcomb,  F.R.S.,  24.0 

Germany:  German  Universities,  Statistics  of,  103;  Gennan 
Chemical  Society,  131,  273;  Botany  in,  158;  German  Scien- 
tific Association,  Report  of  the  Munich  Session,  350 ;  Uni- 
versity Libraries  of,  374 ;  German  Polytechnic  Congress,  394; 
German  Alpine  Club,  468 

Ghinozzi  (Dr.  Carlo),  Death  of,  170 

Gibraltar,  the  Geology  of,  Prof.  A.  C.  Ramsay,  F.R.S.,  and 
James  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  518 

Giessen,  the  Ph.  Degree  at,  75 ;  University  Sutistics,  478 

Gilchrist  Educational  Trust,  334 

Gillmore  (Parker),  "  The  Great  Thirst  Land,**  360 

Ginez  (Francisco),  Carnivorous  Plants,  63 

Giraud  (Dr.  H.),  Death  of,  513 

Glacial  Geology  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,  S.  Laing,  M.P.,  123 ; 
Prof.  M.  Forster  Heddle,  182 

Glass  for  Reflectors,  Henry  Bessemer,  241 

Glass,  the  Engraving  of,  372 ;  Compressed  Hard,  392 

Glassy  Sponges,  ,222 

Glossostigma,  Fertilisation  of,  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  163 

Goethe,  Proposed  Monument  to,  211 

Gold,  Dendritic,  283 

Gold  in  Teheran,  115  ;  in  New  Guinea,  408 

Goode  (G.  Brown),  the  Bermuda  Lizard,  425 

Gordon  (J.  E.  H.),  the  Telephone  as  a  Means  of  Measuring  the 
Speed  of  High  Brakes,  424 

Gore  (G.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.),  the  Thermo-Electric  Properties  of 
Liquids,  479 

Gorilla,  Dissection  of  the  Berlin,  89 

Gottland,  Discovery  of  Ancient  Bronze  Weights  in,  351 

Gottingen,  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  156,  296,  480;  Uni- 
versity Statistics,  214 

Government  Research  Fund,  403 

Grapes,  Frost-Bitten,  132 

"  Gray*s  China,"  484 

Great  Pyramid,  J.  G.  Jackson,  243 

"Great  Thirst  Land, ''^Parker  GiUmore's,  360 

Greek  Cities  and  Islands  of  Asia  Minor,  W.  S.  W.  Vaux,  119 

Greeks,  the  Colour  Sense  of  the.  Prof.  W.  Robertson  Smith,  100 

Green  Algse,  28^ 

Greenland,  Danish,  Dr.  Henry  Rink,  57 

Greifswald,  University  Statistics,  354 

Greyhounds,  Turkoman,  434 

Grimm  (Prof.),  on  the  Fauna  of  the  Caspian,  345 

Grinnell  Land,  Fossil  Plants  found  in,  115 

Groshans  (Dr.  J.  A.),  Photography  Foreshadowed,  202 

Grove's  Gas  Battery,  394 

Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  Dr.  W,  H.  Stone,  422 

Guadaloupe  Island,  the  Birds  of,  128 

Guildhall,  Public  Standards  at  the,  454 

Guillemard  (Arthur  G.),  Great  Waterfalls,  221,  242 

Gulf  Stream,  the  Challenger  Estimates  of  the  Volume  of  the, 
T.  Mellard  Reade,  144 


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INDEX 


{Nature^  May  30,  187S 


Oimthcr  (Dr.,  F.R.S.).  Gigantic  Land  Tortoises,  483 

Hailstones,  Rain-drops,  and  Snow-flakes,  the  Formation  of, 
Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds,  F.R.S.,  207 

Hailstorm  at  Brisbane,  455 

Hair,  Human,  the  Colouring  Matter  of,  355 

Halle,  University  Intelligence,  235,  478 

HaUer  (Albert  von),  90.  223 

Halogen  Derivatives  of  Amines,  151 

Handwriting,  Restoration  of  the,  of  Old  MS S.,  351 

Hanover,  the  Polytechnic  at,  335 

Harmonograph,  394  _.   „  ^.    ^ 

Harrison  (Park),  Exploration  of  the  "Cave  Pit,"  Cissbury,  53 

Harrison  (W.  H.),  "  Lazy  Lays,"  38  ,  „    ,     .     o 

Harrison  (W.  J.),  Geology  of  Leicestershire  and  Rutland,  58 

Harrow  School  Bathing-Place,  Arthur  G.  Watson,  487 

HartlanVs  **  Birds  of  Madagascar,"  Prof.  A.  Newton,  F.R.S.,  9 

Harvard  College,  U.S.,  Observatory,  363 

Harvey  (William),  Notice  of,  by  Prof.  T.  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S., 
417 ;  the  Proposed  Statue  of,  435 

Hataeld  (H.),  Meteor,  342 

riauer  (F.  R.  von).  "  Die  Geologic,"  78 

Hayden  (Dr.)  Geological  Work  of  the  U.S.  Survey  in  1877,  "9 

Head-Masters  on  Science  Teaching,  Rev.  W.  Tuckwell,  317 

Hearii^  and  Smell  in  Insects,  Henry  Cecil,  102,  381 

Heat,  B.  Loewy,  43  .       «    ^    *    ^.  ,      « 

Heat,  Evolution  of,  during  Muscular  Action,  Prof.  A.  Fick,  285 

Heat-Motion,  on  a  Means  of  Converting  the,  Possessed  by 
Matter  at  Normal  Temperature  in  Work,  S.  Tolver  Prestoil, 
202 ;  John  Aitken,  260 

Hebrides,  Low  Barometric  Readings  in  the,  Nov.,  1877,  3^7 

Heda,  Mount,  Eruption  of,  454 

Heddle  (Prof.  M.  Forster),  Glaciation  of  Orkney,  182 

Heidelbeig,  University  of,  195 

Hehnholtz  (Prof.  H.,  F.R.S.),  Lord  Rayleigh's  "  Theory  of 
Sound,"  237 ;  Helmholtz's  Vowel  Theory  and  the  Phonograph, 
384,411,423 

Henderson  (Richard)  Manual  of  Agriculture,  280 

Hennessey  (J.  B.  N.,  F.R.S.),  Optical  Spectroscopy  of  the  Red 
End  of  the  Solar  Spectrum,  28 

Henry  Telephone,  437 

Hensen  (M.),  the  Earthworm  in  Relation  to  the  Fertility  of  the 
Ground,  18 

Henslow  (Rev.  G.),  on  the  Self-Fertilisation  of  Plants,  221 

Hering  (M.),  on  the  Sense  of  Temperature,  372 

Hermann  (Otto),  Hungarian  Spiders,  128 

Herring  Fisheries  and  the  Telegraph,  351  ;  the  Swedbh,  391 

Herschel  (Prof.  A.  S.),  the  "  Phantom^*  Force,  302,  321,  340 

Hicks  (Henry),  Dimetian  and  Pebidian  Rocks  of  Pembroke- 
shire, 155 

HiiKins  (H.  H.),  "  Notes  by  a  Field  Naturalist  m  the  Western 
Tropics,"  121 

High  Tides,  Prediction  of,  38,  45,  $8,  loi 

Hildebrandt  (Dr.  J.  M.),  Ascent  of  Mount  Kenia,  72 ;  Explo- 
ration of  Africa,  194 

Hilgard  (J.  E.),  Transatlantic  Lonoritudes,  244 

Hind  (J.  R.,  F.R.S.),  Wolf's  "History  of  Astronomy,"  259 
(Translation),  359 

Hinde  (G.  J.),  Earthquake  in  Canada,  90 

Hinduism,  Buddhism,  and  Islam,  239 

Hippopotamus,  Death  of,  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  392 

Hissarlik,  Antiquities  from,  397 

Hofmann  (Prof.  A.),  a  **  Commers  "  in  Honour  of,  393 

Hofmcister's  Cryptogamia,  344 

Holden  (J.  Sinclair),  Stryclmia  and  its  Antidote,  360 

HoUis  (W.  Ainslie),  Supplementary  Eye-brows,  124 

Hopkins,  Johns,  University,  Baltimore,  Anniversary,  459 ;  Fel- 
lowships at,  517 

Horology,  Modem,  M.  Claudius  Saunier,  484 

Horse- Shoe  Crabs,  289 

"  Horticulture,"  F.  W.  Burbidge,  142 

Hovelacque  (Abel),  the  Science  of  Language,  464 

Howgate  (Capt.),  Arctic  Expedition,  153,  171 

Hubbard  (E.),  the  Wasp  and  the  Spider,  402 

Humboldt  Institution  for  Naturalists  and  Travellers,  3x1 

Hungary :  Spiders  of,  128 ;  Rotifers  of,  1 28 

Hunter  (Dr.  W.  W.),  Rainfall  in  the  Temperate  Zone  m  Con- 
nection with  the  Sun-spot  Cycle,  59 ;  Great  Waterfalls,  242 

Hunterian  Lectures  for  1878,  350 

Huxley's  "Physiography,"  178 


hydrophobia,  117,  139  ,      .  ^    ,,    ^„    ^, 

Hygrometer,  a  new  Condensing,  I4»  25 ;  M.  Alluard  s,  132 

Ice !  as  an  Electrolyte,  56 ;  R.  Pictet  on  the  Formation  of  154 ; 
Production  of,  212 

Iceland :  Volcanic  Eruption  in,  171 ;  no  Butterflies  in,  243, 
260 

Ilford  Fossils,  Dr.  R.  P.  Cotton's  Collection  of,  231 

Index  Society,  37 

India  :  Methods  for  Determining  Solar  Radiation  m,  131 ;  the 
Rainfall  of,  273,  505 ;  the  Climate  of,  307 

Indium  in  British  Blendes,  Prof.  N.  S.  Maskelyne,  F.R.S.,  5 

"Inductive Metrology,"  Flinders  Petrie,  357 

Indus  River,  38,  250 

"  Industrial  Art,"  272 

Inflexible,  the,  131,  137 

Ingleby  (Dr.  C.  M.),  Philadelphia  Diplomas,  183 

Injurious  Insects,  Report  on,  330 

Innsbruck  University  Statistics,  254 

Insectivorous  Plants,  Francis  Darwin,  222 

Insects :  and  Flowers,  1 1  ;  Fritz  MUller  on  Insects  and  Flowers, 
78 ;  Insects,  Hearing  and  Smell  in,  Henry  Cecil,  102,  381 ; 
Insects  and  Artificial  Flowers,  133,  162  ;  Selective  Discrimina- 
tion of  Insects,  62,  163,  402,  425 ;  Insect  Fauna  of  Chili, 
R.  McLachlan,  F.R.S.,  162;  A.  R.  Wallace,  182;  Insects 
of  Chili  and  New  Zealand,  221,  260  ;  Sense  m,  W.  M.  Gabb, 
282;  Report  on  Injurious,  330;  Digestion  in,  411 

Institute  of  Chemistry,  273,  291,  309 

Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  54,  76,  156,  215,  276,  356,  416, 
460,  500,  520 

International  Geological  Congress,  65 

International  Polar  Expeditions,  E.  J.  Reed,  C.B.,  M.P.,  29 

lodates  of  Cobalt  and  Nickel,  150 

Iquique,  Earthquake  at,  90,  272 

Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  436,  458 

Iron,  Red-hot  and  Light,  17 

Iron  Ships,  Compass  Adjustment  in,  Sir  William  Thomson, 
F.R.S.,  331,  352,  387 

Iron,  the  Fractiu*e  of,  491 

Islam  and  its  Founder,  J.  W,  H.  Stobart,  239 

Island,  a  Volcanic,  194 

Isomerism,  Influence  of,  on  the  Formation  of  Ethers  between 
Acids  and  Alcohols,  i^i 

Italian  Cryptogamic  Soaety,  491 

Italian  Geographical  Society,  37,  132 

Jack  (Robert  L.),  Research  in  Libraries,  486 

Jackson  (J.  G.),  the  Great  Pyramid,  243 

Jahrbiicher  f.  wissenschaftliche  Botanik,  158 

Jahresbericht  fiir  Chemie,  171 

Janssen's  Researches  on  the  Sun*s  Photosphere,  J.  Norman 
Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  23 

Japan :  Edward  S.  Morse  on  Traces  of  Early  Man  in,  89 ; 
Exploration  of,  171 ;  Archaeological  Society  in,  271 ;  Geo- 
graphical Work  in,  290 ;  Japanese  Students  in  England,  491 

Jena,  University  Statistics,  254 

Jenkins  (Prof.  Fleeming)  and  J.  A.  Ewing  on  Helmholtz's 
Vowel  Theory  and  the  Phonograph,  384,  423 

Jenkins  (B.  G.),  Expected  High  Tides,  45,  loi ;  Sun-spots  and 
Terrestrial  Magnetism,  259 

Jersey,  Earthquake  in,  272 

Jewell  (Lieut.  Theo.  F.),  Sounding  Apparatus,  230  ) 

Johns  Hopkins  Scientific  Association,  113 

Joliet  (M.  L.),  French  Polyzoa,  382 

Jordan  (Dr.  D.  S.),  the  Distribution  of  Freshwater  Fishes,  128 

Journal  de  Physique,  294,  314 

Journal  of  Forestry,  153 

Judd  (Prof.  J.  W.,  F.R.S.),  the  Strata  of  the  Western  Coast 
and  Islands  of  Scotland,  335 

Jupiter's  Satellites,  149 

**  Karnes  "  in  Connecticut,  213 

Kampf  (Dr.  Frederick),  Death  of,  513 

Kant  (Immanuel),  Proposed  Monument  to,  391 

"Katzen,  Das  Buch  der,"  351 

Keane    (A.    H,),    Translation   of    Hovelacque's    Science   of 

Language,  464 
Kekul6  (Prof.),  on  the  Position  of  Chemistry,  55 
Kelsief  (M.),  Exploration  of  Russia,  38 
Kenia,  Mount,  Dr.  J.  M,  Hildebrandt's  Ascent  of,  72 


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Nature^  May  30,  1878] 


INDEX 


IX 


Kent  (W.  Saville),  Sound-producing  Arthropods,  11 ;  &  Zoolo- 
gical Station  for  the  Channel  Islands,  102 

Kern  (Sergius),  Davyum,  245,  292 

Key  (Rev.  Henry  Cooper),  the  Earthworm  in  Relation  to  the 
Fertility  of  the  Soil,  28 

Kieff*,  University  Intelligence,  374 

Kirtland  (Dr.  J.  P.),  Obituary  Notice  of,  232 

Knots,  Trefoil,  421 

Koenig  and  Appunn— Beats  in  Confined  Air,  Alex.  T.  Ellis, 
F.R.S.,  26 

Konigsb^,  University  Intelligence,  55,  478 

Korostovtseff  (M.),  Exploration  of  the  Northern  Pamir,  249 

Kosmos,  20,  254,  374 

Krupp's  Worktops,  Statistics  of,  351 

Kuhlmann  (Prof.),  Collection  of  his  Researches,  437 

Kurz  (Sulhiz),  Death  of,  391 

Lagrange,  the  Statue  of,  53 

Lamg  (S.  M.  P.),  Glacial  Geology  of  Orkney  and  Shetland,  123 

Lake-Dwellings,  English,  and  Pile  Structures,  Prof.  T.  Rupert 

Jones,  F.R.S.,  424 
Lakes,  Depths  of,  4SS 
Lalande,  the  Star,  382,  488 
Lamps,  Lighting  l^  Electricity,  108 
Lamy  (Prof.  A.),  Death  of,  436 
Landslip  near  Cork,  C.  J.  Cooke,  425 
Land-Tortoises,  Gigantic,  Dr.  Giinther,  F.R.S.,  483 
Landvort  (M.  Schoun),  Death  of,  170 
Langdon  (W.  E.),  the  Application  of  Electricity  to  Railway 

Working,  461 
Languajge,  the  Science  of,  Abel  Hovelacque,  464 
L'Annee  G^ographique,  1876,  489 
Lapland,  Exploration  of  Russian,  345 
Laplanders  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  70 
Last  of  the  Gases,  177 
Lava,  Mineral  Oil  in,  at  Mount  Etna,  150 
Lebour  (Prof.  G.  A.),  Marine  Fossils  in  the  Gannister  Beds  of 

Nortjiumberland,  320,  352 
Leeds,  Yorkdiirc  CoUege  of  Science,  175 
Leicestershire  and  Rutluid,  Harrison's  Geology  of,  58 
Leidenfrost's  Phenomena,  Wm.  Gamett,  466 
Leipzig,  University  Intelligence,  95 
Levels,  Bubbles  of  Air  in,  233 
Levcirier,  the  Pension  to  his  Widow,  52 ;  Proposed  Monument 

to»  3So»  391 

Levemer  (Madame),  Death  of,  37 

Lexington,  U.S.,  Endowment  or  the  University,  175 

Library,  Statistics  of  the  Paris  National,  92 

Libraries  of  German  and  Austrian  Universities,  374 

Libraries,  Researdi  in,  Robert  L.  Jack,  486 

Liebi^,  the  Proposed  Monument  to,  at  Munich,  16 

Licbreich  (Dr.  R.),  the  Deterioration  of  Oil  Paintings,  493,  515 

Liesthal,  Earthquake  at,  47^ 

Lighting  Lamps  by  Electricity,  108 

Light,  Chemical  Action  of,  151,  436 ;  the  Sources  and  Reflec- 
tion of,  Mayer  and  Barnard,  405,  427 ;  Action  of,  on  a 
Selenium  (Galvanic)  Element,  Robert  Sabine,  512 ;  Experi- 
ment on  Light  and  Electricity,  233 

Lime,  Strontian,  and  Baryta,  Crystallisation  of,  372 

Limestone  Rock,  the  Origin  of  a.  Prof.  W.  C,  Williamson, 
F.R.S.,  265 

Lindsay  (Lord),  his  Dun  Echt  Observatory  Publications,  432 

Lingnla,  Structure  of,  383 

Linne,  Centenary  of  his  Death,  210,  271 

Linnean  Society,  55.  155,  175.  2«,  315,  355,  394,  439,  499, 
519 ;  and  the  Centenary  of  Linne,  309 

Lique^ction  of  Air  and  of  the  so-called  Permanent  Gases, 
Prof.  T.  E.  Thorpe,  F.R.S.,  ^ 

Liquefaction  of  Oxygen,  &c.,  169,  177,  265 

Liquids,  Compressibuity  of,  M.  Amagat  on,  pi ;  Thermo-elec- 
tric Properties  of,  G.  Gk)re,  F.R.S.,  479 ;  Volume  of  and  the 
Absorption  of  Gases,  514 ;  the  Concentration  of,  and  their 
Electromotive  Force,  515 

Lisbon,  Earthquake  at,  17 

Littrow  (Carl  von).  Obituary  Notice  of,  83 

Liveing  and  Dewar  (Profs.),  on  the  Reversal  of  the  Lines  of 
Metallic  Vapours,  498 

Liver,  the  Glycogenic  Function  of  the,  439 

Liverpool  Historic  Society,  193 

Lizard,  the  Bermuda,  G.  Brown  Goode,  425 


Lloyd  (W.  A.),  the  Proposed  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Sta- 
tion, Aquarium,  and  Piscicnltural  Institute,  143 

Lloyd  (Dr.),  Scientific  Papers  of,  272 

Lob-Nor,  Lake,  Expedition  to,  234,  434 

Lockyer  (J.  Norman,  F.R.S.),  the  Sun's  Photosphere,  23 ;  the 
Modem  Telescope,  66,  125,  188,  225 ;  the  Use  of  the  Reflec- 
tion Grating  in  Eclipse  Photography,  354 ;  the  Coining  Total 
Solar  Eclipse,  481,  501 

Locomotive  Engine,  Quick  Mounting  of,  438 

Locust  Plague  in  America,  Andrew  Murray,  377 

Loewy(B.),  "Heat,"  43 

Lohrmann's  Lunar  Charts,  343 

London,  University  of,  19 

London  Clay  Fossils,  487 

Longitudes,  Transatlantic,  244,  408 

Lubavin  (N.  N.),  "Physical  Chemistry,"  240 

Lubbock  (Sir  John,  F.R.S.),  Habits  of  Ants,  355 

Lunar  Charts,  Lohrmann's,  343 

Lunar  Landscape,  Winkler's,  469,  514 

Lyons  Observatory,  149 

Macalister  (Prof.  Alex.),  Royal  Dublin  Society,  183 

McCook  (H,  C),  the  Agricultural  Ants  of  Texas,  433  5  the 

Aeronautic  Flight  of  Spiders,  434 
McKendrick  (Prof.  J.  G.),  Telephonic  Alarum,  181 
Mackennah  (A.),  Explosions,  123 
McLachlan  (R.,  F.R.S.),  Insect  Fauna  of  Chili,  162,  182 ;  on 

some  Pecular  Points  in  the  Insect  Fauna  of  Chili,  260 
Maclear  (Commander  T.  P.),  Spectrum  of  Aurora  Australis,  1 1. 
McNab  (Prof.  W.  R.),  Baker's  Flora  of  Mauritius  and  Sey- 
chelles, 77;   Botany  in  Germany,   158;   Oliver's   Flora   of 

Tropiail  AMca,  319 
MacrosUia  clurndtis^  Dr.  Hermann  MUlIer,  221 
Madagascar,  Hartlaub's  Birds  of,  9 
Madrid,  Annual  Report  of  the  Observatory  of,  70 
Magnet^  a  New,  252 
Magnetical  Measurements  in  Russia,  153 
Magnets,  Floating,  Alfred  M.  Majrer,  487 
M^wa  Tree,  394 

Maisonneuve  (M.  C.  Duriei^nle),  Death  of,  436 
Male  Nurse,  a,  222 

Malt,  Explosion  of,  A.  Mackennah,  123 
Manunal,  the  Brain  of  a  Fossil,  222 
Mammoth  Remains  in  Tomsk,  1^3 
Mammoth,  Discovery  of  a  Fossil,  in  Hanover,  273 
Man,  Traces  of  Early,  in  J[apan,  89 ;  Antiquity  of  Man,  315 
Manchester,  Chemical  Society  at  Owens  Collie,  114;  Literary 

and  Philosophical  Society,  96,  176,  296 
Manjean  (M.),  Bequest  to  the  French  Institute,  70 
Manfredonia,  a  Buried  City  near,  211 
Manuscripts,  Restoration  of  the  Handwriting  of,  351 
Maps  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  346 
Maps,  Ancient,  of  Central  Africa,  383 
Marbnxg,  University  Statistics,  478 
Mareotis,  Lake,  Proposed  Draining  of,  212 
Marine  Fossils  in  the  Gannister  B^  of  Northumberland,  Prof. 

G.  A.  Lebour,  320,  352 
Marjoram  and  Thyme,  Fertilisation  in,  127 
Marmora  (Gen.  La),  Death  of,  2x1 
Mars,  the  Satellites  of,  15,  190,  231,  288,  433;  the  Planet,  and 

B.A.C.  8129,  105 ;  the  South  Polar  Spot  of,  209 
Marseilles,  Proposed  Zoological  Garden  at,  474 
Marsh  (Prof.  O.  C),  Brain  of  a  Fossil  Maxmooal,  340 
Marshall  (Dr.  A.  M.),  the  Development  of  Nerves,  382 
Martini  (Prof.  Tito),  Difiusion  Figures  in  Liquids,  87 
Maskelyne  (Prof.  N.  S.,  F.R.S.),  Indium  in  British  Blendes,  5 
Mathematical  Society,  95,  155,  254,  336,  400,  459 
Mauritius  and  Seychdles,  the  Flora  of,  by  J.  G.  Baker,  77 
MaxweU  (Prof.  Clerk,  F.R.S.),  an  Electrical  Experiment,  180 ; 

Tait's  "Thermodynamics,"  257,  278 
Mayer  (Alfred  M. ),  Edison's  Talkii^  Machine  (the  Phonograph), 

469 ;  Floating  Magnets,  487 
Mayer  and  Barnard,  the  Sources  and  Reflection  of  Light,  405, 

427 
Mayer  (Robert  Julius  v.).  Death  of,  435 ;  Obituary  Notice,  450 
Mayer  (Dr.  Paid),  Entomological  Query,  467 
Mechanical  Analysis   of  the  Trevdyan  Rocker,   Samuel  II. 

Frisbee,  242 
Medusae,  Prof.  Eimer  on  the  Nervous  System  of,  George  J. 

Romanes,  200 


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INDEX 


\Naiwn^  May  30,  1878 


Meldola  (R.)>  Oxygen  in  the  Sun,  161 

Meldnim  (C,  F.R.S.)»  Son-spots  and  Rainfall,  448 

Mello  (Joaqaim  Correa  de),  Death  of,  309 

Melo-Piano,  the,  453 

Memorie  ddla  Society  degli  Spettroscopisti  Italiani,  314 

Mercury,  the  Transit  of,  on  May  6,  1878,  46,  69,  363,  370,  488 

Merriman  (Mansfield),  List  of  Writings  on  the  Method  of  L^t 
Squares,  219 

Merten,  Excavations  at,  475 

Metallic  Vapours,  the  Reversal  of  the  Lines  of  the.  Professors 
Liveing  and  Dewar,  498 

Meteorites,  see  Meteors 

Meteorology:  Meteorological  Notes,  15,  248,  307,  362,  489; 
Meteorological  Society,  134,  235,  295,  356,  499;  Meteorology 
of  New  York,  15;  Meteorology  in  Russia,  16;  Prof.  Monier 
Williams  on  Indian,  53 ;  Meteorological  Phenomena,  82 ; 
New  Meteorological  Observatory  at  Fiesolc,  no;  Daily 
Warnings  in  France,  133 ;  French  Meteorology,  170,  193 ; 
Climatology  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  248 ;  Climatology  of 
the  Fiji  Islands,  248;  United  States  Volunteer  Weather 
Service,  248 ;  Rainfall  of  India,  273  ;  the  Progress  of  Afeteo- 
rol(^,  313 ;  Bulletin  of  the  Montsouris  Observatory,  362 ; 
Meteorology  of  Western  Aiistralia,  363 ;  Agricultural  Weather 
Warnings  in  France,  371 ;  Proposed  Frendi  Institute  of,  391 ; 
Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  440 ;  Meteorology  of  Stony- 
hurst,  489 ;  Weekly  Statistics  of  the  Wedthcr,  489 ;  Missouri 
Weather  Reports,  490;  Comparative  Atmospheric  Pressure 
of  New  Zealand  and  Great  Britain,  490;  Popular  Meteorology 
in  Switzerland,  492 

Meteors:  29,  94,  124,  221,  342,  425,  454,  467,  487;  of 
October  19,  1877,  1°  J  Meteorite  of  July  20,  i86o,  104 ; 
Meteorite  of  Tune  14,  1877,  150;  of  December  6,  1877,  152; 
the  Meteor  of  November  23,  1877,  94, 113,  183,  246;  Meteor 
in  Virginia,  214  ;  the  Daylight  Meteor  of  Mardi  25,  467 

Method  of  Least  Squares,  Merriman's  List  of  Writings  Relating 
to,  219 

Metrology,  Flinders  Petrie  on  Inductive,  357 

Metropolitan  Sewage,  157 

Meudon  Observatory,  392 

Mexico,  New,  Exploration  of,  489 

Meyer  (Dr.  A.  B.)t  Mittheilungen  aus  dem  k.  zoologischen 
Museum  zu  Dresden,  142 

Mice,  Singing,  1 1,  29 

Michaud  (M.  Narcisse),  Death  of,  474 

Michel  (Gustov),  "Die  Buch der  Katzen,"  351 

Microscopical  Society,  see  Royal 

Microscopical  Journal,  Decease  of  the,  152 

Midian,  Capt.  Burton's  Exploration  of,  53,  132 

"  Midland  Naturalist,"  233,  438 

Millar  ( W\  J.),  a  Telephone  without  Magnetism,  242 

Millepora,  Effects  of  the  Urticating  Organs  of,  on  the  Tongue, 
L.  P.  Pourtales,  27 

Mills  (Prof.,  F.R.S.),  Electrostriction,  235 

Miln  (James),  Archaeological  Researches  at  Camac,  379 

Mimicry  in  Birds,  361,  380,  478,  486,  507 

Minchin  (G.  M.),  Potential  Ena^  27 

Mineral  Oil  in  a  Lava  of  Mount  Etna,  150 

Mineralogical  Society,  376 

Mines,  Telegraphic  Warnings  in,  16;  Explosions  in,  W. 
Galloway,  21 

«*  Minhocao,"  the,  325 

Mmor  Planets,  36,  46,  63,  83,  210,  306,  344,  382,  488,  507 

Missouri :  Geological  Siurvey  of,  Prof.  Ardn.  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  431; 
Weather  Reports,  493 

Mittheilungen  aus  dem  k.  zoolc^chen  Museum  zn  Dresden, 
Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer,  142 

Mivart  (Prof.  St.  G.,  F.R.S.),  on  the  Fins  of  Elasmobranchs,  355 

Mohn  (Dr.  H.),  Norwegian  Deep«Sea  Expeditions,  30 ;  ^feteoro- 
logical  Observations  in  the  North  Atlantic,  235 

Moll  (J.  W.),  Researches  on  the  Carbon  of  Plants,  344 

Molybdenum,  270 

Mongolia  and  Siberia,  Exploration  of,  435 

Monistic  Philosophy,  Prize  for  Treatise  on,  70 

Monotremata  of  Australia,  E.  P.  Ramsay,  401 

Monster,  a  New  Underground,  325 

Monteiro  (Joachim  John),  Death  of,  391  ;  Obituary  Notice  of, 

425 
Montsouris  Park  and  Observatory,  132 ;  Meteorological  Bulletin 

of,  362 
MonumentF,  George  Smith's  Ancient  History  from  the,  119 


Moon,  a  Lunar  Landscape,  469,  5x4 

Morning  Dawn,  the  Expedition  of  the,  153 

Morphologische  Jahrbudi,  39,  294,  478 

"Morphology  of  the  Skull, '^Parker  and  Bcttan/s,  3 

Morse  (Edward  S.),  Traces  of  Early  Man  in  Japan,  89 ;  the 

Structure  of  Lingnla,  383 
Moscow,  Anthropological  Exhibition  in,  16,  171 
Moscow  and  the  Volga,  Communication  between,  91 
Moseley  (H.  N.,  F.R.S.).  "Drowned  by  a  DevU  Fish,"  27; 

Oregon,  302 ;  Origin  of  Tracheae  in  Arthropods,  340 
Mosquitos  and  Filariae,  439 
Mosses  and  Ferns,  Hofmeister's  Work  on,  344 
Moths,  Smell  and  Hearing  in,  45,  62,  82 
Mott  (F.  T.),  Meteor,  467 
Mount  Etna,  Mineral  Oil  in  a  Lava  of,  150 
Mount  Tongariro,  N.Z.,  346 
Moving  Diagrams  of  Madiinery,  158 
Moyobamba,  the  Rain-Tree  of,  Prof.  Thisclton-Dyer,  349 
Muir    (M.    M.    Pattison),    Proctor's   "Spectroscope   and    its 

Work,"  360 
Miiller  (Fritz)  on  Flowers  and  Insects,  78 
Miiller  (Dr.  Hermann),  Fertilisation  in  Thyme  and  Marjoram, 

127 ;  Macrosiiia  cluentius^  221 
Munich,  University  Statistics,  275,  478 
Miinster,  University  Intelligence,  354 
Murphy  (J.  J.),  Meteorological  Phenomena,  82 
Murray  (Andrew),  Obituary  Notice  of,  232 ;  the  Locust  Plague 

in  America,  377 
Musaceae,  Products  of  Assimilation  in,  127 
Muscular  Action,  the  Evolution  of  Heat  during.  Prof.  A.  Fick, 

285 
Museums,  the  Arrangement  of.  Gen.  A.  Lane  Fox,  F.R.S.,  484 
Music :    Music  a  Science  of  Numbers,  Wm.   Chappell,  32 ; 

Musical  Association,  331^  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  Dr. 

W.  H.  Stone,  422;    an  Organ-Piano,   453;   State  Aid  to 

Music,  Alan  S.  Cole,  474 
Musk-deer,  Discovery  of  a  Skeleton  of  the  Pre-historic,  455 
Mussel,  the  Byssus  in  the,  289 
Musters  (Capt.)  on  Bolivia,  90 
"Mycenae,"  Dr.  Schliemann%  397 
Myopia  in  Germany,  310 
"  Myths  and  Marvels  of  Astronomy,"  R.  A.  Proctor,  180 

Naples,  the  Zoological  Station  at.  Dr.  Anton  Dohm,  329,  360 

Natural  History,  Cassell's,  vol.  i.,  365 

Natural  History  Journal,  392 

Natural  Phenomena,  Electrical  Analogies  with,  226,  385 

Nautical  Almanac  for  1881 

Navicula  (?),  Mr.  W.  W.  Wood  on  a  Species  of,  392,  437 

Neander  Vallev,  the  Collection  of  Remains  from,  108 

Nebuke  and  Clusters,  Literature  of  the,  288 

Nebuke,  Variable,  306 

Nemirovich-Danchenko  (M.),  "The  Land  of  Cold,"  211 

"Nerthus,**  the,  of  Tacitus,  250 

Nerves,  the  Development  of,  382 

Nettle,  the  Common,  Experiments  on  the  Fibre,  351 

Neumagen,  Excavations  at,  292 

Neumayer  (Dr.  G.),  the  Progress  of  Meteorology,  313 

New  Guinea,  250,  383  ;  Gould  in,  408 ;  Exploration  of,  435 

New  Mexico,  Exploration  of,  489 

New  South  Wales,  Royal  Society  of,  Proceedinjis,  17 

New  York,  Meteorolo^  of,   15;   Proposed  Zoological  Garden 

in,  192  ;  Natural  History  Museum,  232 ;  Survey  of,    508 
New  Zealand,  Mount  Ton^uiro,  346 ;  Comparative  Atmospheric 

Pressure  of,  and  Great  Britain,  490 
Newcomb  (Prof .  S.),  elected  F.R.S.,  150;  Lunar  Researches, 

209 ;  Theorems  relating  to  Geome^  of  Three  Dimensions, 

240 
Newton  (Prof.  A.,   F.R.S.),   Hartlaub's    "Birds   of   Mada- 

gascar,"    9 ;    No  Butterflies  in  Iceland,    260 ;    Mimicry  in 

Birds,  380,  507 
Niagara  Falls,  Uie  Horseshoe,  109;  Curioos  Phenomenon  at, 

454 
Nias  Island,  290 

Nickel,  M.  H.  Wild's  Researches  on,  393 
Nickel  and  Cobalt,  lodates  of,  150 
Nicols  (Arthur),  Eucalyptus,  10,  342 
Nicotin,  Physiological  Action  of,  222 
Nightingale,  the,  487 
Nitrification,  R.  Warington,  367,  402; 


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Nature,  May  30,  1878] 


INDEX 


XI 


Nitro -benzoic  Acid,  the  Fourth,  151 

Nivcn  (W.  S.),  Trajectories  of  Shot,  466 

Nocturnal    Increase   of  Temperature  with  Eleration,  Dr.  E. 

Bonavia,  loi 
Noeggerath  (Prof,  Jacob),  Proposed  Monument  to,  170 
Nordenskjold  (Prof.),  Expedition  to  the  Arctic  Regions,  90 
Northumberland,  Marine  Fossils  in  the  Gannister  Beds  of,  Prof. 

G.  A.  Lcbour,  320,  352 
Norway,  Glacial  and  Post-Glacial  Fishes  of,  509 
Norwegian  Deep-Sea  Expeditions,  H.  Mohn,  30 
Norwegian  North  Sea  Expedition,  253 
Nova  Cygni,  46 

Novaya  Zemlya,  Colonisation  of,  109 
Noy^  (Thos.),  a  Doable  Rainbow,  262 
Nuttell  Ornithological  Club,  Bulletin  of,  498 
Nyassa,  the  Lake  of,  435 

O'Brien  (C.  G.),  Fetichism  in  Animals,  402 ;  Discrimination  of 

Insects,  402 
Observatories:    Paris,   69,    109,    131,    152,    193,   232,    473; 

Madrid,    70 ;    the    Cordoba,    83,    209 ;    Montsouris,    131  ; 

Lyons,  149 ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  269 ;  Brussels,  288 ;  the 

Temple,  324;   the  RadcUffe,  363;    Harvard  College,  363; 

Meudon,  392 ;  Dun  Echt,  432  i 

Octopus,  Drowned  by  an,  27,  282  A  VPl 

Oil  Paintings,  the  Deterioration  of.  Dr.  R.  Liebreich,  493,  Jij/ r 
Old  Resd  Sandstone  of    Western  Europe,   Prof.   A.   Geikie, 

F.R.S.,  471 
Oliver  (Prof.  D.,  F.R.S.),  "Flora  of  Tropical  Africa,"  Prof. 

W.  R.  McNab,  319 
Olympia,  the  Excavations  at,  330 
Ontano,  Report  of  the  Registrar-General,  4J5 
Optical  Spectroscopy  of  the  Red  End  of  the  Solar  Spectrum, 

J.  B.  N.  Hennessey,  F.R.S.,  28 
Oregon,  H.  N.  Mosdey,  F.R.S.,  302 
Oi^-Piano,  an,  E.  J.  Reed,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  453 
Organic  Liquids,  Distillation  of,  by  Means  of  Steam,  270 
Onental   Affinities    in   the    Ethiopian    Insect-Fauna,   W.    L. 

Distant,  282 
Orknev  and  Shetland,  Glacial  Geology  of,  S.  Laing,  M.P.,  123 ; 

Prof.  M.  Forstcr  Heddle,  182 
Omithuric  Add,  270 
Orograph,  a  new  Form  of,  156 
Orton  (Prof.  James),  Death  of,  90 
"  Our  Native  Land,"  491 
Owen  (Prof.,  F.R.S.)  on  the  Modification  of  a  Lower  Form  of 

Life  by  a  Higher,  375 
Owens  College,  Chemical  Society  at,  1 14 
Owb,  M.  A.  Milne-Edwards  on,  345 
Oxford:  University  Conmiission,  19;   proposed  High  School 

for,  19,  39 ;  University  Intdligcncc,  114,  194,  334,  393,  415  ; 

University  Statbtics,  354 
Oxidation,  Accderation  of,  caused  by  the  least  Refrangible  End 

of  the  Spectrum,  Capt.  Abney,  F.R.S.,  518 
Oi^gen,   the  Presence  of,  in  the  Sun,   Dr.  Arthur  Schuster, 

F.R.S.,   148 ;    R.  MeWola,  161 ;    Dr.  Henry  Draper,  339 ; 

in  Sea-Water,  T.  Y.  Buchanan,  162 ;  Liquefaction  of,  169, 

I77i  265;  the  Density  of  Liquid,  217;  the  Influence  of ,  on 

Respiration,  252 

Page  (F.  J.  M.),  Demonstration  of  Currents  Originated  by  the 
Voice  in  Bell's  Telephone,  283 ;  the  Action  of  the  Telepiione 
on  a  Capillary  Electrometer,  395 

Palm^n  on  the  Morphobgy  of  the  Tracheal  System,  284,  340 

Pamir,  the  Exploration  of  the,  249,  324 

Paper  Trade,  International  Exhibition  of  the,  371 

Papuan  Plants,  289 

Parker  and  Bettan/s  "  Morphology  of  the  Skull,"  3 

Paris :  Acadeimr  of  Sciences,  20,  40,  56,  70,  76,  9(3,  116,  136, 
156,  19s,  216,  236,  251,  256,  276,  316,  356,  376,  396,  409. 
416,  440,  460,  480^  ,ox),  520 ;  Vacancy  in,  70 ;  Frizes  of 
the  294,  373;  the  Eloge  on  Bufibn,  474.  Geographical 
Sodet^  of  Paris,  17,  346,  384,  468.  Paris  International 
Exhibition,  37 ;  the  Russian  Division  in,  350 ;  Representation 
of  Sdence  at,  357  ;  "  Etudes  sur  I'Exposition  de  1878,"  371 ; 
Arabs  at,  454.  Congresses  at  Paris,  474 ;  Paris  Observatory, 
69,  X09.  I3>»  152,  193,  232,  473;  the  New  Transit  Circle  at, 
165.  Sutistics  of  the  National  Library,  92.  Telegraphic 
Warnings  of  Fires  in,  91.  Ethnobgical  Museum  in  the 
Palais  de  Tlndustrie,  272,    Lectures  on  Ethnography  in,  330. 


Sbci^t^  d' Hygiene,  310.  Statistics  of  the  Press,  311.  Elec- 
tric Lighting  in,  437.  Assodation  d'Excursions  SdentiBques, 
454.  Museum  of  the  Jardin  des  Pkntes,  455.  the  Tnileries 
Captive  Balloon,  454,  491.     Underground  llailway  in,  492 

Pears,  Fungoid  Disease  of,  91 

Pembrokeshire,  Dimetian  and  Pebidian  Rocks  of,  155 

Peronospora,  the  Fossil,  as  a  Primordial  Plant,  Worthington  G. 
Smith,  144 

Persimmon,  the  Persian,  508 

Pesth,  Artesian  Well  at,  109 ;  Centenary  of  the  University,  134 

Petermann's  Mittheilungen,  17,  90,  253,  408 

Pctrie  (W.  M.  FHnders),  *•  Inductive  Metrology,"  357 ;  Age  of 
the  Earth,  465 

Petty  (T.  S.),  the  Meteor  of  November  23,  183 

"Phantom"  Force,  the,  Prof.  A.  S,  Herschel,  302,  321,  340 

Pharmaceutical  Society,  410 

Phenological  Observations  during  1877,  236 

Philadelphia :  Academy  of  Natural  Science,  296  ;  Philadelphia 
Diplomas,  Dr.  C.  M.  Ingleby,  183 ;  Dr.  Richard  C,  Bran- 
deis,  221 

Phipps  (Geo.  H.),  the  Earth-worm  in  Relation  to  the  Fertility  of 
the  Soil,  62 

Phoneidoscopic  Representation  of  Vowels  and  Diphthongs,  447, 
486 

lonograph :  Edison's,  90,  190,  291,  415,  469,  485  ;  and  Helm- 
holtrs  Vowd  Theory,  Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin  and  J.  A. 
Ewing,  384,  423 

Phosphides  of  Tin,  151 

Photography:  Photography  of  Natural  Colours,  92;  Photo- 
graphic Sodety,  195,  276,  376,  479 ;  Photography  Fore- 
shadowed, Dr.  J.  A.  Groshans,  202 ;  J.  Rand  Capron's 
"Photographic  Spectra,"  259;  Abney's  "Photography," 
378 ;  "  Photographic  Rays  of  Light,"  438 

Phylloxera  in  Germanv,  211 

"  Phvsical  Chemistry,^'  N.  N.  Lubavin,  240 

Physical  Society,  55,  115,  135,  175,  295,  394,  415;  Annual 
Meeting,  Officers,  &c.,  315 

Physidairs  Experiment,  305 

"Physiography,"  Huxley\  178 

Physiological  Tables,  Dr.  E.  B.  Avding's,  5 

Physiological  Teaching  and  the  Cruelty  to  Animals'  Act,  Frank 
W.  Young,  45 

Piano,  an  Oigaii,  E.  J.  Reed,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  453 

Pic-du-Midi  Observatory,  409 

Pictet  (M.  Raoul),  on  the  Liquefaction  of  the  Gases,  292 ; 
Honorary  Degree  to,  436 

Pid^eon  (D.),  the  Phonograph,  415 

Pig-iron,  Separation  of  Phosphorus  from,  459 

Pigolt's  Observations  of  Variable  Stars,  323 

Pile-Dwdlings,  and  English  Lake-D\»  ellings,  Prof.  T.  Rupert 
Tones,  F.R.S.,  424 

"  Pioneering  m  South  Brazil,"  T.  P.  Biggs-Wither,  423 

Pirani  (Prof.  F.  J.),  an  Electrical  Experiment,  180 

Pisdcultural  Institute,  the  Proposed  Channd  Isles,  W.  A. 
Lloyd,  143 

Pitch,  Absolute,  Lord  Rayldgh,  F.R.S.,  12 

Pitury,  the  new  Stimulant,  492 

PUnets,  Minor,  46,  63,  83,  210,  306,  344,  382,  488,  507 

Plant  and  Animal  Life,  Analogies  of,  Francis  Darwin,  i88,  41 1 

Plants  (M.  Gaston),  Electrical  Analogies  with  NatunJ  Pheno- 
mena, 226,  385 

Pknts  :  Ferment  in,  455  ;  the  Carbon  of,  344 ;  Sclf-Fertilisa- 
tion  of,  221  ;  the  First  Stages  of  Devdopment  in,  433] 

Plateau  Films,  Permanent,  175 

PiestiodoH  Umgirostris,  425 

Plummer  (J.  I.),  Aid  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evofaition,  303, 360 

Poaching  Birds,  509 

Polar  Expeditions,  International,  £.  J.  Reed,  C.B.,  29 

Polyzoa,  French,  J82 

Pongo,  Death  of  the  Gorilla,  70 ;  Dissection  of,  89 

Potential  Energy,  9,  27,  81 

Pouchet,  Monument  to,  108 

Pourtales  (L.  P.),  Effects  of  the  Urticating  Organs  of  Millepora 
on  the  Tongue,  27 

Powell  (Major  T.  W.),  Ethnok)gy  of  North  America,  53 

Preston  (S.  Tolver),  on  a  Means  of  Converting  the  Heat  Motion 
Possessed  by  Matter  at  Normal  Temperature  into  Work, 
202 ;  on  the  Diffusion  of  Matter  in  Relation  to  the  Second 
Law  of  Thermodynamics,  xi ;  the  Age  of  the  Sun's  Heat  ia 
Relation  to  Geological  Evidencey  423 


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XII 


INDEX 


[Nature,  May  30,   1878 


Pringsheim  (Dr.  A.)>  JalirbUcher  fiir  wissenschafUiche  Botanik, 

Pijwalsky's  Journey  to  Lob-Nor  and  Tibet,  153,  434 

Proctor  (R.  A.),  "Myths  and  Marvels  ?of  Astronomy,**  x8oj 

**  The  Spectroscope  and  its  Work,"  360 
Protection  of  Animals,  Vienna  Society  for  the,  293 
Prussia,  the  Universities  of,  55,  294 
Ptolemy's  Geography  of  EnjgUsh  Coast,  193 
Punjab,  the  Uppor,  the  Geology  of,  395 
Purple  Dyes  or  Antiquity,  133 
Pyramid,  the  Great,  J.  G,  Jackson,  243 

Quaritch  (Bernard),  Faraday's  "Experimental  Researches," 342 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,  37,  214,  254 

RadclifTe  Observatonr,  363 

Radiant  Heat,  the  liiermo-electric  Pile  and  the  Radiometer,  310 

Radiometer:  and  its  Lessons,  5,  7,  26,  27,  43,  44,  61,  79,  121, 

142,   143,   181,  199,  220,  261 ;  Prof.  G.  G.  Stokes,  F.R.S., 

on  Certain  Movements  of  Radiometers,   172,  234;  and  the 

Thermo-electric  Pile,  310 

Rae  (Dr.  J.),  Tuckey,  and  Stanley,  the  Yallala  Rapids  on  the 

Congo,  62 ;  No  Butterflies  in  Iceland,  243,  260 
Railway  Brakes,  410,  507 
Railway  Collisions  and  Electricity,  371 
Railway  Working  and  Electricity,  W.  E.  Langdon,  461 
Railwa3rs,  Underground,  in  Paris,  492 
Rainbow,  a  Double,  Thos.  Noye,  262 
Raindrops,  Hailstones,  and  Snowflakes,  the  Formation  of.  Prof. 

Osborne  Reynolds,  F.R.S.,  207 
Rainfall  in  the  Temperate  Zone  in  Connection  with  the  Sun-spot 

Cycle,  Dr.  W.  W.  Hunter,  59 
Rainfall,  Contribution  to  the  Sun-spot  Theory  of  Rainfall,  Dr. 

E.  Bonavia,  61 
Rainfall  of  India,  273,  $05 
Raiufall  and  Sun-spots,  443 ;  C.  Meldrum,  F.R.S.,  448 ;  Alex. 

Buchan,  505 
Rain-tree  of  Moyobamba,  Prof.  T.  Thiselton  Dyer,  349 
Ralton  (Dr.),  **  Handbook  of  Common  Salt,"  302 
Ramsay  (E.  P.),  Australian  Monotremata,  401 
Ramsav  (Prof.,  F.R.S.),  and  Janus  Geikie,  F.R.S.,  on  the 

Geology  of  Gibraltar,  518 
Raspail  (M.  F.  V.),  Death  of,  212 
Ratti  (Aurel  de),  the  Telephone,  380 
Rayleigh  (Lord,   F.R.S.),   Absolute  Pitch,   12;    **  Theory  of 

Sound,"  Vol.  I.,  Prof.  H.  Hehnholtz,  F.R.S.,  237 
Reade  (T.  Mellard),  the  ChalUnger  Estimates  of  the  Volume  of 

the  Gulf  Stream,  144 
Reale  Istituto  Lombardo  di  Sdenze  e  Lettere,  294, 374,  478,  498 
Reed  (E.  J.,  C.B.,  F.R.S.),  International  Polar  Expeditions, 

29  ;  an  Oi^n  Piano,  453 
Reflection  Grating,  the  Use  of,  in  Eclipse  Photography,  J.  Nor- 
man Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  354 
Reflectors,  Glass  for,  Henry  Bessemer,  241 
Regnault  (M.  Victor),  Death  of,  250 ;  Obituary  Notice  of,  263 
Reichenbach's  Odyle  and  Mr.  Wallace,  8;  Wm.  B.  Carpenter, 

F.R.S.,  8,  44 
Reilly  (P.  W.),  a  Meteor,  221 
Research  Fund,  the  Government,  403 
Research  in  Libraries,  Robert  L.  Jack,  486 
Respiration,  A<}natic,  290 
Revue  Internationale  des  Sciences,  152,  212 
Re3rnolds  (Prof.  J.  Emerson),  Frankland's  Researches  in  Che- 
mistry, 218,  318  ;  Discovery  of  a  New  Explosive,  436 
Reynolds    (Prof.  Osborne,    F.R.S.),   the  Radiometer  and  its 
Lessons,  27,  61,  121,  220;  on  the  Formation  of  Hailstones, 
Raindrops,  and  Snowflakes,  207 
Rheostatic  Machine,  40 
Rhine,  the  Fisheries  of  the,  212 ;  Method  for  Determining  the 

Impurities  of,  iti 
Rhinodirma  danmnU,  222 
Rhizopods  in  an  Apple  Tree,  434 
"Rider,"  the,  in  Egyptian  Baumces,  455 
Riley  (Charles  V.),  the  Locust  Plague  in  America,  377 
Rink  (Dr.  Henry),  Danish  Greenland,  57 
Roads,  Machine  for  Levelling,  392 
Roberts  (Edward),  Expected  Hi^  Tides,  58 
Rocky  Mountains,  Geolo^^  of  the,  39 
Rohlrs  (Herr  G.X  Expedition  to  the  Libyan  Desert,  290 


Romanes  (G.  J.),  Singing  Mice,  29;  Smell  and  H^earingr  ^ 
Moths,  82 ;  Fetichism  in  Animals,  168 ;  Prof.  Eimer  on  the 
Nervous  System  of  Medusse,  200 

Romanis  (Tames  M.),  on  a  New  Form  of  Telephone,  201 

Romer  (Ole),  Dr.  Doberck,  105 

Rontgen  (Dr.  W.  C),  a  Telephonic  Alarum,  164 

Rosthom  (Francis  von).  Obituary  Notice  of,  11 

Rotifers  or  Wheel- Animalcules  of  Himgary,  128 

Ro)^  Astronomical  Society,  76,  195,  275,  309,  459 

Royal  Dublin  Society,  46,  183 

Royal  Geographical  Society :  and  the  Public,  381 ;  Medals  of 
the,  467 ;  School  Prize  Medals,  497 

Royal  Institution,  170,  291,  371 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  56,  156,  236,  336,  416 

Royal  Society :  37, 134, 214.  235,  314,  335,  354,  415,  479,  49^, 
518 ;  Council  of,  37  ;  Medals  of  the,  69  ;  the  Times  on  the, 
108 ;  Election  of  Foreign  Members,  151 ;  New  Fellows,  513 

Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  153 

Rubies,  the  Artificial  Production  of,  152 

Rugby,  the  Temple  Observatory,  324 

Ruhmkorff*  (Henry  David),  Obituary  Notice  of,  169 ;  Sale  of 
his  Workshop,  351 

Russell  (Mr.,  Astronomer-Royal  at  Sydney),  Attempt  on  his 
Life,  152 

Russell  (Hon.  RoUo),  Telephonic  Experiments,  292 

Russia :  Meteorology  in,  16 ;  Exploration  of,  38 ;  Russian 
Geographical  Society,  53,  153,  171,  194,  213,  324;  Primary 
Education  in,  53 ;  Gems  from,  72 ;  Magnetical  Measure 
ments  in,  153;  St.  Petersburg  Society  of  Naturalists,  194; 
University  of  Charkow,  195  ;  Nemirovich-Danchenko's  **  The 
Land  of  Cold,"  211  ;  Russian  Chemical  Society's  Journal, 
251;  Russian  Anthropology  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  350; 
Ethnology  of,  468.    See  also  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  &c. 

Rutland  and  Leicestershire,  Harrison's  Geology  of,  58 

Ryder  (John  A.),  the  Laws  of  Digital  Reduction,  128 

Rye  (E.  C),  Wollaston's  "  Coleoptera  Sanctae-Hellenae,"  338 

Sabine,  (Robert),  the  Telephone,  379 ;  Action  of  Light  on  a 
Selenium  (Galvanic)  Element,  512 

Sachs  (Prof.),  called  to  Berlin,  75 

St.  Andrews,  University  Intelligence,  95 

St.  Elmo's  Fire,  436 

St.  Helena,  Wollaston's  "  Coleoptera  Sanctge  Hellenae,"  338 

St.  Paul  and  Amsterdam,  the  Islands  of.  Prof.  E.  Perceval 
Wright,  326 

St.  Petersbui^,  University  Intelligence,  55  ;  Society  of  Natural- 
ists, 194;  New  High  School  for  Ladies,  195;  Education  of 
Women  at,  195,  334;  New  Archaeological  Institution,  329; 
the  Central  Physical  Observatory,  330;  New  Hygienic 
Society,  330 ;  University  Statistics,  374 

St.  Stefano,  Earthquake  at,  514 

Salmon  in  Germany,  392 

Salt,  Ratton's  Handbook  of  Common,  302 

"Salzkammergut,"  Snow  in  the,  292 

Sanderson  (Prof.  J.  Burdon,  F.R.S.),  Bacteria,  84 

Sanitary  Institute,  38 

Satellites,  the,  129 

Saunier's  ".Modem  Horology,"  484 

Saxony,  Educational  Statistics,  394 

Schliemann  (Dr.  H.),  Trojan  Treasures,  132  ;  "Mycenae,"  397; 
"  Troy  and  its  Remains,"  397 ;  "  Antiquities  from  Hissarlik," 

397 
Schmidt's  Lunar  Chart,  408 
Schoolmasters,  Congress  of,  in  Paris,  314 
Schuster  (Dr.  Arthur,  F.R.S.),  Vogefs  "Spectrum  Analysis," 

99 ;   the  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons,  143  ;  the  Presence  of 

Oxygen  in  the  Sun,  148 
Schwann  (Theodore),  Festival  in  Honour  of,  436 
Schweinfurth  (Dr.),  Proposed  Retium  to  Africa,  90 
Science  :  Prof.  Rudolf  Virchow  on  the  Liberty  of  Science  in  the 

Modem  State,   72,  92,   iii;    Science  and  Art  Department 

Examinations,  134 ;   Science  in  Training  Colleges,  262 ;  the 

Head-Masters  on  Science  Teaching,  Rev.  W.  Tuckwell,  317  j 

Science  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  357 
Scientific  Research,  Grants  of  the  British  Medical  Association,  90 
Scientific  Serials,  a  New  Catalogue  of,  272 
Scientific  Worthies,  XII.— William  Harvey  ( With  Portrait^ 

417 
Scotland,   Prof.  J.   W.   Judd,   F.R.S.,  on  the  Strata  of  the 
Western  Coast  and  Islands  of,  335 


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Nature^  May  30,  1878] 


INDEX 


XIU 


Scottish  Meteoroiog;ical  Society,  440 

Scottish  Universities  Commission,  441 

Sea-Sediments,  Movements  of,  293 

Sea- Water,  Oxygen  in,  J.  Y,  Buchanan,  162 ;  as  a  Specific,  234 

Secchi    (Father),    lUness   of,  291 ;    Death  of,  350 ;  Obituary 

Notice  of,  370 
Sediments  in  the  Sea,  Movements  of,  293 
•*  Seiches"  on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  234 ;  and  Earthquakes,  Dr. 

F.  A.  Forel,  281 ;  the  Law  of,  475 
**  Selbome,"  Prof.  BeU's  White's,  399 
Selective  Discrimination  of  Insects,  62,  163 
Selenium,  Action  of  Li^t  on,  Robert  Sabincj  512 
Semirechensk  District,  Exploration  of,  252 
Sense  in  Insects,  W.  M.  Gabb,  282 
Sewing  Machines,  Effects  from  Using,  71  ;  a  New,  371 
Sewage,  the  Metropolitan,  157 

Seychelles  and  Mauritius,  the  Flora  of,  by  J.  G.  Baker,  77 
Shadows,  Observations  on,  351 

Shells,  Atlantic,  Wollaston's  503 ;   Dr.  P.  P.  Carpenter's  Col- 
lection of,  513 
Shenstone  (W.  A.),  Conservation  of  Energy — Lectiure  Experi- 
ment, 45 
Shetland  and  Orkney,  Glacial  Geology  of,  S.  Laing,  M.P,,  123 
Shooting  Stars,  201,  212 

"  Shorthand  for  General  Use,"  Prof.  EvereU,  17 
Shot,  Trajectories  of.  Rev.  Francis  Bashforth,  401,  506;  W. 

D.  Niven,  466 
Siberia :  Sea  Trade  with,  324 ;  the  University  of,  354 ;  axMl 

Mongolia,  Exploration  of,  435 
Sidebotham  (Joseph),  Singing  Mice,  29 
Silesian  Society,  Proceedings  of,  219 
Silver  Salts,  Relations  between  the  Volumes  of,  260 
Simon  Testimonial  Fund,  371 
**  Simple  Lessons  for  Home  Use,"  25 
Sing^  in  the  Ears,  Xenos  Clark,  342 
Singing  Mice,  1 1,  29 

Sipylite,  a  New  Mineral  containing  Niobium,  269 
**  Sizing  of  Cotton  Goods,"  Thomson's,  4 
Skin,  Human,  and  Mineral  Waters,  252 
Skull,  the  Morphology  of  the,  Parker  and  Bettany,  3 
Slater  (H.  H.),  Singmg  Mice,  II 
Sleep,  Causation  of,  124 
Smell  and  Hearing  in  Insects,  Henrv  Cecil,  381 
Smith  (A.  Percy),  the  Telephone,  380 
Smith  (George),  Ancient  History  ^om  the  Monuments,  119 
Smith  (Wordiington  G.),   a  Fossil  Fungus,   127;  the  Fossil 

Peronospora  as  a  Primordial  Plant,  144 
Smith  (Herbert  H.),  Exploration  of  Brazil,  308 
Smith  (J.),  "  Ferns,  British  and  Foreigpj,"  43 
Smith  (Prof.  W.  Robertson),  the  Colour  Sense  of  the  Greeks, 

100 
Smithsonian  Institution  :  18,  39 ;  Annual  Report,  192 
Smyrna,  Plague  of  Field-mice  or  Rats  in,  43 
Smyth  (Prof.  Piazzi),  Sim-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism,  220 
Snice  Poison,  337 
Snow  in  the  **  Salzkammergut,"  292 
Snowflakes,  Hailstones,  and  Raindrops,  the  Formation  of,  Prof. 

Osborne  Reynolds,  F.R.S.,  207 
Soap- Films,  the  Acoustical   Properties  of,   Prof.  Silvanos  P* 

Thompson,  486 
Social  Electrical  Nerves,  305,  346 
Sod^^  des  Colons  Exploratenrs,  290 
Sod^^  d'Hygiene  of  Paris,  310 
Solar  Corona,  Early  Observations  of  the,  14 
Sdlar  Eclipses :  The  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  July  29,  1878,  36, 

2CO,  269,  381,  452,  453;   J.  Norman  Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  on, 

481,  501 ;  Solar  Eclipse  of  a.d.  418,  163 
Solar  Radiation  in  India,  Methods  for  Determining  131 
Solar  Spectrum,  Optical  Spectroscopy  of  the  Red  End  of  the, 

J.  B.  N.  Hennessey,  F.R.S.,  28 
Solar,  set  also  Sun 
Soleil  (M.),  Death  of,  455 

Soles  and  Turbot,  Consignment  of,  to  America,  212,  311, 
Sorby  (H.  C,  F.R.S.),  the  Colouring  Matter  of  Human  Hair, 

^355 

Sound:  Experiment  on  Vibrations,  194;  "Lord  Rayleigh's 
Theonr  of  Sound,"  Prof.  H.  Hehnholtz,  F.R.S.,  237 ;  Velo- 
city of,  410 ;  Sound  Colour- Figures,  Sedley  Taylor,  426,  447 ; 
and  Density,  J.  Cameron,  507;  the  Transmission  of,  by 
Wires,  519 


Sounding  Apparatus,  lieut.  Theo.  F,  Jewell,  230 

Spain,  Science  in,  91 ;  the  Telephone  m,  437 

Spalding,  DoTiglas  A.,  Obituary  Notice  of,  35 

Spanish  Peninsula,  the  Climatology  of  the,  248 

Spectroscope,  the,  and  its  Work,  R.  A.  Proctor,  360 

Spectroscopical  Researches  of  D' Arrest,  311 

"  Spectrum  Analysis,"  Vogel's,  99 

Spherules,  Coloured,  in  the  Retina  of  Birds,  473 

Spiders,  Hungarian,  128;  the  Aeronautic  Flight  of,  434; 
Spider  and  Uie  Wasp,  402,  448 

Spitzbergen,  Maps  of,  290 

Sponges,  Glassy,  222 

Stan&rds,  Public,  at  the  Guildhall,  454 

Stanley  (H.  M.),  Exploration  of  A^ca,  '49,  90 ;  at  the  Cape, 
109 ;  his  Arrival  in  England,  232,  249,  291  ;  Dinner  to, 
270 ;  at  St.  James's  Hall,  297 ;  his  new  Work  on  Africa,  364 

Starch  in  Plants,  269 

Starfishes,  North  American,  Alex.  Agassiz,  98 

Stars  :  Tycho  Brahe's,  of  1572,  129 ;  Variable,  163,  210,  231, 
288;  Shooting,  201,  212;  f  Indi,  231;  the  Star  Lalandc, 
19,034,  306;  Double,  407 

Steam-Engine,  a  Remarkable  Small,  214 

Steel  Plates,  Gigantic,  436 

Stellar  Systems,  82 

Stewart  (Prof.  Balfour,  F.R.S.),  Son-spots  and  Declination 
Ranges,  326 

Stobart  (J.  W.  H.),  Islam  and  its  Founder,  239 

Stockhomi,  the  Royal  Library  at,  273 

Stockdale  (William),  the  Telephone,  380 

Stokes  (Prof.  G.  G.,  Sec.  R.S.),  Certain  Movements  of  Radio- 
meters, 172,  23A 

Stone  (Dr.  W.  H.),  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music,  422 

Stoney  (G.  Johnstone,  F.R.S.),  the  Rsuliometer  and  its  Lessons, 
79,  181,  261 

Stonyhurst,  Meteorology  of,  489 

Strassburg,  New  University  Buildings,  55 ;  University  Intelli- 
gence, 195  ;  Discovery  of  Prehistoric  Remains  in,  492 

Strawberries  in  December,  193 

Strontion,  Lime,  and  Baryta,  Crystallisation  of,  372 

Striimpell  (Dr.),  Causation  of  Sleep,  124 

Strychnia  and  its  Antidote,  J.  Sinclair  Holden,  360 

Styria,  Avalanches  in,  273 

Subsidence  of  Soil  in  France,  513 

Suicides  in  France,  54 

Sumatra :  Death  of  the  Leader  of  the  Dutch  Expedition  to,  170 ; 
Exploration  of,  290,  409 

Sun :  the  Sun's  Distance,  i ;  the  Sun's  Photosphere,  J.  Norman 
Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  23  ;  Sun's  Magnetic  Action  at  the  Present 
Time,  J.  Allan  Broun,  F.R.S.,  183 ;  Photographs  of  the,  195 ; 
the  Presence  of  Oxygen  in  the.  Dr.  Arthur  Sdiuster,  F.R.S., 
148  ;  R.  Meldola,  161  ;  Dr.  Henry  Draper,  339 ;  Age  of  the, 
in  Relation  [to  Evolution,  206,  303,  321,  360,  464;  Age 
of  the  Sun's  Heat  in  Relation  to  Geological  Evidence,  S. 
Tolver  Preston,  423 

Sun-spots  :  Rainfall  in  the  Temperate  Zone  in  Connection  with 
the  Sun-spot  Cycle,  Dr.  W.  W.  Hunter,  59 ;  Sun-spots  and 
Terrestrial  Magnetism,  Prof.  Piazzi  Smyth,  220;  A.  W. 
Downing,  242;  B,  G.  Jenkins,  259 ;  J.  Allan  Broun,  F.R.S. 
262,  280;  Joas  Capello,  488;  Sun-spots  and  Declination 
Ranges,  Prof.  Balfour  Stewart,  F.R.S.,  326;  Sun-spots  and 
Rainfall,  61,  443,  448,  505 

Supplementary  Eyebrows,  W.  Ainslie  Hollis,  124 

Swinhoe  (Robert,  F.R.S.),  Death  of,  16 ;  Obituary  Notice  of,  35 

Sydney,  International  Exhibition  at,  233 

Sylt,  the  Island  of,  Discovery  of  a  Submerged  Village,  232 

Sylvester  (Prof.  J.  J.,  F.R.S.),  Chemistry  and  Algebra,  284,  309 

Symons  (G.  J.),  Alluard's  Condensing  Hygrometer,  28 

Tacitus,  the  "Nerthus"  of,  250 

Tait  (Prof.  P.  G.),  "Sketch  of  Thermodynamics,"  Prof.  Clerk 

Maxwell,  F.R.S.,  257,  278;  ZoUner's  Scientific  Papers,  420; 

Thermal  Conductivity,  480 
Talking  Machine,  Edison's,  469 
Tanner  (Prof.  H.  W.  Lloyd),  Potential  Energy,  8i 
Taschenberg  (Dr.  E.),  Die  Insekten,  41 
Tasmania,  508 

Taunton  College  School,  16,  154,  214,  354 
Taylor  (Sedley),  Fluid  Films,  44 ;  Was  Galileo  Tortured  ?  299 ; 

Phoneidoscopic  Representation  of  Vowels  and  Diphthongs, 

447 ;  Sonnd  Colour- Figures,  496^  447 


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XIV 


INDEX 


[Naiure^  May  30,  1878 


Technical  Education,  Prof.  Huxley  on,  97 

Technical  University,  the  Proposed,  154 

Teheran,  Gold  in,  115 

Telegraphy :  Telegraphic  Warnings  in  Mines,  16 ;  withoat 
Wires,  153;  Tel^fraphs  in  Berlin,  2J1 ;  the  Society  of 
Telegraphic  Engineers,  277 ;  Granfcld  s  Apparatus,  292 ; 
Social  Electrical  Nerves,  305,  346 ;  and  the  Herring  Fishery, 
351 ;  Telegraphic  Warning  Apparatus,  351 

Telephone,  the :  48,  135,  379 ;  in  Germany,  $2,  71,  91  ;  and 
the  Post  Office,  109 ;  German  Postal  Regulations  for,  131 ; 
Prof.  BeU's  Lecture  on,  131  ;  Telephonic  Alarum,  Dr. 
W.  C.  Rontgen,  164,  181 ;  Experiments  between  Dublin 
and  Holyhead,  170;  Prof.  Barrett  on  the,  193;  James 
M.  Romanis  on  a  New  Form  of,  201 ;  Telephone  without 
Magnetism,  W.  J.  Millar,  242 ;  its  Use  in  Warfare,  251 ; 
Demonstration  of  Currents  originated  by  the  Voice  in 
Bell's  Telephone,  F.  J.  M.  Page,  283;  Experiments  with 
the,  292,  310,  342 ;  W.  H.  Preece  on  the,  295 ;  W.  Ack- 
royd  on  the  Mechanism  of,  330;  the  Telephone  as  an 
Instrument  of  Precision,  Prof.  Geo.  Forbes,  343 ;  Telegraphic 
Warning  Apparatus,  351 ;  and  the  Post  Office,  352 ;  and 
the  Tele;raph,  372 ;  in  China,  392 ;  Action  of  the,  on  a 
Capillary  Electrometer,  395 ;  as  a  Means  of  Measuring  the 
Speed  of  High  Breaks,  J.  £.  H.  Gordon,  424 ;  the  Henry 
Telephone,  437  ;  in  Spain,  437  ;  Application  of,  for  Testing 
the  Hearing,  475  ;  Signalling  by  the,  491 ;  a  Mercury  Tele- 
phone, 491 ;  Early  Electric  Telephony,  Prof.  W.  F.  Barrett, 
510 

Telescope,  the  Modem,  J.  Norman  Lockyer,  66,  125, 188,  225 

Tempel  s  Comet  of  Short  Period,  408 

Temperature:  Nocturnal  Increase  of,  with  Elevation,  Dr.  E, 
Bonavia,  loi ;  Average  Annual,  at  Earth's  Surface,  D. 
Trail,  202 ;  of  November,  1877,  249 ;  Temperatures,  Cumu- 
lative, 308,  322,  448,  486 ;  the  Sense  of,  372 ;  Underground, 
Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  476 

Tenby:  Mr.  Smith's  Collection  from  the  Caves,  212;  Local 
Museum  at,  391 

Terrestrial  Globe,  a  Self -Moving,  71 

Terrestrial  Magnetism,  Prof.  W.  Le  Roy  Broun,  281 

Terrestrial  Magnetism  and  Sun-spots,  Prof.  Piazzi  Smyth,  220 ; 
A.  W.  DowniM;,  242 ;  B.  G.  Jenkins,  259 ;  J.  Allan  Broun, 
F.R.S.,  262,  280;  Joas  Capello,  488 

Texas,  the  Agricultural  Ants  of,  433 

Thermal  Conductivity,  Prof.  P.  G.  Tait,  480 

Thermodynamics,  on  the  Diffiision  of  Matter  in  Relation  to  the 
Second  Law  of,  S,  Tolver  Preston,  31 

"Thermodynamics,"  R.  Wormell's,  25;  Prof.  Tail's,  Prof. 
Clerk  Maxwell,  F.R.S.,  257,  278 

Thermopiles,  Relative  Value  of,  437 

Thierleben,  Brehm's,  41 

Thiers  (M.),  his  Work  on  Trigonometry,  16 

Thompson  (Prof.  Sylvanus  P.),  Faraday's  "Experimental 
Researches,"  304,  361 ;  the  Acoustical  Properties  of  Soap- 
Films,  486 

Thomson's  "  Sizing  of  Cotton  Goods,"  4 

Thomson  (J.  Stuart),  Mimicry  in  Birds,  361 

Thomson  (Dr.  Thomas,  F.R.S.),  Death  of,  513 

Thomson  (Sir  William,  F.R.S.),  Compass  Adjustment  in  Iron 
Ships,  331,  352,  387 

Thomson  (Sir  WyviUe,  F.R.S.),  "The  Voyage  of  the 
C/*a//«tf<r"— the  Atlantic,  145,  185 

Thorpe  (Prof.  T.  E.,  F.R.S.),  Note  on  the  Liquefaction  of 
Air,  and  of  the  so-called  Permanent  Gases,  384 

Thunderstorms ;  the  Law  and  Origin  of,  362 ;  in  Iceland,  475  ; 
Artifidal,  515 

Thuret's  Garden  at  Antibes,  351 

Thyme  and  Marjoram,  Fertilisation  in,  127 

Tibet,  Notes  on,  132  ;  M.  Prshvalsky's  Exploration  of,  153 

Tides,  High,  Prediction  of,  38,  45,  $8,  loi 

Titan,  Transit  of  the  Shadow  of,  across  Saturn,  105 

Toads,  Change  of  Habits  in,  Wordsworth  Donisthorpe,  242 

Tomlinson  (C,  F.R.S.),  Fluid  Fihns,  61 ;  Diffiision  Figures  in 
Lic^uids,  102 

Tomhnson  (Herbert),  the  Telephone,  380 

Tornado  in  Chester  County,  U.S.,  362 

Toronto,  Earthquake  near,  90 

Torpedo  Warfare,  Modem,  50 

Torpedoes,  361 

Tortoises,  Gigantic  Land,  Dr.  Giinther,  F.R.S.,  483 

Toucy,  Belfry  at,  struck  by  Lightning,  392 


Towering  of  Wounded  Birds,  Chas.  Dixon,  45 

Tracheal  System,  Palm^n  on  the  Morphology  of  the,  284,  340 

Trail  (D.),  Average  Annual  Temperature  at  Earth's  Surmce, 

202 
Training  Coll<^;es,  Science  in,  262 
Trajectories  of  Shot,  Rev.  Francis  Bashforth,  401,  506;  W, 

D.  Niven,  466 
Transatlantic  Longitudes,  J.  E.  Hilgard,  244 
"Transcaucasia  and  Ararat,"  J.  Brjrce,  25 
Transit  Circle,  the  New,  at  the  Paris  Observatory,  165 
Transit  of  Venus,  Elnglish  Report  on,  I ;  French  Reports  of, 

69  ;  German  Expedition,  392 ;  the  Transit  of  1882,  507 
Travel,  Educational,  324 
Trevelyan  Rocker,   Mechanical  Analysis  of  the,   Samuel  H. 

Frisbee,  242 
Tritoma,  Bees  Killed  by,  Alfred  R.  Wallace,  45 
Trollope  (Anthony),  South  Africa,  463 
Troubitzkoy  (Prince  Pierre),  Eucalyptus,  10 
"  Troy  and  its  Remains,"  Dr.  Schliemann's,  397 
Trunk  Engine,  Batchelor's  Patent  Working  Drawing  of,  160 
Tubingen,  University  Statistics,  354 
Tuckey  and  Stanley— The  Yallala  Rapids  on  the  Congo,  Dr.  J. 

Rae,  62 
Tuckwcll  (Rev.  W.),  and  Taunton  School,  16 ;  Presentation  to, 

214 ;  the  Headmasters  on  Science  Teaching,  317 
Tuning  Forks,  Prof.  McLeod's  Experiments  on,  55 
Tunnd,  the  Proposed  British  Channel,  109 
Tupman  (Capt.),  on  the  Meteor  of  December  6,  1877,  152  ;  the 

Great  Detonating  Meteor  of  November  23,  1877,  246 
Turbot  and  Soles,  Exportation  to  Massachusetts,  311 
Turkoman  Greyhounds,  434 
Tycho  Brahe's  Star  of  1572,  129 
Tyndall  (Dr.,  F.R.S.),  Fog-signals,  456 
Tyrol,  Anthropology  and  Ethnology  of  South,  438 

Underground  Monster,  a  New,  325 

Underground  Railways  in  Paris,  492 

Underground  1  emperature.  Prof.  J.  D.  Everett,  476 

United  States  :  American  Science,  18,  39 ;  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  18,  39;  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science,  37 ;  Ethnology  of  the,  53 ;  the  Johns 
Hopkins  Scientific  Association,  113 ;  Geological  Work  of  the 
U.S.  Survey  under  Prof.  Hayden,  during  the  Summer  of 
1877,  129 ;  Lexington  University,  175 ;  Geological  Survey 
of,  192 ;  Proceedings  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
199;  Entomology  in  America,  229;  Extension  of  Volun- 
teer Weather  Service  in  the,  248;  Tornado  in  Chester 
County,  Penn.,  362 ;  Atlas  of  Colorado,  371 ;  Prof.  Hay- 
den's  Expedition,  351 ;  Harvard  College  Observatory,  363 ; 
the  Geological  Survey,  409 ;  Cliff-dwellers  in  the,  409 ; 
American  Chemical  Society,  475;  Survey  of  New  York, 
508 ;  Proposed  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  of  NorUi  America, 
514.    See  also  America,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  &c. 

University  and  Educational  Intelligence,  19,  39,  55,  74, 95,  114, 
134,  154,  17s,  194,  214.  23s,  254,  275.  294.  314,  334.  354, 
374.  393.  415,  459.  478,  497.  5i7 

University,  Proposed  New,  478 

Upsala,  University  Statistics,  55,  478 

Uranian  Satellites,  323,  363 

Variable  Nebulae,  306 

Variable  Stars,  163,  210,  288 ;  R  Aquarii,  231 ;  Pigott's  Ob- 
servations of,  323 

Valence  or  Atomicity,  Discovery  of  the  Law  of,  309 

Vaux  (W.  S.  W.),  the  Greek  Cities  and  Island  of  Asia  Minor, 
H9 

Venus  Transit,  English  Report  on  the,  i ;  French  Reports  of, 
69  ;  German  Expedition,  392 ;  the  Transit  of  -1882,  507 

Verne  (Jules),  the  Works  of,  197 

Venezuela,  Dr.  Sachs  on,  250 

Vibrations,  Experiments  on,  194 

Vibrations  of  a  Flame,  Experiments  on,  $4 

Vibrations  of  Solid  Bodies,  M.  Dubois  on,  330 

Vicars  (G.  Raykigh),  Acoustical  Effects  of  Atmospheric 
Pressure,  244 

Victoria  Institute,  136,  216,  296,  416,  520 

Vienna :  University  Intelligence,  55 ;  Academy  of  Sciences, 
116,  176,  196,  276,  296,  376,  500;  Vienna  Geographical 
Society,  211 ;  Tempo^ture  of,  249;  Society  for  the  Protec- 
tion of  Animat,  293 


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l/aiure,  May  30,    1878] 


INDEX 


XV 


Vine-leaves,  the  Functions  of,  20 

Vines  (S.  H.),  the  First  Stages  of  Development  in  Plants,  433 

Virchow  (Prof.  Rudolf),  the  Liberty  of  Science  in  the  Modem 

Sute,  72,  92,  III 
Virginia  Creeper,  the  Climbing  of,  508 
Viticultural  Society  at  Cassel,  41 1 
Vogel's  "Spectrum  Analysis,"  Dr.  Arthur  Schuster,  99 
Vohl  (Dr.)>   Method  for  Determining  the  Impurities  of  the 

Rhine,  131 
Volcanoes:    Volcanic    Eruptions  in    Iceland,    171;   Volcanic 

Island,  194 ;  Volcanic  Phenomena  in  Borneo,  A.  H.  Everett, 

200 ;  Submarine,  372  ;  in  South  America,  46iS 
Volga  and  Moscow,  Communication  between,*.9i 
Volta,  the  Statue  of,  490 

Volume  of  Liquids  and  Absorption  of  Gases,  514 
Vowel  Theory,  Helmholtz's,  411 

Wallace  (A.  R.),  and  Rcichenbach»s  Odyle,  8;  Wm.  B- 
Carpenter,  F.R.S.,  8,  44 ;  the  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons, 
44 ;  Bees  Killed  by  Tritoma,  45 ;  the  Comparative  Richness 
of  Faunas  and  Floras  tested  Numerically,  100 ;  Mr.  Crookes 
and  Eva  Fay,  xoi ;  Northern  Affinities  of  Chilian  Insects,  182 

War,  New  Applications  of  Science  to,  361 

Warington  (R.),  Nitrification,  367 

Wasp  and  the  Spider,  402,  448 

Watchman-Controlling  Clock,  292 

Water,  Specific  Heat  of,  252 

Waterfalls,  Great,  221,  242 

Waterspouts  in  Callao,  372 

Watson  (Arthur  G.),  Harrow  School  BathingPlace,  487 

Waugh  (Gen.  Sir  Andrew  Scott,  F.R.S.),  Death  of,  350 

Waves,  the  Progression  of,  95 

Weather,  WeeWy  Stotistics  of  the,  489 

Weber  (Prof.  Ernst  Heinrich),  Obituary  Notice  of,  286 

Weights,  Discovery  of  Ancient  Bronze,  351 

WelUngton  Philosophical  Society,  296 

West  Indies,  Higgins*  "Notes  on  the  Western  Tropics,"  121 

Westinghouse  Brake,  410,  507 

Westminster  Aquarium  :  70, 193 ;  Seals  at  the,  38  ;  Laplanders 
at  the,  70;  Chimpanzee  at,  153;  Entomological  Exhibition 
at,  351,  391,  402 ;  American  Fishes  at  the,  392 

Whale,  New  Species  of,  no 

Wheel -Animalcules  (Rotifers)  of  Hungary,  128 

White  Sea,  Algae  of  the,  345 

"White's  Selborne,"  Prof.  Bell's,  399 

Whitmee  (S.  J.),  the  Southern  Drought,  447,  486 

Wild  (M.  H.),  Researches  on  the  Magnetic  Properties  of 
Nickel,  393 

Williams  (Prof.  Monier),  on  Meteorology  in  India,  53 

Williamson  (Prof.  W.  C.),  the  Origin  of  a  Limestone  Rock, 
265 


Willmanns  (Prof.  Gustev),  Death  of;  436 

Wilson  (A.  Stephen),  the  Earthworm  in  Relation  to  the  Fertility 
of  the  Soil,  28 

Wine  Protection  of  France,  372 

Wines,  Adulteration  of,  in  Berlin,  91 

Winkler's  Lunar  Landscape,  469,  514 

Wires,  the  Transmission  of  Sounds  by,  519 

Wisby,  Discovery  of  Ancient  Bronze  Weights  at,  351 

Wisteria,  the  Seeding  of,  439 

Wojeikofr(Dr.),  Travels  in  Japan,  171 

Wolf  (M.  C),  the  New  Pans  Transit  Circle,  165 

Wolf's  History  of  Astronomy,  J.  R.  Hind,  F.R.S.,  259 ;  (Trans- 
lation), 359 

Wollaston  (Thos.  Vernon),  Obituary  Notice  of,  210 ;  "  Coleop- 
tera  Sanctae-Helense,"  E.  C.  Rye,  338 ;  Testacea  Atlantica, 

503 
Wolves  in  France,  233 

Women,  Higher  Education  of,  314 ;  Prizes  in  Botany  for,  314 
Work,  Relation  of,  and  the  Decomposition  of  Albumen,  515 
Wormell  (R.),  "  Thermodynamics,'^  25 
Wright  (Prof.   E.   Perceval),   About  Fishes'  Tails,   286 ;  the 

Islands  of  St.  Paul  and  Amsterdam,  326 
Wiirzburg,  University  Statistics,  334 


Vallala  Rapids  on  the  Congo— Tuckey  and  Stanley,   Dr.   J. 

Rae,  62 
Venissei,  Exploration  of  the,  38 
Yorkshire  College  of  Science,  175 
Young  (E.  D.),  "Nyassa,"  99 
Young  (Frank  W.),  Cruelty  to  Animals'  Act  and  Physiological 

Teaching,  4^ 
Young  (J.),  Mimicry  in  Birds,  486 


Zeitschrift  fiir  wissenschaftliche  Zoologie,  254,  479,  394 
Zenger  (Prof.  Ch.  V.),  the  Law  and  Origin  of  Thunderstonns, 

362 
Zeuthen  (Dr.  H.  G.),  Quatre  Modelcs,  240 
Zollner's  Scientific  Papers,  Prof.  P.  G.  Tait,  420 
Zoological  Gardens,  68 
Zoological  Gardens  :  Additions  to  the,  18,  38,  54,  72,  92,  no, 

133.  154,  »72,  194.  213,  234,  253,  273,  293,  311,  33«»  352, 

373»  4",  438,  456,  493,  S^S  ;  l^eat^  of  the  Hippopotamus, 

392 
Zoological  ^Society,  95,  115,  135,  170,  275,  355,  375,  46o»  499, 

520 
Zoological  Station,  Naples,  329,  360 
Zoological  Station  for  the  Channel  Islands,  W.  Saville  Kcnt^ 

102 ;  W.  A.  Lloyd,  143 
Zurich,  University  Statistic,  374 


I 

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A    WEEKLY    ILLUSTRATED    JOURNAL    OF   SCIENCE 

"71;  ihi  solid  grouna 
0/  Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  builds  /or  aye,^* — Wordsworth 


THURSDAY,   NOVEMBER    i,   1877 


THE  SUN'S  DISTANCE 

A  MOST  interesting  state  paper  has  just  been  issued ;  we 
refer  to  the  Report  by  the  Astronomer- Royal  on  the 
Telescopic  Observations  of  the  Transit  of  Venus  of  1874, 
made  by  the  Expeditions  sent  out  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment and  the  results  deduced  from  them.  The  Astro- 
nomer-Royal suggests  that  another  report  may  be  called 
for  when  the  photographs  of  the  transit  have  been  com- 
pletely measured  and  worked  out,  if  possible  in  combina- 
tion with  the  results  of  similar  observations  made  in  the 
expeditions  organised  by  other  governments. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  present  Report  that  the  plan  of 
operations  actually  pursued  has  been  very  nearly  that 
proposed  by  the  Astronomer- Royal  in  his  communication 
to  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  on  December  11,  1868, 
when  for  the  third  time  directing  attention  to  the  arrange- 
ments which  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  for  the 
efficient  observation  of  the  transits  of  1874  and  1882. 
The  method  of  absolute  longitudes  was  to  be  applied  for 
observations  both  of  ingress  and  egress;  it  being  therefore 
essential  that  the  longitudes  of  the  observing-stations 
should  be  determined  with  precision  ;  and  the  longitudes 
recommended  to  be  fixed  by  Great  Britain  were  Alex- 
andria, stations  in  New  Zealand  and  in  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  Kerguelen's  Land,  and  Mauritius  or  the  two 
islands  of  Rodriguez  and  Bourbon. 

The  stations  eventually  selected  for  observations  by  the 
British  expedition  were  fixed  upon  "entirely  by  considera- 
tion of  the  influence  which  their  positions  would  have  in 
determining  with  accuracy  the  necessary  alteration  of 
parallax."  They  were  :  Egypt,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the 
Island  of  Rodriguez,  New  Zealand,  and  Kerguelen's  Land. 
It  was  intended  to  adept  in  each  of  these  districts  one  fun- 
damental station,  the  longitude  of  which  was  to  be  inde- 
pendently determined,  for  conversion  of  local  times  into 
Greenwich  times,  and  subordinate  to  this  primary  station, 
other  stations  were  proposed  to  be  selected  at  such 
distances  that  advantage  might  be  taken  of  different 
states  of  weather  that  might  possibly  prevail 

In  Egypt  his  Highness  the  Khedive  rendered  every 
Vol.  XVII.— No.  418 


possible  assistance,  tents  being  supplied  with  military 
guards  for  the  protection  of  the  observers  and  their  in- 
struments, and  telegraph  wires  erected.  The  Astronomer- 
Royal  acknowledges  the  obligations  of  the  expedition  to 
the  liberality  of  the  Eastern  Telegraph  Company,  in 
affording  the  means  of  determining  with  extreme  ac- 
curacy and  great  facility  the  longitude  of  the  principal 
station  Mokattam.  Greenwich  was  easily  connected  with 
Forth  Cumo,  in  Cornwall,  whence  there  is  an  unin- 
terrupted line  to  Alexandria,  the  longest  submarine  line 
in  the  world  ;  Alexandria  was  connected  with  Mokattam 
by  aid  of  the  special  line  constructed  by  the  Khedive 
from  Cairo  to  the  station.  It  is  further  stated  that  time- 
communication  was  also  made  from  Mokattam  through 
Cairo  to  Thebes,  and  to  Suez  by  the  ordinary  telegraph, 
Thebes  and  Suez  being  the  other  Egyptian  stations  where 
the  transit  was  observed. 

In  the  Sandwich  Islands  much  assistance  was  received 
from  King  Kalakaua  and  members  of  the  reigning  family. 
The  principal  station  was  at  Honolulu,  the  longitude  of 
which  was  determined  partly  by  meridian-transits  of  the 
moon  and  partly  by  transits  of  the  moon  observed  with 
the  Altazimuth  instrument.  Waimea,  in  the  island 
Kauai,  where  observers  were  also  placed,  was  connected 
with  Honolulu  by  means  of  chronometers  carried  in 
H.M.S.  Teredos,  At  the  Island  of  Rodriguez  the  longi- 
tudes were  determined  in  the  same  manner  as  for  the 
Sandwich  Islands  stations,  for  three  positions,  viz..  Point 
Venus,  the  Hermitage,  and  Point  Coton ;  and  com- 
munication was  further  made  with  the  Mauritius  and  with 
Lord  Lindsay's  expedition  with  the  aid  of  H.M  S 
Shearwater^  the  preliminary  results  being  stated  by  Sir 
George  Airy  to  agree  closely  with  those  given  by  the 
lunar  observations.  At  Kerguelen's  Land,  again,  the 
operations  were  similar  ;  Supply  Bay  and  Thumb  Peak 
being  the  stations  chosen. 

In  New  Zealand  unfavourable  weather  much  interfered 
with  the  observations,  and  Sir  George  Airy  had  at  first 
been  led  to  suppose  that  all  useful  observation  had  been 
lost  ;  it  subsequently  appeared,  however,  that  this  was 
not  the  case,  one  phase  of  the  transit  being  well  seen  at 
Bumham,  the  longitude  of  which  was  fixed  by  meridian 
transits  of  the  moon. 

The   Report  is  divided  into  thrf&^ectums  fer  tables. 
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NATURE 


[Nov.  I,  1877 


In  the  first  are  given  the  descriptions  of  the  various  phe- 
nomena, in  the  words  of  the  observers,  with  the  Green- 
wich sidereal  times  of  the  different  phases,  obtained  from 
accurate  reduction  of  the  observations  for  longitude  here 
particularised  ;  where  such  longitudes  depend  upon  lunar 
observations  the  places  of  the  Nautical  Almanac  were 
carefully  corrected  by  observations  on  nearly  the  same 
days  at  Greenwich,  Paris,  Strasburg,  and  Konigsberg. 
In  studying  these  original  descriptions.  Sir  George  Airy 
was  led  to  infer  that  it  was  "  possible  to  fix  upon  three 
distinct  phases  for  the  Ingress  and  four  for  the  Egress,^* 
though  it  might  have  been  supposed  that  Egress  and 
Ingress  would  exhibit  the  same  number  of  distinct  phases 
in  inverse  order  ;  this  was  not  the  case  in  practice.  The 
first  phase,  a,  utilised  in  the  calculations  is  the  appear- 
ance of  the  planet  just  within  the  sun's  disc,  but  the  light 
between  the  two  limbs  being  very  obscure.  After  an 
interval  of  about  twenty  seconds  "the  light  begins  to 
clear,  and  the  observers  generally  think  that  the  contact 
is  passed  ; "  this  is  phase  /3.  About  twenty  seconds  later, 
the  light  which  at  phase  /3  was  not  equal  to  that  of  the 
sun's  limb,  is  free  from  all  shadow,  and  the  phase  is 
called  y.  Sir  George  Airy  finds  that  of  these  phases  j8  is 
the  most  exact,  observers,  even  in  the  presence  of  clouds 
of  moderate  density,  agreeing  within  three  or  four 
seconds,  though  for  other  phases  much  greater  discord- 
ances are  exhibited.  Similarly  at  the  Egress,  the  first 
appearance  of  a  fine  line  or  faint  shadow  is  called  d, 
this  becoming  definite,  or  a  "brown  haze"  appearing,  is 
called  c.  When  most  observers  record  "contact,"  the 
shadow  having  reached  a  maximum  intensity,  the  phase 
is  called  C*  suid  in  this  phase  there  is  an  agreement 
amongst  observers,  much  closer  than  in  other  phases  at 
Egress.    The  "circular"  conUct  at  Egress  is  called  17. 

In  the  second  section  of  the  Report,  or  Table  II.,  these 
"  adopted  phases  are  massed  for  each  district  in  which 
the  parallax-factor  is  nearly  identical,"  and  several  of  the 
details  of  reduction  are  included.  With  the  longitudes 
determined  as  above,  the  recorded  times  of  the  various 
phases  of  the  transit  were  converted  into  Greenwich 
sidereal  times.  With  the  calculated  apparent  places  of 
the  sun  and  Venus  in  the  Nautical  Almanac^  as  deduced 
from  Leverrier's  Tables,  an  ephemeris  was  prepared  ex- 
hibiting the  predicted  geocentric  places  for  every  tenth 
second  of  Greenwich  sidereal  time  throughout  the  transit, 
and  from  these  numbers  the  apparent  positions  of  sun 
and  planet  at  each  station  were  computed.  Calculations 
were  further  made,  showing  how  the  predicted  places 
would  be  affected  by  alteration  of  the  local  longitude,  by 
change  in  the  tabular  places  of  the  sun  and  Venus,  and 
by  alteration  of  their  tabular  parallaxes ;  the  first  two 
alterations  were  not  essential  in  these  reductions,  but  the 
determination  of  alterations  of  the  third  class,  as  it  b 
remarked,  constituted  "  the  special  object  of  the  expe- 
dition." The  form  of  the  reductions  was  "  entirely  de- 
termined by  the  consideration  that  such  alterations  must 
be  made  in  the  parallaxes  as  will  render  the  observations 
of  the  same  phenomena  in  different  parts  of  the  earth 
consistent  with  each  other."  In  Table  III.  we  have 
"  the  mean  solar  parallax  deduced  from  every  available 
combination."  Thus  Ingress  accelerated  at  the  Sandwich 
Islands  is  compared  with  Ingress  retarded  at  Rodriguez 
and  with  Ingress  retarded  at  Kerguelen's  Land ;  Egress 


retarded  at  Mokattam  and  Suez  with  Egress  retarded  at 
Rodriguez,  and  likewise  with  Egress  accelerated  at  the 
two   stations  in  Kerguelen's  ;    and  again  the  retarded 
Egress  at  Thebes  is  compared  with  Egress  retarded  at 
Rodriguez  and  with  Egress  accelerated  at  Kerguelen's. 
The  greatest  separate  value  of  the  solar  parallax    re- 
sulting from  these  different  comparisons  is  8^*933  and  the 
least  8"*407.    Weighs  are  given  to  the  various  deter- 
minations depending,  firstly,  upon  the  number  of  observa- 
tions and  the  magnitude  of  the   parallax-factor;    and 
secondly,  upon  the  particular  phase  a,  /S,  y,  b,  c,  and   C 
being  included.  Thus  it  is  found  that  all  the  combinations 
for  Ingress  give  the  mean  solar  parallax  8"739,  weight 
10*46,  and  all  the  combinations  for  Egress  give  8" '847, 
weight  2*53,  whence  the  general  result  is  8"76o,  from 
which  Sir  George  Airy  finds  \ht  mean  distance  of  the  sun 
equal  to  93,300,000  miles.    The  New  Zealand  observa- 
tions were  not  included  in  these  calculations ;  their  mean 
result  is  8"764,  almost  identical  with  the  above.     It  is 
remarked  that  many  persons  may  perhaps  consider  that 
the  more  closely-agreeing  phases  jS  and  t  should  be  em- 
ployed  in  deducing  the  value  of  the  parallax  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  others.     If  this  be  done  we  shall  have 
from  the  Ingress  8^748,  and  from  the  Egress  8"*905,  or 
with  their  due  weights  a  mean  value  8^773. 

In  this  outline  of  the  details  contained  in  the  Astro- 
nomer-Royal's first^Report  upon  the  observations  of  the 
transit  of  Venus,  and  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from 
them  we  have  adhered  closely  to  his  own  words.  Pending 
the  appearance  of  the  deductions  to  be  made  from  the 
complete  measuring  of  the  photographs,  the  results  before 
us  are  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  provisional  ones  only, 
or  we  have  not  yet  learned  all  that  may  be  done  from  the 
work  of  ,the  British  expeditions,  so  laboriously  organised 
by  Sir  George  Airy.    Many  astronomers  we  can  imagine 
will  regard  with  some  [suspicion  so  small  a  parallax  as 
8''76,  which  is  a  tenth  of  a  second  less  than  has  been 
given  by  the  most  reliable  previous  investigations,  upon 
different  principles.     In  illustration  we  may  quote  the 
separate  results  from  which  Prof.  Newcomb  obtained  his 
value  of  the  parallax,  now  adopted   in   most   of  our 
ephemerides : — 

From  meridian  observations  of  Mars,  1 862    8  85  5 

From  micrometric  observations  of  Mars,  1862       ...  8 '842 

From  parallactic  inequality  of  the  moon 8  '838 

From  the  lunar  equation  of  the  earth      8  '809 

From  the  transit  of  Venus,  1769  (Powalky's  redac- 
tion)    8860 

From  Foucault's  experiments  on  light     8  '860 

To  these  may  be  added  Leverrier's  value  subsequently 
deduced  from  the  planetary  theories,  which  is  also  8"'86. 
Newcomb's  mean  figure,  taking  account  of  weights  cor- 
responding to  the  probable  errors  is  8'''848,  which,  with 
Capt  Clarke's  measure  of  the  earth's  equator,  implies  that 
the  mean  distance  of  the  sun  is  92,393,000  miles.  Sir 
George  Airy's  8^760  would  similarly  place  the  sun  at  a 
mean  distance  of  93,321,000  miles. 

It  is  well  known  that  some  astronomers  have  not 
expected  our  knowledge  of  the  sun's  distance  to  be  greatly 
improved  from  the  observations  of  the  transit  of  Venus, 
regarding  such  an  opportunity  as  is  presented  by  a  close 
opposition  of  Mars  as  affording  at  least  as  favourable 
conditions,  [and  the  result  of  Mr.   Gill's  expedition  to 


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Ascension  to  utilise  the  late  opposition  will  be  on  this 
account  awaited  with  much  interest.  Nevertheless,  what- 
ever degree  of  opinion  might  be  entertained  by  competent 
authorities,  it  appears  to  have  been  felt  by  those  imme- 
diately responsible  for  action,  in  different  civilised  nations 
where  science  is  encouraged,  that  so  rare  a  phenomenon 
as  a  transit  of  Venus  could  not  be  allowed  to  pass  with- 
out every  exertion  being  made  to  utilise  it,  and  this 
country  may  lay  claim  to  an  honourable  share  in  the  gpreat 
scientific  effort,  thanks  mainly  to  the  long-continued  and 
admirably-directed  endeavours  of  the  Astronomer- Royal 
to  secure  this  result. 

Several  of  the  stations  occupied  during  the  transit  of 
1874  will  be  available  for  the  transit  of  1882,  Kerguelen's 
Land  in  particular,  where  at  Ingress  the  sun  will  be  at  an 
elevation  of  1 2^  the  factor  of  parallax  being  0*98.  In  that 
year  there  will  also  be  the  advantage  of  observations 
along  the  whole  Atlantic  sea-board  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  where,  as  pointed  «out  by  the  Astronomer- 
Royal  in  1868,  the  lowest  factor  is  0*95,  and  the  smallest 
altitude  of  the  sun  12°  for  observing  the  retarded  Ingress ; 
and  for  observing  the  Egress  as  accelerated  by  parallax, 
the  factors  are  about  0*85,  the  sun's  elevation  varying 
from  4°  at  Halifax,  to  32"  at  New  Orleans,  or  Jamaica. 
Australian  and  New  Zealand  stations  are  important  for 
retarded  Egress. 

As  is  well  known,  the  transit  of  Venus  on  December  6, 
1882,  will  be  partly  visible  in  this  country. 

PARKER  AND  BETTANY'S  ''MORPHOLOGY 

OF   THE  SKULL'' 
The  Morphology  of  the  Skull.    By  W.  K.  Parker,  F.R.S., 

and  G.  T.  Bettany,  M.A.    (London :  Macmillan  and 

Co.,  1877.) 

IN  the  minds  of  most  of  those  who  have  paid  no  special 
attention  to  the  subject  the  skull  is  r^arded  as  a 
bony  case  formed  to  contain  the  brain,  together  with  the 
face.  There  is  also  a  constancy  in  the  number  and  posi- 
tion of  these  bones  which  lead  to  the  i^parently  necessary 
conclusion  that  occipital,  sphenoid,  parietal^  and  other 
elements  are  fundamental  cranial  structures  ;  so  that  an 
exhaustive  study  of  their  relationships  and  variations 
might  be  thought  entirely  to  cover  the  subject  of  skull 
structure. 

That  such  is  not  the  case  has  dawned  upon  us  since 
the  elaborate  researches  of  Rathke  and  other  able  em- 
bryologists,  among  the  foremost  of  whom  must  be  placed 
Profs.  Hu3dey  and  Gegenbauer,  who  have  been  followed  by 
Mr.  Parker,  the  author  of  the  work  under  consideration, 
who  on  accoimt  of  his  peculiar  aptitude  for  manipulation, 
his  untiring  zeal  and  his  immense  experience,  has  placed 
the  subject  of  cranial  morphology  upon  a  footing  infinitely 
more  satisfactory  than  it  has  previously  been.  His 
numerous  memoirs  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal, 
Zoological,  and  Linnean  Societies  form  a  mine  of  biological 
facts,  so  beautifully  supplemented  by  their  accompanying 
illustrations.  The  perusal  of  them  all,  in  their  proper 
sequence,  is  however  a  task^only  to  be  undertaken  by  the 
specialist,  and  it  is  on  this  accoimt  that  we  have  no  small 
degree  of  pleasure  in  being  able  to  give  a  notice  of  "  The 
Morphology  of  the  Skull,''  a  work  of  less  than  four 
hundred  pages,  in  which  is  collected,  condensed,  and 


digested  the  mass  of  information   spread  through  the 
larger  memoirs. 

The  work  consists  of  a  series  0/  chapters  on  the  skulls 
of  carefully-selected  types  of  the  five  classes  of  the 
Vertebrata,    Those  chosen  are  : — 

1.  The  Dog-fish  and  Skate. 

2.  The  Salmon. 

3.  The  AxolotL 

4.  The  Frog. 

5.  The  Common  Snake. 

6.  The  Fowl. 

7.  The  Pig. 

These  are  each  described  in  all]  stages  from  their 
earliest  appearance  in  the  blastoderm  to  their  adult  con- 
dition. Following  each  chapter  is  a  brief  risumi  of  the 
peculiarities  which  have  been  observed  in  other  members 
of  each  group,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  student  of  any 
particular  form  can  learn  almost  all  he  may  require  with 
reference  to  any  special  member  of  the  sub-kingdom. 

The  primitive  trabeculae  cranii,  together  with  the  para- 
chordal cartilages  and  the  branchial  arches  are  traced  from 
their  earliest  development  until  ossification  in  and  around 
them  has  reached  the  limits  of  the  different  types.  The 
insufficiency  of  our  data  for  the  determination  of  the 
cranial  segments  is  prominently  brought  forward,  although 
the  moniliform  constrictions  of  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  notochord  in  the  fowl  and  in  the  urodeles  is  stated,  and 
thought  to  suggest  a  segmentation.  On  the  subject  of 
the  vertebral  theory  of  the  bony  skull,  Mr.  Parker  tells  us 
that "  only  one  bony  segment,  the  occipital,  can  be  said  to 
be  clearly  manifest  in  the  skulls  of  fishes  and  amphibians. 
And  in  these  forms  there  are  no  good  grounds  for 
assigning  to  the  cranial  bones  special  names  indicating  a 
correspondence  to  particular  parts  of  vertebrae.  From 
the  study  of  adult  structures  in  the  mammalian  groups 
skuU-theories  have  b  en  devised,  lacking  the  basis  of 
embryology  ;  and  gi anting  that  they  express  some  of  the 
truth  respecting  the  highest  forms  of  skull,  there  is  only 
injury  to  knowledge  in  arbitrarily  interpreting  the  lower 
forms  by  them.  In  reptiles  the  skull  becomes  much  more 
perfect,  but  with  wide  variations  in  the  different  groups, 
such  that  they  cannot  be  merely  subordinated  to  and 
explained  by  the  mammalian  type.  A  careful  study  of 
the  growth'of  the  bird's  skull,  again,  will  show  that  it  is 
impossible  to  express  its  composition  on  a  simple  formula 
derived  from  vertebral  structures.  But  from  the  lower  to 
the  higher  forms  of  vertebrates  we  can  discern  a  growing 
away  from  the  primordial  type  of  skull  towards  and  into  a 
loftier  development''  This  result  of  the  extensive  investi- 
gation upon  which  it  is  based  is  somewhat  paradoxical. 
The  "  loftier  development "  of  the  highest  types  results  in 
a  skull  some  of  whose  components  may  be  compared  in 
detail  with  some  expression  of  truth  to  vertebrae,  whilst  in 
the  lower  forms  a  similar  comparison  cannot  be  said  to 
hold.  And  yet  true  vertebrae  themselves,  fully  developed 
as  far  as  their  essential  details  are  concerned,  are  found 
in  forms  far  from  high  in  the  scale. 

Mr.  Parker's  invaluable  investigations  besides  their 
importance  in  a  comparative  anatomical  point  of  view, 
have  done  much  to  demonstrate  the  degree  of  stress 
which  must  be  laid  on  facts  of  cranial  structure  in 
problems  relating  to  classification.  His^labours  have  led 
him  to  elaborate  the  instructive  classification  of  birds 


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\Nov,  I,   1877 


promulgated  by  Prof.  Huxley  in  1867,  and  so  to  bring  out 
many  points  of  special  interest  in  avian  cranial  osteology, 
demonstrating  most  clearly  the  principle  which  may  be 
arrived  at  from  the  study  of  any  special  organ  or  single 
structure,  that  a  fact  which  is  of  the  greatest  significance 
in  determining  the  relationships  of  some  one  collection  of 
species  or  genera,  may  be  valueless  in  attempting  to 
classify  others.  As  an  instance  of  this  we  may  take  the 
skull  of  the  woodpeckers  and  wrynecks,  the  peculiarities 
of  which  have  led  Mr.  Parker  to  place  them  in  a  division 
by  themselves  of  primary  importance,  whereas  there  is 
nothing  more  certain  than  that  their  differences  from  the 
Toucans  and  Capitonidse  are  only  just  sufficient  to  separate 
them  as  a  family  from  either.  And  yet  among  almost  all 
other  orders  of  birds  the  cranial  structiu^  is  invaluable  in 
the  determination  of  their  affinities. 

The  uniformity  of  the  nomenclature  and  the  absence  of 
any  laxity  in  the  expression  of  the  mutual  relations  of 
parts,  greatly  increases  the  facility  with  which  the  great 
number  of  facts  brought  forward  by  the  authors  can  be 
grasped,  and  no  doubt  it  is  Mr.  Bettany  whom  we  have 
in  great  measure  to  thank  for  the  general  selection  and 
classification  of  those  which  have  been  chosen  to  form 
**  The  Morphology  of  the  Skull" 

In  conclusion  we  feel  certain  that  all  who  read  the  work 
under  consideration,  the  very  nature  of  which  makes  it 
almost  impossible  for  us  to  discuss  the  details  with  refer- 
ence to  any  of  the  points  which  it  brings  forward,  will 
lealise  how  important  an  addition  it  is  to  biological 
science,  and  no  thinking  student  will  lay  it  down  without 
recognising  how  much  scope  there  is  for  still  further 
investigation  in  the  same  field,  especially  in  that  direction 
which  leads  to  the  explanation  of  the  reason  why  car- 
tilages grow  and  bones  form  in  certain  definite  directions 
and  situations  and  in  them  alone ;  in  other  words,  the 
next  book  of  the  kind  required  is  one  on  the  dynamics  of 
the  development  of  the  skull. 


THOMSON'S  ''SIZING  OF  COTTON  GOODS'' 
The  Sizing  of  Cotton  Goods,  By  Wm.  Thomson.  (Man- 
chester :  Palmer  and  Howe.) 
IN  weaving  cotton  cloth  it  is  necessary  that  the  warp, 
which  has  to  withstand  a  considerable  strain  in  the 
process  of  manufacture,  should  be  artificially  strengthened 
by  "  sizing,"  that  is,  by  dressing  the  thread  with  some 
adhesive  material  so  as  to  enable  it  to  resist  the  pulling 
and  wearing  action  of  the  healds  and  shuttle.  In  the  earlier 
days  of  cotton  manufacture  the  weaver  contented  himself 
with  the  use  of  a  mixture  of  fiour-paste  and  tallow  ;  the 
first  ingredient  gave  the  thread  the  desired  extra  strength, 
the  second  removed  the  harshness  which  the  use  of  fiour 
alone  would  have  given.  But  the  manufacturer  soon 
discovered  that  by  a  judicious  selection  of  the  components 
of  his  "  size,"  and  by  alterations  in  the  mode  of  applying 
it,  he  could  confer  upon  the  cloth  the  appearance  of  bemg 
fuller  and  stouter  than  it  actually  was,  judging  from  the 
amount  of  cotton  contained  in  it.  The  great  scarcity  of 
the  raw  material  during  the  cotton  famine  which  sprung 
out  of  the  American  civil  war  had  a  powerful  effect  in 
developing  the  ingenuity  of  a  certain  set  of  manufacturers, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  their  machinations  have  had  a 
lasting  influence  upon  the  mode  of  manufacture  of  grey 


cloth.  As  the  weight  of  a  piece  of  calico  is  one  of  the 
chief  elements  in  determining  its  value,  attempts  w^ere 
quickly  made  to  increase  that  weight  by  mixing^  such 
bodies  as  powdered  heavy-spar,  or,  worse  slil),  of  deli- 
quescent salts  like  the  chlorides  of  magnesium  aind 
calcium,  with  the  sizing  material  Occasionally  the 
manufacturer  in  thus  attempting  to  palm  off  water  or 
a  worthless  mineral  in  lieu  of  good  cotton  over-reached 
himself  and  a  just  retribution  overtook  him  in  the  shape 
of  heavy  damages  for  mildewed  or  rotten  goods. 

The  results  of  many  of  these  attempts  afford  excellent 
illustrations  of  the  proverbial  danger  of  a  little  knowledge  ; 
the  manufacturer  somehow  acquired  the  informatioa  that 
chloride  of  calcium,  an  almost  worthless  bye-product  in 
many  chemical  operations,  was  an  excellent  absorbent  of 
atmospheric  moisture  ;  its  advantages  as  an  ingredient  of 
the  sizing  mixture  were  therefore  obvious ;  unfortunately  he 
knew  nothing  of  oidium  oranteacum  or  puccinia  gratninis^ 
and  had  probably  never  heard  of  pencilium  glaucutn,  or 
he  might  have  known  that  he  was  preparing  a  mixture 
specially  suited   to    the    development    of  these    fungi. 
Silicate  of  soda  or  water-glass  doubtless  appeared  at  first 
sight  to  be  an  excellent  substance  for  dressing  warp,  but 
a  painful  experience  was  needed  to  teach  some  manufac- 
turers that  these  alkaline  silicates  rapidly  absorb  carbonic 
acid,  and  that  the  resultant  products,  namely,  free  silica, 
and  sodium  carbonate,  together  occupying  a  ku-ger  volume 
than  the  original  silicate,  exerted  a  disruptive  action  upon 
the  hollow  ^cotton-fibre  and  made  the  cloth  rotten  and 
useless.      Mr.   Thomson  does  not  altogether  shirk  the 
consideration  of  the  moral  aspects  of  the  question  of 
sizing  ;  he  makes  no  secret  of  the  fact  that  the  operation 
is  often  done  with  fraudulent  intention.     He  expresses  his 
opinion  distinctly  enough  that  the   introduction  of  an 
undue  amount  of  size  into  goods  intended  for  the  home 
trade  can  serve  no  useful  purpose,  but  we  think  he  will 
find  it  difficult  to  convince  ordinary  or  unbiased  people 
that  a  composition  consisting,  to  the  extent  of  half  its 
weight,  of  a  mixture  of  putrid  fiour,  or  British  gum,  China 
clay,  barytes,  or  magnesium  chloride,  tallow,  or  palm-oil, 
with  a  sufficient  amount  of  chloride  of  zinc  or  carbolic 
acid  to  prevent  the  whole  from  running  into  absolute 
nastiness,  is  a  fit  material  to   clothe  even  the  patient 
Hindoo  or  the  prudent  Chinaman.     Mr.  Thomson,  how- 
ever, takes  this  business  of  sizing  as  a  fact  which,  of 
course,  cannot  be  ignored,  and  he  tries  to  make  the  best 
of  it.     In  the  outset  he  shows  that,  as  it  now  stands,  the 
process  is  one  of  the  clumsiest,  most  unscientific,  and 
least  understood  of  all  the  operations  with  which  the 
manufacturer  has  to  deal,  and  he  points  out,  clearly  and 
concisely,  wherein   it    is   faulty,   and  how   it    may  be 
amended. 

The  book  is,  of  course,  designed  primarily  for  the  use 
of  grey-cloth  manufacturers,  calico-printers,  and  gene- 
rally of  those  whose  business  it  is .  to  buy  and  sell 
calico ;  and  the  subject  is  mainly  treated  from  the 
point  of  view  of  a  chemist  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
objects  sought  to  be  gained  by  legitimate  sizing.  In 
plain  and  albeit  scientific  language  he  describes  the 
various  pieces  of  apparatus  employed  in  ascertaining  the 
value  of  the  different  ingredients  in  size  ;  he  points  out 
the  qualities,  good  and  bad,  of  the  materials  employed  to 
give  adhesive  and  softening  qualities  to  the  size ;  how  the 


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size  is  to  be  applied  to  the  yam ;  to  what  diseases  or  modes 
of  decomposition  it  is  liable ;  and  how  it  may  be  pre- 
served from  mildew  or  mischievous  changes.  The  book 
has  every  right  to  be  regarded  as  the  only  important 
treatise  on  the  subject  which  has  yet  appeared,  and,  as 
suchy  we  would  recommend  it  to  all  who  are  interested  in 
the  production  of  one  of  our  chief  staples.  T. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Physiological  Tables  for  the  Use  of  Students.  Compiled 
by  Edward  B.  Aveling,  D.Sc,  F.L.S.  (London: 
Hamilton,  Adams,  and  Co.) 

We  are  at  a  loss  to  find  any  excuse  for  the  publication  of 
these  tables,  which  no  one,  we  presume,  would  attempt  to 
justify  except  on  the  plea  that  they  may  be  useful  in  cram- 
ming students  so  as  to  pass  the  multifarious  superficial 
examinations  which  are  a  blot  upon  our  educational 
system. 

They  are  unphilosophical  in  their  plan,  and  altogether 
unreliable  in  their  details.  Some  idea  of  the  nature  and 
value  of  the  information  which  is  here  put  up,  as  it  were, 
into  separate  pij^eon-holes  for  the  use  of  the  unwary, 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  quotations.  Nervous 
tissue,  we  are  told,  contains  15  per  cent  of  fats,  thus 
classified  : — 

Fats,  IS  per  cent,  in  white,  (  R}!?;P''!fPS„*°ilmi,i„ 
5  l«/c7nt.  in  gray.  (  gt=^£i,eri"^«""' '  'P*^""' 

Would  Dr.  Aveling  like  to  write  a  short  essay  upon 
oleo- phosphoric  acid  ?  Has  he  never  heard  of  such 
bodies  as  glycerin -phosphoric  acid  and  its  derivative 
lecithin  ? 

Or  to  quote  from  Table  IV.,  where  Dr.  Aveling  writes 
on  the  causes  of  the  circulation  :-— 


/  Impulse  of  heart. 
Elasticity  of  arte- 
riea. 


Causes  op 

ClKCULATION. 


Capillary 


Force. 


Muscular  pressure 
i    oa  vems. 


z.  Alterations  in  diamster  of  cipiU 

Urics. 
2. ^Alterations  of  velocity  of  blood 

flowing  through  them 

3.  Movement  of  blood  after  excision 
of  heart  in  cold-blooded  amimaU. 

4.  Emptjriog  of  aneries  after  death. 
5    Secretion  after  death. 

6.  First  movement  of  blo^d  in  em- 
bryo towards,  not  from,  the  heart. 

7.  Foetus  without  heart  has  organs 
developed. 

8.  Degeneration  of  heart  during  life 
without  much  alteration  in  the 
circulation. 

9.  Heart  working  well,  and  yet  cir- 
culaiion  through  some  part  ceases. 

10.  Asphyxia. 


Would  it  not  be  an  admirable  exercise  to  set  the  above 
lines  to  intending  candidates  in  physiology  and  ask  them 
to  criticise  them  ?    Our  readers  will  do  so  for  themselves. 

In  the  table  referring  to  the  sense  organs  we  are  con- 
fidently told  that  the  nerve  centres  for  the  special  sense 
of  touch  are  the  thalami  optici,  that  the  centres  of  the 
special  sense  of  smell  are  the  olfactory  lobes,  that  the 
centres  of  sight  are  the  corpora  quadrigemina,  the  corpora 
geniculata,  and  the  thalami  optici. 

But  the  above  examples  are  more  than  sufficient  to 
prove  how  dangero*js  a  catalogue  of  mistakes  Dr.  Aveling 
has  presented  us  with. 

If  science  is  to  t>e  used  as  a  discipline  in  education,  let 
it  be  fully  and  accurately  Uught ;  let  us  not  imitate  the 
old  scholastic  routine  which  forced  unpalatable  jargon  in 
the  form  of  "propria  quae  maribus,"  &a,  upon  the  un- 
willing student,  and  refuse  to  follow  it  in  that  which  is  its 
merit— its  accuracy.  A.  G. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[Tiki  Editor  does  not  hold  himsdf  responsible  for  opimons  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertahe  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  commumcations. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  ana  novel  facts,} 

Indium  in  British  Blendes 

It  will  be  a  matter  of  some  interest  to  English  mineralogists 
and  chemists  to  know  that  certain  blendes  of  Durham  and,  I 
believf ,  of  Cumberland  contain  Inditun  in  appreciable  quantities. 
This  fact  has  been  made  out  by  a  very  skilfolly-condacted  analysis 
by  Dr.  Flight  in  the  laboratory  attached  to  this  department 

The  work  in  the  laboratory  has,  through  the  fMtst  two  year^, 
been  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  analysis  of  minerals 
selected  from  the  division  of  the  collection  which  is  in  process  of 
being  catalogued,  and  for  which  the  crystallographic  work  has 
long  been  in  progress. 

When  I  gave  the  particular  blendes  in  question  to  Dr.  Flight 
for  analysis,  the  groimds  for  their  selection  were  that  they  were 
British,  and  that  one  of  them  in  particular  resembled  certain 
foreign  blendes  which  contain  the  rare  metals  found  in  association 
with  this  minera]. 

The  object  of  this  letter  is  to  secure  a  prompt  announcement 
of  Dr.  FUght*s  having  found  Indium  in  the  blende  in  quesdon. 
He  will  in  due  time  communicate  further  deta.ls  of  the  analysis 
of  the  blende  and  of  an  elegant  process  by  which  he  at  once 
separates  the  Indium  Sulphide  from  the  blende. 

Nkvil  Story  Maskelynb 

Mineral  Department,  British  Museum,  October  30 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

Will  you  allow  me  to  make  a  few  remarks  in  reply  to  to  Dr. 
Carpenter's  letter  on  "  The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons,"  pub- 
lished in  the  lait  number  of  Nature,  and  to  try  to  show  that  I 
had  good  grounds  for  the  opinion  I  expressed  at  the  late  meeting 
of  the  British  Association  in  reference  to  his  article  on  the  same 
subject  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  f 

Nearly  the  whole  of  the  first  three  columns  of  Dr.  Carpenter's 
letter  is  devoted  to  proving  that  he  "  was  not  Infiuenceo,  when 
writing  on  the  radiometer,  by  any  animus  arising  from  [hU]  per- 
sonal antagonism  to  Mr.  Crookes  on  another  subject."  As  I 
never  in  any  way  charged  htm  with  being  thus  influenced,  I  do 
not  think  that  this  part  of  his  letter  calls  for  any  further  remark 
on  my  part  than  an  expression  of  my  sincere  regret  that  it  should 
have  been  possible  for  him  to  think  that  I  intended  to  make 
such  a  charge. 

Dr.  Carpenter  devotes  the  rest  of  his  letter  to  showing  that  he 
had  "  adequate  justification  "  for  **  making  it  appear  that  Mr. 
Crookes  had  put  a  wrong  interpretation  on  his  own  results^"  and 
thus  proves  very  conclusively  that  I  had  "adequate  justification  " 
for  supposing  it  possible  that  he  may  have  intended  to  make 
this  appear  in  his  article  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 

In  order  to  make  out  his  '*  justification,"  Dr.  Carpenter  sets 
himself  to  prove  (i)  that  Mr.  Crookes  puts  forward  the  **  direct 
impact  of  the  waves  "  as  affording  "  a  definite  interpreUtion  "  of 
the  motion  of  the  radiometer,  and  (2)  that  he  claimed  "the 
discovery  of  a  *  new  force '  or  *  a  new  mode  of  force.' " 

With  regard  to  the  first  of  these  points,  I  think  that  few  per- 
sons can  have  read  or  heard  Mr.  Crookes's  accounts  of  his 
investigadons  without  having  observed  how  careful  he  was  to 
reserve  his  judgment  as  to  the  cause  of  the  remarkable  eflPects  he 
had  discovered,  and  neither  to  give  out  as  conclusive  any  ex- 
planation of  his  own,  nor  to  adopt  any  of  those  suggested  by 
others  until,  chiefly  through  his  own  further  experiments,  one  of 
them  had  been  shown  to  rest  on  sufficient  evidence.  It  is  true 
that  on  one  occasion  he  u«es  the  following  words  (quoted  by  Dr. 
Cirpentei) : — "  My  own  impression  is  that  the  repulsion  accom- 
panying nidiation  is  direcdy  due  to  the  impact  of  the  waves  on 
the  surnice  of  the  moving  mass,  and  not  secondarily  through  the 
intervention  of  air-currents,  electricity,  or  evaporation  and  con- 
densation," and  that,  in  several  places  in  his  earUer  papers, 
he  shows  a  leaning  towards  the  same  hypothesis  ;  but  this  is  a 
very  diflerent  thing  from  having  adopted  this  view  as  a  *'  definite 
interpretation"  of  the  phenomena.  Even  Dr.  Carpenter  does 
not  attempt  to  show  that  Mr.  Crookes  ever,  in  so  many  words, 
committed  himself  to  this  theory,  but  concludes  that  he  held  it 


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from  consideratioiis  which,  for  fear  of  misrepresentation,  I  must 
give  in  Dr.  Carpenter*!  own  words : — 

**  After  pointing  out  that  '  there  is  no  real  difference  between 
heat  and  light,  all  we  can  take  account  of  [I  presume  he  means 
thysically,  not  physiologically]  being  difference  of  wave-length,' 
le  [Mr.  CrookesJ  thus  continues :  '  Take,  for  instance,  a  ray  of 
definite  refirangibility  in  the  red.  Falling  on  a  thermometer  it 
shows  the  action  of  heat ;  on  a  thermopUe  it  produces  an 
electric  current ;  to  the  eye  it  appears  as  light  and  colour  ;  on  a 
photographic  plate  it  causes  chemical  action;  and  on  the  sus- 
pended pith  it  causis  niotionj*  Now  (i)  this  motion  being  else- 
where spoken  of  as  due  to  the  impetus  given  by  a  ray  of  li^ht, 
(2)  a  set  of  experiments  being  made  to  detennine  the  mechanical 
values  of  the  aiffereni  colours  of  the  spectrum,  (3)  an  observation 
being  recoided  on  the  weigJU  of  sunlight  (without  the  least  inti- 
mation that  he  was  '  speaking  figuratively '  as  Mr.  Crookes  says 
that  he  did  to  his  audience  at  the  Royal  Institution),  (4)  the  term 
light-mill  being  used  by  himself  as  a  synonym  for  *  radiometer,' 
and  (5)  no  hint  whatever  being  given  of  the  dependence  of  the 
result  (as  argued  by  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds)  on  a  '  heat-reaction' 
through  the  residual  vapour,  I  stUl  hold  myself  fully  justified  in 
attributing  to  Mr.  Crookes  the  doctrine  of  the  direct  mechanical 
action  oflighL** 

Taking  these  points  in  order  and  using  Dr.  Carpenter's 
numbers  for  reference,  I  may  observe  as  to  (i)  that  this  seems  to 
refer  to  Mr.  Crookes's  statement  of  an  *'  impression  "  in  a  passage 
already  quoted;  with  regard  to  (2)  that  Mr.  Crookes  having 
found  that  "every  ray  from  the  ultra-red  to  the  ultm- violet " 
produced  a  mechanical  effect  under  the  circumstances  of  his 
experiments,  it  was  very  natural  that  he  should  hope  to  get  some 
clue  as  to  the  nature  of  the  action  by  finding  what  rays  produced 
the  greatest  effect ;  of  Dr.  Carpenter's  arguments  (3),  (4),  and 
(5),  It  is  difficult  to  speak  with  the  seriousness  befitting  their 
author's  many  valuable  services  to  the  cause  of  science,  and  the 
"due  consideration  of .,,  his  and  m)/ relative  positions."  To 
conclude  that  Mr.  Crookes  must  have  held  a  particular  theorr 
from  the  fact  that,  when  he  had  constructed  an  apparatus  which 
spun  round  on  exposure  to  light,  he  called  it  a  "Light-mill ; " 
from  his  having  neglected  to  give  warning  that  he  was  "  speaking 
figuratively  "  when  he  talked  of  "weighing  a  beam  of  sun-light," 
or  from  ms  having  given  no  hint  that  he  had  adopted  a  rival 
theory,  is  certainly  not  to  exemplify  the  "  strict  reasoning  based 
on  exact  observation"  which  Dr.  Carpenter  recommends  in  the 
paragraph  with  which  he  concludes  both  his  article  and  his  letter 
to  tluis  Journal 

A  few  sentences  before  the  passage  I  have  quoted,  Dr. 
Carpenter  refers  to  the  "whole  phraseology"  of  Mr.  Crookes's 
papers  of  January  5  and  February  5,  1876,  as  indicating  "that 
he  then  considered  [the  motion  of  the  radiometer]  as  directly  due 
to  the  impact  of  the  waves  upon  the  surface  of  the  moving  mass." 
This  again  seems  to  me  a  very  unsound  conclusion.  The  effect 
to  the  elucidation  of  which  these  papers  were  devoted  was  un- 
questionably due  to  the  incident  radiation,  but  whether  as  a 
primary  or  as  a  secondary  effect,  was  still  a  matter  for  discussion. 
In  my  opinion  the  phraseology  used  in  them  implies  no  more 
than  this :  it  indicates  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect,  but,  for  the 
most  part,  leaves  the  question  as  to  how  the  latter  follows  from 
the  former,  entirely  untouched.  If,  however.  Dr.  Carpenter  will 
refer  to  §  195  of  the  paper  of  February  5,  as  it  is  printed  in  the 
Phil.  Trans,  for  1876,  he  will  see  that  Mr.  Crookes  did  not  then 
attribute  the  motion  to  direct  impact  of  the  rays  upon  the  surface 
of  the  movmg  body,  but  rather  to  an  elevation  of  its  temperature, 
and  a  consequently  increased  radiation  of  heat  from  its  surface. 
At  the  same  time  he  will  see  that  this  suggestion  is  put  forward  in 
a  tentative  and  entirely  undogmatic  way. 

Dr.  Carpenter  next  undertakes  to  show  that  Mr.  Crookes  laid 
claim  to  me  discovery  of  a  " new  force"  or  a  "  new  mode  of 
force,"  finding  his  proof  of  this  in  a  passage  included  in  the 
quotation  from  his  letter  that  I  have  given  above.  Commenting 
on  this  passage  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (p.  248),  he  says : 
"To  the  Mr^  attributes  of  radiation  universally  recognised  by 
physicists,  Mr.  Crookes  proposes  (in  the  passage  sdready  cited)  to 
add  a  fourth,  the  power  of  producing  an  electric  current  in 
a  thermopile ;  and  a  fifth,  the  power  of  producing  mechanical 
motion  when  acting  on  light  bodies  fineely  suspended  in  a 
vacuum."  Again,  if  Dr.  Carpenter  had  ccmsulted  the  Philo' 
sophical  Transactions  for  1876  (p.  361),  he  might  have  done  Mr. 
CJrookes  more  justice  and  might  have  given  him  credit  for  the 
discovery  of  a  sixth  attribute  of  radiation — (Mr.  Crookes  there 
mentions  one  more  effect  which  the  same  ray  can  produce : 
"conceatrate  it  on  the  hand  by  a  lens,  it  rabes  a  blister  accom- 


panied with  pain  "), — and,  if  he  had  read  a  few  lines  further,  he 
might  have  spared  himself  the  trouble  of  explaining  to  Mr. 
Crookes  that  the  electric  current  of  a  thermopile  Is  not  directly 
excited  by  the  incident  radiation,  for  he  would  have  found  that 
this  action,  in  common  with  the  pain  and  the  blister  and  the 
motion  of  the  mercury  in  a  thermometer,  is  there  spoken  of  as 
being  an  effect  oiheal,  I  think  it  must  be  evident  to  any  one 
who  will  read  this  passage  attentively  with  its  context  (either  in 
Proc,  Roy,  Soc,  [Febniary  10,  1876],  from  which  apparently  Dr. 
Carpenter  quotes,  or  in  the  Phtl,  TVans,,  loc,  cit.),  that  it  has 
nothing  at  all  to  do  with  either  one  or  more  new  forces,  but  that 
the  whole  gbt  of  it  is  to  assert  that,  whatever  may  be  the  mode 
in  which  raidiation  produces  mechanical  force,  the  result  is  to  be 
attributed  to  it  as  a  whole  and  not  to  a  particular  constituent 
assumed  for  the  purpose. 

As  though  witn  the  object  of  covering  a  retreat.  Dr.  Carpenter 
says,  near  the  end  of  his  letter,  that  "  Pi  of.  G.  Carey  Foster  will 
doubtless  be  able  to  pick  out  points  of  detail  in  my  article,  as  to 
which  faults  may  be  found  by  a  severe  critic."  I  may  therefore 
point  out  that  I  have  so  far  carefully  confined  myself  to  what  he 
nimself  singles  out  as  the  "  main  issues  "  of  the  question  between 
us,  and  that,  in  my  further  remarks,  I  shall  treat  the  matter  from 
a  still  more  general  point  of  view. 

In  speaking  (in  my  address  at  Plymouth)  of  the  "  tendency" 
of  Dr.  Carpenter's  article,  I  meant  to  indicate  that  I  referred  in 
what  I  said  about  it  to  what  seemed  to  me  to  be  its  general  drift 
and  tone,  rather  than  to  any  particular  passage  or  passages.  And 
my  judgment  of  the  drift  of  the  article  was  formed  not  only  from 
what  I  found  in  it,  but  also  from  what  I  did  not  find  there.  For 
example,  if  Dr.  Carpenter  had  thought  as  highly  as  I  do  of  Mr. 
Crookes's  work  he  would  almost  inevitably  have  pointed  out 
more  emphatically  than  he  did  the  really  astonishing  number, 
variety,  and  laboriousness  of  his  experiments  ;  he  would  also,  I 
think,  have  pointed  out  that  (with  the  important  exception  of 
Dr.  Schuster)  scarcely  one  of  the  numerous  investigators,  who, 
in  consequence  of  his  researches,  have  occupied  themselves  more 
or  less  with  the  radiometer,  had  obtained  any  significant  ex  peri* 
mental  result  which  Mr.  Crookes  himself  had  not  anticipated  ; 
and  he  would  have  shown  that  the  discovery  of  the  radiometer, 
while  affording  a  remarkable  illustration  of  the  importance  ot 
following  up  unexplained  though  apparently  trivial  phenomena, 
illustrates  no  less  forcibly  the  truth  that  scienti6c  discoveries  are 
not  chance  revelations,  coming  now  to  one  and  now  to  another, 
but  that  they  are  made  only  by  those  who  have  eyes  to  see  a  clue 
when  it  is  offered  them,  and  patience  and  skill  to  follow  where 
it  leads. 

Turning  to  what  the  article  did  contain,  I  think  it  is  not  incor- 
rect to  say  that  it  tended  to  produce  Uie  impression  that  Mr. 
Crookes,  more  or  less  obstinately,  and  on  insufficient  grounds, 
rejected  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  hb  results.  I  will  Sierefore 
try  to  state^  as  shortly  as  I  can,  what  seems. to  me  to  be  the  true 
state  of  the  case  in  relation  to  this  point 

Prof.  Rejrnolds  (in  his  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society  on 
June  18,  1874)  undoubtedly  showed  that  a  mechanical  reaction, 
such  as  might  account  for  the  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Crookes, 
might  arise  when  heat  is  communicated  from  a  solid  surface  to  a 
vapour  or  gas,  but  he  did  not  (then  at  least)  show  that  in  Mr. 
Crookes's  vacua  there  was  enough  residual  gas  to  produce  the 
results  he  ascribed  to  it.  M*-.  Crookes,  widiout  disputing  the 
possibility  of  the  action  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Reynoldti,  made 
experiments  from  which  he  concluded  that  it  was  insufficient  to 
explain  the  movements  he  had  observed.  (I  must  here  remark 
that  Mr.  Crookes  did  not  say,  as  Dr.  Carpenter  asserts  that  he 
did,  that  the  explanation  offered  by  Prof.  Reynolds  was  one 
that  "  it  is  impossible  to  conceive."  His  words  were  :  "It  is 
impossible  to  conceive  that  in  these  experiments  sufficient 
condensable  gas  or  vapour  was  present  to  produce  the  effects 
Vtot  Osborne  Reynolds  ascribes  to  it.  After  the  repeated 
heating  to  redness  at  the  highest  attainable  exhaustion,  it  is  diffi* 
cult  to  imagine  that  sufficient  vapour  cr  gas  should  condense  on 
the  movable  index  to  be  instantly  driven  off  by  a  ray  of  light,  or 
even  the  warmth  of  the  finger,  with  recoil  enough  to  drive  tack- 
wards  a  heavy  piece  of  metsd." — Phil,  Trans,,  1875,  p.  547.  Bat 
although  Prof.  Reynolds  is  unquestionably  entitled  to  the  credit 
of  having  originated  the  fundamental  idea  and  worked  out  many 
of  the  details  of  the  explanation  that  seems  now  to  be  generally 
adopted,  his  explanation  not  only  rested  on  a  somewhat  slender 
experimental  basis,  but  was  theoretically  incomplete^  and  in  par* 
ticular  it  did  not  show  clearly  why  so  high  a  degree  of  rare- 
faction should  be  needed  for  the  production  of  the  phenomena  in 
question.    An  important  step  towards  supplying  this  deficiency 


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was  taken  by  Proft.  Tait  and  Dewar  (July,  1875),  ^^<)  sbowed 
how  the  increase,  resulting  from  rarefaction,  in  the  mean  length 
of  the  path  of  the  gaseous  molecules  would  favour  the  action, 
but  the  explanation  in  the  form  which  they  gave  to  it  required 
that  the  rarefaction  should  be  carried  far  enough  to  make  the 
mean  length  of  path  of  a  molecule  of  gas  great  as  compared 
with  the  dimensions  of  the  inclosing  vessel.  It  has,  however, 
been  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Zollner  (Po?^.  Ann.,  February,  1877), 
and  more  recently  by  Mr.  lolver  Preston  {PAi/,  Mag,,  August, 
1877),  that,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  this  condition  is  far 
firom  being  fu)6Iled.  On  the  other  hand,  the  residual-gat 
Uieory  of  the  action  of  the  radiometer  received  very  im- 
portant experimental  support  from  Dr.  Schuster's  beautiful 
demonstration  (February,  1876)  that  the  force  exerted  on  the 
discs  was  correlative  with  an  equal  opposite  force  exerted 
upon  the  glass  envelope.  The  complete  proof  that  the  action 
was  due  in  some  way  to  the  presence  of  residual  gas  was  furnished 
bv  Mr.  Crookes's  own  discovery  (June,  1876)  that  it  rapidly 
duninishes  when  the  exhaustion  is  carried  beyond  a  certain  point 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  gas.  The  outstanding  defect  in 
the  theory  was  removed  by  Mr.  Johnstone  Stoney,  who  {,PhU» 
Mag.f  March  and  April,  1876)  showed  that  the  observed  pheno- 
mena  might  arise  at  a  degree  of  rarefaction  at  which  the  mean 
length  of  path  of  a  moleciUe  was  still  much  below  the  distance 
from  the  discs  to  the  envelope,  it  being  sufficient  that  this  distance 
should  not  be  too  great  to  allow  the  warming  of  the  discs  to  cause 
a  sensible  increase  in  the  velocity  with  which  the  molecules  struck 
the  glass.  Mr.  Stoney's  form  of  the  theory  answers  to  aU  the 
facts  of  the  case,  so  far  as  I  am  acquainted  with  them,  and  it  has 
been  confirmed  and  Ulostrated  by  Mr.  Crookes  with  a  numerous 
series  of  remarkably  beautiful  and  ingenious  experiments. 

My  object  in  thus  tracing  the  chief  stages  in  the  growth  of  the 
accepted  theoretical  explamition  of  the  radiometer  has  been  to 
point  out  that  the  quality  of  mind  which  led  Mr.  Crookes  to 
reject  the  various  suggested  explanations  of  the  phenomena  he 
had  observed,  so  long  as  they  were  only  approximate  and  did  not 
account  for  ail  bis  facts,  was  merely  a  further  exempliBcation  of 
the  quality  which  led  him  to  the  original  discovery.  If  he  had 
been  content  to  disregard  a  seemingly  trivial  face  he  would  never 
have  made  this  discovery  at  all,  and  if  he  had  disregarded  slight 
defects  in  the  explanations  that  were  offered  he  would  have 
missed  some  of  its  most  important  consequences.  I  think  that 
this  also  might  have  been  suitably  included  among  the  "  Lessons 
of  the  Radiometer."  G.  Carey  Foster 

University  College,  London,  October  27 


Has  Dr.  Carpenter  allowed  himself  to  become  possessed  bv 
a  *< dominant  idea?"  From  his  letter  in  Nature  (vol.  xvi. 
p.  544),  I  infer  that  he  might  have  taken  the  trouble  to  reply  to 
my  anide  in  the  July  number  of  the  NineUtnth  Century,  had 
he  not  thought  that  my  assertions  "  were  well  known  in  the 
scientific  world  to  be  inconsistent  with  fact" 

Some  remarks,  however,  made  by  Prof.  G.  Carey  Foster  at 
the  British  Association  seem  to  have  forced  upon  Dr.  Carpenter 
the  conviction  that  he  may  have  underrated  my  character  for 
veracity,  and  that  the  **  scientific  world,"  at  all  events,  is  not 
unanimous  in  regarding  my  '*  assertions  "  as  falsehoods.  Dr. 
Carpenter  therefore  sedct  in  your  colunms  to  justify  the  state- 
ments contained  in  his  article  on  *<The  Radiometer  and  its 
Lessons,"  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  for  April  last. 

When  Dr.  Carpenter  declares  my  '* assertions*  (I)  ...  (2) 
•  •  •  (3)"  to  ^  i^ht,  I  have  a  right  to  demand  that  Dr. 
Carpenter  give  my  identical  words,  and  not  his  own  interpre- 
tation of  my  words — an  interpretation  which  is  "inconsistent 
with  fact."    ; 

To  show  Dr.  Carpenter's  inaccuracies  in  small  things  as  well  as 
great,  I  may  point  out  that  he  does  not  even  quote  correctly 
the  title  of  my  article  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.  His  careless- 
ness in  more  important  matters  is  of  deeper  consequence.  In 
order  to  enforce  one  of  his  dominant  ideas  "yet  more  fully 
and  emphatically,"  he  tells  us  thit  he  applied  himself  to  a 
"careful  reperusal  of"  my  papers  •*  with  the  most  earnest  desire 
to  present  a  true  history  of  the  whole  mquiry."  A  most  laud- 
able determination  1  And  where,  will  it  be  believed,  did  Dr. 
Carpenter,  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  go  for  information  ? 
To  the  Philosophical  Tramactions,  where  my  papers  are  printed 
at  full  length  ?  No  I  He  only  referred  to  the  "  Proceedings  of 
thd  Royal  Society,"  a  record,  as  every  one  know?,  that  contains 
brief,  and  therefore  imperfect  abstracts  of  what  is  published  in 
full  in  the  Transactions, 


In  his  "justification"  Dr.  Carpenter  quotes  a  passage  from 
a  lecture  I  delivered  in  1874,  on  The  Repulsion  Accompanying 
Radiation,  commencing,  "my  own  impression  is,"  &c.  Had 
Dr.  Carpenter  quoted  the  next  paragraph,  which  is  necessary 
to  a  correct  interpretation  of  the  sentence  he  did  quote,  your 
readers  would  have  been  enabled  to  judge  how  far  I  advanced 
theories  of  my  own.  My  words  were  these  :  "  I  do  not  wish  to 
insist  upon  any  theory  of  my  own.  .  .  .  The  one  I  advance  is, 
to  my  mind,  the  most  reasonable,  and,  as  such,  is  useful  as  a 
working  hjrpothesis,  if  the  mind  must  have  a  theory  to  rest  upon. 
Any  theory  will  account  for  some  facts,  but  only  the  true 
explanation  will  satisfy  all  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  and 
this  cannot  be  said  of  eittier  of  the  theories  I  have  already  dis- 
cusseo."  My  next  paragraph  concludes  with  the  following  quo- 
tation from  Sir  Humphry  Davy : — "  When  I  consider  the 
variety  of  theories  which  may  be  formed  on  the  slender  founda- 
tion of  one  or  two  facts,  I  am  convinced  that  it  is  the  business  of 
the  true  philosopher  to  avoid  them  altogether.  It  is  more 
laborious  to  accumulate  fiacts  than  to  reason  concerning  them  ; 
but  one  good  experiment  is  of  more  value  than  the  ingenuity  of 
a  brain  like  Newton's." 

With  regard  to  my  having  "  theorised  on  the  subject,"  I  have 
never  denied  having  done  so,  although  I  have  on  five  or  six 
occasions  specially  stated  that  "I  wished  to  keep  free  from 
theories,"  and  "unfettered  by  the  hasty  adoption"  of  theories. 
But  I  do  deny  that  I  ever  stated  that  my  results  were  definitely 
explained  by  the  direct  mechanical  action  of  light  Your  readers 
will  understand  that  an  experimental  research  is  necessarily  and 
slowly  progressive,  and  that  the  early  provisional  hjrpotheses 
have  to  be  modified,  and  perhaps  altogether  abandoned,  in 
defprence  to  later  observations.  Until  my  experiments  confirmed 
the  explanation  given  by  Mr.  Johnstone  Stoney,  I  adopted  no 
definite  theory,  and  I  contend  that  a  trained  physicist  would  fail 
to  gather  from  my  published  papers  that  I  desired  my  first 
impressions  to  be  regarded  as  finid 

Dr.  Carpenter  a^dn  attributes  to  me  the  terms  "a  new  force," 
or  a  "new  mode  enforce,"  as  applied  to  the  repulsion  accom- 
panying radiation.  Unless  Dr.  Carpenter  can  point  these  words 
out  in  my  published  papers,  he  has  no  right  to  place  them  between 
inverted  commas. 

But  the  chief  burden  of  Dr.  Carpenter's  song  is  that  "  Mr 
Crookes  has  another  side  to  his  mind,  which  mate's  Mr.  Crookes 
the  spiritualist  almost  a  different  person  from  Mr.  Crookes  the 
physicist."  I  fail  to  see  how  the  investigation  of  certain  pheno- 
mena called  spiritual  can  make  a  man  a  spiritualist,  even  if  he 
comes  to  the  conclusion  that  some  of  the  phenomtna  are  not  due 
to  fraud.  My  position  in  this  matter  was  clearly  stated  some 
years  ago,  and  I  ask  your  permission  to  quote  the  following 
passages  firom  an  article  I  published  in  1871 : — '*  I  have  desired 
to  examine  the  phenomena  from  a  point  of  view  as  strictly 
physical  as  their  nature  will  permit.  ...  I  wish  to  be  considered 
m  the  position  of  an  electrician  at  Valentia  examining,  by  means 
of  appropriate  testing  instruments,  certain  electrical  currents  and 
pulsations  passing  through  the  Atlantic  cable  ;  independently  of 
their  causation,  and  ignoring  whether  these  phenomena  are  pro- 
duced hy  imperfections  in  the  testing  instruments  themselves, 
whether  by  earth  currents  or  by  faults  in  the  insulation,  or 
whether  they  are  produced  by  an  intelligent  operator  at  the  other 
end  of  the  line." 

From  this  stand-point  I  have  never  deviated.  Can  Dr. 
Carpenter  say  that  nis  position  and  mine,  in  respect  to  the 
investigation  of  the  phenomena  ascribed  to  spiritualism,  are  so 
very  different  ?  He  asserts  that  he  has  shown  oeyond  doubt  that 
it  is  all  imposture.  But  I  would  ask  if  this  was  proved  to  his 
satisfaction  twenty  years  ago,  why  does  he  still  wa^te  valuable 
time  in  interviews  and  sittings  with  so-called  mediums  ?  If  I  am 
to  be  censured  for  having  devoted  time  to  this  subject,  such 
censure  must  be  doubly  applicable  to  a  man  who  commenced  the 
investigation  when  I  was  a  child,  and  who  cannot  let  the  subject 
drop  wlienever  a  new  "medium"  comes  in  his  way.  Does  he 
regard  the  subject  as  his  own  special  preserve,  and  may  his 
demonstrations  against  other  explorers  in  this  domain  of  mystery 
be  looked  upon  as  the  conduct  of  a  gamekeeper  towards  a 
suspected  poacher? 

To  impress  on  the  world  that  he  has  no  "  ammus,^^  Dr.  Car- 
penter says  he  "  cordiidly"  and  "  personally  congratulated  "  me. 
His  words  bring  vividly  to  my  mind  the  conversation,  of  which, 
by  the  by,  he  has  omitted  an  important  part.  It  was  at  the 
annual  dinner  of  the  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  on  November 
30,  1875,  ^bci^  ^c  'oyal  medal  was  awarded  to  me.  Dr.  Car- 
penter accosted  me  with  great  apparent  cordiality,  and  said. 


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[Nov.  I,  1877 


**L€t  u«  bury  the  hatchet  I  Why  should  scientific  men  qutrrcl?" 
I  signified  my  fiiU  acceptance  of  the  offered  peace,  and  great  was 
my  surprise  soon  afrer  to  find  that,  unmind^l  of  the  under- 
stood compact,  he  had  exhumed  his  hatchet  and  was  dealing 
me  unexpected  and  wanton  srrokes,  tempered  by  a  certain 
amount  of  half  praise  which  reminds  me  of  the  sort  of  caressing 
remonstrance  of  Maiendie  in  the  pre-anaesthetic  days,  to  the  dog 
which  he  had  on  his  operating  table — "  Taisn  vous,  pattvrt 

In  all  seriousness,  however,  I  must  agam  ask,  what  is  the 
meaning  of  the  "personal  antagonism,"  and  the  persistent 
attacks  which  Dr.  Carpenter,  for  the  last  six  years,  has  directed 
against  me  ?  In  his  recently  published  book,  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century^  and  in  his  last  letter  to  you,  the  key-note  struck  in  the 
Quarterly  Review  six  years  ago  is  sustained.  We  have  the 
same  personalities,  the  same  somewhat  stale  remark  about  my 
double  nature,  ard  the  same  exuberance  of  that  most  dangerous 
and  misleading  class  of  averments,  half  truths.  Dr.  Carpenter, 
indeed,  condescends  to  admit  that  I  have  pursued  **  with  rare 
ability  and  acuteness  a  delicate  physical  investigation  in  which 
nothing  is  taken  for  granted  without  proof  satisfactory  to  others 
as  well  as  to  himself,''  and  that  I  have  ''carried  out  a  beautiful 
inquiry  in  a  manner  and  spirit  worthy  of  all  admiration  ; "  but, 
after  granting  so  much,  he  dissembles  his  love  und  proceeds  to 
"kick  me  down  stairs."  X  am  damned  with  feint  praise, 
and  put  to  rights  in  such  a  school-masterly  style,  that  I 
could  almost  fancy  Dr.  Carpenter  carries  a  birch  rod  concealed 
in  his  coat-sleeve.  He  admits  that  in  an  humble  and  sub- 
ordinate sphere  I  have  done  useful  work,  only  I  must  not 
S've  mvself  airs  on  that  account.  Dr.  Carpenter  reminds  me  of 
r.  Johnson  defending  Sir  John  Hawkins,  when  he  was  accused 
of  meanness.  "  I  really  believe  him,"  said  Johnson,  *«  to  be  an 
honest  man  at  the  bottom  ;  but  to  be  sure  be  is  penurious,  and 
he  is  mer n,  smd  it  must  be  owned  he  has  a  degree  of  brutality, 
and  a  tendency  to  savageness,  that  cannot  easily  be  defended." 
In  the  same  magnanimous  spirit  Dr.  Carpenter  allows  that  I 
have  contributed  a  trifle  to  science,  but  he  does  not  forget  to 
add  that  I  am  the  victim  of  cerebral  duplicity,  and  I  am  again 
held  up  to  illustrate  the  sad  result  of  neglecting  to  train  and 
discipline  "the  whole  mind  during  the  period  of  its  develop- 
ment," &c. 

I  have,  it  appears,  two  allotropic  personalities,  which  I  may 
designate,  in  chemical  language,  Ortho-Crookes  and  Pseudo- 
Crookes.  The  Ortho-Crookes,  according  to  Dr.  Carpenter,  has 
acquired  **  deserved  distinction  as  a  chemist."  He  carries  out  a 
**  beautifiil  inquiry  in  a  manner  and  spirit  worthy  of  all  admira- 
tion." He  has  shown  "ability,  skill,  perseverance,  and  freedom 
from  prepossession,"  He  pursues  '*  with  rare  ability  and  astute- 
ness a  delicate  physicalinvestigation."  He  evinces  the  "spirit 
of  the  true  philosopher,"  and  he  has  "deservedly"  received 
"  from  the  Royal  Society  the  award  of  one  of  its  chief  dis- 
tinctions." 

But  Pseudo-Crookes,  whose  career  Dr.  Carpenter  has  evidently 
watched  almost  from  his  cradle— as  he  professes  to  know  the 
details  of  his  early  education— unfortunately  took  a  "thoroughly 
unscientific  course,"  and  developed  into  a  "  specialist  of 
specialists."  He  had  "very  limited  opportunities "  and  " never 
had  the  privilege  of  associating"  with  scientific  men,  al- 
though he  displayed  *^ malus  animus*^  "towards  those  with 
whom  he  claims  to  be  in  fraternity."  He  is  "  totally  desti- 
tute of  any  knowledge  of  chemical  philosophy,  and  utterly 
untrustworthy  as  to  any  inquiry  "  not  technical.  His  "asser- 
tions "  are  "  well  known  in  the  scientific  world  to  be  inconsistent 
with  fact"  He  enters  on  inquiries  "with  an  avowed  fore- 
gone conclusion  of  his  own."  He  has  "lent  himi^elf  to  the 
support  of  wicked  frauds."  He  has  "prepossessions  upon 
which  dever^cheats  play."  His  "scientific  tests"  are  not 
"worthy  of  trust."  He  is  a  believer  in  "day  dreams,"  and 
the  supporter  of  a  "seething  mass  of  folly  and  imposture;" 
whilst,  to  crown  all,  he  actually  thinks  that  the  radiometer  is 
driven  "  by  the  direct  impetus  of  light."  In  short,  this  Pseudo- 
Crookes  is  a  compound  of  folly  and  knavery  such  as  has  rarely,  if 
ever,  previously  been  encountered. 

William  Crookes  (The  Ortho-Crookes ?) 

London,  October  29 

Mr.  Wallace  and  Reichenbach's  Odyle 

I  AM  amazed  that  Dr.  Carpenter  should  think  it  necessary  to 
make  public,  with  such  haste,  Prof.  Hoffmann's  statement  that 
Baron  Reichenbach's  facts  and  theories  are  not  accepted  by  the 


body  of  scientific  men  in  Germany.  Of  course  they  are  not. 
But  how  this  afiiects  their  intrinsic  accuracy  I  fail  to  see.  Less 
than  twenty  years  ago  the  scientific  men  of  all  Europe  utterly 
disbelieved  in  the  co- existence  of  man  with  extinct  animals  ;  yet 
the  facts  adduced  by  Freere,  Bou^,  McEnery,  Godwin  Austen, 
Vivian,  and  Boucher  de  Perthes,  are  now  admitted  to  have  been 
trustworthy  and  deserving  of  the  most  careful  examination.  The 
whole  history  of  scientific  discovery  from  Galvani  and  Harvey 
to  Jenner  and  Franklin,  teaches  us,  that  every  great  advance  in 
science  has  been  rejected  by  the  scientific  men  of  the  period,  with 
an)  amount  of  scepticism  uid  bitterness  directly  proportioned  to 
tiie  novelty  and  importance  of  the  new  ideas  suggested  and  the 
extent  to  which  they  ran  counter  to  received  and  cherished 
theories.  Rejection  is  one  thing,  disproof  is  another ;  and  I 
have  in  vain  searched  for  anvthing  like  disproof,  or  even  rational 
explanation,  of  Reichenbach's  facts:  his  theory,  or  "Odyle- 
doctrme,"  I  have  .never  "attempted  to  rehabilitate,"  as  Dr. 
Carpenter,  with  his  usual  misconception,  says  I  have  done.  In 
my  review  of  Dr.  Carpenter's  lectures  {Quarterly  Journal  of 
Science^  July,  1877,  P-  39^)»  ^  adduce  five  tests  employed  by 
Reichenbacb,  and  also  the  independent  and  simultaneous  con- 
firmation of  Dr.  Charpignon  in  France ;  and  the  only  reply  I 
get  is  :  "All  men  of  science  disbelieve  them."  With  the  facts 
of  history  above  alluded  to  in  my  mind,  and  believing  that 
human  nature  is  very  much  the  same  in  the  nineteenth  century 
as  it  was  in  the  eighteenth,  I  can  only  say,  "  so  much  the  worse 
for  the  men  of  science." 

Dr.  Carpenter's  reference  to  the  believers  in  a  flat  earth,  as  a 
parallel  case,  is  unfortunate,  because  the  two  cases  are  really  of 
a  totally  different  nature.  Those  who  maintain  the  earth  to  be 
flat  do  not  deny  the  main  fac^s  which  we  rely  on  as  proving  it  to 
be  round,  but  they  attempt  to  give  other  explanations  of  them. 
The  dispute  is  on  a  question  of  reason  and  inference ;  and  every 
intelligent  and  fairly  educated  man  is  able  to  decide  it  for  him- 
self. But  in  Reichenbach's  case  it  is  the  facts  that  are  rejected 
without  disproof  or  adequate  explanation.  The  two  cases  are 
therefore  quite  distinct,  and  Dr.  Carpenter's  attempted  parallel, 
as  well  as  his  setting  up  of  sdentinc  disbelief  as  a  conclusive 
reply  to  evidence,  is  m  conformity  with  his  whole  treatment  of 
this  subject. 

I  trust  that  such  of  the  readers  of  Nature  as  may  feel  any 
interest  in  the  -questions  at  issue  between  Dr.  Carpenter  and 
myself  will  read  my  article  above  referred  to,  and  not  allow 
themselves  to  be  influenced  by  Dr.  C.'s  repeated  appeals  to 
authority  and  to  prejudice.  Alfred  R.  Wallace 

I  HAVE  to  request  your  insertion  of  a  post-card  I  have  this 
morning  received,  for  two  reasons  ;  first,  because,  as  it  is  ano- 
nymous, and  as  the  writer  of  it  is  obviously  a  reader  of  Nature, 
no  other  way  is  open  tome  for  replying  to  it  except  that  which  your 
columns  may  afford ;  and  secondly,  because  it  is  a  very  curious 
example  of  the  misconceptions  into  which  men  are  apt  to  fall 
who  allow  themselves  to  become  "  possessed "  by  "  dominant 
ideas." 

"  If  Mr.  A.  R.  Wallace  has  to  choose  between  being  either 
*a  fool  or  a  knave,'  there  S^  at  all  events  no  choice  left  for  tht 
man  who  deliberately  and  maliciously  makes  incorrect  assertions 
and  suppresses  the  truth  to  further  his  own  views.  I  dare  say 
you  know  what  most  people  would  call  such  a  man.  Yours, 
"  One  who  was  at  Plymouth  " 

Now,  in  the  first  case,  it  must  be  perfectly  obvious  to  any  one 
who  is  capable  of  reasoning  logically,  that  nothing  which  I  said  of 
Mr.  Wallace  in  your  last  numt^  can  be  twisted  into  the  implication 
that  he  is  either  "  a  fool  or  a  knave."  John  Hampden  is  continu- 
ally saving  this  of  Mr.  Wallace  and  of  everybody  who  upholds  the 
rotundlhr  of  the  earth.  And  I  mildly  suggested  whether,  in 
putting  himself  in  opposition  to  the  whole  aggregate  of  scientific 
opinion  on  the  value  of  Reichenbach's  Odylism— not  because  he 
had  himself  repeated  them,  but  because  he  believes  in  Reichen- 
bach — Mr.  Wallace  is  not  assuming  an  attitude  in  some  degree 
similar,  that  is,  setting  himself  up  as  the  one  wise  and  honest 
man  who  duly  appreciates  Reichenbach,  and  therefore  implying 
that  everybody  ^se  is  either  stupidly  or  wilfully  blind  to 
the  evidence  he  presented.  If  anyone  thinks  it  worth  while 
to  read  Mr.  Wallace's  review  of  my  lectures  on  "Mes- 
merism, Spiritualism,"  &c.,  in  the  kst  number  of  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science^  he  will  be  able  to  judge  whether  I  have  or 
nave  not  wronged  Mr.  Wallace  in  this  matter. 

The  writer's  appreciation  of  my  own  character,  which  has  fre- 


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qnently  been  expressed  to  me  before  in  the  same  manner  and  in 
the  like  terse  and  elegant  language,  is  now  enforced  by  what  he 
deems  to  be  Prof.  Carey  Foster's  judicial  opinion,  delivered  at 
the  Plymouth  meeting ;  and  I  find  myself,  therefore,  fully  justi- 
fied in  my  opinion  that  by  his  introduction  of  the  word  "  inten- 
tionally Prof.  Carey  Foster  made  hi^  judgment  legitimately 
bear  a  meaning,  which,  as  he  has  stated,  he  would  consider 
insulting  to  my  character.  And  I  cannot  but  believe  that 
Prof.  G.  Carey  Foster  will  regret  having  thus  given  a  new 
handle  to  a  man  who  obviously  wishes  to  insult  me  on  account  of 
my  antagonism  to  spiritualism.  As  the  writer  of  the  post- card 
continues  to  use  Prof.  G.  C.  Foster's  authority,  after  that  gentle- 
man's explicit  disavowal  of  the  offensive  meaning  here  attached 
to  it,  and  as  I  may,  of  course,  expect  that  he  will  continue  to 
avail  himself  of  that  authority,  I  should  like  him  to  know 
through  your  columns  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  for  him  to 
trouble  himself  to  repeat  these  attacks,  since  they  have  long 
sioce  ceased  to  do  anything  else  than  amuse  me,  and  will  only 
furnish  me  with  materials  for  amusing  other  people. 

It  seems  much  to  be  regretted  that  neither  spiritualism  nor 
attendance  at  the  meetings  of  the  British  Association,  nor  even 
the  readine  of  Nature  seems  able  to  teach  this  person  to  behave 
like  a  genUeman.  William  B.  Carpenter 

October  29 


Potential  Energy 

Your  correspondent  "  X."  has  described  some  of  his  troubles 
respecting  potential  energy.  Many  a  learner  could  describe 
similar  troubles  respecting  force  and  energy  in  general.  They 
who  earnestly  contend  for  definiteness  and  accuracy  do  not 
always  teach  with  definiteness  and  accuracy.  For  example  :  in 
his  "Treatise  on  Heat,"  p.  137,  Dr.  Tyndall  tells  me  that  by 
raising  a  weight  from  the  floor  I  have  conferred  upon  the  weight 
potential  energy.  Presently  he  tells  me  that  this  energy  is 
derived  (not  from  me,  but)  from  the  pull  of  gravity.  He  next 
tells  me  that  we  might  call  the  energy  with  which  the  weight 
descends,  moving  force,  ue.  he  teaches  me  to  confuse  force  and 
energy  ;  and  after  all  this  he  bids  me  remember  that  **  exactness 
is  here  essential.  We  must  not  now  tolerate  vagueness  in  our 
conceptions." 

Take  another  example.  In  his  lecture  on  **  Force  "  (Nature, 
vol.  xiv.  p.  462),  Prof.  Tait  teaches  that  force  is  a  mere  name, 
and  that  it  has  no  objective  existence ;  he  also  teaches  that  the 
product  of  this  non-existence  by  its  displacement  has  an  objective 
existence.  Few  learners  would  say  that  Is  a  very  lucid  state- 
ment Again,  in  the  same  lecture  he  says  **  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  centrifugal  force,  and  accelerating  force  is  not  a  physical 
idea  at  all ; "  but  in  his  "  Nat  Phil."  he  speaks  of  both  these 
forces,  and  describes  their  effects  (Nos.  185,  187,  598,  248). 

When  teachers  deservedly  eminent  make  statements  like'the 
foregoing,  so  likely  to  mystify  and  confuse  a  novice,  it  is  no 
wonder  that  there  is  a  good  deal  of  smattering  in  popular 
science. 

Prof.  Tait  says  "  the  so-called  accelerating  force  is  really  no 
force  at  all,  but  another  name  for  the  kinematical  quantity  accele- 
ration."   I  venture  to  entirely  disagree  with  this  statement,  and 

for  the  following  reason  : —  -—  is  a  number,  and  may  be  that 

number  of  units  oi  force,  or  that  number  of  units  of  acceleration. 
When  it  is  called  accelerating  force  it  is  the  representative  of 

ff^  —.  when  m  =  I,  and  m  does  not  appear  in*the  expression  ; 
a  I 

and  it  means  -—units  oi  force.    When  it  is  called  acceleration 
a  / 

it  means  -^-  units  oi  cucderation.    Accelerating  force  is  just  as 

real  as  moving  force,  for  it  is,  in  fact,  the  mth  part  of  the 
moving  force.  In  like  manner  v  may  mean  either  v  units  of 
velocity,  or  v  units  of  momentum  ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  the 
representative  of  mv,  when  m  =  i,  and  means  the  momentum 
of  a  unit  of  mass  which  has  v  units  of  velocity.  In  like  manner 
m  may  mean  either  m  units  of  mass,  or  m  units  of  momentum,  or 
m  units  of  kinetic  energy ;  in  the  two  latter  cases  it  is  the 
representative  of  mv  or  of  mv*  when  v  =  1,  and  means  the 
momentum,  or  the  vis  viva  of  m  units  of  mass  moving  with  unit 
of  velocity. 

A  few  simple  definitions  would  remove  the  difficulties  re- 
pecting  force.    Thus :  If  a  mass  of  tn  units  of  mass  is  at  any 


instant  receiving  an  acceleration  of  a  units  of  acceleration  in 
any  given  direction,  the  force  which  is  acting  on  it  at  the  given 
instant  in  the  given  direction  is  ma  units  of  force.  The  force 
acting  on  the  mass  in  the  directicn  of  its  motion  is  called  the 
moving  force.  The  force  in  the  normal  to  the  direction  of  its 
motion  and  towards  the  centre  of  curvature  is  called  the 
centripetal  force.  An  equal  and  opposite  force  is  called  the 
centrifugal  force.  The  mth  part  of  the  moving  force  is  called 
the  accelerating  force,  which  is  the  moving  force  acting  on  a 
unit  of  mass. 

In  the  case  of  a  planet's  orbit  it  is  too  common  to  give  the 
name  centrifugal  force  to  two  forces  which  generally  differ  both 
in  magnitude  and  in  direction,  one  of  them  being  in  the  direction 
of  the  normal,  the  other  in  the  direction  of  the  radius-vector. 
This  is  the  last  instance  which  I  shall  give  of  sins  against 
definiteness  and  accuracy.  £.  G. 

Bardsea 


Hartlaub'8  **  Birds  of  Madagascar  " 

The  excellent  review,  exhibiting  traces  of  a  master's  hand,  of 
the  above-named  useful  work,  which  appeared  in  Nature 
(vol.  xvi  p.  498)  prompts  me  to  offer  some  remarks  on  the  orni- 
thology 01  Madagascar  and  its  neighbouring  islands,  and  to  take 
exception  oh  two  points  therein  laid  down. 

The  first  of  these  is  propounded  by  your  reviewer  and  seems 
to  me  absolutely  contrary  to  fact  He  says  : — *'  Compared  with 
Madagascar  itself  the  appendent  island  groups  are  poor  in 
species,  although  in  every  case  there  are  many  interesting  forms 
among  their  winged  inhabitants.  The  Comoro  Islands  muster 
only  some  forty-four  species  of  birds,  Mauritius  about  sixty,  of 
which  fifteen  or  sixteen  have  been  introduced  by  man's  agency, 
and  Bourbon  about  the  same  number,  while  Rodriguez  appears 
to  have  only  about  twenty-five  species  now  existing  in  it,  of 
which  four  or  five  are  certainly  recent  introductions." 

Now  twenty  years  ago  my  friend,  Mr.  Sclater,  in  that  remarkable 
paper  of  his  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  birds  (Jimrn,  Linn. 
Stfc,  Zoology,  ii.  p.  130),  which  so  happily  laid  the  true  foundation 
for  our  present  researches  into  the  subject,  showed  that  the 
proper  mode  of  comparing  the  wealth  or  poverty  of  one  fauna 
with  another  was  to  state  the  proportion  which  the  number  of 
Sjpecies  composing  it  bears  to  the  area  over  which  they  range. 
The  same  view  was  adopted  very  shoitly  after  by  Mr.  Wallace, 
who  took  occasion  {Ibis,  1859,  p.  449)  to  question  certain  of 
Mr.  Sclater's  results,  and  its  correctness  seems  to  have  been  since 
generally  admitted.  Yet,  applying  this  test  to  Madagascar  and 
its  neighbouring  islands,  we  find  a  state  of  things  to  exist  very 
different  from  that  which  your  reviewer  has  alleged.  The  area 
of  Madagascar  is  said^  to  be  10,751  German  square  miles,  that 
of  the  Comoros  collectively  38*57,  of  Mauritius  3476,  of  Bourbon 
42*05,  and  of  Rodriguez  5.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  my  purpose 
to  compare  the  first  and  last  of  these.  Your  reviewer  is  willing 
to  allow  twenty  indigenous  species  to  Rodriguez ;  then- 


Area  of 
Rodriguez. 

5 


Area  of 

Madagascar. 

10,751 

-  io>7St  X20_ 


Species  in 

Rodriguez. 

20 


Species  in 
Madagascar. 


=  43,004. 


But  instead  of  an  avifauna  of  43,004  species,  or  about  four 
times  the  number  known  to  exist  throughout  the  whole  world. 
Dr.  Hartlaub  gives  it  218,  and  your  reviewer  generously  adds 
two  more,  making  220 !  Suppose  (an  extravagant  supposition) 
that  future  explorations  enable  us  to  double  the  last  number,  it 
is  Madagascar  that  will  still  be  out  of  all  proportion  "  poor  in 
species '  compared  with  "the  appendent  island  groups,"  and 
not  these  with  Madagascar. 

The  next  point  to  which  I  must  demur  is  that  '*the  indi- 
viduality of  the  fauna  of  Madagascar  is  so  unique  that  even  that 
of  New  Zealand  can  hardly  be  compared  with  it."  I  will  leave 
to  fitter  hands  than  mhie  to  show  that  this  is  not  the  case  gtn:- 
rally,  and  shall  only  remark  here  that  it  is  not  so  with  birds.  Of 
the  sub-class  Ratita  there  have  been  until  lately  five  strongly- 
marked  groups,  each  of  which  is  equivalent  to  an  "  order  " 
among  the  Carinata.  Now  twq  of  these  groups  were  peculiar  to 
New  Zealand,  and  one  {Apterygida)  is  so  now,  while  the  other 
(containing  the  families  Dinornithida  and  Palaptery^a)  is  but 
recently  extinct     Willingly  granting  that  jEpyornis^  when  we 

'  Behm'und  Wagner,  "Arcalund  Bevfilkerung  der  Erdc"  (Petermanac 
Gfogr.  MittheiluHgtM,  Erginzungshefi,  November  ao,  1876). 


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know  more  about  it,  may  prove  to  form  a  sixth  group,  the 
balance  of  '*  individuality/'  if  I  understand  the  meaning  of  the 
woid,  will  still  be  on  the  side  of  New  Zealand.  Turning  to 
tbe  Carina te  birds,  Harpagornis  stands  alone,  while  Cntmiomis 
will  certainly  count  for  as  much  as  the  Didida.  The  extraordi- 
niry  Mascarene  Rails  {Afiseryihrus  aod  AphanapUryx\  are  well 
represented  by  Ocydromus^  which  so  much  resembles  them,  and 
Slrigops  is  undoubtedly  a  more  abnormsd  form  than,  so  far  as 
we  can  judge,  either  Lophcpsittacus  or  Ntcropsittacus ;  ju«t  as 
Nestor  is  more  aberrant  than  Coracopsis^  and  HeUrolocha  than 
either  Fregilupus  or  Necropsar,  But  there  is  no  need  to  con- 
tinue the  list,  and  in  conclusion  I  will  only  declare  that  I  think 
far  too  highly  of  the  fauna  of  Madagascar  and  of  the  Mascarene 
Islands  to  wish  that  its  extraordinary  peculiarities  should  be 
undervalued,  though  I  do  not  want  them  to  be  unduly  magniftfd 
at  the  expense  of  Siose  of  the  fauna  of  New  Zealand. 

Alfred  Nkwton 
Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  October  27 


Eucalyptus 

Having  read  withjgreat  interest  the  article  ia^'yonr  journal 
(vol.  xvi.  p.  443)  on  the  Eucalyptus  I  take  the  liberty  of  sending 
you  a  pamphlet  on  the  same  subject,  in  which  I  have  endeavoured 
>  o  imite  all  the  arguments  likely  to  persuade  and  convince  the 
Italians  of  the  immense  utiUty  (A  the  above-named  tree,  the 
cultivation  of  which  would  be  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
Agro  Romano, 

As  is  well  remarked  in  the  article  in  Naturz,  tbe  Eucalyptus 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal.  Bat  in 
Italy,  where  it  prospers  almost  all  over  the  country  and  might  be 
cultivated  with  facility,  in  spite  of  the  most  earnest  efforU  on  my 
part  during  my  residence  hare  for  the  last  ten  years,  in  spite  of 
Its  being  recommended  in  Parliament  by  ooe  of  the  most  inftiiffntial 
members,  it  has  not  been  adopted. 

In  my  gardens  on  the  Lake  Maggiore^  I  cnltivate  forty  different 
varieties  of  the  Eucalyptus,     Of  these  the  amygdalina  and  the 

flobulus  have  attahied,  in  eight  years,  the  height  of  17  metres, 
t  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  temperatare  has  sometimes  been 
as  low  as  7°  C.  below  zero  without  injury  to  these  plants. 

If  you  consider  it  probable  that  these  few  words  could  be  of 
interest  to  your  readers  I  willing  authorise  you  to  publish  them 
in  your  estimable  journal.        Princk  Pibrrs  Troubitzkoy 
Villa  Troubitzkoy,  near  Intra,  Lago  Maggiore,  October  15 


These  trees  are  bow  attracting  so  much  attention  that  even 
the  small  amount  of  experience  I  may  be  able  to  offer  may  not 
be  unacceptable  to  your  readers.  Consklerable  stress  is  laid 
upK)n  their  influence  in  dissipating  malaria ;  but  I  have  not  found 
this  to  be  the  case  in  Queensland,  one  of  the  head-quarters  of  the 
tree.  I  have  personally  suffered  from  malaria  in  the  very  heart 
of  a  forest  extending  for  many  miles  in  every  direction,  and  com- 
posed mainly  of  all  the  varieties  of  Eucalyptus,  and  not  by  any 
n  eans  remarkable  for  the  extent  of  swampy  ground,  and  have 
knownmany  instances  of  febrile  attacks  among  shepherds  and 
stockmen  in  the  locality.  Moreover  I  was  told  on  inquiry  that 
these  attacks  were  not  confined  to  any  particular  year,  but  that 
every  year  some  cases  might  be  expected.  I  was  greatly  surprif  ed 
at  reading  in  your  **  Notes  "  (Nature,  voL  xvi.  p.  557)  that  the 
mosquitoes  had  disapp^d  with  the  introduction  of  the  "  gum" 
trees  into  Algeria,  This  would  not  be  the  experience  of  any  one 
who  has  lived  in  Australia,  I  believe.  I  have  fotmd  these  pests 
so  intolerable  on  high  land,  where  aXoKMt  the  only  tree 
to  be  found  was  one  variety  or  other  of  Eucalyptus,  and 
sometimes  all,  that  sleep  was  impossible  while  camping  out 
at  night,  and  life  a  burden  in  the  day  by  reason  of  these  pests. 
The  gums  emit  a  most  decided  odour,  especially  in  strong  sun- 
light. When  riding  across  the  great  Queensland  plains  and 
approaching  wooded  spurs  I  have  {Scottk/)  "  felt  "  the  charac- 
teristic smell  of  the  gums  at  a  considerable  distance.  These 
plains — ten  miles  in  breadth — are  not  crossed  in  a  short  time, 
and  the  resinous  odour  of  the  gums^  omnipresent  in  the  forest 
and  scarcely  noticed  there,  strikes  one  forcibly  when  approach- 
ing the  trees  after  the  olfactory  organs  have  been  for  some  time 
deprived  of  it  Whether  this  odour  has  any  effect  or  whether  it 
is  tAc  preservative  against  malaria,  I  do  not  know.  The  growth 
of  these  trees  in  South  America  is  veiy  rapid.  When  in  the 
Band  a  Oriental  some  years  ago  I  examined  a  plantation  of 
red  and  blue  gums,  then  eight  years  old.    The  trees  were  at 


least  forty  feet  high,  and  many  of  them  measured  thirty-six 
hiches  in  circumference  at  three  feet  from  the  ground.  They 
had  a  profusion  of  foliage  such  as  I  have  never  seen  on  the  tame 
trees  in  Australia.  This  was  right  out  on  **  pampa "  land«  in 
deep  alluvial  soiL  These  trees  had  fought  their  way  up,  in 
spite  of  the  black  ants  so  destructive  to  foliage — the  owner  told 
me  that  they  had  at  first  stripped  the  young  trees— and  the  tre- 
mendous gaies  which  sweep  over  this  open  country.  Those  to 
the  westward  and  south-westward  of  the  plantation  were  far 
inferior  in  size  to  those  on  the  east  and  north.  This  was  the 
only  grove  of  Eucalypti  in  the  Banda,  and  it  demonstrates  the 
possibility  of  covering  the  naked  pampas  to  any  extent  witk 
forest  English  settlers  in  the  River  Plate  countries  should  note 
this  fact,  and  I  am  sure  the  enlightened  owner  of  the  ^^^•"^ft 
**  Sherenden  *'  would  supply  any  of  his  countrymen  with  teed. 

Arthur  Nicols 


Meteor  of  October  19,  6.15  p.m. 

The  large  meteor  described  by  two  cotretpoaderts  (Nature, 
vol.  xvi.  p.  551)  was  observed  also  by  several  persont  in  this 
district,  but  most  of  the  accounts  are  so  meagre  and  doubtful  at 
to  possess  little  scientific  value.  The  meteor  appears,  however, 
to  have  been  well  seen  by  Mr.  W.  Watkins  Old,  of  The  Parade, 
Monmouth,  and  his  notes  are  to  interesting  that  I  b^  to  tran- 
scribe them.     He  says : — 

"The  meteor  fell  at  6.15  exactly.  It  appeared  to  me  to 
descend  perpendicularly^  some  degrees  from  and  to  the  west  of 
Arctums  (which  was  shining  brightly),  and  it  disappeared  behind 
a  bank  of  dark  cloud  above  the  horizon  at  a  point  in  a  line  pro- 
jected beyond  Arctums,  half  the  distance  between  that  star  and 
the  last  of  those  in  the  tail  of  Ursa  Major,  as  roughly  shown  in 
the  diagram  below  : — 


Una  Miyor. 


•   Arctunw. 


Thus  it  remabed  stationary,  like  a  dazzling  white  wand,  while  I 
counted  twenty,  during  whidi  time  I  could  perceive  the  vapour, 
of  which  the  trail  was  composed,  as  it  were  in  ebullition.  It 
then  gradually  curved  towards  the  north  as  depicted  in  the 
following  sketch ;  and  drifted  slowly  away  during  cigAt  minutes, 


^ArctUrrus 


^;ii^ 


until  it  lay  almost  horizontal  though  still  brightlj  illuminated, 
while  the  clouds  gradually  rose  and  covered  it  from  my  view. 
Altogether  I  observed  it  over  eight  minutes  by  my  watch.  There 
was  much  twilight  in  the  west  and  the  moon  was  shining  brightly 
from  which  one  may  judge  the  extreme  brilliancy  of  the  meteor. 
I  should  add  that  when  it  appeared  there  was  simultaneously  a 
sensible  rent  or  flip,  like  one  sometimes  hears  with  a  sharp  flash 
of  lightning,  and  which  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  appulse  of 
light,  as  it  could  scarcely  be  the  sound  of  explosion  if  there  was 
any.  It  was  too  simultaneous  to  be  the  report  of  the  descent  of 
the  meteor  through  the  air,  but  it  was  sufficiently  loud  ^to  be 
pronounced  and  caused  tome  people  standing  near  me,  with 
their  backs  to  the  west,  to  inquire  what  it  was,  though  they 
evidently  saw  nothhig  of  the  meteor  nor  even  turned  towards  its 
direction.  I  listened  but  heard  no  further  sound.*' 
Ashleydown,  Bristol,  October  26  W.  F.  Denning 


Curious  Phenomenon  during  the  Late  Gale 
Your  correspondent,  **G.  A.  M.**  (vol.  xvi  p.  551),  may  be 
interested  to  know  that  the  "ball  of  fire  "  he  saw  descend  on 
the  evening  of  the  14th  inst  was  seen  here  by  me,  and  by  those 
who  accompanied  me,  at  precisely  the  same  time  (6.50  p.m.) 
that  he  mentions.  We  were  walking  in  a  south-easterly  direc- 
tion, and  it  seemed  to  fiOl  from  about  half-way  between  that 
point  of  the  compass  and  the  moon,  which  was  due  south  of  us, 
and  shining  brightly.  The  ball  itself  appeared  to  us  lummous 
white,  whde  the  "  wake  "  left  in  its  passage  throi^h  the  air,  was 
bluish  green.    It  was  visible,  I  should  say,  for  twenty  seconds. 


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Occurring,  as  it  did,  at  a  time  when  thousands  were  wending 

their  way  to  church,  it  must  have  been  very  generally  observed. 

Harrow,  October  26  A.  W.  B.  J. 

Singing  Mice 

When  at  school  a  fnend  and  I  used  to  keep  tame  mice,  and 
amongst  our  large  stock  was  one  of  the  so-called  siogiirg  mice. 
The  mouse  in  question  was  not  one  we  bred  ourselves,  but  was 
bought  from  a  London  dealer,  so  we  had  no  opportunities  of 
knowing  whether  it  had  ever  been  kept  near  a  singing  bird  or 
not ;  but  it  was  not  at  all  averse  to  performing  in  broad  day- 
light, and  would  chirp  whilst  a  knot  of  boys  were  standing  round 
it  as  freely  as  when  the  cupboard  was  closed. 

As  M.  Brierre  describes  it  (vol.  xvi  p.  558),  the  mouse  used 
to  sit  with  iu  snout  more  or  less  elevated,  but  not  at  all  to  an 
uncomfoi table  height,  and  i^  throat  used  to  throb  like  that  of 
a  bird  whilst  singing,  the  far  of  the  one  being  ruffled  like  the 
feathers  of  the  other  ;  and  the  song  was  something  between  that 
of  a  wren  and  that  of  a  shrew  mouse,  and  rather  pleasing  than 
otherwise. 

At  first  we  were  inclined  to  attribute  the  noise  to  disease  of  the 
luags  or  throat,  but  were  unable  to  hold  that  opinion  long,  as 
there  never  seemed  to  be  any  pain  or  gasping  connected  with  it, 
but  the  noise  was  always  produced  at  peri^  of  greatest  rest, 
and  chiefly  when  the  mouse  came  out  of  its  sleeping  place  to 
wash  its  face  and  paws,  at  which  times  it  generally  chirped  at 
intei  vals.  It  never  had  the  power  of  imparting  the  art  to  others, 
nor  did  any  of  its  numerous  progeny  inherit  its  powers.  Neither 
was  it  all  short  lived,  but  rather  the  contrary,  and  its  death 
was  caused  by  an  accident.  We  were  unable  to  consider  the 
power  of  emitting  the  sounds  at  all  the  result  of  weakness  or 
disease.  Hknry  H.  Su^tkr 

Sound-Producing  Arthropods 

I  HAVE  read  with  much  interest  the  brief  abstract  given  in 
Nature  (vol.  xvi.  p.  567)  of  Mr.  Wood  Mason's  announce- 
ment to  the  Entomological  Society  of  the  discovery  of  stridulaiing 
organs  in  association  with  scorpions  ;  reference  being  made  at 
the  same  time  to  his  recognition  of  similar  sound-producing 
structures  among  other  Arthropoda,  including  certain  Crustacea. 
In  this  latter  case  no  mention  is  made  of  the  particular  types  with 
which  these  sound-organs  have  been  observed,  and  I  therefore 
hazard  the  relation  of  an  instance  that  has  recently  fallen  under 
my  own  observation  with  the  chance  of  its  proving  a  newly- 
recorded  example. 

The  crustacean  in  question,  which  I  have  ascertained  to  possess 
sound-producing  properties  to  an  eminent  degree,  is  a  species  of 
Spheroma^  belonging  to  the  Isopodous  order  of  the  class.  I  have 
cot  as  yet  ascertained  the  exact  method  in  which  sound  is  pro- 
duced nor  whether  the  animal  has  oreans  specially  adapted  for 
the  purpose  ;  on  numerous  occasions,  nowever,  my  attention  has 
been  attracted  to  the  glass  jar  of  which,  with  the  exception  of 
microscopic  Copepods  and  Protozoa,  a  single  specimen  of  the 
species  is  the  sole  animal  occupant,  by  a  Tittle  sharp  tapping 
stund  produced  three  or  four  times  consecuti? dy  with  intervals 
of  about  one  second's  duration,  and  which  I  can  almost  exactly 
imitate  by  gently  striking  the  side  of  the  jar  with  the  pointed  end 
of  a  pipette.  On  being  approached  the  little  creature  always 
endeavours  to  elude  notice  by  passing  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
stalk  of  seaweed,  upon  which  it  usually  reposes  in  the  same  way 
that  a  squirrel  dodges  round  the  branch  of  a  tree,  and  on  no 
occasion  so  far  have  I  been  able  to  catch  the  little  fellow 
flagrante  delicto,  or  in  the  act  of  producing  the  sound  which  it 
most  undoubtedly  emits.  The  diaracter  and  intensity  of  the 
sound  produced  associated  with  the  small  size  of  the  animal, 
scarcely  one  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length,  induces  me  to  believe 
that  it  is  caused  by  the  sudden  flexion  and  extension  of  the 
creature's  body.  A  more  prolonged  observation  will  no  doubt 
clear  up  this  point,  but  Mr.  Wood  Mason  may  possibly  be  in  a 
position  to  throw  further  light  upon  the  subject  by  means  of  the 
evidence  he  has  collected  In  reference  to  other  crustacean  types. 

Among  the  higher  Decapodous  crustacean  order  one  species, 
Alpheus  ruber,  frequently  collected  by  me  in  Guernsey,  produces 
a  snapping  noise  beneath  the  water  by  the  sudden  extension  of 
the  terminal  joint  of  its  larger  claw  that  can  be  heard  at  a  con- 
siderable distance,  and  that  at  once  betrays  its  lurking  place  to  a 
practised  ear.  The  large  sea  crayfish  {falinurus  quadricormi) 
again,  often  emits  when  handled  what  may  be  fiily  described  as 
a  shrill  squeaking  sound  by  the  rubbing  tO);ether  of  the  spinoui 


abdominal  segmcnti.  It  would  seem  indeed  that  a  closer  study 
of  the  hfe  lutbitt  of  the  aquatic  Arthropoda  is  likely  to  reveal 
among  its  members  as  infinite  a  variety  of  sound-producers  as  has 
hitherto  been  determined  to  exist  among  their  more  familiar 
terrestrial  congeners.  W.  Savills  Kent 

St.  Hellers,  Jersey,  October  27 


Insects  and  Flowers 

In  reference  to  the  question  whether  insects  are  most  attracted 
to  flowers  by  scent  or  colour,  may  I  mention  that  while  staying 
at  the  hotel  at  Cettinge  lately  I  was  amused  by  the  behaviour  of 
some  humming-bird  sphinx  moths.  My  room  was  roughly 
stencilled  with  a  "spotty"  pattern  of  purplish  brown  on  the  dull 
white  plaster.  Every  morning  these  moths,  with  their  probosces 
extended,  used  to  attack  the  dabs  of  colour,  hovering  before  then*, 
just  as  though  they  were  real  flowers,  but  starting  back  with 
apparent  amazement  on  finding  that  they  were  not.  This  seems 
the  more  remarkable  because  the  wonderfully  abundant  aro- 
matic herbs  of  that  region,  which  must  have  supplied  their  usual 
food,  have  all,  so  far  as  I  know,  very  inconspicuous  flowers.  * 

Notting  Hill,  October  27  A.  J.  H. 

FRANCIS  VON  ROS  THORN 

FRANCIS  VON  ROSTHORN,  who  died  June  17, 
1877,  was  the  son  of  Matthew  Rosthorn,  of 
Lancashire,  who  went  to  Vienna  in  1765,  at  the  invita- 
tion of  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa,  to  establish  the 
manufacture  of  metal  buttons.  He  constructed  the  first 
rolling-mills  in  Austria  ;  one  at  Vienna,  another  (in  1792) 
at  Fahrafeld,  in  Lower  Austria.  Matthew  von  Rosthorn 
was  ennobled  by  the  Emperor  Joseph  1 1.  in  1790,  and  died 
at  Vienna  January  3,  1805,  leaving  five  sons.  The 
youngest  of  these,  born  April  18,  1796,  at  Vienna,  is 
the  subject  of  this  notice.  These  five  brothers  joined  in 
creating  extensive  metallurgic  establishments  ;  the  first 
(1817}  at  Oed;  and  another  (1823)  in  Carinthia,  for 
smelting  zinc  (then  high  in  price)  out  of  the  Raibl  and 
Bleyberg  ores,  by  means  of  brown  coal  Having  pur- 
chased (1826)  the  state  demesne  of  Wolfsberg,  in 
Carinthia,  with  extensive  metallurgical  works,  they  con- 
structed there  a  large  rolling-mill,  together  with  a  puddling 
furnace.  Francis  von  Rosthorn,  having  prepared  him- 
self for  his  practical  career  by  attending  the  Mining 
Academy  of  Schenmitz,  in  Hungary  (181 4  to  1818),  soon 
became  acquainted  with  several  eminent  geologists,  and 
obtained  the  patronage  of  the  late  Archduke  John.  He 
made  several  scientific  tours  in  Carinthia,  Camiolia, 
Styria,  Salzburg,  and  the  Hungarian  border;  in  1827 
with  Prof.  Keferstein,  in  1828  with  Archduke  John,  in 
1829  with  Escher  and  Schrotter,  and  in  1832  with  Dr. 
Boud  His  annual  visits  to  Archduke  John  at  Gastein 
(1829  to  1836)  were  always  connected  w.th  Alpine  explo- 
ration* His  later  travels  (1842  to  1847)  were  chiefly 
southward.  In  1832  he  communicated  the  results  thus 
obtained  to  the  Meeting  of  German  Naturalists  at  Vienna  ; 
and  in  1836  to  the  meeting  at  Freiburg.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  into  the  Legislative  Assembly  (**  Landtag**)  of 
Carinthia  ;  and  from  1852  to  1870  held  the  office  of 
President  of  the  Commercial  and  Industrial  Board  of 
that  province.  Francis  von  Rosthom's  constitution  was 
exceptionally  robust,  so  that  up  to  his  seventy-sixth  year 
he  was  able  to  undertake  arduous  Alpine  ascents. 
His  conversation  with  persons  of  any  social  station  was 
unaffectedly  amiable  ;  but  he  could  be  sarcastic  when  he 
met  with  affectation  or  baseless  pretensions. 

SPECTRUM  OF  AURORA   AUSTRALIS 

S  I  believe  no  account  of  spectroscopic  observations 
of  the  Aurora  Australis  have  as  yet  been  published, 
I  venture  to  send  this  description  of  two  aurorae  observed 
during  the  stay  of  H.M.S.  Challenger  in  high  southern 

'  Obituaij  Notice  by  ProF.  E.  Suess("  Report  of  the  Imperial  Geological 
Institute,  Vienna/  August  ^i,  1877). 


A' 


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NATURE 


\Nov.  I,  1877 


latitudes.  The  opportunities  of  observing  were  not 
frequent,  either  from  the  rarity  of  the  phenomena  (which 
is  very  possible)  or  because  the  dense  mass  of  cloud  which 
is  the  prevailing  feature  of  those  regions  prevented  their 
being  seen  except  when  exceptionally  bright. 

Altogether  four  appearances  were  noted.  The  6rst  was 
1.30  on  the  morning  of  February  9,  1874,  in  lat.  57°  S. 
and  long.  75**  E.,  bar.  290  in.,  then  35°.  There  were 
brilliant  streaks  to  the  westward  ;  no  spectroscopic  obser- 
vations were  taken.  The  second  was  on  February  21  at 
9.30  P.M.,  lat.  64°  S.,  long.  89''  E.,  bar.  28  8,  ther.  31** ;  one 
bright  white  curved  streamer  extended  from  Jupiter, 
which  appeared  to  be  near  the  focus,  through  Orion  and 
about  as  far  beyond.  Under  this  was  what  appeared  to 
be  a  black  cloud,  but  the  stars  were  visible  through  it. 
Real  cumulus  clouds  hid  great  part  of  the  remainder,  but 
there  were  two  vertical  flashing  rays  that  moved  slowly  to 
the  right  (west),  generally  the  aurora  was  still  and  bright. 
On  examining  the  streamer  with  the  spectroscope  I 
found  the  usual  three  prominent  lines,  namely,  one 
yellow-green,  one  green,  the  third  blue  or  purple.  I 
looked  for  the  red  line  but  could  not  find  it. 

The  third  aurora  was  seen  on  March  3,  lat.  53**  30' 
S.,  long.  109°  E.,  bar.  29*1,  ther.  36°,  after  some  days  | 
wet  and  stormy  weather.  Soon  after  8  P.M.  the  sky 
began  to  clear  and  the  moon  shone  out.  Noticing  the 
light  to  the  southward  to  be  particularly  bright  I  applied 
the  spectroscope  and  found  the  distinguishing  auroral 
line.  About  midnight  I  was  called  as  there  were  very 
brilliant  auroral  clouds.  The  sky  was  almost  clear,  but 
south  were  two  or  three  brilliant  light  clouds,  colour  very 
white  ytUow,  shape  cumulus  stratus  ;  from  about  west  to 
near  south  extended  a  long  feathery  light  of  the  same 
colour,  parallel  with  the  horizon,  and  between  south  and 
west  there  appeared  occasionally  brilliant  small  clouds, 
the  upper  edges  seemed  hairy,  and  gave  one  the  idea  of 
a  bright  light  behind  a  cloud.  The  forms  changed,  but  I 
did  not  notice  any  particular  order,  perhaps  because  my 
attention  was  particularly  directed  to  examining  the  light 
with  the  spectroscope,  and  the  great  cold,  for  my  fingers 
seemed  almost  frozen,  and  the  motion  of  the  ship  made 
my  task  rather  difficult.  I  could  trace  four  lines,  three 
bright,  and  one  rather  faint,  and  by  reference  to  the  moon, 
which  was  shining  brightly,  roughly  determined  their 
places.  They  must  have  been  exceedingly  bright  to  show 
so  plainly  in  full  moon.  The  spectroscope  used  was  one 
of  Grubb's  single  prism  with  long  collimator.  A  needle 
point  in  the  eye-piece  marked  the  position  of  the  lines, 
and  a  corresponding  needle  point  carried  on  a  frame  with 
the  point  in  the  eye-piece  and  moved  by  a  coarse  thread 
screw,  scratched  the  lines  on  a  plate  of  blackened  glass. 
I  took  two  plates  ;— on  the  first  I  scratched  the  auroral 
lines  and  the  telluric  lines  visible  in  the  moonlight ;  on 
the  second  I  scratched  the  auroral  lines,  the  telluric  lines 
shown  by  the  moon,  and  the  lines  given  by  carbon  in  the 
flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  ;  the  next  morning  I  verified  the 
lines  in  sunlight    The  lines  marked  A  are  those  shown 


\D 


Cicr. 


a 


Car. 


Cxi\ 


A 


A<^ 


A^ 


by  the  aurora,  those  marked  D,  ^,  F,  and  G  are  the 
telluric  lines,  and  those  marked  ca^\  were  given  by  the 
carbon  in  the  spirit  lamp. 

The  spectrum  has  been  magnified  five  times  from  the 
plates.    I  cannot  account  for  the  different  position  of  the 


auroral  lines  in  the  two  plates,  as  the  prism  was  not 
moved  during  the  observations  that  I  am  aware  of. 

The  fourth  aurora  was  a  slight  one  seen  to  the  south- 
ward on  March  6  at  8  P.M.  It  would  be  worth  investi- 
gating whether  the  low  barometer  has  anything  to  do 
with  the  absence  of  red  in  the  spectrum,  the  normal  state 
of  the  barometer  is  an  inch  lower  in  those  regions  than  in 
more  temperate  latitudes. 

I  may  as  well  add  that  on  February  9  the  aurora  was 
preceded  by  a  watery  sunset,  and  the  day  broke  after- 
wards  with  high  cirrus  clouds  and  clear  horizon.  On 
February  21  the  aurora  preceded  a  fine  morning,  cumulu* 
stratus  clouds.  On  March  3  there  was  a  brilliant  sunset 
followed  by  a  fine  morning  ;  and  on  March  6,  after  the 
slight  appearance  of  aurora,  the  clouds  changed  to  high 
cirrus.  J-  P.  Maclear 


ABSOLUTE  PITCH 

AT  the  present  time  the  question  of  absolute  pitch  is 
attracting  attention  in  consequence  of  the  discrepancy 
between  K6nig*s  scale  and  the  numbers  determined  by 
Appunn's  tonometer.  This  instrument  is  founded  upon  the 
same  idea  as  Scheibler's  fork  tonometer,  and  consists  of  a 
s.ries  of  sixty-five  harmonium  reeds,  bridging  over  an 
entire  octave,  and  so  tuned  that  each  reed  gives  with  its 
immediate  neighbours  four  beats  per  second.  The  appli- 
cation to  determine  absolute  pitch,  however,  does  not 
require  precision  of  tuning,  all  that  is  necessary  being  to 
count  with  sufficient  accuracy  the  number  of  beats  per 
second  between  each  pair  of  consecutive  reeds.  The  sum 
of  all  these  numbers  gives  the  difference  of  frequencies  of 
vibration  between  the  first  reed  and  its  octave,  which  is, 
of  course,  the  same  as  the  frequency  of  the  first  reed 
itself. 

The  whole  question  of  musical  pitch  has  recently  been 
discussed  with  great  care  by  Mr.  Ellis,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  Society  of  Arts  (May  23,  1877).  He  finds  by 
original  observation  with  Appunn's  instrument  258*4  as 
the  actual  frequency  of  a  Kooig*s  256  fork,  and  Prof. 
Preyer,  of  Jena,  has  arrived  at  a  similar  result  (258  2). 
On  the  other  hand.  Prof.  Mayer  in  America,  and  Prof. 
Macleod  in  this  country,  using  other  methods,  have 
obtained  numbers  not  differing  materially  from  Konig's. 
The  discrepancy  is  so  considerable  that  it  cannot  well  be 
attributed  to  casual  errors  of  experiment ;  it  seems  rather 
to  point  to  some  defect  in  principle  in  the  method 
employed.  Now  it  appears  to  me  that  there  is  such  a 
theoretical  defect  in  the  reed  tonometer,  arising  from  a 
sensible  mutual  action  of  the  reeds.  The  use  of  the 
instrument  to  determine  absolute  frequencies  assumes 
that  the  pitch  of  each  reed  is  the  same,  whether  it  be 
sounding  with  the  reed  above,  or  with  the  reed  below  ; 
and  the  results  arrived  at  wouldjbe  vitiated  by  any  mutual 
influence.  In  consequence  of  the  ill- understood  opera- 
tion of  the  wind,  it  is  difficult  to  predict  the  character  of 
the  mutual  influence  with  certainty  ;  but  ("  Theory  of 
Sound,"  §§  112-115)  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the 
sounds  would  repel  one  another,  so  that  the  frequency  of 
the  beats  heard  when  both  reeds  are  sounding,  exceeds  the 
difference  of  the  frequencies  of  the  reeds  when  sounding 
singly.  However  this  may  be,  in  view  of  the  proximity 
of  consecutive  reeds  and  of  the  near  approach  to  unison,^ 
the  assumption  of  complete  independence  could  only  be 
justified  bv  actual  observation,  and  this  would  be  a  matter 
of  some  aelicacy.  If  the  mutual  influence  be  uniform 
over  the  octave  it  would  require  a  difference  of  one  beat 
per  minute  only  to  reconcile  Konig's  and  Appunn's 
numbers. 

As  to  the  amount  of  the  influence  I  am  not  in  a  position 
to  speak  with  confidence,  but  I  may  mention  an  obser- 

>  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  vibration  of  the  tongue  involves  a 
transference  of  the  centre  of  inertia,  so  that  there  is  a  direct  tendency  to 
set  the  sounding-board  into  motion. 


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13 


vation  which  seems  to  prove  that  it  cannot  be  left  out  of 
account.  If  two  sounds  of  nearly  the  same  pitch  are 
going  on  together,  slow  beats  are  heard  as  the  result  of  the 
superposition  of  vibrations.  Suppose  now  that  a  third 
sound  supervenes  whose  pitch  is  such  that  it  gives  rapid 
beats  with  the  other  twa  It  is  evident  that  these  rapid 
beats  will  be  subject  to  a  cycle  of  changes  whose  fre- 
quency is  the  same  as  that  of  the  slow  beat  of  the  first 
two  sounds.  For  example,  in  the  case  of  equal  inten- 
sities of  two  sounds  there  is  a  moment  of  silence  due 
to  the  superposition,  of  equal  and  opposite  vibrations, 
and  at  this  moment  a  third  sound  would  be  heard 
alone  and  could  not  give  rise  to  beats.  The  experiment 
may  be  made  with  tuning-forks,  and  the  period  of  the 
cycle  will  be  found  to  be  sensibly  the  same  whether  it  be 
determined  from  the  slow  beat  of  the  two  forks  nearly  in 
unison  or  from  the  rattle  caused  by  the  simultaneous 
sounding  of  a  third  fork  giving  from  four  to  ten  beats  per 
second  with  the  other  two.  In  the  case  of  forks  there  is 
no  fear  of  sensible  mutual  action^  but  if  it  were  possible 
for  the  third  sound  to  affect  the  pitch  of  one  of  the  others 
the  equality  of  the  periods  would  be  disturbed.  The 
observation  on  Appunn's  instrument  was  as  follows  : — 
The  reeds  numbered  o  and  64  being  adjusted  to  an  exact 
octave,  it  was  found  that  the  beats  arising  from  the  simul- 
taneous sounding  of  reeds  o,  63,  and  64  were  by  no 
means  steady,  but  passed  through  a  cycle  of  changes  in  a 
period  no  greater  than  about'five  seconds.  In  order  to  work 
with  greater  certainty  a  resonator  of  pitch  corresponding 
to  re^  64  was  connected  with  the  ear  by  a  flexible  tube 
and  adjusted  to  such  a  position  that  the  beats  between 
reeds  o  and  64  (when  put  slightly  out  of  tune)  were 
as  distinct  as  possible,  indicating  that  the  gravest  tone  of 
reed  64  and  the  octave  over-tone  of  reed  o  were  of  equal 
intensity.  By  flatienins^  reed  64  (which  can  be  done  very 
readily  by  partially  cutting  off  the  wind)  the  beats  of  the 
three  sounds  could  be  made  nearly  steady,  and  then  when 
reed  63  was  put  out  of  operation,  beats  having  a  5 
seconds'  period  were  heard,  indicating  that  reeds  o  and 
64  were  in  tune  no  longer.  It  would  appear,  therefore, 
that  when  reed  63  sounds  the  pitch  of  reed  64  is  raised, 
but  in  interpreting  the  experiment  a  difficulty  arises  from 
the  amount  of  the  disturbance  being  much  in  excess  of 
what  would  be  expected  from  the  performance  of  the 
instrument  when  tested  in  other  ways,* 

I  come  now  to  an  independent  determination  of  abso- 
lute pitch,  which  it  is  the  principal  object  of  the  present 
communication  to  descrit)e.  The  method  employed  may 
be  regarded  as  new,  and  it  appears  to  be  capable  of  giving 
excellent  results. 

The  standard  fork,  whose  frequency  was  to  be  measured, 
is  one  of  Kdnig's,  and  is  supposed  to  execute  128  com- 
plete vibrations  in  a  second.  When  placed  on  its  stand 
(which  does  not  include  a  resonance  box)  and  excited  by 
a  violin  bow,  it  vibrates  for  a  minute  with  intensity  suffi- 
cient for  the  counting  of  beats.  The  problem  is  to 
compare  the  frequency  of  this  fork  with  that  of  the 
pendulum  of  a  clock  keeping  good  time.  In  my  experi- 
ments two  clocks  were  employed,  of  which  one  had  a 
pendulum  making  about  i^  complete  vibrations  per  second, 
and  the  other  a  so-called  seconds'  pendulum,  making 
half  a  vibration  per  second.  Contrary  to  expectation, 
the  slower  pendulum  was  found  the  more  convenient  in  use, 
and  the  numerical  results  about  to  be  given  refer  to  it 
alone.  The  rate  of  the  clock  at  the  time  of  the  experi- 
ments was  determined  by  comparison  with  a  watch  that 

«  The  value  of  my  instrument  has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  the  valuable 
assistance  of  Mr.  Ellis,  who  was  good  enough  to  count  the  entire  series  of 
beats,  and  to  compare  the  pitch  with  that  of  the  tuning-forks  employed  by 
hini  in  previous  investigations.  Mr.  EUis,  however,  is  not  responsible  for 
the  facts  and  opmions  here  expressed.  It  may  be  worth  mentioning  that 
the  steadiness  or  unsteadiness  of  the  beats  heard  when  three  consecutive 
Teeds  are  sounding  simuUaneousJy  is  a  convenient  t^st  of  the  equality  of  the 
consecutive  intervals.  The  frequency  of  the  cycle  of  the  four  a  second 
beats  is  equal  to  the  difference  of  the  frequencies  of  either  of  the  actoal 
extreme  notes  and  that  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  other  two,  would  i 
make  the  intervals  exactly  equal. 


was  keeping  good  time,  but  the  difference  was  found  to 
be  too  small  to  be  worth  considering.  In  what  follows  it 
will  be  supposed  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  of  explanation 
that  the  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  really  occupied  two 
seconds  of  time  exactly. 

The  remainder  of  the  apparatus  consists  of  an  elec- 
trically maintained  fork  interrupter,  with  adjustable 
weights,  making  about  12^  vibrations  per  second,  and  a 
dependent  fork,  whose  uequency  is  about  125.  The 
current  from  a  Grove  cell  is  rendered  intermittent  by  the 
interrupter,  and,  as  in  Helmholtz's  vowel  experiments, 
excites  the  vibrations  of  the  second  fork,  whose  period  is 
as  nearly  as  possible  an  exact  submultiple  of  its  own. 
When  the  apparatus  is  in  steady  operation,  the  sound 
emitted  from  a  resonator  associated  with  the  higher  fork 
has  a  frequency  which  is  determined  by  that  of  the 
interrupter,  and  not  by  that  of  the  higher  fork  itself; 
nevertheless,  an  accurate  tuning  is  necessary  in  order  to 
obtain  vibrations  of  sufficient  intensity.^  By  counting  the 
beats  during  a  minute  of  time  it  is  easy  to  compare  the 
higher  fork  and  the  standard  with  the  necessary  accuracy, 
and  all  that  remains  is  to  compare  the  frequencies  of  the 
interrupter  and  of  the  pendulum.  For  this  purpose  the 
prongs  of  the  interrupter  are  provided  with  small  plates 
of  tin  so  arranged  as  to  afford  an  intermittent  view  of  a 
small  silvered  bead  carried  by  the  pendulum  and  suitably 
illuminated.  Under  the  actual  circumstances  of  the 
experiment  the  bright  point  of  light  is  visible  in  general 
in  twenty-five  positions,  which  would  remain  fixed,  if  the 
frequency  of  the  interrupter  were  exactly  twenty-five 
times  that  of  the  pendulum.  In  accordance,  however, 
with  a  well-known  principle,  these  twenty- five  positions 
are  not  easily  observed  when  the  pendulum  is  simply 
looked  at ;  for  the  motion  then  appears  to  be  continuous. 
The  difficulty  thence  arising  is  readily  evaded  by  the 
interposition  of  a  somewhat  narrow  vertical  slit,  through 
which  only  one  of  the  twenty-five  positions  is  visible.  In 
practice  it  is  not  necessary  to  adjust  the  slit  to  any  par- 
ticular position,  since  a  slight  departure  from  exactness 
in  the  ratio  of  frequencies  brings  all  the  visible  positions 
into  the  field  of  view  in  turn. 

In  making  an  experiment  the  interrupter  is  tuned,  at 
first  by  sliding  the  weights  and  afterwards  by  soft  wax, 
until  the  interval  between  successive  appearances  of  the 
bright  spot  is  sufficiently  long  to  be  conveniently  ob- 
served. With  a  slow  pendulum  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
distinguishing  in  which  direction  the  pendulum  is  vibrat- 
ing at  the  moment  when  the  spot  appears  on  the  slit,  and 
it  is  t>est  to  attend  only  to  those  appearances  which 
correspond  to  one  direction  of  the  pendulum's  motion. 
This  will  be  best  understood  by  considering  the  case  of  a 
conical  pendulum  whose  motion,  really  circular,  appears 
to  be  rectilinear  to  an  eye  situated  in  the  plane  of  motion. 
The  restriction  just  spoken  of  then  amounts  to  supposing 
the  hinder  half  of  the  circular  path  to  be  invisible.  On 
this  understanding  the  interval  between  successive  ap- 
pearances is  the  time  required  by  the  fork  to  g^n  or  lose 
one  complete  vibration  as  compared  with  the  pendulum. 
Whether  the  difference  is  a  loss  or  a  gain  is  easily  deter- 
mined in  any  particular  case  by  observing  whether  the 
apparent  motion  of  the  spot  across  the  slit  (which  should 
have  a  visible  breadth)  is  in  the  same  or  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  that  of  the  pendulum's  motion. 

In  my  experiment  the  interrupter  ^ftf/w^// one  vibration  on 
the  clock  in  about  eighty  seconds,  so  that  the  frequency  of 
the  fork  was  a  thousandth  part  greater  than  12-5  or  12-51. 
The  dependent  fork  gave  the  ninth  harmonic,  with  a 
frequency  of  I25'i.  The  beats  between  this  fork  and  the 
standard  (whose  pitch  was  the  higher)  were  180  in  sbcty 
seconds,  so  that  the  frequency  of  the  standard  was  as 
nearly  as  possible  i28-i,agreemg  very  closely  with  Konig's 

I  Tlus  tuning  is  effected  by  prolonging  as  much  as  possible  the  period  of 
the  beat  heatrl  when  the  dependent  fork  starts  from  rest  This  beat  may  be 
regarded  as  due  to  an  intttferencc  of  the  forced  and  natural  notes. 


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\NoiK  I,  1877 


scale.  The  error  of  the  determination  may  amount  to  *i^ 
but  could  not,  I  think,  exceed  '2. 

I  ought  to  add  that  the  approximate  determination  of 
the  frequency  of  the  interrupter  must  be  made  indepen- 
dently, as  the  observation  on  the  pendulum  does  not 
decide  which  multiple  of  \  nearly  coincides  with  the 
frequency  of  the  fork.  Also" the  relation  between  the  two 
auxiliary  forks  was  assumed,  and  not  determined  \  but  as 
to  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  unless  it  be  supposed  that 
Konig's  scale  may  be  in  error  to  the  extent  of  a  whole 
tone.  Rayleigh 


A  NEW  CONDENSING  HYGROMETER 

NEW    apparatus   of  this   kind,   invented   by  M. 
AUuard,  and  descnbed  by  him  in  La  Nature,^  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  those  hitherto  employed  by  the  two 


A 


Alluard's  Condensing  Hygrometer. 

following  points  : — (i)  The  part  on  which  the  deposit  of 
dew  is  to  be  observed  is  a  plane  well-polished  face  A,  of 


silver  or  gilt  brass  ;  (2)  This  plane  face  is  set  in  a  plate 
of  silver  or  brass  v,  itself  gilt  and  polished,  which  does 
not  touch  it,  and  which,  never  being  cooled,  always  pre- 
serves its  brightness.  It  results  from  this  arrangement 
that  the  deposit  of  dew  is  observed  with  the  greatest 
facility,  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  scarcely  any  differ- 
ence between  the  temperatures  of  the  instants  when  the 
dew  commences  and  ceases  to  appear  on  the  instrument 
properly  cooled  by  the  evaporation  of  ether. 

The  form  of  the  instrument  is  that  of  an  upright  prism 
with  square  base.  Its  height  is  eight  centimetres  and  the 
side  of  its  base  eighteen  millimetres.  Three  small  copper 
tubes  pass  through  the  upper  lid  ;  the  first  reaches  the 
bottom,  and  the  two  others,  one  surmoimted  by  a  funnel 
for  introducing  the  ether,  open  only  above.  Two  small 
windows  enable  us  to  judge  of  the  agitation  of  the  ether 
by  the  aspiration  or  driving  back  of  the  air  intended  to 
produce  coolness  by  the  evaporation  of  tlie  volatile  liquid  ; 
It  is  best  to  work  with  an  aspirator,  the  aspiration  of 
which  we  can  regulate  as  we  wish.  A  central  tube  per- 
mits the  introduction  of  a  thermometer,  /,  which,  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  evaporating  liquid,  gives  the  tem- 
perature at  which  the  deposit  of  dew  occurs.  A  small 
sling  thermometer,  fixed  on  the  side  of  a  brass  support, 
enables  us  to  determine  with  precision  the  temperature  of 
the  air  whose  hygrometric  condition  we  wish  to  ascertain. 

Daniell's  condensing  hygrometer  was  formerly  modified 
by  M.  V.  Regnault.  He  made  it  an  instrument  of  pre- 
cision ;  but  his  apparatus  has  not  been  much  used  on 
account  of  its  delicate  construction.  The  deposit  of  dew, 
being  made  on  a  cylinder  of  polished  silver,  is  difficult  to 
observe.  In  the  plane  face  hygrometer  of  M.  Alluard  this 
deposit  is  very  easily  seen  by  contrast,  even  at  some 
metres  distance,  especially  if  care  is  taken  to  observe  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  avoid  all  reflection  from  the  gilt 
faces,  when  they  will  appear  a  beautiful  ebony  black.  Its 
employment  being  very  simple,  without  losing  anything  of 
its  precision,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  come 
into  general  use. 

Since  meteorological  observations  have  multiplied  on 
all  sides,  the  hygrometer  has  assumed  an  importance 
which  it  had  not  before.  The  psychrometer  is  at  present 
almost  exclusively  employed.  But  all  physicists  know 
that  below  zero  we  cannot  trust  the  results  which  it  gives ; 
it  is  the  same  when  the  air  is  much  disturbed.  And  yet, 
almost  everywhere,  it  continues  to  be  emplo)ed  on  these 
conditions.  We  hope  that  the  plane  face  hygrometer, 
furnished  during  the  winter  cold  with  an  aspirator  filled 
with  glycerine,  will  be  able  to  yield  accurate  results  to  all 
who  do  not  fear  to  devote  a  few  minutes  to  its  working. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Early  Observations  of  the  Solar  Corona. — 
Referring  to  Mr.  Dreyer's  letter  in  Nature  (vol.  xvi. 
p.  549),  the  note  in  this  column  relating  to  the  solar 
eclipse  of  1605  was  by  no  means  intended  to  imply  that 
it  afforded  one  of  the  earliest  observations  of  the  corona, 
nor  can  the  eclipse  of  Stiklastad,  as  it  h?s  been  usually 
called,  on  August  31,  1030,  be  so  characterised.  Prof. 
Julius  Schmidt,  of  Athens,  had  called  attention  in  1870  to 
a  record  of  the  eclipse  of  December  22,  968,  in  Corfu, 
where  he  found  a  reference  to  the  corona,  but  a  much 
earlier  date  is  assigned  by  Prof.  Grant  for  the  first  mention 
of  this  phenomenon.  It  occurs  in  Philostratus'  "  Life  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana,"  Book  VI 1 1.,  chap,  xxiii.,  in  the 
Leipzic  edition,  and  runs  thus  : — Utpi  8«  rov  xpoVoi^,  hv  kv 
rfj  *E\\ddi  €V€(nrovda(fv,  firtix^  rov  ovpavhv  Bioorffxia  roiovny. 
rov  Tov  *HXiou  kvkKov  nepuXOav  orc'c^xivof,  ioiKcos  *'Ipidi,  rfjv 
aKTiva  rjiutvpov.  Prof.  Grant  considers  that  "the  words 
here  quoted  refer  beyond  all  doubt  to  a  total  eclipse  of 
the  sun,  and  that  the  phenomenon  seen  encompassing 
the  sun's  disc  was  really  as  well  as  verbally,  identical  with 
the  modem  corona."    He  also  points  out  that  Plutarch, 


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NA  TURE 


15 


who  was  contemporary  with  Apollonius,  refers  to  a  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun  which  had  recently  occurred,  and 
remarks  of  total  solar  eclipses  in  generd  that  "  a  certain 
effulgence  is  seen  round  the  circumference,"  so  that 
although  the  sun  may  be  wholly  covered  by  the  moon 
"  still  Uie  eclipse  is  deficient  in  duration  as  well  as  in 
amplitude,''  this  surrounding  effulgence  not  allowing  of  a 
very  intense  shadow.  These  remarks  of  Philostratus  and 
Plutarch  Prof.  Grant  thinks  may  probably  apply  to  the 
same  eclipse,  and  afford  '4he  earliest  allusions  to  the 
corona  recorded  in  history."  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  to  discover  the  date  of  the  phenomenon,  but  so  far 
as  we  know  without  success. 

The  earliest  distinct  and  more  accurate  account  of  the 
corona  is  that  given  by  MM.  Plantade  and  Capias,  who 
observed  at  Montpellier  on  the  occasion  of  the  eclipse  of 
May  12,  1706. 

The  Outer  Satellite  of  Mars.— -Our  ephemeris  of 
the  satellite  of  Mars  is  here  continued  ten  days  further 
from  the  elements  employed  last  week,  though  much 
greater  difficulty  most  now  attend  observations  than  when 
the  discovery  was  first  announced.  In  the  middle  of 
August  the  distance  of  the  planet  from  the  earth  was  less 
than  o'4 ;  on  November  12  it  will  have  increased  to  o*68. 
At  the  next  opposition  in  1879,  ^^  \^^&\>  distance  of  Mars 
will  be  o'482,  at  a  north  declination  of  upwards  of  iS**,  so 
that  observations  may  be  made  at  many  observatories  in 
this  hemisphere,  probably  without  greater  difficulty  than 
about  the  late  opposition;  at  the  following  one  in 
December,  1881,  the  planet  will  attain  a  declination  of  27° 
N.,  but  its  distance  from  the  earth  will  be  at  no  time  less 
than  0*602. 

Prof.  Asaph  Hall's  complete  discussion  of  the  observa- 
tions of  the  satellites  of  Mars,  made  in  the  present  year, 
will  be  looked  for  with  much  interest ;  it  is  only  fitting 
that  this  investigation  should  be  left  in  the  hands  of  their 
discoverer,  who  has  made  the  year  1877  a-  very  notable 
epoch  in  the  history  of  practical  astronomy. 

The  following  positions  of  the  outer  satellite  are  for  8h. 
G.M.T. 

Nov. 


3.. 

.  Pos.  358 .. 

.Dist 

21 

Nov.  8 

.Pes. 

27.. 

.Dist, 

3 

4- 

.    „      69.. 

»i 

52 

„     9. 

••     u 

75 

•    >f 

5.. 

.     „    122., 

i> 

25 

„    10. 

•v., 

150. 

•    >* 

20 

6.. 

.     ,.    236. 

f» 

42 

„    II 

i> 

31; 

•    » 

^S 

7.. 

.     „    272.. 

•    i» 

37 

„    12. 

•     *» 

»> 

28 

De  Vico's  Comet  of  Short  Period.— The  year  to 
which  we  drew  attention  some  time  since  (i 876*9- 1877*9) 
as  one  which  might  possibly  witness  the  re-discovery  of 
De  Vico's  comet  of  1844  is  drawing  to  a  close  without  its 
having  been  remarked,  and  the  chance  of  detecting  it  at 
this  season  if  the  perihelion  passage  be  not  already 
passed,  is  small.  We  must  therefore  probably  place  the 
comet  in  the  class  which,  though  undoubtedly  moving  in 
elliptical  orbits  of  small  dimensions  when  under  observa- 
tion, are  now  "  lost"  Whether  in  the  case  of  De  Vico's 
comet  this  arises  from  a  larger  error  in  the  determination  of 
the  mean  motion  in  1844  than  at  present  appears  admissible, 
or  whether  the  action  of  the  planet  Mars,  to  which  allu- 
sion has  been  made  in  this  column,  may  explain  it,  or 
again,  whether  the  comet  has  encountered  one  of  the 
minor  planets,  and  thereby  been  deflected  or  disintegrated, 
cannot  be  at  present  ascertained.  It  was  hardly  to  have 
been  anticipated  that  the  laborious  investigations  of  Prof. 
Briinnow  relating  to  the  motion  of  this  comet  from  1844- 
55  would  not  have  resulted  in  its  re-observation. 


METEOROLOGICAL   NOTES 

Mean  Atmospheric  Pressure  of  Europe.— A 
great  contribution  to  this  very  important  subject  has 
been  made  by  Dr.  Buys  Ballot  in  the  second  volume  of 
the  "  Nederlandsch  Meteorologisch  Jaarboek  voor  1872,*^ 
which  has  just  been  published.    The  first  130  pages  of 


the  volume  are  occupied  with  a  very  careful  and  in  certain 
directions  exhaustive  discussion  of  the  barometric  obser- 
vations made  at  about  1 10  places  situated  in  different 
parts  of  Europe  from  1774  to  1874.  The  method  of  dis- 
cussion is  identical  with  that  adopted  by  Dr.  Buys  Ballot 
in  his  recently  published  paper  on  the  Meteorology  of 
Holland  (Nature,  vol.  xvi.  p.  89).  This  method  consists 
in  accei)ting  as  the  normal  mean  atmospheric  pressure  at 
Greenwich,  Vienna,  and  Palermo,  the  arithmetic  means 
of  the  observations  made  at  these  places  which  embrace 
periods  of  100,  loi,  and  84  years  respectively.  The 
normal  values  for  the  other  stations  have  been  determined 
by  the  process  of  differentiation,  that  is,  by  a  comparison 
of  the  means  of  all  the  observations  made  at  the  place 
with  the  corresponding  means  of  one  or  more  places  at 
the  nearest  available  stations  whose  normals  have  been 
already  determined,  and  thereafter  applying  the  necessary 
correction.  Thus  the  normals  which  have  been  arrived 
at  in  this  very  laborious  manner  are  substantially  the 
averages  which  would  have  been  obtained  if  the  obser- 
vations at  each  of  the  stations  had  been  made  during 
precisely  the  same  terms  of  vears.  The  thirty  years' 
averages  should  probably  have  been  accepted  as  the  best 
normals  for  Stykkisholm  in  Iceland,  instead  of  correcting 
these  averages  from  the  Greenwich  and  Christiania 
observations,  seeing  that  a  low  average  barometer  at 
Stykkisholm  is  frequently  coincident  with  a  high  baro- 
meter at  either  or  both  of  these  stations,  and  vice  versd. 
The  resulting  differences,  however,  are  but  slight  This 
work  of  Dr.  Buys  Ballot,  particularly  when  looked  at  with 
reference  to  future  discussions,  may  be  said  to  take  a 
place  at  once  as  a  classic  of  meteorology.  The  next  step  to 
be  taken  in  this  field  of  European  meteorology  is  the  discus- 
sion of  all  good  barometric  observations  made  in  Europe 
during  the  meteorological  lustrum  ending  with  1875.  To 
the  results  of  this  discussion  corrections  could  be  applied 
from  Du  Buys  Ballot's  normals,  which  are  sufficiently 
numerous  for  the  purpose,  and  thus  a  graphic  representa- 
tion could  be  made  ot  the  closest  possible  approximation 
to  the  true  mean  atmospheric  pressure  of  Europe.  In 
this  way,  by  disclosing  the  striking,  and  in  a  large 
measure  still  unrecognised,  influence  of  large  masses  of 
land  and  water  on  Uie  barometric  pressure,  much  light 
would  be  thrown  on  the  origin  and  history  of  those  great 
atii\pspheric  currents  which,  flowing  or  sweeping  over  this 
continent,  are  mainly  instrumental  in  determining  the 
climates  of  its  dififerent  regions. 

Meteorology  of  New  York,  U.S.-^-The  "Annual 
Report  of  the  New  York  Meteorological  Observatory  for 
1876"  gives,  in  addition  to  the  individual  observations 
made  daily,  and  their  monthly  and  annual  averages,  a 
more  than  usually  full  statement  of  rain  and  wind  obser- 
vations.    On  pp.  39-88    are    given    the  details  of  the 
amount  of  rain  and  snow-water  which  fell  each  hour 
from  1870  to  1876,  together  with  the  hourly  averages  of 
each  month  for  these  seven  years.    These  hourly  means 
show  maximum  amounts  during  winter,  from  11  A.M.  to 
3  P.M. ;   during  spring,  from  9  p.m.  to  i  A.M. ;  during 
summer,  from  5  to  10  p.m.  ;  and  during  autumn,  from 
3  to  8  A.M.    The  irrwpilarity  of  these  periods  and  the 
irregular  occurrence  of  secondary  maxima  indicate  that 
seven  years  is  too  short  a  time  for  the  determination  of 
the  hourly  curve  of  the  rainfall  at  New  York.    There 
appears,  however,  a  tendency   to  a  double  maxim  im 
varying  considerably  with  reason.     Extended  observaiion 
alone  can  give  this  curve.    The  influence  of  the  daily 
fluctuation  of  temperature  and  of  the  sea  breeze  which 
sets  in  very  decidedly  from  south-east  during  the  hot 
months  on  the  rain-curve,  can  then  be  studied.     During 
the  same  seven  years  the  duration  of  each  shower  has 
been  noted  in   the   number  of  minutes,    the   average 
result  of  which  is  that  the  minimum   time   of  fall,  a 
small  fraction  less  than  two  days,  occurred  in  June; 
j  from  this   time  it  slowly  but   steadily  rose  to  3  days 


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\_Noi\  r,  1877 


17  hours  in  January,  fell  a  little  in  February,  and 
rose  to  4j  days,  the  annual  miximum  in  March,  from 
which  it  rapidly  declined  to  the  minimum  in  June. 
On  a  mean  of  the  past  forty-one  years  the  monthly 
averages  are  in  excess  from  Mav  to  August  inclusive, 
August  and  May  being  decidedly  the  months  of  maximum 
rainfall,  whilst  January  and  February  are  the  months  of 
least  rainfall.  From  1836  the  annual  amounts  show  with 
some  interruptions  a  decided  increase  in  the  rainfall  up 
to  1868,  since  which  year  there  has  been  as  decided  a 
decrease.  This  result  is  generally  corroborated  by  the 
rainfall  at  Washington,  Philadelphia,  and  Providence, 
which  Mr.  Draper  adds  to  his  Report  A  valuable  table 
of  the  monthly  amounts  from  1836  to  1876  is  printed  at 
p.  6.  In  accordance  with  the  suggestion  thrown  out  by 
Mr.  Hill  (Nature,  vol.  xvi.  p.  505)  the  amounts  for  the 
winter  months  have  been  pickfed  out,  avers^ed  for  the 
eleven-years  sun-spot  period,  and  bloxamed.  The  results, 
thus  worked  out,  are  in  inches  these,  beginning  with  the 
first  year  of  the  cycle  :— 22*57,  22*26,  22*92,  23*31,  22*24, 
2103,  2198,  2105,  2114,  22'i8,  and  23*56. 

Meteorology  in  Russia.— The  St  Petersburg  Agro- 
nomical Society  has  appointed  a  special  committee  for 
the  purpose  of  elaborating,  in  accord  with  other  Russian 
scientific  bodies,  a  scheme  for  estabUshing  throughout 
Russia  an  extensive  net^vork  of  meteorological  stations. 
Owing  to  the  interest  manifested  in  the  subject  by  a  great 
number  of  agriculturists,  it  is  expected  that  the  plan 
will  soon  be  put  into  execution. 


NOTES 

We  much  regret  to  have  to  annoanoe  the  death,  on  Sunday 
last,  of  Mr.  Robert  Swinhoe,  F.R.S.,  a  naturalist  whoee 
numerous  contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  mammalia  and 
birds  of  the  Chinese  Empire  have  proved  invaluable  to  zoolo- 
gical science.  We  hope,  next  week,  to  give  an  account  of 
Mr.  S^lnhoe's  work. 

The  International  Committee  for  the  erection  of  a  monument 
to  Liebig  at  Munich,  having  now  at  their  disposal  a  sum  of 
120,000  marks,  invite  sculptors  of  all  nations  to  send  in  models 
for  their  acceptance.  A  prize  of  2,000  marks  will  be  givej^  to 
the  model  which  takes  the  first  places  and  1,500  to  the  second. 
The  model  of  the  statue  should  be  forty  centimetres,  and  of  statue 
and  pedestal  about  one  metre  in  height.  Models  should  be 
addressed  to  the  ''Castellan  der  koniglichen  Akademie  der 
Kiinste,  38,  Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin,"  where  they  will  be 
received  from  June  I  to  15,  1878,  to  be  exhibited  first  at  Berlin 
and  then  at  Munich.  The  Committee  bear  all  the  expenses  of 
transport. 

It  has  been  noted  in  the  French  papers  ^  propos  of  the  receat 
colliery  explosion,  that  M.  Leverrier,  when  presiding  at  the 
meeting  of  the  French  learned  societies  at  Easter,  proposed  to 
extend  the  telegraphic  warnings  of  thcj  International  Meteo- 
rological System  to  the  several  French  pits.  The  question  of  the 
illnminadon  of  mines  by  electricity  has  been  revived  by  these  ter- 
rible tragedies,  and  a  number  of  interesting  communications  con- 
nected with  that  important  topic  will  be  presented  and  fully 
discussed  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences. 

It  was  stated  by  one  of  the  speakers  at  the  last  quarterly 
meeting  of  the  French  Academies  chat  M.  Thiers  had  written  ,a 
complete  work  on  Spherical  Trigonometry  when  quite  a 
young  man. 

We  regret  to  record  the  death  of  M.  Cadn,  Professor  of 
Physics  at  one  of  the  Paris  Lycte,  and  an  active  member  of  the 
Pais  Physical  Society.  M.  Cazin  was  sent  to  the  Island  of  St 
Paul  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  under  the  command  of  Capt. 
Mouchez  to  make  physical  observations  during  the  last  transit  of 


Venus  ;  he  there  contracted  the  germ  of  the  illness  which  has 
proved  fatal  at  the  early  age  of  forty  years.  He  had  been 
adnaitted  to  the  Observatory  by  M.  Leverrier  to  execute  a  series 
ot  delicate  researches  on  magnetism,  which  have  been  left 
unfinished. 

Tub  Harveian  Oration  at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians  oi 
London  will  be  delivered  in  1878  by  Dr.  J.  Burdon  Sanderson, 
F.R.S. 

An  anthropological  exhibition  will  be  opened  at  Moscow  in 
1879,  in  connection  with  the  society  of  Friends  of  Natural 
Science.  Many  objects  of  great  scientific  valuer  almost  exclu- 
sively of  Russian  origin,  are  already  in  the  hands  of  the  organising 
committee. 

Mr.  Tuckwsll,  recendy  Ihead-master  of  Taunton  College 
School,  has  issued  a  circular  addressed  to  head-masters,  giving 
an  account  of  his  connection  with  the  school  whose  reputation  he 
did  so  much  to  raise,  and  which  has  treated  him  so  ungratefidly. 
Cor  readers  are  already  familiar  with  the  details  of  this  unhappy 
matter,  and  we  are  sure  will  all  wish  with  us  that  Mr.  TuckweU 
may  soon  find  a  field  for  the  exercise  of  hi;  powers  as  a  successful 
teacher  unfettered  by  the  narrowness  of  uneducated  and  narrow- 
minded  directors.  Mr.  Tuckwell  gave  Taunton  School  a  status 
and  a  name ;  the  Council  of  the  school  have  undone  all  his  work, 
and  left  the  school  nowhere. 

The  winter  session  of  the  Chester  Society  of  Natural  Science 
opened  on  October  25  with  a  lecture  on  "The  Arctic  Regions," 
by  Mr.  de  Ranee,  of  H.M.  Geological  Survey.  The  upper 
sUurian,  lower  carboniferous  sandstones,  mountain  limestone,  and 
lias  of  the  Parry  Archipelago,  as  well  as  the  oolites,  cretaceous 
and  miocene  rocks  of  Greenland  and  Griimel  Land,  were  de- 
scribed as  occupjriDg  hollows  in  the  old  Laurentian  Mountains, 
and  the  existbg  cold  climate  was  stated  to  have  probably  only 
prevailed  since  the  last  glacial  epoch.  The  range  of  the 
northern  mammab,  and  the  discovery  of  remains  of  the  Eskimo 
by  Capt  Feilden,  R.N.,  naturalist  of  the  Alert^  near  Cape 
Beechey,  fiur  north  of  the  present  limit  of  human  habitation,  and 
further  north  than  any  previous  discovery  of  man  or  his  works, 
were  commented  on ;  and  a  large  collection  of  Arctic  fossils 
were  exhibited  by  Sir  Phillip  Egerton,  collected  in  Grinnel  Land 
by  his  nephew,  Lieut  Egerton,  R.N.,  of  the  late  British  Arctic 
Expedition. 

An  unusually  interesting  scientific  soirii  was  recently  held  at 
the  Bristol  Museum  and  Library,  which  has  been  characterised 
as  "the  headquarters  of  scientific  research  in  the  west  of 
England."  Many  of  the  most  recent  scientific  experiments  were 
shown,  the  most  attractive  probably  being  Prof.  Graham  Bell's 
exhibition  of  the  wonders  of  the  telephone.  During  the  winter 
a  course  of  lectures  has  been  arranged  for  at  the  museum,  mosdy 
scientific,  as  follows :— November  19— A.  R.  Wallace,  F.R.G.S., 
F.L.S.,  the  Distribution  of  Animals  as  indicating  Geographical 
Changes  ;  November  29— Prof.  Ball,  F.R.S.,  a  Night  at  Lord 
Rosse's  Telescope,  illustrated  by  the  Oxy-hydrogen  Lantern. 
December  10 — Frederick  Wedmore,  Rembrandt ;  his  Life  and 
Work.  January  i4^Prof.  Marshall,  M.A.,  Principal  of  Uni- 
versity College,  Bristol,  The  Economic  Condition  of  America. 
January  28— Prof.  W.  C.  WUliamson,  F.R.S.,  Coal  and  Coal 
Plants.  February  11— C.  T.  Hudson,  M.A,  LL.D.,  The 
Larger  and  Rarer  Rotifers  ;  illustrated  with  Transparent  Dia- 
grams. February  26— Prof.  Rowley,  M.A.,  of  University  Col- 
lege, Bristol,  Francis  Bacon :  hU  Personal  Character  and 
PoUtical  Career.  March  11— Dr.  J.  H.  Gladstone,  F.R.S., 
Fiery  Meteors  and  Meteoric  Stones.  March  25— J.  Norman 
Lockyer,  F.R.S.,  Sun  Spots  in  Relation  to  Indian  Famines, 
with  Spectroscopic  Experiments  and  Oxy-hydrogen  Lantern 
Illustrations. 


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t7 


The  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  originated  in  1821 
as  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Australia ;  after  an  interval  of 
repose  It  was  revived  in  1850  as  the  Australian  Philosophical 
Society,  by  which  designation  it  was  known  until  1856,  when 
the  name  was  again  changed  to  that  of  the  Philosophical  Society 
of  New  South  Wales,  and  finally,  about  ten  years  ago,  by  the 
sanction  of  her  Majesty  the  Queen,  it  assumed  its  present  title. 
Judging  by  its  present  list  of  members  it  would  seem  to  be 
prospering,  but  judging  from  the  volume  of  its  Proceedings  (vol. 
X.  for  1876)  its  scientific  life  might  be  higher,  and  we  would 
venture  to  express  the  hope  that  future  volumes  may  give  us  a 
larger  number  of  memoirs  treating  of  that  vast  quadrilateral  of 
which  Sydney  is  the  acknowledged  capital.  Of  the  articles  in 
this  volume  we  would  notice  the  following:  On  the  Deep 
Oceanic  Depression  off  Moreton  Bay,  by  the  Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke, 
F.R.S.  ;  On  some  Tertiary  Australian  Polyzoa,  by  the  Rev. 
J.  £.  T.  Woods.  The  species  were  with  one  exception  derived 
from  the  Mount  Gambier  polyzoan  limestone.  South  Australia, 
and  are  all  described  as  new  ;  ten  are  described  and  figured  as 
belonging  to  the  genus  Eschara,  two  species  of  the  genus 
Pustulipora  are  described,  and  one  Tubulipora.  On  the  forma- 
tion of  Moss  Gold  and  Silver,  and  on  a  Fossilifcrous  Siliceous 
Deposit  from  Richmond  River,  is  the  title  of  a  paper  by 
Prof.  Liversidge.  The  composition  of  this  deposit  shows 
that  it  answers  to  the  common  siliceous  sinters  or  geyser 
deposits.  The  weathered  surfaces  are  usually  marked  with 
the  remains  of  ferns  which  stand  out  in  relief,  and  more 
rarely  [through  the  mass  fare  to  be  found  the  remains  of 
certain  fruits  and  seeds.  These  latter  have  been  described 
by  Baron  Miitler  as  belonging  to  a  plant  {JJversidgea  oxyspora) 
allied  to  Capparidese  and  Bixaceas,  the  fruits  are  from  two-thirds 
to  nearly  an  inch  in  diameter,  divided  into  four  turgid  lobes, 
placentas  parietal ;  seeds  turgid  ;  oval  towards  one  extremity  and 
attenuated  at  the  other  \  both  fern  and  fruits  are  figured.  In  the 
discussion  following  the  reading  of  a  paper  by  the  Rev.  W.  B. 
Clarke,  F.R.S.,  On  the  EfTecte  of  Forest  Vegetationjon  Climate, 
many  interesting  statements  were  made  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
forests  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sydney  at  the  present  time,  and 
so  long  back  as  forty  years  ago. 

Petermann's  MUthnlungtn  for  November  contains  a  paper 
by  Dr.  G.  Radde  describing  the  journey  of  himself  and  Dr. 
Sievers  from  Erzeroum  to  the  Bin-Gol-Dagh  ;  the  paper  is  full  of 
details  concerning  the  botany  of  the  region  traversed.  Under 
the  title  of  <'  Tekna  and  Nun,"  Dr.  Rohlf  s  gives  some  valuable 
information  on  the  part  of  the  Sahara  about  the  south-west  of 
Morocco,  showing  that  it  is  by  no  means  so  barren  as  is  gene- 
rally  thought,  and  that  even  the  most  recent  maps  of  the  region 
are  unsatufactory. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  papers  in  the  September  number 
of  the  BaLetin  of  the  French  Geographical  Society  is  an  account 
by  M.  Brau  de  St-Pol-L-ais  of  his  visit  to  the  French  Colonial 
stations  recently  established  on  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  in  the 
province  of  Deli.  The  author  gives  many  interesting  observa- 
tions on  the  people  and  the  produces  of  the  part  of  the  island 
whicli  he  visited,  and  speaks  hopefully  of  the  colony,  which 
he  considers  an  excellent  basis  for  the  exploration  of  the  island. 
In  the  same  number  Dr.  Harmand  gives  some  account  of  recent 
journeys  he  made  in  Cambodia. 

The  firit  map  showing  the  whole  of  Stanley's  route  from 
Bogomayo  to  the  mouth  of  the  Congo  has  been  published  by 
V Exploration  (October  21).  In  this  map  the  course  of  the 
Congo  is  roughly  shown  as  indicated  in  Stanley's  letter,  and  that 
also  of  the  Ogov^  according  to  the  explorations  of  de  Brazza, 
Lenz,  and  Marche.  The  trend  of  the  Ogove  to  the  south-east  is 
shown,  and  its  probable  junction  with  the  Congo  by  two  arms 
indicated. 

The  Geogn^bical  Society  of  Paris  has  received  letters  from 


the  French  Consul  at  Zanzibar  informing  them  that  a  road  is 
being  opened  from  Zanzibar  to  Tanganyika,  for  carting  by  oxen. 
It  is  expected  that  ere  long  explorers  will  be  able  to  dispense 
with  native  porters. 

A  Geographical  paper  has  been  started  at  Lyons  by  M.  du 
Mazet,  one  of  the  staff  of  the  Courrier  de  Lyon,  It  will  record  the 
transactions  of  all  the  provincial  geographical  societies  of  France. 
The  Lyons  Geographical  Society  will  have  the  advantage  of  a 
ntmiber  of  communications  from  the  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
aries who  have  an  old-established  special  seminary  and  college 
in  that  city. 

In  the  Times  of  Wednesday  last  week  appeared  a  long  story 
about  the  discovery  of  the  remains  of  Columbus  in  St.  Domingo. 
At  Madrid,  the  Tima  Paris  correspondent  now  states,  the  story 
is  declared  to  be  a  hoax,  inasmuch  as  "a  Spanish  squadron 
years  ago  escorted  the  remains  to  Havannah,  where  they  lie  in 
the  Cathedral." 

Under  the  title  of  •*  Pictorial  Geography  for  Young 
People,"  Messrs.  Griffith  and  Farran  have  published  a  neat  little 
map  intended  to  exhibit  graphically  the  significance  of  the 
various  terms  used  in  geography — continent,  island,  river,  lake, 
mountain,  volcano,  city,  &c.  It  is  necessarily  exaggerated,  but 
in  the  hands  of  a  judicious  teacher  might  be  a  valuaUe  and 
attractive  help  to  the  teaching  of  the  elements  of  geography. 

Two  severe  shocks  of  earthquake  were  experienced  at  Lisbon 
at  6.45  A.  M.  of  October  25.     No  damage  was  reported. 

Under  date  October  17,  it  is  reported  from  Smyrna,  in  Asia 
Minor,  that  there  had  been,  during  a  few  day%  several  earth- 
quake shocks  doing'no  further  harm  but  cracking  some  walls. 

It  has  been  affirmed  by  P.  Secchi  of  Romr,  that  iron  heated 
red  is  transparent  to  light.  This  is  denied  by  M.  Govi  of  Turin, 
who,  in  a  paper  to  the  French  Academy,  describes  some  experi- 
ments on  the  subject,  and  shows  how  one  may  be  deceived  in  study- 
ing the  phenomena.  If  a  mixture  of  borax  and  carbonate  of  soda 
be  fused  in  a  thin  platinum  crucible  raised  to  a  red  heat,  there 
will  be  seen  on  the  exterior  of  the  vessel  the  form  of  the  liquid 
mass  with  all  its  accidents  of  ^rapidly  varying  form,  indicated  by 
a  zone  of  less  brightness  than  the  upper  portion  of  the  metallic 
surface.  At  first  sight  it  is  natural  to  infer  a  transparence  for 
light  of  the  heated  platinum,  but  (M.  Govi  points  out)  the  case 
b  really  one  of  transparence  for  radiant  heat ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
phenomenon  connected  with  the  good  conductivity  of  platinum. 
The  liquid,  liberating  carbonic  acid,  is  less  hot  than  the  crucible, 
and  is  constantly  borrowing  heat  from  it.  It  is  inevitable,  then, 
that  at  every  point  where  the  liquid  touches  the  metal,  the  latter 
relatively  cooled,  should  appear  less  luminous  than  in  the  neigh- 
bouring region.  M.  Govi  gives  some  other  examples  of  the 
phenomenon. 

"Shorthand  FOR  General  Use"  is  the  title  of  a  little 
volume  by  Prof.  Everett,  of  Belfast,  published  by  Marcus  Ward 
and  Co.  Prof.  Everett's  system  claims  several  advantages  over 
Pitman's,  one  being  that  the  vowels  can  be  written  continuously 
with  the  consonants,  and  thus  the  word  has  not  to  be  gone  over 
a  second  time  to  insert  the  vowels.  The  system  appears  to  us 
decidedly  woith  the  attention  of  anyone  wishing  to  learn  short- 
hand. 

We  have  received  the  Jeighth  edition  of  Prof.  Atkinson's 
translation  of  Ganot's  "  Physics."  About  sixty  pages  of  addi- 
tional matter,  with  an  equal  number  of  illus  rations,  have  been 
added  to  this  edition.  Messrs.  Longmans  and  Co.  are  the 
publishers. 

Another  scientific  play  is  now  being  performed  at  the  Cluny 
Theatre,  Paris,  under  the  title  of  the  **  Les  6  Parties  du  Monde.' 
It  is  written  by  M.  Figuier,  the  well-known  scientific  story-teller. 
The  sixth  part  of  the  world  is  supposed  to  be  the  Antarctic 


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NATURE 


\jNav.  1,  1877 


continent,  where  Dumont  Durville  ii  made  to  land  It  is  a 
masterly  panorama  of  a  number  of  climes  and  countries,  enlivened 
by  a  well-constructed  plot 

Dr.  Hoek,  of  Leyden,  sends  us  the  following  additions  to  the 
list  of  dealers  in  zoological  specimens  given  by  Prof.  Ray 
Lankester  in  a  recent  number  of  Nature  : — i.  Hilmar  Liihrs, 
Fischer  f.  Zoologen  und  Aquarien,  Helgoland  (Unterland),  for 
fish  and  invertebrates  (alive  and  in  spirits,  specimens  of  all 
classes).  2.  The  Zoological  Station  of  Dr.  Anton  Dohrn, 
Naples,  for  fish  and  invertebrates  (spirit  specimens). 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  three  Tigers  (Fdis  tigrU\  bom  In  the 
Gardens,  but  did  not  survive;  a  Common  Genet  {Geneita  vtU^ 
garis)  from  North  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  P.  V.  Carletti ;  two 
Hyacinthine  Porphyrios  (Pn-phyrio  hyacinthinus)  from  West 
Asia,  presented  by  Mrs.  Henry  Cobb  ;  two  All-Green  Parakeets 
{Broicgerys  tiriacula)  from  South  America,  presented  by  Miss 
Rowe ;  two  Yellow-bellied  Liothrix  {Liothrix  lutats)  from 
India,  presented  by  Gen.  Breton ;  two  common  Marmosets 
{Hapale  jacchus)  from  South-east  Brazil,  presented  by  Mrs. 
Clayton  ;  three  Darwin's  Pacras  {Pucrasia  darwini),  a  Chinese 
Blue  Magpie  (Urocissa  sinensis)  from  China,  a  Sun  Bittern 
{Eurypyga  hdias)  from  South  America,  deposited;  a  Moose 
{Alces  machlis)  from  North  America,  purchased. 


AMERICAN    SCIENCE 

pROF.  HENRY'S  portion  of  the  report  of  the  Smithsonian 
'*'  Institution  for  the  year  1876  has  been  printed  in  separate 
pamphlet  form,  in  advance  of  the  entire  volume,  and  gives  the 
usual  record  of  operations  for  the  period.  It  draws  attention 
to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  thirtieth  of  the  annual  series  made  by 
him,  and  that  the  policy  advised  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  board 
has  been  carried  out  with  scarcelv  any  modification.  The 
original  fund  of  54it379  dols.  has  been  increased  to  714,000 
dols.,  although  a  builaing  costing  neatly  500,000  dols.  has  been 
erected.  There  is  a  library  of  70,000  volumes  of  the  most 
valuable  dass  of  books,  namely,  the  serial  scientific  publications 
of  learned  societies.  The  museum  has  grown  until  it  now  ranks 
among  the  best  in  existence.  This  embraces  copious  collections 
illustrating  the  ethnology  and  natural  history  of  the  world.  The 
institution  has  published  twenhr-one  quarto  and  forty-two  octavo 
volumes  of  transactions  and  reports.  It  has  carried  on 
successfully  a  great  system  of  meteorological  observations  (only 
intermitted  on  the  successful  operations  of  the  Signal  Service), 
the  results  of  which  have  been  issued  by  a  number  of  stately 
volumes.  It  is  now  prosecuting  a  great  system  of  international 
exchanges,  for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  world.  Its  correspon- 
dence, boUi  at  home  and  abroad,  requires  a  large  number  of 
clerks  and  specialists  ;  and  the  name  of  Smithson  is  universally 
known  in  consequence. 

Details  have  been  recently  published  {Proc,  Acad.  Nat.  Sci. 
Philadelphia,  1877,  p.  255)  of  the  exploration  of  a  specially 
interesting  mound  at  Coup's  Creek,  Macoupin  County,  Illinois. 
Four  skeletons  sat  within  it,  considerably  enveloped  in  a  peculiar 
granulated  but  exceedingly  tenacious  earth.  They  were  placed 
two  and  two,  their  arms  crossed,  the  knees  of  one  pair  pressing 
sharply  against  the  backs  of  the  other,  and  the  faces  of  all  turned 
directly  toward  the  east.  Though  the  greatest  care  was  taken, 
only  one  skull  was  removed  comparatively  perfect  The  whole 
grave  measured  but  six  feet  in  length  by  three  in  width,  and  it 
contained  in  addition  to  the  skeletons  four  large  marine  shells  of 
Pyrula  {Busycott)  perversa  (Lum.),  each  similarly  placed  in  rela- 
tion to  the  bodies.  The  smaller  end  of  one  shell  was  placed  in 
the  right  hand  of  each  individual,  while  the  larger  portion  rested 
in  the  hollow  above  the  left  hip.  But,  still  more  remarkable, 
within  each  shell  had  been  packed  what  appeared  to  be  the 
bones  of  a  child ;  the  skull,  crushed  before  burial,  protruded 
beyond  the  aperture.  The  suggestion  is  made  that  these  infants 
were  sacrificial  offerings  in  honour  of  the  dead.  The  graves  in 
these  mounds  are  constructed  of  stone  slabs  from  the  locality,  and 
hence  they  are  known  as  stone  graves.  The  builders  give  evidence 
of  decided  constructive  ability,  and  of  having  been  carefid  culti- 
vators of  the  soil.    The  grave-mounds  are  found  upon  ridges. 


while  others  on  which  dwellings  were  supported  are  near  streams. 
A  systematic  series  of  mounds  of  similar  origin  extends  from  the 
foot  of  Lake  Michigan  to  the  mouth  of  the  Illinois  river,  a 
distance  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Unfortunately  the 
remains  are  scarcely  ever  capable  of  being  preserved,  or  even  of 
being  examined  satisfactorily  on  exhumation. 

The  following  are  notes  of  papers  in  the  October  num« 
ber  of  the  American  Jaurnai  of  Science  and  Arts : — The 
nickel  plates  now  lar^^ly  used  as  anodes  for  nickel  plating 
are  prepared  by  fusing  commercial  nickel,  generally  with 
addition  of  charcoal,  and  casting  in  suitable  foruL  From  aa 
analysis  of  several  specimens  of  cast  nickel  b^  Mr.  Gard,  it 
appears  that  silica  may  be  reduced  and  retained  as  silicon, 
and  that  a  considerable  amount  of  caibon  mav  be  preient  {e.g., 
1*9  and  I '8  per  cent.).  One  experiment  made  witn  a  view  to 
ascertain  how  much  carbon  nickel  may  take  up  under  conditions 
to  which  it  is  more  or  less  exposed  in  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture and  casting,  was  to  pack  half-a-pound  of  granular  com- 
mercial nickel  in  layers  with  charcoal  in  a  Hessian  crucible,  in 
which  it  was  exposed  to  a  full  red-heat  twelve  hours.  No  fusion 
took  place.  The  temperature  was  then  raised  till  there  was  com- 
plete fusion.  The  rcralting  metal  was  strongly  magnetic,  quite 
soft,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  malleable.  Its  specific ^avity 
was  8  04,  and  it  had  a  fracture  like  that  of  fine-eramed  pig-iron, 
scales  of  graphite  being  plainly  visible.  It  was  found  to  contain 
of  total  carbon  2*105,  2*130;  graphitic  carbon,  2,030,  1*990; 
silicon,  *36o.  Mr.  Gard  also  made  some  experiments  on  the 
deportment  of  nickel  and  cobalt  towards  hydrocarbon  at  a  hij^h 
temperature,  the  substances  being  placed  in  a  platinum  trough 
within  a  porcelain  tube  and  treated  with  a  slow  current  of  pure 
dry  marsh-gas  at  a  full  red  heat.     In  one  case  thin  pUtes  of 

Eure  electroplate  nickel  ('8597  gr.)  were  found  at  the  close  to 
ave  gained  10*649  per  cent. ;  in  another  i  '2697  gr.  of  cobalt 
gained  12*758  per  cent 

Among  other  chemical  contributions  we  note  one  on  the 
iodates  of  cobalt  and  nickel,  by  Mr.  Fullarton,  who  finds  that 
the  true  normal  iodates  contain  really  six  molecules  of  water  of 
crystallisation,  and  that  they  are  essentially  different  from  the 
salts  obtained  by  Rsunmelsbere.  Several  specific-gravity  deter- 
minations follow  (by  students  of  Cincinnati  University),  including 
those  of  a  series  of  chromates,  by  Miss  Abbot  Pettersson  has 
lately  shown  that  selenates  have  molecular  volumes  exceeding 
those  of  the  corresponding  sulphates  by  six  for  each  molecule  of 
the  acid  radicle.  On  comparing  the  chromates  with  Pettersson's 
selenates,  it  is  found  that  the  two  series  of  salts  have  approximately 
equal  molecular  volumes ;  the  difference,  if  any  exists,  being  very 
slightiy  plus  for  the  selenates.  If  regularities  of  this  kind  can  be 
thoroughly  established,  it  will  be  easy  (Prof.  CUrk  suggests), 
having  the  density  of  a  chromate,  to  calculate  that  of  the  corre- 
sponding sulphate  or  selenate,  or  vice  versa. 

A  preliminary  catalogue  of  the  reptiles,  fishes,  and  Lepto- 
cardians  of  the  Bermudas  is  furnished  by  Mr,  Brown  Goode, 
comprising  148  out  of  163  known  species.  The  Bermudan  fauna 
shares  wi£  the  West  Indies  1 16  species  (or  79  per  cent),  of 
which  58  (or  40  per  cent)  are  peculiar  to  the  West  Indies,  while 
many  others  have  their  centres  of  distribution  in  that  region. 
With  the  Eastern  United  States  Bermuda  shares  47  species,  and 
with  the  waters  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Ocean  32  species. 
Mr.  Goode  also  gives  a  description  of  four  species  of  fishes 
believed  to  be  new. 

Prof.  Dana  draws  some  lithological  and  orographic  conclu- 
sions in  his  (continued)]paper  on  the  relations  of  the  geology  of 
Vermont  to  that  of  Berkshire,  and  the  foumal  also  contains 
some  information  on  the  Archtean  of  Canada  and  the  geology  of 
New  Hampshire,  &c. 


THE  EARTHWORM  IN  RELATION  TO   THE 
FERTILITY  OF  THE    GROUND 

'pr  ROM  observations  extending  over  a  number  of  years,  M.  Hensen 
^  is  led  to  the  conclusion  that  infertile  undersoil  is  rendered 
valuable  by  the  action  of  worms  in  two  wa3rs,  viz.,  by  the  opening 
of  passages  for  the  roots  into  the  deeper  parts,  and  by  the  lining 
of  these  passages  with  humus.  This  will  be  more  rally  under- 
stood firom  the  following  facts  reg^ding  the  life-habits  of  the 
worm  {Luntbricus  terrestris)  given  in  M.  Hensen's  piper  in  the 
Zeiischrift  fiir  wissenschaftliche  Zooiogie. 

It  is  known  that  the  adult  animals  in  wet  weather  come  up  to 
the  sQr£sce  by  night,  and,  with  their  hinder  end  in  their  tube. 


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search  the  ground  rotind  about.  They  then  draw  whatever 
vegetable  material  they  can  find  into  their  tubes — fallen  stems 
and  leaves  and  smaU  branches.  In  the  morning  one  then  finds 
little  heaps  of  plant-firagments  projectiog  at  various  parts  of  the 
surface,  and  each  of  them  penetrating  the  tube  of  a  worm.  On 
closer  examination  it  is  found  that  the  leaves  have  each  been 
rolled  together  by  the  worm,  and  then  drawn  into  the  tube  in 
such  a  way  that  Ae  leaf-stalk  projects.  The  portion  of  the 
leaf  in  the  tube  is  moist  and  softened,  and  only  in  this  state  are 
plants  consumed  by  the  worm.  There  are  distinct  indications 
that  the  worm  gnaws  them,  and  after  some  days  the  meal  is 
ended.  The  food  is  never  drawn  deeper  down  into  the  ground. 
In  digging  the  ground  at  various  seasons  it  was  only  very  rarely 
that  plant  remains  were.found  in  the  sul>soil,  and  probably  th^ 
got  there  by  accident 

With  reference  to  the  structure  of  the  worm-tubes,  some  in- 
teresting facts  were  established  in  these  researches.  In  humus 
their  character  is  difficult  to  make  out,  owing  to  the  looseness  of 
the  mass.  In  sand  thev  proceed  almost  vertically  downwards 
three,  four,  or  even  six  feet,  whereupon  they  often  extend  some 
distance  horizontally ;  more  frequently,  however,  they  terminate 
without  bending.  At  the  end  of  the  tube  the  worm  is  found 
with  his  head  upwards,  while  round  about  him  the  tube  is  lined 
with  snudl  stones.  On  the  sandy  wall  of  the  tube  one  observes 
more  or  less  numerous  black  protuberances  which  make  the  sand 
fertile.  These  are  the  secretions  of  the  worm,  which,  after  being 
removed  out  of  a  tenanted  tube,  are  found  next  morning  replaced 
by  firesh  matter.  They  are  observed'  after  a  few  days,  when  a 
worm  is  put  in  a  vessel  with  clean  sand,  and  allowed  to  make  a 
tube  for  itself.  Older  abandoned  tubes  are  pretty  regularly  lined 
with  the  earth  formed  by  the  worm,  and  some  passages  are 
densely  filled  with  black  earth.  This  black  substance  appears 
to  diffuse  somewhat  into  the  sand. 

In  about  half  of  the  tubes,  not  quite  newly  made,  M.  Hensen 
found  roots  of  the  plants  growing  at  the  surface,  in  the  most 
vigorous  development,  running  to  the  end  of  the  tube  and  giving 
on  fine  root*hairs  to  the  walls,  especially  l>eautifnl  in  the  case  of 
leafy  vegetables  and  com.  Indeed  such  tubes  must  be  very 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  the  roots.  Ooce  a  root-fibre  has 
reached  such  a  tube  it  can,  following  the  direction  of  gravity, 
grow  on  in  the  moist  air  of  the  passage^  without  meeting  with 
the  least  resistance,  and  it  finds  moist,  loose,  fertile  earth  in 
abundance. 

The  question  whether  all  roots  found  in  the  under-soil  have 
originally  grown  in  the  tubes  of  worms,  caimot  be  answered  with 
certainty.  It  is  certain  that  the  roots  of  some  plants  penetrate 
themselves  in  the  sand,  but  not  to  great  depths.  M.  Hensen  is 
of  opinion  that  the  tap-roots,  and  in  general  such  root-forms  as 

§row  with  a  thick  point,  can  force  a  path  for  themselves,  while 
!ie  fine  and  flexible  suction-roots  have  difficulty  in  obtaining  a 
path  into  the  depths  other  thsm  what  has  been  previously  made 
for  theuL  Roots  of  one  year's  growth  especially  can  penetrate 
deep  into  the  sub-soil,  only  where  there  are  earth-worms. 

A  microscopical  comparison  of  the  earth  deposited  by  the 
worm  shows  that  it  is  like  the  two-year  leaf-mould  prepared  by 
gardeners  for  the  filling  of  flower-pots.  Most  of  the  plant-cells 
are  destroyed  ;  still  there  are  present  some  cells  and  shreds  of 
tissue,  browned  and  friable,  mixed  with  many  sand  grains  and 
brown  organic  fragments.  The  chemical  composition  of  the 
worm-earth  shows  much  similarity  to  that  of  fertile  humus 
ground.  Its  fertility,  therefore,  cannot  be  doubted,  though  direct 
experiments  with  it  are  wanting;. 

With  r^ard  to  the  numerical  value  of  this  action  of  the 
earthworm,  the  following  observations  by  M.  Hensen  afford 
some  information. 

Two  worms  were  put  into  a  glass  pot  14  foot  in  diameter, 
which  was  filled  with  sand  to  the  haght  of  i^  foot,  and  the 
surface  covered  with  a  layer  of  fallen  l^ves.  The  worms  were 
quickly  at  work,  and  after  14  month  many  leaves  were  down 
3  inches  deep  into  the  tubes ;  the  surf  ace  was  completely  covered 
with  humus  i  cm.  in  height,  and  in  the  sand  were  numerous 
worm-tubes  partly  fresh,  partly  with  a  humus  wall  3  mm.  thick, 
partly  quite  filled  with  humus. 

Counting,  when  an  opportunity  offered,  the  open  worm-tubes 
m  his  garden,  M.  Hensen  found  at  least  nine  in  the  square  foot 
In  015  square  metres  two  or  three  worms  were  found  in  the 
deeper  parts  each  weighing  three  grammes :  thus  in  the  hectare 
there  would  be  1 33,000  worms  with  400  kilos,  weight.  The  weight 
of  the  secretions  of  a  worm  in  twenty-four  hours  was  0*5 
grammes.    While  these  nnmbers  are  valid  only  for  the  locality 


referred  to,  they  yet  give  an  idea  of  the  action  of  this  worm  in 
allpkces  where  it  occurs. 

The  assertion  that  the  earthworms  gnaw  roots  is  not  proved  by 
any  fact ;  roots  gnawed  by  worms  were  never  met  with,  and  the 
contents  of  the  intestine  of  the  worms  never  included  fresh 
pieces  of  plants.  The  experience  of  gardeners  that  the  earth- 
worm injures  pot  plants  may  be  based  on  the  uncovering  or 
mechanical  tearing  of  the  roots. 

*'  Let  u&  take  a  retrospective  glance,"  concludes  the  author, 
"over  the  action  of  ths  worm  in  relation  to  the  fertility  of  the 
ground.  It  is  dear  that  no  new  manure  material  can  be  pro- 
duced by  it,  but  it  utilises  that  which  is  present  in  various  ways. 
I.  It  tends  to  effect  a  regular  distribution  of  the  natural  manure 
material  of  fields,  inasmuch  as  it  removes  leaves  and  loose  plants 
from  the  force  of  the  wind  and  fixes  them.  2.  It  accelerates 
the  transformation  of  this  material  3.  It  distributes  it  through 
the  ground.  4.  It  opens  up  the  undersoil  for  the  plant  roots. 
5.  It  makes  this  fertile. 

UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Oxford. — ^The  University  Commissioners  are  at  present  occu- 
pied in  taking  evidence  on  the  subject  of  University  requirements. 
The  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  the  Master  of  Balliol,  the  Master  of 
University,  the  Librarian  of  the  Bodleian,  Profs.  Clifton, 
Bonamy  Price,  Bartholomew  Price,  Stubbs,  and  others  have 
appeared,  or  are  to  appear  during  the  present  week,  before  the 
Commissioners. 

Mr.  Lazarus  Fletcher,  B.A.,  of  Balliol,  has  been  elected  to 
the  vacant  Fellowship  at  University  College.  Mr.  Fletcher 
obtamed  a  first  class  in  the  School  of  Mathematics  in  1875,  a 
first  class  in  that  of  Natural  Science  <,in  1876,  and  the  senior 
mathematical  scholarship  in  1876. 

It  is  proposed  to  fotmd  a  high  school  for  the  City  of  Oxford, 
the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  atizens  having  long  felt  it  a  re- 
proach that,  being  the  site  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
famous  of  the  Universities  of  Europe,  it  has  been  absolutely 
without  any  recognised  granmiar  school  available  for  the  sons  oif 
the  citizens. 

London.— Prof.  W.  K.  Clifford,  F.R.S.,  is  at  present 
delivering  at  University  College  a  very  interesting  course  of 
Lectures  on  Quaternions.  The  main  object  of  the  course  is  to 
bring  the  physical  applications  of  quaternions  as  much  as  possible 
within  the  reach  of  mathematicians  of  moderate  attainments. 

A  requisition  is  in  course  of  signature  to  the  chairman  of 
Convocation  of  London  University,  Dr.  Storrar,  asking  that  an 
extraordinary  meeting  of  that  body  may  be  convened  for  the 
purpose  of  considering  and  discussing  the  following  resolution?, 
and  for  deciding  with  reference  thereto  in  such  maimer  as  to 
Convocation  may  seem  fit : — "  That  it  being  manifestly  inex- 
pedient that  frequent  application  should  be  made  to  the  Crown 
for  new  and  additional  charters,  it  is  desirable  that  provision 
should  be  made  in  any  such  charter  for  all  changes  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  University,  either  at  the  time  urgent  or  likely  to 
be  soon  required ;  and  that  it  being  probable  that  initiative 
measures  wUl  be  shortly  taken  towards  procuring  such  a  new  or 
additional  charter,  the  following  proposals  require  the  serious 
consideration  of  Convocation  and  the  Senate  :— '  (i)  An  enlarge- 
ment of  the  powers  directly  exercised  by  Convocation ;  (2)  An 
increase  in  the  proportion  of  senators  to  be  nominated  or  elected 
by  Convocation,  and  the  limitation  of  the  tenure  of  office  in  the 
case  of  all  senators  to  a  term  of  years  ;  (3)  The  encouragement 
of  mature  study  and  original  research  among  the  members  of  the 
University,  by  the  establishment  of  University  lectureships,  of 
limited  tenure,  in  different  departments  of  learmng  and  science  ; 
(4)  The  introduction  into  the  constitution  of  the  University  of 
such  modifications  as  may  remove  all  reasonable  ground  of  com- 
plaint, on  the  part  of  any  of  the  affiliated  colleges,  with  respect 
to  the  absoice  of  means  for  expressing  opinion  and  giving  advice 
to  the  Senate  on  the  examination  regulations,  and  on  the  changes 
proposed  to  be  made  therein  firom  time  to  time.  And  that  a 
Special  Committee  of  ten  members  of  Convocation  be  appointed 
to  consider  the  above-mentioned  proposals,  and  to  report  thereon 
to  Convocation  as  speedily  as  possible.' " 

The  Entrance  Science  Scholarships  in  St  Thomas's  Hospital 
have  been  awarded  this  year  as  follows : — The  Scholarship  ot 
60/.  to  Mr.  Wansborough  Jones,  B.A.  Oxon.,  and  B.Sc, 
London  ;  and  that  of  40/.  to  Mr.  A.  E,  Wells. 


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\Nov,  I,  187 


Bristol. — A  well-printed  and  well* arranged  Calendar  of 
University  College  has  been  published.  It  extends  to  upwards 
of  sixty  pages,  and  contains  all  the  information  usually  found  in 
such  publications,  including  full  details  as  to  the  Medical 
School. 

Dean  Stanley*s  address  on  Education,  at  University  College, 
on  Saturday,  attracted  an  audience  of  about  1,700  people,  who 
listened  with  the  closest  attention. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 
Koimos,  Part  2  (May)  opens  with  an  article  by  L.  Overder, 
on  **  Heredity**  (Part  i),  aiming  at  the  discovery  of  the  real 
cause  of  inheritance.— Prof.  Jagcr,  commencing  a  series  of 
articles  oa  **  The  Origin  of  Organs,**  deals  with  the  development 
of  the  eye,  showing  how  the  laws  of  optics  and  the  properties  of 
living  substance  mutually  influence  one  another. — Hermann 
M tiller,  treating  on  •*  The  Origin  of  Flowers,**  considers  the  first 
metasperm  (or  angiosperm)  to  have  been  diclinous  and  fertili^l 
by  the  wind,  that  is,  supposing  the  metasperm*  to  hive  origi- 
nated from  a  single  stock.— W.  O.  Focke  deaU  with  **  The 
Conception  of  Species  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom,**  especially  in 
relation  to  the  genus  Rubus.  He  shows  how  far  the  different 
species  are  from  being  of  equivalent  value  and  that  the  term 
variety  has  no  definite  significance.  He  exposes  the  futility  of 
much  botanicd  "  research,"  owing  to  imperfection  of  methods 
and  lack  of  comparative  study  ;  Darwin  has  few  imitators.  Such 
work  requires  an  entire  devotion  of  time  and  complete  botanical 
gardens,  for  the  multiplication  of  which  the  autnor  calls. — A. 
Lang,  on  Lamarck  and  Darwin  (I.),  expounds  Lamarck*s  con- 
ceptions of  natural  history. 

Kosnws,  Part  3  (June).— L.  Overzier  continues  his  discussion 
of  heredity,  reviewing  Darwin*s  theory  of  pangenesis,  Haeckel's 
perigenesis,  and  Jagcrs  chemical  theory  ;  he  considers  the  latter 
to  be  of  great  value. — Carl  du  Prel,  on  the  needed  remodelling 
of  the  nebala  hypothesis. — Prof.  Ja^er  treats  of  the  origin  of  the 
organ  of  hearing,  tracing  it  from  the  simplest  condition  where 
spicules  diffused  through  the  entire  protoplasmic  body  of  an 
animal  serve  to  gather  up  and  conduct  vibrations  of  sound.  He 
brings  forward  the  remarkable  theory  that  in  animals  possessing 
nerve  fibres,  the  organs  of  hearing  is  but  a  specialisation  from 
the  general  tactile  sense. — W.  von  Reichenau,  on  the  colours  of 
bird^  eggs,  makes  the  generalisation  that  birds  having  open 
nests  have  coloured  eggs,  while  those  with  covered  or  concealed 
nests  have  white  ones  ;  further,  that  in  open  and  ground  nests 
the  colour  of  the  eggs  has  a  protective  object. — A.  Dodel-Port, 
on  the  lower  limit  of  sexuality  in  plants,  gives  an  account  of  the 
sexual  processes  in  Ulothrix  tonata,  but  appears  not  to  have 
heard  ot  the  researches  of  Dallinger  and  Drysdale  on  the  monads. 
— A.  Lang,  on  Lamarck  and  Darwin,  expounds  Lamarck's 
**  hydro-geology.'* 

SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences,  October  22.— M.  Peligot  In  the  chair. 
—The  following  papers  were  read :— M.  Levcrrier*8  Ubles  of 
Uranus  and  Neptune,  by  M.  Tresca. — On  some  applications  of 
elliptic  functions  (continued),  by  M.  HenoMt^—KhumJ  of  a 
history  of  matter  (first  article),  by  M.  ChevreuL  This  is  an 
extract  from  a  work  commenced  about  the  end  of  last  year,  and 
occupying  418  pases  of  the  Memoires  dtVAcadimU^  t.  xasix.  A 
sketch  ot  the  pnndples  of  alchemy  is  given. — On  one  of  the 
causes  of  red  coloration  of  the  leaves  of  Cisms  qmnquefoliaf  by 
M.  ChevreuL  This  cause  is  sunlight.  The  green  colour  is 
reuined  in  the  leaves  that  are  shaded  by  others.— On  the  order 
of  appearance  of  the  first  vessels  in  the  shoots  of  some  Legumi- 
nosse,  by  M.  Tiecul.— Modifications  in  the  conditions  of  maxima 
of  dectro-magneu  by  the  state  of  more  or  less  complete  satura- 
tion of  their  magnetic  core,  by  M.  Du  MonceL  The  law  of 
proportionality  of  the  attractive  forces  to  the  squares  of  the 
mtensities  of  the  current  is  true  only  within  certain  limits,  and 
under  certain  conditions ;  and  electro-magnets  through  which  the 
current  is  interrupted  at  very  short  intervals,  are  (more  or  less)  not 
subject  to  it  When  the  forces  are  proportional  to  (say)  the 
cubes  of  the  electric  intensities,  the  helices  must  always  be  less 
resistant  than  the  exterior  circuit  In  the  case  of  multiplied 
interruptions,  the  resistance  of  electro-magnets  must  always  be 
less  the  shorter  the  duration  of  closures  of  the  current ;  and  for 
this  reason  (also  because  of  defective  insolation  and  extra 
currents)  telegraph  elet^ctans  reduce  considerably  the  resistance 
of  elcctro-magneU  applied  to  Joagcircmts.    Reverting  to  the 


question  in  the  title,  the  thickness  of  the  magnetising  spiral  ma| 
be  increased  in  case  of  defective  saturation  of  the  magnetic  corej 
becoming  double  the  diameter  of  this  if  the  force  increases  n 
the  cube  of  the  intensities. — Prepirations  of  sulphide  of  carboi 
brought  to  the  s)lid  state  by  m?aus  of  gelatine,  by  M.  Caaiui 
100  grammes  of  gelatine  are  dissolved  in  i,033  grammes  of  water,! 
and  sulphide  of  carbon  (25,50,  or  75  per  cent )  is  mixed  at  a  teoa-t 
perature  of  15**  to  20^  and  the'mixture  let  codI.  M.  Cassius  think^ 
the  preparation  mi^ht  be  useful  in  viticulture.  The  sulphide  ii[ 
liberated  slowly,  the  time  varying  according  to  the  proportion  oi 
sulphide  absorbed. — Ecperiments  on  the  formation  ot  arttficiil) 
ultramarine,  by  M.  Plicque.  He  finds  (in  opposition  to  aomst 
German  authors)  that  ultramarine  does  not  contain  nitrogen. 
Blue  ultramarine,  properly  so  called,  is  formsd  by  an  oxy- 
genated conpouad  of  sulphur,  ani  it  is  pro'iable  thit  this 
compound  is  fixed  both  by  sodium  and  by  aluminium.  — Oa 
the  catechines  and  their  constitution,  by  M.  Gautier. — Oa 
acid  acetates,  by  M.  Villiers.  The  increase  of  weight  of 
some  neutral  acetates,  dried  and  placed,  in  a  summer  month, 
under  a  bell  jar  with  crystallisable  acetic  acid,  was,  in  the 
case  of  acetate  of  soda,  404  per  cent,  or  nearly  six  equivalents  of 
acetic  acid ;  acetate  of  potash,  264  psr  cent ;  of  l>aryta,  179  per 
cent  ;  of  lead,  134  per  cent,  &c  The  solutions  of  neutrsl 
acetates  in  crystallisable  acetic  acid  .^ave  much  less  tension  of 
vapour  than  that  of  acetic  acid. — Researches  on  bntylene  ■ 
and  its  derivatives,  by  M.  Puchot — Note  oa  the  cinse  of 
anthrax,  by  M.  Klebs. — On  the  structure  of  the  blood  corpasde,  ■ 
and  the  resistance  of  its  envelope  to  the  action  of  water,  by  MM. 
J.  Bechamp  and  Baltus.  The  demonstration  of  the  membrane 
(by  action  of  soluble  fecula)  is  here  given  in  the  cases  of  the 
frog,  the  ox,  the  pig,  and  the  sheep.  Water  does  not  destroy 
the  globules;  it  merely  renders  them  invisible,  and  they  may 
always  be  discovered  with  the  aid  of  picrocarmia  -.te,  even  in 
extremely  dilute  media,  and  after  several  weeks  of  contact  The 
blood  of  sheep  (like  that  of  the  hen  in  M.  A.  Bechamp*s  experi- 
ments) contains  globules  of  more  delicate  structure  than  those  of 
the  other  bloods  examined. — Researches  on  the  functions  of 
leaves  of  the  vine,  by  M.  Macagno.  Glucose  and  tartaric  add 
are  formed  preferably  in  the  upper  leaves  of  the  fruit-bearing 
vine-branch ;  this  production  of  sugar  progreises  with  that  of 
the  grape,  and  is  much  reduced  (even  to  disappearance)  after  the 
vintage.  The  green  branches  are  conductors  of  glucose.  These 
facti  explain  the  evil  of  "pinching**  or  rem>vin$;  the  tops  of  the 
grape-bearing  branches,  with  too  great  zeaL  Where  there  is  an 
abundant  production  of  grapes,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  leaves 
should  be  left  for  preparation  of  the  necessary  glucose. — Reply 
to  a  recent  note  of  M.  Buys  Ballot,  on  the  division  into  time  and 
into  squares  of  maps  of  .nautical  meteorolo^,  by  M.  Brault. 


CONTENTS 


Pack 


Thb  Sun's  Distance x 

Parkbr  AND  Bbttany's  **  Morphology  OF  THB  Skull" 3 

Thomson's  "  Sizing  or  Cotton  Goods  " 4 

Our  liooK  Shrlt  :» 

Avelmg'&  *'  Physiological  Tables  for  the  Use  of  Students."— A.  G.  5 
Lbttbks  to  thb  Editor  :— 

Indium  in  British  Blendes.— Prof.   Nbvil   Story   Maskblyhk, 

F.R.S. 5 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons  —Prof  G.  Carby  Fostbr,  F.  R.S.  : 

William  Crookbs  (The  Ortho-Crookesr).  F.RS 5 

Mr.  Wallace  and  Reichenbach's  Odyle.— Alfrbd  R.  Wallace  ; 

Dr.  William  B.Carpbntbr,  F.R.S 8 

Potential  Energv— E.  G 9 

Hartlaub's  "Birds   of  Madagas»r."— Prof.  Alfrbd   Nbwton, 

K.R.S 9 

Eucalyptus.— Prince  Pibrrb  Troubitzkoy  :  Arthur  Nicols  .    .  xo 
Meteor  of  October  19,  6. 15  p.m.- W.   F.  Dbnhinc  {IViih  Ili$uira^ 

tioHs) xo 

Curious  Phenomenon  during  the  Late  Gale. — ^A.  W.  B.  J.     .    •     •  xo 

Singing  Mice — Ubnry  H  Slatbr         xx 

Sound- Producing  Arthropods.— W.  Savillb  Kbmt xi 

Insects  and  Flowers. —A.  J.  H xi 

Francis  VON  Rosthorn.    By  Prof  E.  Subss xi 

Spectrum  op  Aurora  Australis.    By  Commander  J.  P.  Maclhar 

{H^itA //ituirtUmt) xi 

Absolut B  Pitch.    By  Lord  Raylbigh,  F.R.S xs 

A  New  Condensing  Hycrombtbr.    By  M.  Alluaro  ilV$tA  lUmt' 

truticn) X4 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Early  Obeenrations  of  the  Solar  Corona X4 

The  Outer  Satellite  of  Mars xs 

DeVico's  Comet  of  Short  Period 15 

MBrBOEOLOGICAL  NOTES XJ 

Notes ^ 

American  Science x8 

The  Earthworm  in  Relation  to  the  Fertiuty  op  the  Ground  18 

Uhivbrsitv  and  Educational  Intblugencb 19 

SciBNTIPtC  SEaiALSl SO 

I  Sodsnas  aho  Acaoemibs • so 


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NATURE 


21 


THURSDAY,   NOVEMBER   8,   1877 


EXPLOSIONS  IN  MINES 

AFTER  the  occurrence  of  great  colliery  explosions 
such  as  those  which  took  place  recently  in  Pern- 
berton  and  Blantyre  collieries,  one  very  general  and 
pertinent  question  presents  itself  to  most  minds,  namely. 
What  has  been  done  or  attempted  with  the  view  of 
preventing  these  disasters?  It  would  be  impossible  to 
condense  into  an  article  like  the  present  all  that  could  be 
said  in  reply  to  this  question,  but  I  shall  endeavour  to 
give  a  brief  outline  of  the  subject,  and  point  out,  as  well 
as  I  can,  what  appear  to  be  its  most  prominent  features. 

Before  the  invention  of  the  safety-lamp,  the  only  means 
of  guarding  against  the  ignition  of  firedamp  consisted  in 
the  employment  of  an  apparatus  called  the  *^  stpel  milL" 
The  light  obtained  by  its  aid  was  feeble  and  uncertain, 
and  Mr.  Buddie  informs  us  that  explosions  were  known 
to  have  been  caused  by  the  sparks  emitted  by  it.  When 
Davy  made  his  brilliant  invention  in  1815-16,  the 
steel  mill  was  laid  aside  for  ever,  and  it  was  then 
imagined  that  colliery  explosions  had  also  become  phe- 
nomena belonging  to  a  past  order  of  things.  So  con- 
fident, indeed,  was  Davy  in  the  efficacy  of  his  lamp,  that 
he  believed  it  could  be  safely  employed  for  carrying  on 
work  in  an  explosive  atmosphere  ;  and  he  even  went  so 
far  as  to  propose  to  make  use  of  the  firedamp  itself  as 
the  light-giving  combustible.  These  fond  expectations 
were  soon  roughly  dispelled,  as  one  explosion  followed 
another  in  an  apparently  unaccountable  manner  ;  and  at 
length  they  were  succeeded  by  a  feeling  of  positive  dis- 
trust, which  found  expression  in  the  report  of  a  select 
committee  appointed,  in  1835,  to  inquire  into  the  nature 
of  accidents  in  mines. 

In  1850  Mr.  Nicholas^^Wood  made  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, which  proved  that  when  a  Davy  lamp  is  subjected 
to  an  explosive  current  travelling  at  the  rate  of  eight  or 
nine  feet  per  second,  the  flame  soon  passes  through  the 
wire  gauze.  This  was  corroborated  about  1867  by  experi. 
ments  conducted  by  a  committee  of  the  North  o{  England 
Institute  of  Mining  Engineers. 

Lastly,  in  1872-73,  the  writer  demonstrated,  also  by 
experiment,  that  when  a  lamp  burning  in  explosive  gas  is 
traversed  by  a  violent  sound-wave,  such  as  that  produced 
by  a  blasting  shot,  the  same  result  follows,  that  is,  ignition 
is  communicated  to  the  outside  atmosphere.  These  are 
weak  points  inseparable  from  the  construction  of  the 
ordinary  Davy  and  Clanny  lamps ;  but  as  it  is  now  a 
thoroughly-recognised  maxim  that  work  must  never, 
under  any  circumstances,  be  continued  in  an  explosive 
atmosphere,  they  are  seldom  put  to  the  test 

The  atmosphere  of  part  of  a  mine  may,  however,  become 
explosive  before  the  men  can  escape,  either  by  the  sudden 
influx  of  a  quantity  of  firedamp  Jrom  some  natural  cavity 
in  which  it  had  existed  in  a  state  of  tension,  or  by  a  partial 
or  total  cessation  of  the  ventilating  current ;  and  I  propose 
in  the  next  place  to  consider  how  such  an  event  could 
produce  an  explosion  supposing  all  the  men  to  be  pro- 
vided with  safety  lamps. 

This   will  happen,   firstly,  if  the    ipflan>mable    gas 
passes  over  a  furnace  at  the  bottom  of  the  upcast; 
Vou  XVII,— Na  419 


secondly,  if  it  is  carried  against  a  Davy  or  Clanny  lamp 
at  a  greater  velocity  than  seven  feet  per  second,  or  if  the 
lamp  is  traversed  by  a  sound-wave ;  thirdly,  if  a  blasting 
shot  is  fired  directly  into  it ;  and  lastly,  if  it  reaches  a 
safety  lamp  that  has  been  opened  by  one  of  the  men. 

The  means  that  have  been  provided  for  guarding 
against  these  contingencies  are  as  follow : — i.  Furnaces 
have  to  a  large  extent  been  replaced  by  ventilating  faiis 
in  fiery  collieries.  2.  Davy  and  Clanny  lamps  are  still 
almost  universally  employed,  and  little  importance  seems 
to  be  attached  to  their  known  imperfections  by  those  who 
are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  deciding  the  question.  3. 
Shot-firing  having  been  found  to  originate  many  explo- 
sions, although  probably  in  a  manner  not  yet  understood 
by  most  people,  is  now  carried  on  under  certain  re- 
strictions which  it  could  easily  be  shown  are  still 
insufficient  4.  Much  nonsense  has  been  talked  and 
written  about  miners  opening  their  lamps.  That  they 
sometimes  do  so  is  beyond  a  doubt ;  but  why  should  this 
state  of  matters  be  allowed  to  continue  when  it  can  be 
easily  put  an  end  to  ?  The  present  flimsy  pretence  for  a 
lock  is  not  a  necessity  but  a  cheap  convenience  ;  and  who 
is  responsible  if  say  a  hundred  men  are  killed  through  its 
being  opened  by  one  ?  Is  there  no  responsibility  attach- 
ing to  the  owners  or  the  legislature  for  placing  the  lives 
of  ninety-nine  innocent  men  in  danger  ?  I  think  surely 
there  is. 

The  influence  of  changes  of  weather  on  the  internal 
condition  of  mines  has  been  .remarked  since  the  remotest 
times,  and  for  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years  at  least  many 
have  asserted  that  firedamp  is  more  prevalent  when  the 
barometer  is  low  than  in  the  opposite  case.  The 
explanation  of  thefe  phenomena  is  easily  found  by  any- 
one who  has  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the  physical 
properties  of  £^ases.  On  the  other  hand,  when  vigorous 
artificial  means  of  ventilation  are  employed,  and  ordinary 
skill  practised  in  distributing  the  air,  the  effects  of  changes 
of  weather  become  much  less  perceptible. 

Hence  if  a  large  proportion  of  explosions  can  be  shown 
to  occur  simultaneously  with,  and  therefore,  presumably, 
in  consequence  of,  those  atmospheric  changes  that  would 
tend  to  augment  the  amount  of  firedamp  in  the  workings, 
there  is  a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  the  supposition 
that  they  are  preventible,  and  cannot  therefore  be  consi- 
dered as  accidents  in  the  true  sense  of  the  terra.  With 
this  object  in  view  diagrams  have  been  made  from 
time  to  time  by  Mr.  R.  H.  Scott  and  myself  and  also  by 
one  or  two  others,  showing  the  connection  that  exists 
between  the  two  classes  of  phenomena,  and  an  examina- 
tion of  these  is  sufficient  to  convince  unbiased  persons 
that  there  is  a  striking  coincidence  between  the  explo- 
sions and  the  favourable  atmospherical  conditions.  As 
might,  perhaps,  be  expected,  some  persons  engaged 
in  mining  either  fail  to  see  the  connection,  or  possibly 
they  do  not  understand  it  Nevertheless  a  general  rule 
was  inserted  in  the  Coal  Mines'  Regulation  Act  (1872) 
making  it  compulsory  for  mine-owners  to  place  a  baro- 
meter and  thermometer  at  the  entrance  to  every  mine  in 
the  coal-measures. 

It  has  always  been  difficult,  and  sometimes  impossible, 
for  mining  men  to  give  an  adequate  reason  for  the  extent 
of  great  explosions,  and  more  especially  when  it  is 
knowi)  that,  immediately  beforehand,  Uttle  or  no  inflam- 

Digitized  by  VrrOOQ IC 


22 


NATURE 


[Nov.  8,  1877 


mable  gas  has  been  present  in  the  workings.  The  reports 
of  the  Inspectors  of  Mines  bear  ample  testimony  to  the 
correctness  of  this  statement  It  has  therefore  been  cus- 
tomary in  the  absence  of  any  other  tenable  hypothesis  to 
assume  that  a  large  volume  of  firedamp  had  been  suddenly 
poured  into  the  workings.  But  these  so-called  **  out- 
bursts of  gas  "  are  entirely  unknown  in  some  localities  in 
which  great  explosions  have  occurred  ;  and  therefore  it  is 
much  to  be  marvelled  at  that  some  other  explanation  was 
not  at  least  sought  for. 

In  September,  1844,  before  the  appointment  of  inspec- 
tors of  mines,  Lyell  and  Faraday  were  sent  to  Haswell 
Colliery  by  the  Home  Secretary  to  report  on  an  explosion 
that  had  just  taken  place  there.  I  am  unable  to  quote 
from  their  official  report,  but  I  am  firmly  convinced  that 
the  following  sentences  taken  from  their  article  on  the 
subject  in  the  PhiL  Mag,  1845,  is  the  true  key  to  a  solution 
of  the  problem  as  regards  both  the  mode  of  occurrence 
and  means  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  great 
explosions  in  futiire  ;  and,  moreover,  I  believe  that  it  has 
been  highly  unfortunate,  both  for  the  cause  of  the  miner 
and  his  employer,  that  these  two  philosophers  were  not 
induced  to  prosecute  their  investigations  further  than  they 
did. 

The  sentences  referred  to  are^these :— "  In  considering 
the  extent  of  the  fire  for  the  moment  of  explosion,  it  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  firedamp  is  its  only  fuel ;  the 
coal-dust  swept  by  the  rush  of  wind  and  fiame  from  the 
fioor,  roof,  and  walls  of  the  works,  would  instantly  take 
fire  and  bum,  if  there  were  oxygen  enough  in  the  air  to 
support  its  combustion  ;  and  we  found  the  dust  adhering 
to  the  face  of  the  pillars,  props,  and  walls  in  the  direction 
of,  and  on  the  side  towards,  the  explosion,  increasing 
gradually  to  a  certain  distance  as  we  neared  the  place  of 
ignition.  This  deposit  was  in  some  parts  half  an  inch, 
and  in  others  almost  an  inch  thick  ;  1  it  adhered  together 
in  a  friable  coked  state  ;  when  examined  with  the  glass  it 
presented  the  fused  roimd  form  of  burnt  coal-dust,  and 
when  examined  chemically,  and  compared  with  the  coal 
itself  reduced  to  powder,  was  found  deprived  of  the 
greater  portion  of  the  bitumen,  and  in  some  cases  entirely 
destitute  of  it." 

About  three  years  ago  M.  Vital,  Ingdnieurdes  Mines  in 
France,  showed  that  a  flame  resembling  that  produced  by 
a  blasting  shot  which  blows  out  the  tamping  is  greatly 
lengthened  in  an  atmosphere  containing  a  cloud  of  coal- 
dust  ;  and  soon  afterwards  the  writer  ascertained  that  air 
containing  a  small  proportion  of  fire-damp  (less  than  one 
per  cent,  by  volume)  becomes  highly  inflammable  when 
coal-di;st  is  mixed  with  it 

These  discoveries  complete  what  Lyell  and  Faraday 
began,  and  show  how  explosions  of  any  conceivable  mag- 
nitude may  occur  in  mines  containing  dry  coal-dust  A 
blasting  shot  or  a  small  local  explosion  of  firedamp,  or  a 
naked  light  exposed  when  a  cloud  of  coal-dust  is  raised  up 
by  a  fall  of  roof  in  air  already  containing  a  little  fire- 
damp is  sufficient  to  initiate  them,  and,  when  once  they 
are  begun,  they  become  self-sustaining. 

These  remarkable  facts  are  either  not  yet  sufficiently 
well  known  or  their  true  significance  is  not  yet  fully  ap- 
preciated.    In  conclusion  I  may  state  that  out  of  many 

I  In  the  reports  of  the  Inspectors  of  Mines,  human  bodies,  timbw,  and 
coal,  are  described  as  being  cnamc 


this  deposit.— W.  G. 


T<f  or  burnt  where  they  are  covered  with 


hundred  collieries  known  to  me  there  is  not,  to  my  know- 
ledge, a  single  damp  one  in  which  a  great  explosion  has 
happened  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable number  of  very  dry  ones  in  which  explosions 
causing  the  deaths  of  from  12  to  178  men  at  a  time  have 
occurred.  W.  Galloway 


THE  SUN'S  PHOTOSPHERE 

DR«  JANSSEN  has  just  made  a  communication  to 
the  French  Academy  of  Sciences,  which  will  be 
received  with  interest,  not  only  by  students  of  solar  physics, 
but  by  all  who  take  an  interest  in  the  triumphs  achieved 
by  modem  scientific  methods.  It  seems  a  paradox  that 
discoveries  can  be  made  depending  on  the  appearance  of 
the  sun's  surface  by  observations  in  which  the  eye  applied 
to  the  telescope  is  powerless ;  but  this  is  the  statement 
made  by  Dr.  Janssen  himself,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 
he  has  proved  his  point 

Before  we  come  to  the  discovery  itself  let  us  say  a  little 
concerning  Dr.  Janssen's  recent  endeavours.  Among  the 
six  large  telescopes  which  now  form  a  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  the  new  physical  observatory  recently  established 
by  the  French*govemment  at  Meudon,  in  the  grounds  of 
the  princely  Chiteau,  there  is  one  to  which  Dr.  Janssen 
has  recently  almost  exclusively  confined  his  attention.  It  is 
a  photoheliograph  giving  images  of  the  sun  on  an  enormous 
scale — compared  with  which  the  pictures  obtained  by  the 
Kew  photoheUograph  are,  so  to  speak,  pigmies,  while  the 
perfection  of  the  image  and  the  photographic  processes 
employed  are  so  exquisite,  that  the  finest  mottling  on  the 
sun's  surface  cannot  be  overlooked  by  those  even  who  are 
profoundly  ignorant  of  the  interest  which  attaches  to  it 

This  perfection  and  size  of  image  have  been  obtained 
by  Dr.  Janssen  by  combining  all  that  is  best  in  the  prin- 
ciples utilised  in  one  direction  by  Mr.  De  la  Rue,  and  in 
the  other  by  Mr.  Rutherfurd.  In  the  Kew  photohelio- 
g^ph,  which  has  done  such  noble  work  in  its  day  that  it 
will  be  regarded  with  the  utmost  veneration  in  the  future, 
we  have  first  a  small  object-glass  corrected  after  the 
manner  [of  photographic  lenses,  so  as  to  make  the  so- 
called  actinic  and  the  visual  rays  coincide,  and  then  the 
image  formed  by  this  lens  is  enlarged  by  a  secondary 
magnifier  constructed,  though  perhaps  not  too  accurately, 
so  as  to  make  the  actinic  and  visual  rays  unite  in  a  second 
image  on  a  prepared  plate.  Mr.  Rutherfurd's  beautiful 
photographs  of  the  sun  were  obtained  in  a  somewhat 
different  manner.  In  his  object-glass  he  discarded  the 
visual  rays  altogether  and  brought  only  the  blue  rays  to 
a  focus,  but  when  enlargements  ^ere  made  an  ordinary 
photographic  lens— that  is,  one  in  which  the  blue  and 
yellow  rays  are  made  to  coincide — was  used. 

Dr.  Janssen  uses  a  secondary  magnifier,  but  with  the 
assistance  of  M.  Pragmowski  he  has  taken  care  that  both 
it  and  the  object-glass  are  effective  only  for  those  rays 
which  are  most  strongly  photographic.  Nor  is  this  all  ; 
he  has  not  feared  largely  to  increase  the  apertures  and 
focal  length,  so  that  the  total  length  of  the  Kew  instru- 
ment is  less  than  one-third  of  that  in  operation  in  Paris. 

The  largely-increased  aperture  which  Dr.  Janssen  has 
given  to  his  instrument  is  a  point  of  great  importance. 
In  the  early  days  of  solar  photography  the  aperture  used 
was  small,  in  order  to  prevent  over-exposure.     It  was 


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soon  found  that  this  small  aperture,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
produced  poor  images  in  consequence  of  the  diffraction 
effects  brought  about  by  it.  It  then  became  a  question 
of  increasing  the  aperture  while  the  exposure  was  reduced, 
and  many  forms  of  instantaneous  shutters  have  been 
suggested  with  this  end  in  view.  With  these,  if  a  spring 
be  used,  the  narrow  slit  |  which  flashes  across  the  beam 
to  pay  the  light  out  into  the  plate  changes  its  velocity 
during  its  passage  as  the  tension  of  the  spring  changes. 
Of  this  again  Dr.  Janssen  has  not  been  unmindful,  and 
he  has  invented  a  contrivance  in  which  the  velocity  is 
constant  during  the  whole  length  of  run  of  the  shutter. 

By  these  various  arrangements  the  plates  have  now 
been  produced  at  Meudon  of  fifteen  inches  diameter, 
showing  details  on  the  sun's  surface  of  less  than  one 
second  of  arc. 

So  much  for  the  modus  operandi.  Now  for  the  branch 
of  solar  work  which  has  been  advanced. 

It  is  more  than  fifteen  years  ago  since  the  question 
of  the  minute  structure  of  the  solar  photosphere  was  one 
of  the  questions  of  the  day.  The  so-called  "  mottling  ** 
had  long  been  observed.  The  keen-eyed  Dawes  had 
pointed  out  the  thatch-like  formation  of  the  penumbra  of 
spots,  when  one  day  Mr.  Nasmyth  announced  the  dis- 
covery that  the  whole  sun  was  covered  with  objects 
resembling  willow  leaves  most  strangely  and  effectively 
interlaced.     I  here  quote  from  Sir  John  HerscheL" 

"  According  to  his  observations,  made  with  a  very  fine 
telescope  of  nis  own  making,  the  bright  surface  of  the 
sun  consists  of  separate,  insulated,  individual  objects  or 
things,  all  nearly  or  exactly  of  one  certain  definite  size 
and  shape,  which  is  more  like  that  of  a  willow  leaf,  as 
he  describes  them,  than  anvthing  else.  These  leaves 
or  scales  are  not  arranged  in  any  order  (as  those 
on  a  butterfly's  wing  are),  but  lie  crossing  one  another 
in  all  directions,  like  what  are  called  spills  in  the 
game  of  spilikins ;  except  at  the  borders  of  a  spot, 
where  the^  point  for  the  most  part  inwards,  towards  the 
middle  of"^  the  spot,  presenting  much  the  sort  of  appear- 
ance that  the  small  leaves  of  some  water-plants  or  sea- 
weeds do  at  the  edge  of  a  deep  hole  of  clear  water.  The 
exceedingly  definite  shape  of  these  objects ;  their  exact 
similarity  one  to  another  ;  and  the  way  in  which  they  lie 
across  and  athwart  each  other  (except  where  they  form  a 
sort  of  bridge  across  a  spot,  in  which  case  they  seem  to 
affect  a  common  direction,  that,  namely,  of  the  bridge 
itself),  all  these  characters  seem  quite  repugnant  to  the 
notion  of  their  being  of  a  vaporous,  a  cloudy,  or  of  a 
fiuid  nature.  Nothing  remains  but  to  consider  them  as 
separate  and  independent  sheets,  flakes,  or  scales,  having 
some  sort  of  solidity.  And  these  flakes,  be  they  what 
they  may,  and  whatever  may  be  said  about  the  dashing 
of  meteoric  stones  into  the  sun's  atmosphere,  &a,  are 
evidently  the  immediate  sources  0/  the  solar  light  and 
heat^  by  whatever  mechanism  or  whatever  processes  they 
may  be  enabled  to  develop,  and  as  it  were  elaborate  these 
elements  from  the  bosom  of  the  non-luminous  fluid  in 
which  they  appear  to  float  Looked  at  in  this  point  of 
view,  we  cannot  refuse  to  regard  them  as  organisms  of 
some  peculiar  and  amazing  kmd  ....'' 

Here,  then,  was  a  discovery  with  a  vengeance !  and 
absolute  endorsement  from  the  man  above  all  others  who 

^  >  I  have  recently  been  making  tome  experiments  witb  a  view  of  getting 
Tul  of  the  narrow  aperture  in  general  use,  as  it  has  appeared  to  me  that  the 
diflraction  eflfects  produced  by  it  must  be  as  injurious  to  definition  as  those 
doe  to  a  small  object-glass.  I  have  fotuMl  that  a  circular  aperture,  allowing 
the  whole  beam  to  be  flashed  on  the  plate  in  conjunction  with  a  plate  of 
optically  pure  yellow  glass  nearly  m  contact  with  the  photographic  plate  can 
be  used  wuhout  over-exposure, 
a  ••  Familiar  Lectures,"  p.  87. 


had  a  right  to  express  an  opinion.  Nevertheless,  the 
organisms  have  since  disappeared,  and  the  work  of 
many  careful  observers  has  established  that  the  mottling 
on  the  sun's  surface  is  due  to  dome-like  masses, 
and  that  the  "  thatch  "  of  the  penumbra  is  due  to  these 
dome-like  masses  being  drawn,  either  directly  or  in  the 
manner  of  a  cyclone,  towards  the  centre  of  the  spot.  In 
fact  the  "  pores "  in  the  interval  between  the  domes  are 
so  many  small  spots,  while  the  faculse  are  the  higher 
levels  of  the  cloudy  surface.  The  fact  that  faculae 
are  so  much  better  seen  near  the  limb  proves  that  the 
absorption  of  the  solar  atmosphere  rapidly  changes 
between  the  levels  reached  by  the  upper  faculae  {and  the 
pores. 

These  masses  are  in  all  probability  due  to  a  rapid 
increase  of  pressure  in  the  portion  of  the  solar  atmo- 
sphere occupied  by  the  photosphere;  we  know,  or  think  we 
know,  that  they  are  not  due  to  reduction  of  temperature. 

Thus  much  presumed^  we  now  come  to  Dr.  Janssen's 
discovery. 

An  attentive  examination  of  his  photographs  shows 
that  the  surface  of  the  photosphere  has  not  a  constitution 
uniform  in  all  its  parts,  but  that  it  is  divided  into  a  series 
of  figures  more  or  less  distant  from  each  other ^  and  pre^ 
senting  a  peculiar  constitution.  These  figures  have  con- 
tours more  or  less  rounded,  often  very  rectilinear,  and 
generally  resembling  polygons.  The  dimensions  of  these 
figures  are  very  variable  ;  they  attain  sometimes  a  minute 
and  more  in  diameter. 

While  in  the  interval  of  the  figures  of  which  we  speak 
the  grains  are  clear,  distinctly  terminated,  although  of 
very  variable  size,  in  the  interior  the  grains  are  as  if  half 
effaced,  stretched,  strained ;  for  the  most  part,  indeed, 
they  have  disappeared  to  make  way  for  trains  of  matter 
which  have  replaced  the  granulation.  Everything  indi- 
cates that  in  these  spaces,  as  in  the  penumbras  of  spots, 
the  photospheric  matter  is  submitted  to  violent  move- 
ments which  have  confused  the  granular  elements. 

In  an  article  recently  contributed  by  Dr.  Hunter  and 
myself  to  the  Nineteenth  Century^  the  following  pas- 
sage occurs  :— 

"  The  spots  may  be  taken  as  a  rough  index  of  solar 
energy,  just  as  the  rainfall  may  be  taken  as  a  convenient 
indication  of  terrestrial  climate.  They  are  an  index  but 
not  a  measure  of  solar  activity  ;  and  their  absence  indi- 
cates a  reduction,  not  the  cessation,  of  the  sun's  energy. 
Whether  this  reduction  means  one  in  a  hundred  or  one  in 
a  thousatid  we  do  not  know,^* 

With  the  same  idea  in  his  mind  Dr.  Janssen  points  out 
that  this  fact  throws  light  upon  the  forms  of  solar  activity, 
and  shows  that  that  activity,  in  the  photosphere,  is  always 
very  great,  although  no  spot  appears  on  the  surface. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  paradox  that  the  sun's 
appearance  can  now  be  best  studied  without  the  eye 
applied  to  the  telescope.  This  is  what  Dr.  Janssen  says 
on  that  point 

The  photospheric  network  cannot  be  discovered  by 
optical  methods  applied  directly  to  the  sun.  In  fact,  to 
ascertain  it  from  the  proofs,  it  is  necessary  to  employ 
glasses  which  enable  us  to  embrace  a  certain  extent  of  the 
photographic  image.  Then  if  the  magnifying  power  is 
quite  suitable,  if  the  proof  is  quite  pure,  and  especially  ii 
>S"  Sun-spots  and  Famines,"  NintUtnth  Century ,  November,  1877,  p.  584* 


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it  has  received  rigorously  the  proper  exposure,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  granulation  has  not  everywhere  the  same  dis- 
tinctness, that  the  parts  consisting  of  well- formed  grains 
appear  as  currents  which  circulate  so  as  to  circum- 
scribe spaces  where  the  phenomena  present  the  aspect 
we  have  described.  But  to  establish  this  fact,  it  is 
necessary  to  embrace  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
solar  disc,  and  it  is  this  which  it  is  impossible  to  realise 
when  we  look  at  the  sun  in  a  very  powerful  instrument 
the  field  of  which  is,  by  the  very  fact  of  its  power,  very 
smalL  In  these  conditions  we  may  very  easily  conclude 
that  there  exist  portions  where  the  granulation  ceases  to 
be  distinct  or  even  visible  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  suppose 
that  this  fact  is  connected  with  a  general  system. 

We  have  written  enough  to  show  that  when  the  daily 
history  of  the  sun  comes  to  be  recorded  another  method 
and  another  point  of  view  have  now  been  added  as  the 
first  fruits  of  Dr.  Janssen's  labour  in  his  new  observatory. 

J.  Norman  Lockyer 

FOWNES'  ''MANUAL  OF  CHEMISTRY 

Fowne^  Manual  of  Chemistry,  Vol.  1 1.  Chemistry  of 
Carbon  Compounds,  or  Organic  Chemistry.  Twelfth 
Edition.  By  H.  Watts,  B.A.,  F.R.S.  (London: 
Churchill,  1877.) 

ORGANIC  chemistry  is  now  progressing  with  such 
rapid  strides,  that  a  work  on  this  subject  becomes 
antiquated,  at  least  in  some  parts,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years.  A  new  edition  of  a  well  known  and  favourite  book 
must  therefore  be  most  welcome  to  students  of  this  branch 
of  chemical  science,  and  more  so  when  edited  by  a  man 
whom  we  may  justly  call  '*  the  English  Gmelin." 

The  old  familiar,  bulky  Fownes  has  now  been  divided 
into  two  handy  volumes,  enabling  the  editor  to  devote 
the  same  space  to  the  carbon  compounds  as  to  inorganic 
chemistry. 

The  arrangement  of  the  subject  is  in  principle  almost 
the  same  as  in  the  last  edition  ;  organic  compounds  being 
divided  into  hydrocarbons,  alcohols,  ethers,  amido- com- 
pounds, organo- metallic  bodies, acids,  &c,the  compounds 
of  each  group  being  arranged  in  homologous  series. 

Physiological  chemistry  is  omitted,  and  this  must  be 
considered  as  an  improvement,  as  that  branch  of  chemical 
science  now  requires  special  treatment  in  a  separate  work. 

The  name  of  the  author  is  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  the 
soundness  of  the  knowledge  which  this  book  imparts,  and 
we  hope  to  see  it  soon  in  the  hands  of  numerous  students 
who  will  find  it  a  most  useful  and  trustworthy  guide, 
embracing  as  it  does  the  most  important  recent  researches. 
The  book  is  singularly  free  from  misprints,  and  the  few 
which  we  have  found  can  be  easily  corrected  by  a  student 
who  is  accustomed  to  think  for  himselC 

As  a  reviewer  is  expected  to  point  out  any  faults,  we 
will  do  so,  but  **  sine  irae  et  studia,"  and  only  for  the 
benefit  of  the  student^  who  will  largely  use  this  work. 

Thus  we  miss  an  account  of  the  normal  sulphuric  ethers, 
which  are  found  by  the  action  of  sulphuryl  chloride,  or 
oxychloride  on  the  alcohols  and  phenols.  Perhaps  these 
parts  were  written  before  the  researches  we  allude  to 
were  published,  and  the  same  may  be  the  case  with 
phenyl-sulphuric  acid,  and  its  homologues,  compounds 
which  possess  such  interest  both  for  the  chemist  and 


physiologist  To  lactide,  the  author  still  assigns  the 
old  formula  C3H4O2,  although  Henry  has  proved,  by 
determining  its  vapour  density,  that  its  molecular  formula 
is  C6Hg04.  On  page  285  we  find  a  statement  which 
might  lead  a  beginner  in  practical  work  to  disappoint- 
ment, it  is  there  said  that  "crude  acetyl  chloride  is 
purified  by  heating  it  with  water  and  dilute  soda  solu- 
tion."   *'  Quandoque  bonus  dormitat  Homerus." 

We  were  much  pleased  to  find  that  Mr.  Watts  has 
given  particular  attention  to  the  study  of  isomerism, 
especially  among  the  derivatives  of  benzene,  and  he  justly 
says  in  the  preface :  **  This  part  of  the  subject  is  here 
presented  in  a  form  in  which  it  has  not  yet  appeared  in 
any  English  publication,  except  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Chemical  Society. ** 

Speaking  of  the  disubstitution  products  of  benzene,  the 
following  definition  is  given  :  ''  A  di-derivative  of  benzene 
is  para-,  ortho-,  or  meta-,  according  as  it  can  give  rise  to, 
or  be  formed  from,  one,  two,  or  three  tri-derivativcs. 
This  definition  is,  however,  incomplete,  and  only  holds 
good  if  in  the  di- derivative  the  substituting  elements  or 
radicals  are  the  same.  For  it  is  easily  seen  that,  to 
take  the  most  simple  case,  a  para-compound  containing 
two  different  groups  such  as  paranitrobromobenzene 
can  give  rise  to  or  be  formed  from  two  different  amido- 
nitrobromobenzenes.  The  oversight  is,  however,  a  matter 
of  small  importance,  and  an  attentive  student  will  not  be 
led  astray  by  it. 

The  theory  of  structure  or  position  which  Mr.  Watts 
treats  so  fully  has  been  lately  attacked  by  eminent 
chemists  who  seem  to  overlook  or  forget  the  great  im- 
pulse which  this  theory  his  given  to  the  progress  of 
organic  chemistry.  The  **  modem  chemists,**  as  they 
sneeringly  have  been  called,  know  well  enough  that  the 
structural  formulae  which  they  use  do  not  pretend  to  give 
a  picture  of  the  real  position  of  atoms  in  space,  and  do 
not  mean  more  than  the  parallelogram  of  forces  in  me- 
chanics, />.,  they  only  express  the  manner  in  which  the 
different  forces  of  the  atoms  attract  each  other.  They 
fully  understand  that  their  present  theory,  with  the  pro- 
gress of  science  will  have  to  undergo  many  modifications, 
and  it  is  not  a  dogma,  but  will  stand  or  fall  on  its  own 
merits. 

The  opponents  of  the  modem  school  remind  us  of  the 
last  followers  of  the  phlogistic  theory  who  got  hold  of 
any  fact  which  the  antiphlogistonists  were  not  able  to 
explain  as  a  proof  that  the  latter  were  in  the  wrong.  We 
can  easily  imagine  how  pleased  Priestley  was  when  it 
was  found  that  when  heating  certain  metallic  calces  with 
charcoal  an  inflammable  air  was  formed,  whereas,  accord- 
ing to  Lavoisier's  school,  only  carbonic  acid  could  be 
produced.  Just  in  the  same  way  the  opponents  of  the 
structural  theory  point  out  that  the  existence  of  four  lactic 
acids  is  incompatible  with  it ;  and  Mr.  Watts  himself, 
although  a  strong  adherent  of  the  theory  of  structure, 
shirks  the  discussion  of  this  point,  and  rusticates  one  of 
the  four  in  a  foot-note,  in  which  he  expresses  his  doubts 
as  to  its  existence. 

The  recent  researches  of  Wislicenus,  however,  hardly 
leave  any  doubt  that  four  such  acids  exist.  We  must 
confess  Uiat  we  are  not  able  to  explain  the  difference 
between  hydracrylic  acid  and  ethenelactic  acid,  and  quite 
agree  with  Mr.  Watts  that  Wislicenus*  explanation  of  the 


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cause  of  their  isomerism  is  improvable  and  far-fetched. 
But  there  exist  other  isomeric  compounds  which,  like 
these  two  acids,  have  apparently  the  same  chemical 
constitution,  and  in  some  of  these  cases  it  has  lately 
been  shown  that  the  bodies  are  not  chemical  isomerides 
but  physical  isomorphides,  or  differ  from  each  other  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  calcite  differs  from  arragonite. 
We  have  not  the  least  doubt  that  the  cause  of  the 
isomerism  of  the  lactic  acids  will,  at  no  distant  time, 
also  find  a  satisfactory  explanation,  because  we  are  con- 
vinced that  organic  chemistry  is  working  in  the  right 
direction.  Time  will  show  whether  we  prophesy  truly 
or  not 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Transcaucasia  and  Ararat;  being  Notes  of  a  Vacation 
Tour  in  the  Autumn  of  1876.  By  James  Bryce. 
(London :  Macmillan  and  Co.,  1877.) 

Although  in  this  narrative  Prof.  Bryce  takes  the  reader 
over  pretty  well-known  ground,  about  parts  of  which,  at 
least,  much  has  been  written,  still  even  the  best-informed 
readers  will  read  his  book  with  pleasure  and  profit  Prof. 
Bryce  used  hb  own  eyes,  and  as  he  is  a  good  and 
independent  observer,  there  is  an  unusual  freshness  about 
his  narrative.  He  journeyed  down  the  Volga,  crossed  the 
southern  steppe  and  the  Caucasus  to  Ararat,  which  he 
ascended,  thence  to  the  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  sailing 
along  the  coast  to  Constantinople.  Nijni  Novgorod  Fair, 
he  thinks,  has  been  much  over-estimated  in  some  respects, 
and  he  has  a  good  word  to  say  of  the  recently  much- 
abused  Cossack.  Prof.  Bryce  is  a  good  geologist,  and  his 
work  abounds  with  interesting  notes  on  the  geology  as 
well  as  the  flora  of  the  regions  which  he  traversed.  Per- 
haps the  most  interesting  chapter  in  his  book  is  that  in 
wluch  be  describes  his  ascent  of  Mount  Ararat  In  a 
previous  chapter  he  has  collected  much  valuable  informa- 
tion concemmg  the  mountain,  the  legends  connected  with 
it,  its  geology,  volcanic  phenomena,  meteorology,  vegeta- 
tion, and  animals.  Pro£  Bryce,  with  a  companion,  six 
Cossack  soldiers,  and  an  interpreter,  set  out  from  Aralyk, 
a  little  to  the  north  of  the  mountain,  at  8  A.M.,  on 
.  September  11  last  year,  to  attempt  the  ascent  About 
noon  they  were  fairly  on  the  side  of  Ararat,  and  at 
about  6,000  feet  came  upon  a  small  Kurd  encamp- 
ment, some  of  the  Kurds,  with  their  oxen,  being  induced 
to  act  as  baggage-bearers.  At  the  well  of  Sardar- 
bulakh  they  camped  late  in  the  afternoon,  about  7,500 
feet  above  the  sea.  About  one  A.M.  they  started  again, 
thirteen  in  all,  but  as  they  proceeded,  with  many 
vexatious  halts,  the  Cossacks  dropped  off  one  by  one, 
and  at  last,  at  about  12,000  feet,  Frof.  Bryce  resolved 
to  take  what  he  wanted  in  the  way  of  food,  and  start  at 
his  own  pace.  Two  Cossacks  and  a  Kurd  accompanied 
him  to  the  height  of  about  13,600  feet,  when  they  too 
dropped  ofi^  and  Prof.  Bryce  resolved  to  accomplish  the 
remainder  of  the  17,009  feet  alone,  a  hazardous  under- 
/  taking  even  for  a  trained  Alpinist  Partly  up  a  rocky 
slope  which  seems  to  extend  considerably  beyond  the 
snow-line,  and  partly  over  the  soft  snow  itself,  and 
envdoped  much  of  the  time  in  cloud,  Prof.  Bryce 
continued  his  solitary  and  fatiguing  climb,  imtil  about 
half-past  two  p.m.,  he  became  convinced  that  he 
was  really  on  the  top  of  Ararat,  at  least  one  of  the 
tops,  for  there  are  two,  one  about  thirty  feet  higher 
than  the  other,  and  he  did  not  descend  until  he 
had  set  his  feet  on  both.  There  were  difficulties  and 
dangers  both  in  the  ascent  and  descent,  though  they  do 
not  seem  to  be  nearly  so  great,  judging  from  Prof.  Bryce's 
description,  as  those  which  attend  the  ascent  of  a  moderate 
Alpine  summit  Pro£  Bryce  reached  his  companions  again 


in  safety.  Notwithstanding  he  had  to  make  all  haste  to 
reach  the  summit,  he  had  time  to  make  several  interesting 
notes  of  what  he  saw  by  the  way,  the  evidences  of  volcanic 
action  particularly  attracting  his  attention.  To  show  the 
superstitious  awe  with  which  the  sacred  summit  is  regarded 
in  the  region  around.  Prof.  Bryce  tells  that  when  the 
Archimandrite  of  Etchmiadzin  was  told  that  the  English- 
man had  ascended  to  the  top  of  "  Massis,"  the  venerable 
man  replied,  smiling  sweetly,  "  No,  that  cannot  be.  No 
one  has  ever  been  there.  It  is  impossible."  Prof.  Bryce's 
is  the  sbcth  known  ascent  of  Ararat,  the  first  having 
been  made  in  1829  by  Dr.  Frederick  Parrot,  a  Russo- 
German  professor  in  Dorpat  University. 

Thermodynamics,  By  R.  WormelL  (The  London 
Science  Class-books.  Elementary  Series.  Long- 
mans, 1877.) 
This  work  is  one  of  the  earliest  published  of  a  series 
"adapted  for  school  purposes,"  and  "composed  with 
special  reference  to  use  in  school  teaching,"  as  we  are 
told  in  the  general  preface. 

We  feel  very  strongly  that  no  good  can  come  of  the 
introduction  ot  such  subjects  as  the  dynamical  theory  of 
heat  into  school-teaching.  That  an  average  school-boy 
can  be  taught  the  elements  of  such  subjects  as  astronomy, 
botany,  and  natural  history,  and  that  he  will  to  a  certain 
extent  profit  by  such  teaching,  may  probably  be  true ; 
but  only  in  so  far  as  his  powers  of  observation  are 
concerned.  We  believe  that  it  is  a  complete  mistake  in 
practical  education  to  try  to  carry  the  process  farther  than 
the  elements,  even  in  the  case  of  the  comparatively  easy 
subjects  just  named. 

Some  elementary  experimental  facts  connected  with 
heat  might,  no  doubt,  be  added  to  the  list  But  it  is 
simply  the  work  of  the  era  Timer  to  stuff  a  school- boy's  head 
with  such  utterly  unassimilable  materials  as  reversible 
engines,  absolute  temperature,  and  the  kinetic  theory  of 
gases.    This  is  education  run  mad. 

This  obvious  consideration  decides  at  once  our  opinion 
as  to  the  value  of  the  work  before  us.  It  is  beyond  the 
intelligence  of  schoolboys,  and  in  the  hopeless  endeavour 
to  sink  it  to  their  level  it  has  been  deprived  of  much  that 
might  have  made  it  a  serviceable  work  for  more  mature 
minds. 

After  what  we  have  said,  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
criticise  the  book  minutely,  for  nearly  all  our  objections 
would  be  mere  repetitions  in  part  of  the  fiurst  and  general 
one.  We  note,  however,  a  want  of  strictness,  or  at  least 
of  completeness,  in  some  of  the  mathematical  proofs. 
The  first  example  we  meet  with  may  serve  as  a  type. 
Thus  (p.  4)  it  is  assumed,  without  any  attempt  at  expla- 
nation, in  fact  without  a  word  to  warn  the  reader  that  a 
distinct  step  has  been  taken,  that  in  uniformly  accelerated 
motion  fhe  mean  velocity  during  any  period  is  half  the 
sum  of  the  initial  and  final  velocities — ^a  truth,  and  a  very 
important  one,  but  most  certainly  not  self-evident  to  the 
average  schoolboy. 

Simple  Lessons  for  Home  Use,    (London  :  E.  Stanford, 

1877.) 
These  simple  lessons  are  intended  for  younger  children 
than  those  for  whom  the  primers  published  by  Messrs. 
Macmillan  have  been  written,  and  they  appear  admir- 
ably adapted  for  the  purpose  they  have  in  view.  Mr. 
W.  E.  Forster,  in  his  recent  speech  at  Huddersfield, 
referred  to  the  importance  of  teaching  the  elements 
of  science  in  primary  schools  by  means  of  appropriate 
reading  books.  The  little  books  before  us,  so  far  as 
they  go,  meet  the  wish  expressed  by  Mr.  Forster.  The 
print  is  clear,  the  language  on  the  whole  simple,  and  the 
price  (threepence)  places  them  within  the  reach  of  the 
humblest  Perhaps  there  is  a  little  too  great  a  tendency 
to  moralise  in  parts  of  the  otherwise  capital  little  lessons 
on  birds  and  money.  The  author  of  the  last-named— the 
Rev.  T.  £.  Crallan — tells  in  a  simple  and  mtfresting  way 

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26 


NATURE 


[Nov.  8,  1877 


: 


how  money  grows,  and  writes  for  younger  minds  than 
does  the  Rev.  G.  Henslow,  who  contributes  lessons  on 
flowers,  where  too  many  technical  terms  are,  we  think, 
introduced,  especially  in  the  first  chapter.  Miss  Fenwick 
Miller's  lessons  on  the  human  body,  and  on  ventilation, 
are  excellent,  and  so  are  Mr.  Philip  Sevan's  on  food,  and 
Dr.  Mann's  on  the  weather.  Altogether,  we  congratulate 
the  publisher  on  the  subjects  selected,  and  the  authors  he 
has  chosen  :  no  doubt  the  remainder  of  the  lessons  that 
are  to  be  issued  will  confirm  the  high  opinion  we  have 
formed  of  those  already  before  us,  W.  F.  B. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

\71u  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertakt  to  return, 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts, 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  aptiarance  even  of  com- 
munications  containing  interesting  ana  novel  facts,] 

Appunn  and  Koenig. — Beats  in  Confined  Air 
In  my  letter  published  in  Nature  (vol.  xvi.  p.  227),  I  stated 
that  I  should  re-examine  the  question  of  the  discrepancy  between 
Appunn  and  Koenig,  and  inform  you  of  the  result.  During  the 
whole  month  of  Sejitember  I  was  engaged  in  very  carefully 
counting  and  recounting  Appunn's  tonometer  in  the  South  Ken- 
sington Museum,  the  reeds  of  which  had  got  a  little  out  of  order, 
a  circtunstance  which  did  not  interfere  with  the  ascertainment  of 
pitch,  but  disposed  at  once  of  any  errors  in  Appunn's  pendulum. 
1  employed  one  of  Webster's  ship  chronometers,  which  was  rated 
to  lose  one  second  dail^,  and  counted  each  set  of  beats  repeatedly 
through  one  or  two  mmutes.  I  ascertained  by  this  means  that 
the  objections  made  by  Koenig  on  the  score  of  false  pendulums 
and  false  counting  were  entirely  groundless,  and  that  the  former 
determinations  of  the  relative  pitch  of  Koenig's  forks  and 
Appunn's  reeds,  made  by  Dr.  Preyer  and  myself,  were  prac- 
tically correct. 

But  as  Lord  Rayleigh  pointed  out  in  Nature  (voL  xvii.  p.  12) 
the  practical  agreement  of  the  results  obtained  by  Professors 
Mayer  and  MacLeod,  and  by  his  own  new  method  there  de- 
scribed, with  Koenig's,  serves  to  show  that  there  is  a  physical 
phenomenon  to  be  accounted  for.  Mr.  Bosanquet  had  drawn 
my  attention  to  the  subject  several  months  ago,  and  my  own 
experiments  on  the  beating  of  disturbed  consonances  had  led 
me  to  the  same  conclusion.  Accordingly  I  had  devised  a  series 
of  experiments  for  ascertaining  the  fact,  the  nature  of  which  I 
lately  communicated  to  Lord  Rayleigh ;  but  as  they  required 
the  use  of  two  tonometers  excited  by  separate  bellows,  there 
were  difficulties  in  the  way  of  making  them,  which  I  did  not 
overcome  till  this  week.  To-day  I  made  the  first  of  these 
experiments,  lasting  four  hours  or  more,  and  ascertained — 

1.  That  the  beats  of  the  harmonium  reeds  in  Appunn's  tono- 
meter are  affected  by  taking  place  in  a  confined  space  of  air. 

2.  That  they  are  accderataif  and 

3.  That  the  acceleration,  being  roughly  about  one  per  cent., 
will  probably,  when  completely  ascertained,  account  for  the 
discrepancy  observed. 

Details  have  been  sent  privately  to  Lord  Rayleigh  ;  they  arc 
too  incomplete  for  publication.  The  experiments  will  require 
many  weetcs  to  complete  with  the  necessiry  accuracy.  But  in 
the  meantime  I  hasten  to  communicate  an  impoitant  acoustical 
fact  which  may  bear  upon  many  other  phenomena  besides  the 
ascertainment  of  absolute  pitch.  Alexander  J.  Ellis 

25,  Argyll  Road,  Kensini;ton,  November  3 


The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 
As  I  now  learn  for  the  first  time  what  are  the  grounds  on 
which  Prof  G.  C.  Foster  based  his  inculpation  of  me,  I  mav  ask 
for  a  very  few  last  words.  I  fully  admit  that  in  giving  a  sketch 
of  the  history  of  the  Radiometer,  I  intended  to  attribute  to  Mr. 
Crookes  that  he  had  in  the  first  instance  put  a  wrong  interpre- 
tation upon  his  own  results ;  because  I  believed  that  this  was  a 
simple  fact,  well  known  to  everybody  who  had  followed  the 
history  of  the  inquiry.  And  Prot  Carey  Foster  has  not  called 
in  question  the  correctness  of  my  statement  of  the  general  im- 
ptession  which  pienuled  among  scientific  men,  alike  when  Mr. 
Ciookes  first  exhibited  his  radiometer  at  the  soiirk  of  the  Royal 


Sodety,  and  when  its  phenomena  were  discussed  at  the  subse^ 
quent  meeting.  Having  followed  that  discussion  with  thet 
greatest  interest,  I  cannot  now  recall  one  word  that  was  not  is.' 
harmony  with  the  "direct  impact "  doctrine,  or  that  suggested  the 
idea  of  "  heat  reaction  "  through  residual  gas.  If  the  que&tioa. 
had  been  then  asked,  whether  the  rotation  would  continue  to 
take  place  in  an  open  vacuum  (were  such  possible),  or  in  a  per- 
fect vacuum, — so  as  to  eliminate  all  "  reaction,"  throuj^h  residual 
gas,  between  the  vanes  and  the  containing  flask, — I  believe  that 
the  general,  if  not  the  unanimous,  verdict  would  have  been  in 
the  affirmative.  Certainly  I  heard  nothing  from  Mr.  Crookes  on 
the  other  side,  he  having  previously  spoken  of  the  dependence 
of  the  "Repulsion  resulting  from  Radiation  on  the  presence  of 
residual  gas  as  'impossible  to  conceive.' " 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  in  referring  to  this  then  prevalent  view, 
I  no  more  wished  to  put  Mr.  Crookes  in  the  wrong,  than  I  wished 
to  put  in  the  wrong  my  very  excellent  friends  among  the  other 
eminent  Physicists  who  shared  it ;  the  special  purpose  of  this 
part  of  my  paper  being  to  bring  out,  as  strongly  as  I  could,  the 
thoroughly  scientific  and  phiiosophtccU  meth^  in  zuhich  Mr, 
Crookes  afterwards  worked  himself  right.  If  this  is  not  expressed 
in  as  much  detail  as  Prof.  G.  C.  Foster  would  have  approved, 
it  surely  afforded  no  adequate  ground  for  his  going  out  of  his 
way  to  charge  me  with  having  **dcprcciat<5  Mr.  Crookes's 
merits."  Yet  this  is  the  only  ground  that  I  can  find  in  the  whole 
of  Prof.  Carey  Foster's  statement,  for  what  I  could  not  but  r^ard 
as  a  very  grave  imputation.  \ 

On  Mr.  Crookes  s  reply  I  shall  make  but  a  single  remark,  witii  ' 
reference  to  his  perfecdy  correct  citation  of  the  latter  part  of  my 
conversation  with  him,  on  the  occasion  of  his  receiving  the 
Royal  Medal.     If  I  had  not  found,  after  the  publication  of  my 
Lectures  (in  which  I  said  nothing  but  what  was  respectful  to  Mr.  \ 
Crookes),  that  he  had  himself  been  "digging  up  the  hatchet*" 
which  I  was  quite  disposed  to  keep  buried,  by  giving  his  public 
attestadon  to  the  "  spiritualistic  "  genuineness  of  what  had  bee.i 
proved  to  be  a  most  barefaced  imposture,  I  should  not  have  again 
brought  his  name  into  the  controversy.     But  I  felt  that  his  grt  atly 
increased  reputation  as  a  Scientific  man  would  do  an  increasing 
injury  to  what  I  honestly  believed  to  be  the  cause  o(  reason  and 
common  sense,  not  only  in  this  country  but  stiU  more  in  the 
United  States. 

Since  the  death  of  Prof.  Hare,  not  a  single  sciendfic  man  cf 
note  (so  far  as  I  am  aware)  has  there  jointd  the  Spiritualistic 
ranks;  but  the  names  of  the  "eminent  British  scientists,''  Messrs. 
Crookes  and  Wallace,  are  a  "  tower  of  strength  "  to  the  various 
orders  of  "mediums" — ^rapping  mediums,  writing  mediums, 
drawing  mediums,  materialismg  mediums,  test  mediums,  photc- 
graphic  mediums,  trance  mediums,  healing  mediums,  and  the 
like — whose  names  form  many  columns  of  die  **  Boston  Trades' 
Directory."  And  the  now  notorious  impostor,  Eva  Fay,  has  been 
able  to  apneal  to  the  "  endorsement "  given  to  her  by  the  "  scien- 
tific tests'*  applied  to  her  by  "Prof.  Crookes  and  other  Fellows 
of  the  Roval  Society,"  which  had  been  published  (I  now  find)  by 
Mr.  Crookes  himselt  in  the  Spiritualist  m  March,  1875.  Witliin 
two  months  of  that  date,  as  Mr.  Maskelyne  has  publicly  stated, 
an  offer  was  made  him  (I  have  myself  seen  copies  of  the  letters) 
by  Eva  Fav's  manager,  that  for  an  adequate  sum  of  money  the 
"  medium  '^  should  expose  the  whole  affair,  scientific  tests  and  all, 
*\complicating  at  least  six  big  guns,  the  F,R,S,  people,**  as  she  was 
not  properly  supported  by  the  Spiritualists, 

I  have  therefore  felt  it  incumbent  on  me  to  show  that  in  dealing 
with  this  subject  Messrs.  Crookes  and  Wallace  have  followed 
methods  which  are  thoroughly  ii#»-scientific ;  and  have  been  led  by 
their  "  prepossession  "  to  accept  with  implicit  faith  a  number  of 
statements  which  ought  to  be  rejected  as  completely  un- 
trustworthy. 

My  call  to  take  such  a  part — which  I  would  most  gladly  lay 
aside  for  the  scientific  investigations  which  afford  me  die  purest 
and  most  undisturbed  enjoyment — seems  to  me  the  same  as  is 
made  upon  every  member  of  the  Profession  to  which  I  have  the 
honour  to  belong,  that  he  should  do  his  utmost  to  cure  or  to 
mitigate  bodily  disease.  The  training  I  originally  received,  and  the 
theoretical  and  experimental  studies  of  forty  years,  have  given  me 
what  I  honesUy  believe  (whether  righUy  or  wrongly)  to  be  a  ratht  r 
unusual  power  of  dealing  with  this  subject  Since  the  appea  an.e 
of  my  Lectures  I  have  received  a  large  number  of  public  asi  uran  ces 
that  they  are  doing  good  service  in  prevendng  the  spread  of  a 
noxious  mental  epklemic  in  this  country ;  and  I  have  been 
privately  informed  of  several  instances,  in  which  persons  who 
bad  been  "  bitten  "  by  this  malady,  have  owed  their  recoTeinr  to 
my  treatment    Looking  to  the  danger  which  threatens  as  mnn 


Digitized  by 


Google 


* t^ov.  8,  1877] 


NATUkE 


27 


the  United  States,  of  an  importation  of  a  real  spiritualistic  mania^ 
far  more  injurious  to  our  mental  welfare,  than  that  of  the 
Colorado  beetle  will  be  to  our  material  interests,  I  should 
be  untrue  to  my  own  convictions  of  duty  if  I  did  not  do  what  in 
me  lies  to  prevent  it.  That  I  do  not  take  an  exa^erated  view 
of  the  danger,  will  be  obvious  to  any  reader  of  Mr.  Home's  book. 
I  know  too  well  that  I  thus  expose  myself  to  severe  obloquy, 
which  (as  I  am  not  peculiarly  thick-skinned)  will  be  very  un- 
pleasant to  myself,  and  unfortunately  still  more  so  to  some  who 
are  nearly  connected  with  me.  But  I  am  content  to  brave  all,  if  I 
can  believe  that  my  exposi  will  be  of  the  least  service  either  to 
individuals  or  to  society  at  large.  W.  B.  Carpenter 

The  high  scientific  position  which  Prof.  Foiter  holds,  as  well 
as  the  decided  manner  in  which  his  letter  was  written,  must  lead 
the  otherwise  unbiassed  reader  to  the  conclusion  that  not  only 
has  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  action  in  question  been 
found  and  generally  adopted,  but  that  this  explanation  turns 
upon  certain  consideratiorus,  and  particularly  on  the  mean  length 
of  the  path  of  the  gaseous  molecules  as  influenced  by  the  degree 
of  rarefaction. 

I  feel  my  position,  therefore,  particularly  unfortunate  in 
having,  for  the  sake  of  truth,  to  show  that  the  explanation 
which  Prof.  Foster  has  adopted,  and  supposes  others  to  have 
adopted,  is,  if  judged  by  the  statements  in  his  letter,  inconsistent 
with  well-established  laws. 

Prof.  Foster  gives  me  credit  for  having  originated  the  funda- 
mental idea  of  the  explanation,  but  states  that  my  "  explanation 
was  theoretically  incomplete;  in  particular  it  did  not  show 
clearly  why  so  high  a  degree  of  rarefaction  should  be  necessary 
for  the  production  of  the  phenomenon  in  question ; "  and  then 
he  proceeds  to  explain  how  this  asserted  deficiency  was  supplied 
by  other  thinkers,  who  showed  that  "the  increase,  resulting 
from  rarefaction,  in  the  mean  length  of  the  path  of  the  gaseous 
molecules,  would  favour  the  action." 

It  is  this  supposed  completion  of  my  explanation  that  is 
erroneous.  It  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  the  diffusion  of  heat  in 
gases  that  "the  increase,  resulting  from  rarefaction,  in  the  mean 
length  of  the  patii  of  the  gaseous  molecules  would  favour  the 
action,"  and  so  far  from  supplying  any  de6ciencyin  my  expUna- 
tion  it  is  incomnatible  with  it  The  only  result  from  such  an 
increase  is  to  diminish  the  action — a  result  which  rises  into 
importance  only  when  the  rarefaction  is  carried  so  far  that  the 
mean  length  of'^the  path  of  a  molecule  becomes  comparable  with 
the  dimensions  of  the  inclosing  vessel 

In  my  first  paper  I  gave  a  definite  proof,  which  has  nowhere 
been  questioned,  that  according  to  the  kinetic  theory  the  force 
arising  from  the  communication  of  heat  from  a  surface  to  adjacent 
gas  of  any  particular  kind  depends  only  on  one  thing,  the  rate  at 
which  heat  is  communicated,  and  to  tlus  it  is  propnrt'onaL  If 
therefore  the  increased  rarefaction  increased  the  f^rce  it  must 
increase  the  rate  at  which  heat  is  communicated,  but  according 
to  the  law  established  by  Prof.  Maxwell  the  rate  at  which  heat 
is  communicated  is  independent  of  the  densitv  of  the  gas,  whence 
it  follows  that  the  increase  in  the  mean  length  of  the  path  of  the 
gaseous  molecules,  resulting  from  rarefaction,  cannot  favour  the 
action  which  remains  approximately  constant  until  the  gas 
becomes  so  rare  that  the  law  of  diffusion  no  longer  holds,  alter 
which  it  may  easily  be  shown  the  communication  of  heat,  and 
hence  the  action  in  question,  diminishes  but  never  increases. 

The  fact  that  in  the  radiometer  the  force  caused  by  the  com- 
munication of  heat  only  causes  motion  when  the  surrounding 
gas  becomes  extremely  rare  is,  as  I  pointed  out  in  my  first 
papers,  fully  explained  by  the  action  of  what  I  have  called  con- 
vection currents,  which  action  depends  on  the  weight  and 
density  of  the  gas.  The  gas  adjacent  to  the  hot  surface  is  hotter 
than  that  which  is  more  remote,  and  hence  the  former  rises  form* 
ing  an  ascending  column,  to  supply  which  the  gas  is  drawn  in 
laterally  on  all  sides,  and  tends  to  carry  the  surface  forward 
with  it  Witii  the  same  difference  of  temperature  and  surround- 
ing circumstances  the  speed  of  these  convection  currents  is  the 
same  whatever  may  be  the  density  of  the  gas,  and  hence  the 
force  which  they  exert  on  the  surface  is  proportional  to  the 
density  of  the  gas. 

This  force  is  opposite  in  direction  to  that  arising  from  the 
communication  of  neat  to  the  gas,  and  since  the  former  dimi- 
nishes with  the  density  while  the  latter  is  constant,  there  most 
be  some  density  for  which  they  balance,  and  bdow  which  the 
constant  force  will  predominate,  while  above  this  point  the  con. 
▼ection  currents  will  carry  the  surface  with  them.   The  fact  that^ 


staiting  from  low  densities,  the  motion  of  th^  vanes  in  the  radio- 
meter does  not  only  diminish  as  the  density  increases,  but  is 
actually  reversed  at  higher  densities,  requires  explanation,  and 
no  other  than  this  has  yet  been  offered. 

I  have  gone  into  the  subject  at  considerable  length,  as  I  felt 
bound,  when  venturing  to  differ  from  so  high  an  authority  as 
Prof.  Foster,  to  state  my  reasons.  There  is,  however,  nothing  in 
what  I  have  said  here  which  I  have  not  said  elsewhere,  in  the 
same  or  other  words;  and  however  incomplete  in  theory  the 
explanation  given  in  my  first  papers  may  be,  I  can  only  say  that 
it  included  fOl  the  facts  known  to  me  at  the  time  these  were 
written ;  it  has  led  me  to  predict  many  of  the  experimental 
results  which  have  since  been  obtained,  and  I  have  not  been 
able  to  find  one  fact  with  which  it  is  not  in  accordance,  nor  has 
it  been,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  controverted  in  any  particular. 

OSBORNB  RkYNOLDS 


Potential  Energy 

I  HAVE  reason  to  believe  that  the  '^grievous  error'*  with 
which  I  chare;ed  "John  O'Toole  "  in  his  reference  to  the  clock 
is  not  meant  by  him  to  be  his  own  view  of  the  matter  at  all,  but 
merely  a  legitimate  deduction  from  the  confused  and  inconsistent 
language  of  "  the  doctors."  Such  an  erroneous  view  on  his  part 
is,  mdeed,  obviously  out  of  harmony  with  the  extensive  know- 
ledge of  the  subject  of  energy  displayed  by  him  in  letters  which, 
without  doubt,  will  convince  "  the  doctors  "  of  the  necessity  of 
adopting  consistent  and  strictly  logical  phraseology. 

G.  M.  MiNCHIIf 

Royal  Indian  Engineering  College,  Cooper's  Hill 


Effects  of  Urticating  Organs  of  Millepora  on  the 
Tongue 

An  article  by  Mr.  Moseler,  hi  Nature  (voL  xvL  p.  475), 
reminds  me  of  an  experiment  I  made  some  years  ago  in  Florida. 
In  collecting  corals  on  the  reefs,  I  had  of  course  become 
familiar  with  the  disagreeable,  though  not  very  painful,  effects 
of  contact  of  the  hands  with  Millepora.  But  the  vulgar  names 
of  Pepper-coral  or  Sea  ginger  induced  me  to  try  the  effect  on 
the  tongue,  to  find  out  how  far  the  taste  resembled  those  condi- 
ments. I  accordingly  broke  off  a  fresh  piece  and  applied  it  to 
the  tongue.  Instantly  a  most  severe  pain  shot,  not  only  through 
that  organ,  but  also  through  the  laws  and  teeth,  llie  whole 
course  of  the  dental  nerves  and  their  ramifications  into  every 
single  tooth  could  be  distinctlv  and  painfully  felt  I  can  com- 
pare the  sensation  to  nothing  better  than  to  the  application  of 
the  poles  of  a  pretty  strong  galvanic  battery.  The  pain  re- 
nuuiied  severe  for  about  half  an  hour,  then  became  duller, 
leaving  a  sensation  still  perceptible  five  or  six  hours  later.  The 
whole  impression  was  much  too  violent  to  allow  the  distinction 
of  any  particular  taste. 

Sudi  an  expoiment  made  with  Physalia  might  be  positively 
dangerous,  considering  the  much  more  powerful  urticatmg  effects 
of  its  polyps.  Indeed,  a  friend  of  mine  once  related  to  me  that 
when  a  boy  he  had  come  in  contact  with  one  of  the  long  tentacles 
of  a  Physalia,  when  bathing,  and  had  to  be  carried  out  of  the 
water  ahnost  fainting.  L.  F.  Pourtalbs 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  October  22 


Drowned  by  a  Devil  Fish 

The  following  account  of  the  destruction  of  a  human  being  by 
a  cuttle  fish  at  Victoria,  in  Vancouver  Island,  has  all  the  appear- 
ance of  authenticity  about  it.  It  occurs  in  the  Weekly  Oregonian 
of  October  6,  1877.  The  Oregontan  is  the  principal  paper  of 
Oreeon,  and  is  published  at  Portland. 

The  insertion  of  the  account  in  Nature  may  lead  to  further 
information  on  the  subject.  I  know  of  no  other  authentic  instance 
of  the  kind. 

An  account  of  the  habits  of  the  hujg;e  octopus  of  the  Vancouver 
Island  Sounds  and  also  of  the  Indian  method  of  hunting  and 
killing  the  beasts  for  food  is  to  be  found  in  John  Keast  Lord's 
"  Natmalist  in  Vancouver  Island  and  British  Columbia,"  vol.  i. 
p.  192.  Mr.  Lord  measured  specimens  which  had  arms  five  feet 
in  length,  with  a  thickness  at  their  base  as  great  as  his  wrist,  and 
he  once  collected  a  detached  sucker  of  one  of  these  cephalopoda 
as  large  as  an  egg  cup  in  mistake  for  a  huge  actinia. 


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[Nov.  8,   1877 


"British  Columbia 
'^Drawfud  by  a  Devil  Fish 

«  Victoria,  September  27.— An  Indian  woman  while  bathing 
was  pnlled  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  by  an  octopus  or 
devil  fish  and  drowned.  The  body  was  discovex^  the  following 
day  in  the  bottom  of  the  bay  in  the  embrace  of  the  monster. 
Indians  dived  down  and  with  their  knives  severed  the  tentacles 
of  the  octopus  and  rescued  the  body.  This  is  the  first  recorded 
instance  of  death  from  such  a  cause  in  this  locality,  but  there 
have  been  several  narrow  escapes." 

Exeter  College,  Oxford  H.  N.  MosELEV 

The  Earthworm  in  Relation  to   the  Fertility  of  the 
Soil 

In  Nature,  vol.  xviL,  p.  18,  there  is  an  account  under  the 
above  heading  of  M.  Hensen*s  investigations  of  this  subject,  to 
which  I  wish  to  add  a  note.  He  says  the  assertion  that  the 
earth-worms  gnaw  roots  is  not  proved  by  any  fact ;  roots  gnawed 
by  worms  were  never  met  with  by  him,  and  the  contents  of  the 
intestines  of  the  worms  never  included  fresh  pieces  of  plants. 
The  experience  of  gardeners  that  the  earth-worm  injures  pot 
plants  may  be  based  on  the  uncovering  or  mechanical  tearing  of 
the  roots. 

I  should  have  thought  that  the  universal  experience  of 
gardeners  is  that  earth-worms  never  eat  vegetable  matter  until  it 
has  decayed,  and  that  their  instinct  leads  them  to  draw  the 
points  of  leaves  as  far  as  they  can  into  their  tubes  for  the  purpose 
of  setting  up  the  decaying  process,  and  likewise  to  sever  the 
roots  of  pot  plants  with  the  same  object.  I  can  hardly  under- 
stand how  earth-worms  have  any  mechanical  means  of  severing 
the  roots  of  plants  except  by  gnawing. 

But  there  is  an  omission  in  M.  Hensen's  account  of  the'ferti- 
lisation  of  the  subsoil  by  earth-worms  which  surprises  me.  He 
mentions  but  two  ways  in  which  this  is  effected,  viz.,  by  the 
opening  of  passages  for  the  roots  into  deeper  parts,  and  b^  the 
lining  of  these  passages  with  humus. 

I  thought  it  was  a  well-known  fact  that  worms,  by  means  of 
their  '*  casts,''  effect  a  complete  renversefneni  of  the  soil  of 
meadow  land  down  to  a  certain  depth  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years.  But  whether  well-known  or  not  I  met  with  a  demon- 
stration of  this  important  fact  in  1857.  When  putting  down  a 
considerable  extent  of  iron  fencing  in  the  alluvial  meadows  near 
my  house  (consequent,  upon  an  exchange  of  land)  I  had  occasion 
to  cut  a  ditch  two  or  three  feet  deep,  and  when  the  workmen 
had  finished  the  ditch — a  quarter  of  a  mile  long  in  all — I  was 
astonbbed  to  see  in  one  portion,  of  about  sixty  yards  in  length,  a 
distinct  and  very  even  narrow  line  of  coal-ashes  mixed  with  small 
coal  in  the  clean  cut  surface  of  the  fine  loam  of  the  ditch  face,  per- 
fectly parallel  with  the  top  sward.  It  immediately  occurred  to  me 
that  this  was  the  work  of  the  earth-worms,  and  upon  inquiry  I 
found  that  the  farmer,  who  had  occupied  this  land  for  many 
years,  remembered  having  once,  and  oiuy  once,  carted  out  some 
coal-ashes  and  spread  it  at  this  spot  not  many  years  before.  I 
forget  the  exact  number  of  years,  but  I  believe  it  was  about 
eighteeen.  I  have  a  distinct  recollection,  however,  that  the 
depth  of  the  line  of  coal-ashes  below  the  surface  was  at  least 
seven  inches,  and  that  this  seemed  to  confirm  the  general  belief 
that  the  depth  to  which  the  earth-worm  usually  burrows  is  about 
that  amount.  I  may  add  that  the  colour  of  the  loam  above  the 
line  of  coal-ashes  was  decidedly  darker  than  of  that  below. 

Henry  Cooper  Key 

Stretton  Rectory,  Hereford,  November  2 


In  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  18,  some  details  are  given  of 
observations  made  by  M.  Hensen  on  the  relation  of  the  earth- 
worm to  the  fertility  of  the  ground.  He  has  observed,  as 
everyone  most  have  observed,  that  the  earthworm  during  night 
draws  into  its  tube  or  hole  the  loose  leaves  and  fibres  which  may 
be  lying  about  But  this  operation  of  the  earthworm  has  a 
significance  in  relation  to  the  vegetable  world  of  even  a  pro- 
founder  kind  than  that  of  the  fmilisation  of  the  soil.  Some 
months  ago,  in  searching  for  young  ash  plants  with  three 
cotyledons,  I  found  that  in  a  great  many  cases  the  samara  or 
seed  of  the  ash  had  been  drawn  into  a  worm's  hole,  and  had 
there  found  moisture  and  other  essential  conditions  of  growth  ; 
while  the  same  seeds  lying  dry  upon  the  surface  had  not  germi- 
nated. There  can  thus  be  no  doubt  that  many  seeds  of  all 
kinds  are  drawn  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  covered  by 


the  earth  thrown  up  by  worms.  They  are  thus  preserved  from 
birds  and  various  enemies,  and  are  placed  in  the  proper  positi<a 
for  germination.  The  dead  plant  is  perpetuated  from  its  £allen 
pamcle  by  the  earthwonn.  An  ash  tree,  or  a  whole  forest  of 
ash  trees,  may  have  been  planted  by  earthworms. 
North  Kinmundy,  November  5         A.  Stephen  Wilson 

M.  Alluard's  Condensing  Hygrometer 
The  notice  of  the  above  instrument  in  last  week's  Natueje 
(p.  14)  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  necessity  for  increased 
communication  between  the  scientific  men  of  all  countries.  The 
labour  which  is  at  present  wasted  by  repeating  what  has  been 
done  before  is  enormous,  and  until  intemition^d  intercommttni- 
cation  is  improved  it  must  be  so. 

I  quite  agree  with  you  in  your  appreciation  of  M.  Allaard's 
hygrometer,  but  I  think  it  is  desirable  to  state  that  it  is  not  the 
first  in  which  "  the  part  on  which  the  deposit  of  dew  is  to  be 
observed  is  a  plane  well-polished  face  a,  of  silver  or  gilt  brass. " 
The  annexed  engravings  represent  the  form  of  plane- faced 
hygrometer  invented  by  Mr.  G.  Dines,  F.M.S.,  described  by 
him  in  the  Meteorological  Magazine  for  October,  1 87 1,  and 
exhibited  at  the  Brighton  Meeting  of  the  British  Association, 
1872. 

The  action  is  extremely  simple  ;  no  ether  is  required  nor  any 
aspirator.  Water  colder  than  the  dew  point  is  the  only  requisite 
— it  is  poured  into  the  reservoir  A,  passes  through  the  regulating- 
tap  B  into  the  chamber  D  ;  it  is,  by  the  black  diaphragm,  thrown 
past  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  c,  and  then  allowed  to  escape. 
The  cooled  plane  surface  e  of  silver  or  black  glas?,  is  excessively 
thin,  and  the  space  between  it  and  the  thermometer-bulb  is 
wholly  occupied  by  the  effiuent  water,  so  that  the  great  essent'al 


of  all  hygrometers,  a  true  indication  of  the  temperature  of  the 
cooled  surface,  seems  to  be  reached.  The  plate  e  can  be  kept 
within  o"*2  or  cP'^  for  a  length  of  time  by  adjusting  the  screw  b, 
and  as  the  condensation  usually  takes  an  elliptical  form  over  the 
thermometer-bulb,  and  in  the  middle  of  e,  the  advantage  of  an 
adjacent  bright  surface  is  usually  attained.  I  am,  however,  not 
sure  that  M.  Alluard's  surrounding  plate  might  not  be  a  con- 
venience, although  for  the  reason  above  given  I  have  not  found 
it  necessary.  G.  J.  Symons 

62,  Camden  Square,  N.W.,  November  2 


Optical  Spectroscopy  of  the  Red  End  of   the   Solar 
Spectrum 

Nature,  dated  August  2  (vol.  xvi.  p.  264),  containing  Pror. 
Pisuczi  Smyth's  communication  on  "  Optical  Spectroscopy  of  the 
Red  End  of  the  Solar  Spectrum,"  reached  me  on  the  21st  ult., 
when  I  had  no  leisure  to  avail  myself  of  the  outgoing  mail  and 
reply  immediately  to  the  subject  of  his  last  paragraph.  Inquiry 
is  there  nuuie  of  "anyone''  (besides  the  Royal  Society),  in 
association  more  or  less  with  my  name,  whether  more  recenl 
particulars  have  been  published,  of  the  spectrum  in  question, 
than  "those  (i>.  my)  Indian  observations,"  "printed  in  the 
Philosophical  TVansactions  so  long  ago  as  1874"  (i>.  1875). 

2.  The  Astronomer- Royal  for  Scotland  is  presumably  in  a 
better  position  to  reply  for  "any  one,"  than  myself,  located  in' 
latitude  N.  30**,  longitude  £.  78^ ;  and  so  far  as  the  inquiry 
relates  to  the  Royal  Society,  his  penultimate  paragraph  in  itself 
furnishes  the  information  sought,  because  the  Society's  publica- 


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29 


tion  prominently  alluded  to  by  himself  is  the  last  publication. 
As  respects  myself,  I  have  printed  no  further  particalars  in 
addition  to  those  which  the  Professor  dismisses,  briefly  for  the 
present,  with  the  announcement  of  having  discovered,  ''total 
contradictions"  to  certain  "conspicuous  features." 

3.  It  is  necessary  to  point  out,  that  the  designation  for  my 
observations  adopted  by  the  Professor  of  "  the  Royal  Society's 
and  Mr.  HennesMy't  high-sun  series  "  suggests  existence  of  the 
^n/^df  responsibility  which  is  plainly  disavoweil  in  the  ''Adver- 
tisement" to  the  Philosophical  Transactions^  1875,  Part  I.,  and 
elsewhere ;  for  the  professor  can  hardly  intend  that  two  separate 
and  independent  high-sun  series  taken  on  the  Himalaya  Moun- 
tsdns,  one  by  the  Royal  Society,  and  the  other  by  myself,  have 
appeared  in  the  Transactions. 

4.  I  shall  look  forward  with  interest  to  the  perus&l  of  Prof.  Piazzi 
Smyth's  promised  complete  account  of  his  sun-high  observations 
at  Lisbon  ;  meanwhile  I  may  be  pardoned  for  my  inability  to 
follow  his  prompt  and  brief  announcement  of  "  total  contradic- 
tions," written  while  yet  on  his  return  voyage. 

J.  B.  N.  Hennessby 
N.W.  Provinces,  India,  Dehra  Doon,  October  3 


Singing  Mice 

PiRHAPS  the  following  account  of  a  singing  moose  may  be  of 
interest  to  your  readers  : — 

List  winter  we  occupied  the  rooms  we  now  do  at  Menton. 
Early  in  February  we  heard  as  we  thought  the  song  of  a  canary, 
and  fanded  it  was  outside  our  balcony  ;  however  we  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  singing  was  in  our  salon,  and  that  the  songster 
was  a  mouse ;  at  that  time  the  weather  was  rather  cold,  and  we 
had  a  little  fire,  and  the  mouse  spent  most  of  the  da^  under  the 
fender,  where  we  kept  it  supplied  with  bits  of  biscmt ;  in  a  few 
days  it  became  quite  tame,  and  would  come  on  the  hearth  in  an 
evening  and  sing  for  several  hours,  sometimes  it  would  climb  up 
the  chiffonier  and  ascend  a  vase  of  flowers  to  drink  at  the  water, 
and  then  sit  and  sing  on  the  edge  of  the  table  and  allow  us  to  go 
quite  near  to  it  without  ceasing  its  warble ;  one  of  its  favourite 
haunts  was  the  wood  basket,  and  it  would  often  sit  and  sing  on 
the  edge  of  it.  On  February  12,  the  last  night  of  the  carnival, 
we  had  a  number  of  friends  in  our  salon,  and  the  litde  mouse 
sang  most  vigorously  much  to  their  delight  and  astonishment  and 
mras  not  in  the  least  disturbed  by  the  talking.  In  the  evening 
the  mouse  would  otten  run  about  the  room  and  under  the  door 
into  the  corridor  and  adjoining  rooms  &nd  then  return  to  its  own 
hearth  ;  after  amusing  us  for  nearly  a  month  it  disappeared,  and  we 
suspect  it  was  canght  in  a  trap  set  in  one  of  the  rooms  beyond. 
The  motise  was  small  and  had  very  large  ears,  which  it  moved 
about  much  whilst  singing ;  the  song  wat  not  unlike  that  of 
the  canary  in  many  of  its  trills,  and  it  sang  quite  as  beautifully 
as  any  canary,  but  it  had  more  variety,  and  some  of  its  notes 
were  much  lower,  more  like  those  of  the  bullfinch.  One  great 
peculiarity  was  a  sort  of  double  song,  which  we  had  now  and 
then — an  air  with  an  accompaniment ;  the  air  was  load  and  full, 
the  notes  being  low  and  the  accompaniment  quite  subdued.  Some 
of  our  party  were  sure  that  there  was  more  than  one  mouse 
until  we  had  the  performance  from  the  edge  of  the  wood  basket, 
and  were  within  a  yard  or  two  of  it.  My  son  has  suggested 
that  many  or  all  mice  may  have  the  same  power,  but  that  the 
notes  are  usually  so  much  higher  in  the  scale  that,  like  the  cry 
of  the  dormouse  and  the  bat,  they  are  at  the  verge  of  the  pitch 
to  which  the  human  ear  is  sensiuve;  this  may  be  so,  but  tne 
notes  of  our  mou«e  were  so  low  smd  even  the  highest  so  far 
within  the  limits  of  the  human  ear,  that  I  am  inclined  to  think 
the  gift  of  smging  in  mice  is  but  of  very  rare  occurrence. 

Joseph  Sidbbotham 

Hotel  de  Menton,  Menton,  S.  France,  October  31 

Several  years  ago  I  received  soTie  of  these  anmals  (rjm  a 
friend,  and  kept  them  in  confinement  for  one  or  two  months. 
The  description  which  your  correspondent  gives  of  their  per- 
formance leaves  very  little  to  be  added  by  me,  as  in  all  respects 
this  description  agrees  perfectly  with  my  own  observations.  I 
write,  however,  to. remark  one  carious  fact  about  the  singing  of 
these  mice,  namely,  that  it  seemed  to  be  evoked  by  two  very 
opposite  sets  of  conditions.  When  undisturbed,  the  litde  animals 
used  for  the  most  part  to  remain  quiec  during  the  day,  and  begin 
to  smg  at  night;  but  if  at  any  time  they  were  alarmed,  by 
handling  them  or  otherwise,  whether  during  the  day  or  night, 
they  were  sure  to  sing  vigorously.     Thus  the  action  seemed  to 


be  occasioned  either  by  contentment  or  by  fear.  The  character 
of  the  song,  however,  was  slightly  different  in  the  two  cases. 

Ttiat  these  mice  did  not  learn  this  art  from  singing  birds  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  for  they  were  captured  in  a  house  where  no 
such  birds  were  kept  It  may  be  worth  whi'e  to  add  that  this 
house  (a  London  one)  seemed  to  hare  been  suddenly  invade  1, 
so  to  speak,  by  a  number  of  these  animals  for  although  my 
friend  has  lived  in  this  house  since  the  year  1862,  it  was  only 
during  a  few  months  that  singing  mice  were  heard  in  it,  and  during 
these  few  months  they  were  heard  in  considerable  numbers. 

Regent's  Park,  November  i  George  J.  Romanes 


Meteor 

The  following  a^xotint  of  a  meteor  seen  here  may  perhaps 
interest  some  of  your  readers  : — 

On  October  29,  at  8h.  im.  30s.  Greenwich  mean  time,  a 
brilliant  meteor  exploded  in  right  ascension  268**,  declination 
+  60*  (eqtiator  of  1855) ;  it  lefl  a  bright  crooked  train  scarcely 
half  a  degree  long,  which  remained  visible  for  tbout  ten  seconds, 
and  pointed  towards  i  Draconis.  The  course  of  the  meteor 
must  have  been  directed  downwards,  almost  exactly  towards 
this  observatory.  The  flash  of  the  explosion  was  seen  by  the 
assistant-astronomer,  Mr.  Lohse,  although  he  was  sitting  in  such 
a  position  as  to  be  unable  to  see  the  meteor  directly. 

Lord  Lindsay's  Observatory,  Ralph  Copeland 

Dunecht,  Aberdeen,  November  3 


JNTERSATIONAL  POLAR  EXPEDITION 

IN  February,  1875,  when  the  Arctic  Expedition  was 
being  prepared,  I  asked  the  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  in  Parliament,  whether,  in  view  of  the  small 
value  for  scientific  purposes  of  isolated  observations  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  in  comparison  with  simultaneous 
observations  at  different  places,  and  in  view,  also,  of  the 
interest  now  taken  in  Arctic  science  by  foreign  Govern- 
ments, he  would  postpone  for  one  season  the  departure 
of  the  proposed  Arctic  Expedition,  and  in  the  interval 
communicate  with  foreign  Governments  with  a  view  to 
the  organisation  of  other  expeditions  to  make  observa- 
tions simultaneously  with  our  own  at  fixed  times  ?  The 
First  Lord  said  that  he  considered  the  preparations  for 
an  expedition  too  far  advanced  to  admit  of  this,  and 
added :  **  I  should  regard  the  project  of  combination  with 
other  powers  to  attain  the  objects  in  view  as  one  beset 
with  difficulties  "—in  which,  I  think,  he  was  in  error.  In 
the  following  month,  when  the  Supplementary  Estimate 
for  the  Arctic  Vote  was  under  discussion,  I  again  drew 
the  attention  of  the  Government  and  Parliament  to 
the  advantages  of  simultaneous  Arctic  expedirions  (see 
Hansard^  vol  ccxxii.  p.  1354),  and  in  Naval  Science  for 
April  of  the  same  year,  in  an  article  on  "  Foreign  Polar 
Expeditions,"  I  drew  still  further  attention  to  the  matter, 
concluding  with  an  extract  from  a  paper  by  Capt. 
Weyprecht  (who  so  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Austro- Hungarian  polar  expeditions  of  1871  and  1872-74), 
in  which  he  pointed  out  in  the  clearest  manner  the  desira- 
bility of  extending  future  Arctic  researches  far  beyond 
mere  geographical  exploration,  and  pressing  forward  with 
our  studies  of  magnetism,  electricity,  the  best  of  meteoro- 
logy, &c.  **  The  solution  of  these  questions  cannot,"  he 
said,  "  be  expected  until  all  nations  which  claim  to  come 
up  to  the  present  high  standard  of  civilisation  unite  to  go 
hand  in  hand,  setting  aside  all  national  rivalries.  To 
bring  about  decisive  scientific  results  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  a  number  of  simultaneous  observations,  so  con- 
ducted that  they  will  furnish  a  yearly  rhumi  of  observa- 
tions made  in  different  parts  of  the  Arctic  regions  with 
exactly  similar  instruments,  and  from  exactly  similar 
instructions." 

Upwards  of  a  year  ago  Nature  gave  details  ot  Wey- 
precht*s  project  for  the  scientific  exploration  of  the  Polar 
regions.  It  was  referred  to  on  several  occasions,  and 
pointed  out  that  Wey  precht's  plan  was  the  only  satisfactory 
method  of  obtaining  results  of  real  and  permanent  value. 


C2 


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The  programme  has  now  been  extended  and  completed, 
and  was  prepared  for  submission  to  the  International 
Meteorological  Congress  which  was  to  have  met  at  Rome 
in  September,  but  which  has  been  adjourned  to  next  year. 
I  have  just  received  from  my  friend  Weyprecht  a  copy, 
and  may  summarise  its  contents  as  follows  : — 

The  enterprise  proposed  by  Count  Wilczek  and  Capt 
Weyprecht  has  for  its  aim  strictly  scientific  exploration, 
pturely  geographical  discovery  being  a  secondary  matter. 
It  will  be  the  first  step  towards  a  systematic  scientific 
investigation  of  the  regions  around  the  poles  of  the 
earth  and  the  minute  observation  of  phenomena  pecu- 
liar to  these  regions — phenomena  the  earnest  investi- 
gation of  which  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  con- 
nection with  a  great  number  of  problems  with  reg^d 
to  the  physics  of  the  globe.  The  international  expedi- 
tion will  have  for  its  aim  to  make  in  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  regions,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  these 
regions,  and  at  as  many  stations  as  it  is  possible  to 
establish,  synchronous  observations  according  to  a  pro- 
granmie  mutually  agreed  upon  ;  for  the  purpose,  on  the 
one  hand,  of  deducing  by  comparison  from  observations 
collected  at  different  points,  independently  of  the  pecu- 
liarities which  characterise  the  years  of  different  obser- 
vations, the  general  laws  of  the  phenomena  investi^ted ; 
and,  on  the  other  band,  of  arriving  by  probable  mduc- 
tions  at  a  knowledge  of  the  chances  of  penetrating 
further  into  the  interior  of  the  unknown  regions.  For 
this  purpose  each  of  the  states  participating  in  the  work 
will  undertake  to  equip  at  its  own  expense,  and  send  out 
an  expedition  to  one  of  the  points  designated.*  Each 
state  will  of  course  be  at  liberty  to  authorise  its  ex- 
pedition to  carry  on  work  oubide  of  that  mutually 
agreed  on. 

The  investigations  to  be  made  in  common  bear  only 
on  meteorological  phenomena,  those  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism, aurora  borealis,  and  on  ice  phenomena.  At  eadi 
station  the  observations  must  be  continued  one  year, 
from  September  i  to  August  31.  The  meteorolc^ical 
observations  will  be  made  in  conformity  with  the  resolu- 
tions of  the  permanent  International  Committee,  and  will 
relate  to  atmospheric  pressure,  the  temperature  and 
humidity  of  the  air,  the  direction  ^d  force  of  the  wind, 
the  state  of  the  sky  and  its  degree  of  clearness,  and  also 
to  phenomena  of  condensation.  The  programme  then 
gives  detailed  instructions  as  to  methods  and  instruments 
of  observation,  all  being  arranged  to  secure  accuracy, 
fulness,  and  uniformity. 

It  is  probable  that  each  station  will  be  near  a  coast, 
and  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  expedition  will  be  to 
observe  the  connection  between  the  movements  of  the  ice 
and  the  winds  and  currents,  and  if  these  are  ol^erved 
regularly,  important  results  will  no  doubt  be  obtained  as 
to  the  movements  of  the  ice  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
therefore  as  to  the  routes  most  favourable  for  reaching 
the  pole.  The  best  ice- observations  will  of  course  be  at 
those  stations  where  local  conditions  have  the  least 
influence. 

The  magnetic  observations  are  divided  into  absolute 
determinations  and  determinations  of  the  three  elements. 
Minute  directions  are  given  in  the  programme  as  to  the 
method  to  be  followed  in  taking  these  observations,  the 
fixing  of  the  positions  of  the  various  instruments,  the 
kinds  of  instruments  to  be  used,  the  methods  of  verification 
and  testing,  the  construction  of  observatories,  &c.  These 
directions,  if  faithfully  carried  out,  would  give  the  ob- 
server plenty  of  work  to  do,  but  the  result  would  be 
of  unprecedented  value.  In  consequence  of  the  per- 
sistent perturbations  which  prevail  in  these  regions, 
isolated  readings  made  only  from  hour  to  hour,  even  when 
carried  on  for  long  periods,  are  not  sufficient  to  give  with 
precision  the  hourly,  daily,  and  monthly  magnetic 
character  of  the  place  of  observation.  It  is  necessary, 
consequently,  to  multiply  these  observations.    Ten  obser- 


vations per  hour  for  each  of  the  three  elements  wiU  be 
sufficient,  and  to  insure  a  rigorous  synchronism  it  is 
stipulated  that  the  three  instruments  of  variation  be  read 
during  ten  minutes,  from  minute  to  minute,  viz.,  at  the 
full  minute  (-  h.  56m.  os.)  the  declination,  ten  seconds 
after  (—  h.  56m.  los.)  the  horizontal  intensity,  and  ten 
seconds  after  that  (-  h.  56m.  20s.)  the  inclination. 
Before  and  after  each  observation,  viz.,  -  h.  52m.  os.,  and 
at  —  h.  69m.  OS.  the  form  and  position  of  the  auroras 
should  be  noted.  Immediately  after  the  meteorological 
observations  should  be  proceeded  with  in  the  following 
order: — Temperature,  humidity,  winds,  clouds,  atmo- 
spheric pressure.  (For  magnetic  observations  it  is 
proposed  to  use  G6ttmgen  mean  time.)  Besides  obser- 
vations of  the  regular  magnetic  variations,  it  will  be  of 
great  importance  to  have  made,  by  three  observers, 
rigidly  synchronous  readings  of  the  three  elements  in 
order  to  obtain  precise  data  of  the  total  intensity.  For 
this  purpose  there  will  be  made,  during  one  hour  each 
day,  by  these  observers,  frt)m  minute  to  minute,  from 
—  h  -  m.  OS.,  readings  of  the  three  instruments.  The 
hours  of  these  observations  should  be  advanced  an  hour 
each  day,  so  as  to  return  to  the  point  of  departure  at  the 
end  of  every  twenty-four  days. 

The  auroras  should  be  observed  as  to  their  form,  their 
intensity,  and  their  position.  The  programme  then 
names  and  describes  the  various  forms  assumed  by 
auroras — arches,  streamers,  beams,  corona  borealis,  haze, 
waves,  flashes — for  the  adequate  and  scientific  observation 
of  which  the  programme  gives  directions. 

The  most  favourable  time  for  this  joint  expedition  will 
be  October  and  November,  when  the  temperature  is  not 
so  low  as  to  necessitate  special  preparations. 

As  the  absolute  simultaneity  ot  the  observations  is  of 
the  utmost  importance,  each  station  must  be  furnished 
with  the  means  of  obtaining  the  exact  longitude ;  good 
chronometers  will  also  be  necessary.  To  carry  out  the 
above  observations  to  their  fullest  extent,  four  observers 
will  suffice  for  each  station,  if  among  the  subordinates 
there  are  men  who  can  perform  the  purely  mechanical 
duty  of  reading  the  instruments. 

The  programme  concludes  with  three  propositions,  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  insure  the  possibility  of  the  exact 
comparison  of  the  magnetic  observations. 

The  following  are  the  points  proposed  as  most  favour- 
able for  the  various  observations  referred  to  above :—  In 
the  northern  hemisphere — The  north  coast  of  Spitz- 
bergen  ;  north  coast  of  Novaya  Zemlya  ,*  Finmark,  near 
the  North  Cape ;  the  mouth  of  the  Lena,  on  the  north 
coast  of  Siberia ;  New  Siberia ;  Point  Barrow,  on  the 
north-east  of  Behring  Strait ;  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land ;  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  about  75°  N.  lat  In 
the  southern  hemisphere — The  neighbourhood  of  Cape 
Horn  ;  the  Kerguelen  or  Macdonald  Islands  ;  one  of  tne 
groups  south  of  the  Auckland  Islands. 

I  wish  that  in  the  influential  pages  of  Nature  this 
great  international  scientific  subject  could  be  again  urged. 
I  cannot  help  thinking  that  in  Uie  present  Hydrographer 
of  the  Navy  we  have  an  officer  who  would  be  at  once 
most  able  and  willing  to  take  part  in  giving,  in  the  way 
suggested,  true  scientific  direction  and  scope  to  future 
Arctic  research.  My  confidence  in  the  great  value  of 
simultaneous  observations  in  comparison  with  the  meagre 
results  of  isolated  expeditions  must  be  my  apology  for 
thus  writing. 

E.  J.  Reed 


THE   NORWEGIAN  DEEP-SEA 
EXPEDITION 

FROM  soundings  taken  by  the  second  German  Polar 
Expedition,  and   kindly    communicated  by   Capt. 
Koldewey,  of  Hamburgh,  I  have  been  induced  to  alter 


Digitized  by 


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AW.  8,  1877] 


NATURE 


ai 


my  views  about  the  configuration  of  the   sea-bottom  [  around  Jan  Mayen.    The  figure  of  the  bottom  which  I  at 


present  find  the  most  probable  I  have  given  in  the 
chart  which  I  send  herewith.  It  will  be  observed  that 
it  is  the  part  of  the  sea  between  Jan  Mayen  and  Ice- 


land which  is  to  be  corrected  on  the  small  chart  which 
was  published  in  Nature,  vol  xvi.  p.  527. 
Christiania,  October  23  H.  Mohn 


ON  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  MATTER  IN  RELA- 
TION TO  THE  SECOND  LA  W  OF  THERMO- 
DYNAMICS 

I.  HTHE  purpose  of  this  paper  is  to  call  attention  to  a 
J-  natural  process  that  appears  to  constitute  an 
exception  to  the  second  law  of  thermodynamics,  and 
which,  if  noticed  by  others,  would  at  least  appear  from 
its  importance  to  merit  a  more  general  recognition.  The 
subject  may  be  best  dealt  with  b^  means  of  a  simple 
illustration,  the  principles  involved  m  the  action  of  which 
are  already  perfectly  well  known. 

2.  Let  the  annexed  figure  represent  a  cylinder,  contain- 


0 

H 

ing  a  piston,  p  ;  a  suitable  (plumbago)  porous  diaphragm 
(as  used  for  diffusion  experiments)  being  fitted  into  the 


piston.  The  piston  can  be  connected  conveniently  with 
any  outer  arrangement  for  doing  work.  Suppose  the  one 
half  of  the  cylinder  to  be  fiU^  with  oxygen,  the  other 
half  with  hydrogen.  Then,  as  is  known,  according  to 
the  kinetic  theory,  the  molecules  of  o  and  h  are  im- 
pinging continually  against  the  porous  partition  or 
diaphragm,  P,  and  the  molecules  in  their  impacts  thus 
occasionally  encounter  vacant  spaces  or  pores,  and  so 
continue  their  motion  on  across  the  diaphragm  into  the 
opposite  compartment.  Owing,  however,  to  the  fact  that 
the  molecules  of  hydrogen  are  moving  four  times  as  fast 
as  the  molecules  of  oxygen,  they  strike  the  diaphragm 
correspondingly  more  frequently,  and  thus  four  times  as 
many  nydrogen  molecules  pass  through  into  division  o, 
as  oxygen  molecules  pass  through  into  division  H.  [The 
piston  is  supposed  fixed  at  present,  so  that  no  work  being 
done,  there  is  consequently  no  heating  or  cooling  of  the 
gas.]  But  on  account  of  the  excess  of  molecules  passing 
into  division  o,  the  pressure  there  will  rise.  If,  then,  after 
the  pressure  has  risen  to  a  certain  degree,  the  piston  be 


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[Nov.  8,  1877 


suddenly  released,  it  will  be  driven  by  the  excess  of  pres- 
sure in  the  direction  o  H,  and  in  that  act  the  gas  in  o  will  be 
chilled  and  the  gas  in  H  heated,  which  is  contrary  to  the 
second  law  of  thermodynamics,  since  in  this  process  work 
is  derived  from  matter  all  at  a  uniform  temperature,  or 
work  is  derived  by  cooling  a  portion  of  gas  below  the 
coldest  of  surrounding  objects.  In  the  same  way  the 
piston  might  have  l>&en  connected  to  some  external 
mechanism,  and  so  part  of  the  work  be  done  externally 
(in  a  self-acting  manner). 

3.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  work  is  done  in 
natural  processes  (in  the  animal  and  vegetable  world) 
since  plants  and  organic  tissues  are  distinguished  for 
their /(?r^j//>',  and  such  tissues  are  permeated  with  the 
various  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  carbonic  acid,  &&  It 
may  be  observed  that  even  without  any  porous  diaphragm 
at  all,  or  when  two  gases  whose  molecules  possess  dif- 
ferent velocities  are  allowed  to  diffuse  into  each  other, 
there  is  invariably  a  transference  of  heat,  which  is  con- 
trary to  the  second  law  of  thermodynamics,  which  law 
assumes  that  heat  cannot  pass  between  two  bodies  origi- 
nally at  the  same  temperature,  or  heat  cannot  pass  from 
a  colder  to  a  hotter  body.  Yet  it  is  evident  that  as  soon 
as  the  heat  has  begun  to  pass  from  one  of  the  diffusing 
gases  to  the  other,  the  one  from  which  the  heat  com- 
mences to  pass  is  already  the  colder. 

4.  Such  a  principle  is  evidently  capable  of  an  enor- 
mously wide  application  in  nature.  It  is  only  necessary 
for  example  for  the  constituents  of  the  universe  to  be 
diverse^  to  get  any  amount  of  work  by  diffusing  them 
together,  even  if  all  originally  at  the  same  temperature. 
The  principle  of  the  tendency  to  the  uniform  diffusion  of 
Matter^  is  capable  of  completely  overthrowing  the  tendency 
to  the  uniform  diffusion  of  Energy  ;  for  even  if  energy 
were  uniformly  diffused,  the  uniformity  could  be  upset  by 
the  diffusion  of  matter  {i,e,  provided  matter  were  not 
already  all  uniformly  diffused  or  homogeneous) :  and,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  quantity  of  work  to  be  derived  by  the 
diffusion  of  matter  is  limited  only  by  the  quantity  of 
matter  at  disposal.^  In  order  that  all  capacity  for  work 
might  cease  in  the  universe,  it  would  be  necessar)'  not 
only  that  there  should  be  a  uniform  diffusion  of  energy, 
but  also  a  uniform  diffusion  of  matter.  Heterogeneity 
confers  a  capacity  for  work,  as  well  as  inequality  of  tem- 
perature. Heterogeneity,  as  far  as  is  known,  is  one  of  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  material  universe. 
Any  dissimilarity  of  molecular  mass,  which  (by  equality 
of  temperature)  is  necessarily  attended  by  dissimilarity  of 
molecular  velocity^  confers  a  capacity  for  work.  The  dis- 
similarity of  velocity  is  evidently  the  efficient  cause  in 
determining  the  work,  and  therefore  in  the  exceptional 
case  where  dissimilarity  of  molecular  structure  is  not 
attended  by  inequality  of  mass  (and  consequently  not  by 
inequality  of  velocity),  work  could  not  be  derived.  We 
may  note,  therefore,  that  inequality  of  molecular  velocity, 
as  well  as  inequality  of  molecular  energy,  confers  a 
capacity  for  work,  and  in  order  that  all  capacity  for  work 
should  cease,  not  only  must  molecular  energy,  but  also 
molecular  velocity  be  uniformly  distributed,  or  the  mole- 
cules of  matter  which  (by  equality  of  temperature)  possess 
unequal  velocities,  must  be  uniformly  diffused. 

5.  \fVe  may  observe  that  gravity  which  does  not  inter- 
fere with  the  uniform  diffusion  of  energy,  does  interfere 
with  the  uniform  diffusion  of  matter.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, the  energy  (heat)  of  the  atmosphere  tends  to  be 
uniformly  diffused  throughout  a  vertical  column  of  the 
atmosphere,  in  spite  of  the  action  of  gravity.  But  the 
uniform  diffusion  of  matter  {i.e.,  the  uniform  mixture  of 
the  gases  of  the  atmosphere  through  each  other)  is  pre- 
vented by  gravity.    For  by  the  well-known  law  of  Dalton 

*  Since  the  first  draft  of  tbis  paper  was  written,  I  have  been  informed  that 
the  question  of  the  Quantity  of  work  to  be  derived  by  diffusing  gase*  has 
been  created  of  by  Lord  Rayleigh  {Phii,  Mag.,  April,  i87^>»  but  he  does 
not  apparently  mendoa  the  bearing  of  the  «Ue  on  the  secondf  law  of  thermo- 
d>nanlics. 


(which  accords  with  the  result  of  the  kinetic  theory 
of  gases),  each  gas  arranges  itself  as  a  layer  upon  the 
eardi's  surface,  preciselv  as  it  would  do  if  no  other  gas 
were  present.  Thus  (as  is  known),  owin^  to  (the  fact 
that  a  greater  quantity  of  nitrogen  exists  m  the  atmo- 
sphere than  oxygen,  the  nitrogen  consequently  rises  to  a 
greater  height  thah  the  oxygen,  so  that  at  considerable 
heights  the  nitrogen  predominates.  Thus  the  uniform 
diffusion  of  the  constituents  of  the  atmosphere  through 
each  other  is  prevented  by  gravity.  It  may,  perhaps,  be 
just  as  well  to  note  in  connection  with  this  point  that 
those  gases  which  are  observed  at  the  surface  of  nebulas 
are  not  necessarily  at  the  surface  because  of  their  greater 
lightness^  but  this  is  also  determined  by  quantity ;  for 
as  we  have  observed,  each  gas  (according  to  the  known 
conditions  of  equilibrium)  arranges  itself  about  a  centre 
as  if  no  other  gas  were  present ;  and  therefore  each  gas 
must  penetrate  to  the  centre  of  the  nebula,  and  therefore 
could  not  reach  as  far  as  the  surface  unless  its  quantity 
were  sufficient  (though,  no  doubt,  by  a  greater  hghtness 
a  less  quantity  of  gas  will  suffice  for  that  purpose).  There 
might  possibly  be  a  tendency  to  assume  (unless  the  conse- 
ouences  of  the  above  principle  were  rigidly  kept  in  view) 
tnat  the  light  gas  observed  (such  as  hydrogen)  was 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  nebula.  We  know  that 
according  to  the  conditions  of  gaseous  equilibrium  this  is 
wrong,  and  that  each  gas  (if  freed  from  other  disturbing 
causes)  will  have  its  basis  at  the  centre  of  the  nebula, 
where,  therefore,  the  composition  or  mixture  of  gaseous 
matter  is  uniform,  but  nowhere  else  (excepting  in  the 
very  improbable  case  where  the  quantities  and  densities 
of  sill  the  gaseous  cocstituents  are  the  same).  If  gravity 
were  to  cease  (and  the  gaseous  constituents  of  the  nebula 
were  supposed  confin^  or  prevented  from  expanding), 
the  constituents  of  the  nebula  would  uniformly  diffuse 
themselves  throughout  the  entire  mass,  and  this  act 
of  diffiision  would  be  attended  by  a  transference  of  heat, 
even  if  all  the  gaseous  constituents  were  at  the  same 
temperature. 

6.  Thus  we  may  observe  that  by  merely  modifying  the 
action  of  gravity  or  by  altering  the  position  of  a  portion 
of  gas  relatively  to  gravity,  work  may  be  derived  through 
diffusion.  Thus  if  we  suppose  a  pottion  of  gas  to  be 
moved  to  different  positions  in  a  nebula,  the  constitution 
of  the  portion  of  gas  or  the  mixtiire  of  its  constituents  is 
changed  according  to  its  position,  and  in  these  changes 
work  is  derived,  or  available.  Only  when  the  portion  of 
gas  is  situated  at  the  centre  of  th?  nebula  are  its  con- 
stituents uniformly  diffused  through  each  other  ;  less  and 
less  so  towards  the  outside. 

7.  It  would  thus  appear  to  follow  that,  as  far  as  present 
knowledge  goes,  a  uniform  diffusion  of  matter  as  well  as 
a  uniform  diffusion  of  ener^  would  be  at  least  required, 
in  order  that  all  capacity  for  work  and  physical  change 
should  cease  in  the  universe.  At  the  same  time  does  it 
not  rather  behove  us  to  look  to  a  time  when,  through 
increase  of  knowledge,  a  means  for  recurrence  may 
possibly  be  discovered,  whereby  physical  change  is  con- 
tinued, rather  than  to  look  to  the  purposeless  end  of  a 
chaos  of  uniform  temperature  and  uniform  distribution  of 
matter?  Humboldt  says  relatively  to  this  point  (Preface 
to  "  Cosmos  ") :  "I  would  therefore  venture  to  hope  that 
an  attempt  to  delineate  nature  in  all  its  vivid  animation 
and  exalted  grandeur,  and  to  trace  the  stable  amid  the 
vacillating  ever- recurring  alternation  of  physical  meta- 
morphoses, will  not  be  wholly  disregarded  at  a  future 
age."  S.  ToLVER  Preston 


MUSIC  A  SCIENCE  OF  NUMBERS'^ 

n^HE  subject  which  I  submit  for  your  consideration  this 

*■■    afternoon  is  the  influence  of  numbers  in  music,  as  in 

the  various  combinations  of  consonances  and  dissonances 

'  Read  befbre  the  Muucal  Association  of  London,  November  s.  1877.  by 
W.  Cbappell,  F.S^  5,     //.     y 


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which  we  hear  every  day,  and  to  show  how  these  are 
explained  by  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  science. 

Although  music  has  appeared  to  many  persons  a  diffi- 
cult subject,  it  is  really  one  of  the  most  easily  intelligible 
and  one  of  the  most  firmly  grounded  of  sciences.  It  is 
purely  a  science  of  numbers. 

The  consonances  which  charm  the  ear,  such  as  the 
octave,  twelfth,  fifth,  fourth,  and  the  major  and  minor 
thirds,  have  two  concurrent  sets  of  vibrations ;  the  one 
set  produced  by  the  lower  string  or  pipe,  and  the  other 
by  the  upper.  Although  they  vibrate  at  different  rates, 
yet  there  are  periodical  coincidences  of  vibration  between 
them,  and  these  coincidences  sound  with  much  more 
power  upon  the  ear  than  the  vibrations  which  are  non- 
coincident,  or  sound  apart.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
two  hammers  striking  simultaneously  upon  an  anvil  have, 
through  the  greater  displacement  of  air,  fourfold  loudness, 
instead  of  merely  double.  The  same  law  applies  to 
musical  sounds.  Coincidence  of  vibration  is  more  briefly 
expressed  by  its  synonym,  "  consonance ;  *'  and  all  non- 
comcident  vibrations  are  included  in  "dissonances," 
meaning  only  that  they  sound  apart.  In  a  musical  sense, 
dissonance  is  the  medium  between  concord  and  discord, 
running  from  one  into  the  other ;  for,  in  the  most  pleasing 
intervals,  there  are  some  non-coincident  vibrations,  and 
when  these  become  very  numerous,  they  overpower  all 
concord.     This  will  be  shown  in  the  sequel. 

Suppose  we  take  one  long  pianoforte  string  or  an  organ- 
pipe.  The  lowest  sound  it  can  produce  will  be  that  of 
Its  whole  length,  and  this  may  be  made  the  foundation  of 
an  entire  scale  of  consonant  notes,  for  every  aliquot  part 
of  the  length,  being  such  as  will  measure  without  any  re- 
mainder, will  be  also  a  multiple  of  the  vibrations  of  No. 
I.  Thus  No.  2,  the  octave,  is  half  the  length  and  vibrates 
twice  as  fast  as  the  whole  string.  No.  3,  the  so-called 
twelfth,  or  octave  and  fifth,  is  a  third  of  the  length  of 
Na  I,  and  it  vibrates  thrice  as  fast.  Then,  if  we  sound 
No.  3  with  No.  2  instead  of  No.  i,  we  throw  off  the  lower 
octave  and  have  the  fifth  only,  or  3  to  2.  It  is  essential 
for  consonance  that  the  intervals  should  be  aliquot  parts 
of  Ko.  I,  for  if  otherwise,  we  should  only  create  discord. 
The  musical  law  is  expressed  very  simply,  that  the 
number  of  vibrations  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  length  of  a 
string. 

The  scale  of  all  consonances  is  called  the  harmonic 
scale,  copies  of  which  are  before  you.  It  is  exemplified 
by  string  or  pipe.  Let  us  consider,  first,  the  -/Eolian 
harp,  on  whicn  the  winds  alone  produce  the  consecutive 
sounds.  The  strings  are  tuned  in  imison,  except  the  two 
outmost,  one  on  each  side,  and  those  are  covered  with 
wire,  and  tuned  an  octave  lower.  When  the  wind  blows 
quickly  enough  to  sound  the  bass  strings,  which  we  will 
suppose  to  have  tuned  to  C  on  the  bass  clef,  with  128 
vibrations  in  a  second  of  time,  it  is  the  whole  string 
which  sounds  first,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  wind  must  be 
•doubled  before  the  harp  will  sound  any  change  of  note, 
and  that  note  will  be  the  octave^above  the  first.  It  has 
already  been  said  that  the  octave  is  produced  by  half  the 
length  of  a  string,  and  that  it  vibrates  twice  as  fast  as  the 
whole — but  mark  the  coincidence  between  the  music  and 
consecutive  numbers ;  i  and  2  have  no  note  between 
them,  although  the  sound  jumps  from  the  whole  length 
to  that  of  the  half !  When  the  bass  strings  sound  the  half 
length  they  have  divided  themselves  into  equal  halves 
by  a  node,  and  that  node  creates  tension  in  opposite 
directions,  the  one  ventral  segment  pulling,  as  it  were, 
against  the  other.  These  self-forming  nodes  may  be 
casily^seen  by  daylight,  and  at  night  by  throwing  a  light 
upon  the  string.  They  were  shown  at  our  first  conver- 
sazione in  these  rooms  by  Mr.  Spiller,  and  at  the  Edin- 
burgh meeting  of  the  British  Association  by  Mr.  Ladd. 
The  gust  of  wind  which  sounds  the  octave,  or  half  length 
•of  the  bass  strings  of  the  iColian  harp,  sounds  at  the  same 
time  the  whole  length  of  the  gut  strings,  because  they  are 


tuned  to  that  pitch.  Then,  as  the  wind  rises,  subdivision 
goes  on  in  both  with  every  multiple  of  128  vibrations  for 
the  bass,  and  of  256  vibrations  for  the  tenor  strings. 

The  reason  for  tuning  the  ^Eolian  harp  to  a  low  pitch 
is,  that  the  strings  may  be  more  easily  acted  upon  by  the 
wind.  We  read,  poetically,  of  hanging  one  in  a  tree,  but 
it  requires  a  much  stronger  draught  than  it  will  get  there, 
except  during  a  hurricane,  when  no  one  will  care  to  go 
to  listen.  Our  late  lamented  Vice-President,  Sir  Charles 
Wheatstone,  F.R.S.,  fixed  a  single  violin  string  under  a 
very  draughty  door,  as  an  iColian  harp,  and  he  calculated 
the  increase  of  draught  caused  by  lighting  a  fire  in  the 
room,  and  by  the  opening  of  an  outer  door,  by  the  rising 
pitch  of  the  note.  The  varieties  produced  by  this  string 
have  been  described  as  "  simultaneous  sounds,"  but  they 
were  purely  consecutive.  Anyone  may  satisfy  himself 
that  it  could  only  be  so,  by  repeating  the  experiment  with 
a  good  violin  string.  The  change  of  note  is  simultaneous 
with  the  change  of  nodes  in  the  string.  Mere  undula- 
tions, or  irregularities  of  vibration,  will  not  change  the 
note,  but  injure  the  quality  of  the  tone.  All  the  curves 
that  a  string  may  describe  in  vibration  have  been  cal- 
culated by  mathematicians,  but  only  when  nodes  are 
formed  are  they  of  any  importance  in  music. 

Often  have  I  experimented  upon  harmonics  or  natural 
sounds,  in  former  years,  and  have  watched  the  changes  of 
node,  and  have  heard  the  simultaneous  change  of  note. 
The  experiments  may  be  tried  by  any  one  who  has  access 
to  a  harpsichord,  or  a  very  old  gfrand  pianoforte.  The 
tension  is  too  great  in  modem  instruments  to  allow  free 
play  to  the  string.  Raise  the  damper  and  strike  one  of 
the  longest  uncovered  strings  with  a  hard  pianoforte 
hammer  near  the  bridge.  The  changes  follow  in  nu- 
merical order,  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  as  in  the  paper  before  you,  and 
the  sounds  ascend  by  octave,  fifth,  fourth,  major  and 
minor  third,  harmonic  seventh,  to  the  third  octave,  and 
then  to  the  major  and  minor  tones.  It  is  difficult  to 
attain  the  highest  of  these  numbers,  but  the  harmonic 
seventh.  No.  7,  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  unusual 
sound. 

In  the  -iColian  harp  the  rising  pitch  of  the  sounds  is 
caused  by  the  increasing  rapidity  of  the  wind ;  but  it  is 
not  so  on  a  pianoforte.  It  is  there  due  to  gradual 
contractions  of  the  string  till  it  ceases  to  vibrate,  and 
sinks  to  rest.  The  vibrations  of  a  long  string  are  widely 
discursive,  but  they  become  graduaUy  more  and  more 
contracted  as  the  nodes  of  the  string  diminish  in  length. 
The  point  to  be  remarked  is  that  the  sounds  jump  over 
intermediate  discords— all  are  consonances — all  aliquot 
parts  :  all  the  sounds  are  multiples  of  No.  i.  It  matters 
not  whether  it  be  wind,  string,  or  pipe ;  in  each  of  them 
nature  teaches  us  the  scale  which  is  to  resolve  all  musi- 
cal doubts,  all  disputed  chords.  She  indicates  all  the 
basses  for  musical  intervals,  the  more  remote  ones  adapted 
only  for  melody,  and  the  nearest  for  consonant  harmony. 

To  prove  the  case  further  we  may  take  an  illustration 
from  a  pipe.  It  must  not  be  from  those  which  have 
lateral  openings,  or  keys,  because  they  shorten  the 
column  of  air  artificially,  but  from  such  instruments  as 
the  coach  horn,  or  hunting  horn,  the  so-called  French 
horn,  or  the  trumpet  without  valves. 

The  fundamental  tone.  No.  i,  or  lowest  sound  it  can 
produce,  is  derived  from  the  whole  column  of  air  within 
the  tube.  To  produce  No.  2  the  rapidity  of  the  breath- 
ing must  be  doubled,  and  then  the  column  of  air  within 
the  horn  divides  itself  into  two  equal  halves,  and  the 
sound  is  an  octave  above  ;  so  that,  if  the  first  note  be 
tenor  C  with  256  vibrations  in  a  second  of  time,  this 
treble  C  requires  to  be  blown  at  the  rate  of  256  vibrations 
to  produce  it.  Here,  again,  we  arrive  at  the  identification 
of  sounds  with  numbers  ;  for,  just  as  there  is  no  inter- 
mediate number  between  i  and  2,  so  is  there  no  inter- 
mediate sound  between  i  and  2,  its  double  in  vibrations, 
produced  by  half    its    length,   upon  the  horn.      The 


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numbers  run  both  ways.  They  are  fractions  as  to  length 
of  tube,  and  multiples  as  to  vibrations.  Again,  just  as 
there  ts  an  intermediate  number  between  2  and  4  (the 
second  octave),  so  is  there  one  intermediate  sound,  and 
one  only ;  it  is  No.  3,  which  is  produced  by  a  third  of 
the  length  of  the  tube,  and  is  the  fifth  above  No.  2. 
The  fifth  and  fourth  divide  the  vibrations  of  the  octave 
equally  between  them,  so  that  the  fifth  is  three  times 
No.  I,  and  the  fourth  immediately  above  it  is  four 
times ; —  this,  notwithstanding  the  diminution  of  the 
musical  interval.  The  names  which  we  have 
adopted  for  musical  intervals  are  usually  calculated 
from  the  keynote,  as  from  C  to  E  a  third,  from  C  to  F  a 
fourth,  and  from  C  to  G  a  fifth,  but  these  names  are  not 
real  quantities,  and  are  rather  confusing  than  an  assist- 
ance. The  octave  is  not  an  eighth,  but  half,  and  the 
double  octave  is  not  a  fifteenth,  but  a  quarter  of  the 
length  of  No.  i,  and  vibrates  four  times  as  fast.  Octaves 
are  powers  of  2,  thus  2,  4,  8,  16,  and  32  are  successive 
octaves.  But  the  octave  4  to  8  has  only  four  sounds, 
and  these  are  our  major  and  minor  third,  and  two 
others,  divided  by  the  harmonic  seventh,  which  we  do 
not  use^  From  8  to  16  are  eight  sounds,  of  which  we  use 
three,  the  major  and  minor  tones,  and  the  so-called 
diatonic  semitone,  as  from  B  to  C.  It  is  really  the 
smallest  of  the  eight  tones,  and  not  a  semitone.  The 
next  octave  is  from  16  to  32,  and  that  is  all  of  semitones, 
while  32  to  64  is  all  of  quarter-tones.  After  that,  the 
octave  is  divided  into  eighths,  sixteenths,  and  thirty- 
second  parts  of  tones,  among  which  it  is  only  useful  to 
note  (and  that  only  among  musicians  and  mathemati- 
cians, that  the  so-called  "  comma,"  having  the  ratio  of 
80  to  81,  is  the  eighth  of  a  tone  above  the  third  of  any 
key— as  it  is  above  E  in  the  key  of  C.  We  have  lately 
had  mathematicians  among  us  who  are  not  /zovcriicoi,  and 
who  have,  therefore,  proposed  to  divide  an  octave  into 
"  twelve  equal  semitones."  This  is  pure  geometry,  and 
not  music.  In  music  there  cannot  be  even  two  equal 
semitones  within  an  octave.  If  our  friends  will  only 
change  their  theme  from  twelve  equal  semitones  into 
twelve  equally  tempered  semitones,  and  give  us  their 
experience  of  the  proposed  sounds  when  heard  with  the 
bass  (which  seems  not  to  have  yet  been  taken  into  ac- 
count), we  shall  gladly  avail  ourselves  of  their  research, 
on  the  grounds  of  modem  expediency.  In  the  meantime 
we  must  be  content  to  leave  the  tempering  of  a  scale  in 
the  hands  of  experienced  practical  men,  who,  judging 
only  by  their  ears,  as  they  always  will,  have  hitherto 
satisfied  our  immediate  requirements. 

The  interval  of  a  fifth  is  2  to  3  in  ascening  and  3  to 
2  in  descending,  but,  as  the  figures  are  Usually  placed 
over  the  upper  note  in  scales,  the  3  is  written  above  the 
2  as  in  the  scale  in  your  hands  (the  third  of  them),  where 
it  appears  over  G,  referring  to  C  as  2. 

And  now  for  the  practical  use  of  these  figures,  for 
although  the  harmonic  scale  may  be  referred  to,  they 
are  most  easily  remembered.  All  young  pupils  are  taught 
the  difference  between  an  octave,  a  fifth,  a  fourth,  and  a 
third,  upon  the  pianoforte,  and  it  is  only  to  associate  the 
numbers  with  those  intervals,  to  find  out  the  best  bass, 
and  every  admissible  bass.  All  octaves  are  in  the  ratio  of 
2  to  I,  whether  it  be  4  to  2,  8  to  4,  or  16  to  8.  All  fifths 
are  in  the  ratio  of  3  to  2,  all  fourths  in  that  of  4  to  3,  all 
major  thirds  5  to  4,  and  minor  thirds  6  to  5. 

For  instance,  in  the  key  of  C,  C  to  the  F  above  it  is  a 
fourth,  and  F  is  No.  4,  therefore,  the  F,  two  octaves 
below,  is  the  consonant  bass  ;  whereas,  if  we  strike  G 
with  the  C  above,  C  becomes  the  natural  bass  to  that 
interval.  The  most  consonant  basses  are  always  found 
in  the  lowest  numbers,  because  the  proportion  of  con- 
sonant vibrations  is  there  greatest.  Thus,  from  D  to  G 
is  also  a  fourth,  in  the  key  of  C,  but  the  numbers  are  9 
to  12,  with  a  remote  bass  in  C,  and  there  will  be  21  vibra- 
tions, of  which  only  two  will  coincide  in  every  cycle — i 


of  the  8,  with  i  of  the  9.  Then,  the  proportion  of  non- 
coincidence  will  be  so  great  as  to  make  the  sound  un- 
pleasing  to  the  ear.  But  as  9  to  12  is  in  the  ratio  of  3  to 
4,  we  have  the  best  bass  in  these  lowest  numbers,  and 
take  G.  By  the  various  basses  to  intervals  we  modulate 
into  other  keys. 

At  the  International  Exhibition,  held  at  South  Ken> 
sington  in  1862,  Mr.  Saxe,  the  eminent  inventor  of  Saxe 
horns,  exhibited  an  immense  horn  with  an  exceedingly- 
long  coil  of  tube,  and  perhaps  standing  six  feet  in  height. 
When  asked  by  the  jury  the  object  of  this  excesssive 
size  and  length,  he  answered,  "  Cest  pour  jouer  dans  le 
cinqui^me  dtage  " — "  It  is  for  playing  m  the  fifth  octave," 
and  he  produced  with  facility  any  of  the  sixteen  tones  and 
semitones  of  that  octave  from  it.  Half  the  length  of  any 
open  conical  tube  is  expended  upon  its  second  note,  the 
octave.  No  human  power  could  have  blown  the  low 
notes  of  that  horn.  Supposing  it  to  have  been  tuned  to 
the  lowest  C  upon  the  pianoforte,  with  thirty-three  vibra- 
tions in  a  second,  as  the.  usual  French  pitch,  it  would 
have  had  66,  132,  264,  and  528  for  its  first,  second, 
third,  and  fourth  octaves,  while  its  fifth  octave  would 
commence  on  treble  C,  with  528,  and  extend  to  C  above 
the  lines  with  1056  vibrations  in  a  second  of  time.  It 
would  thus  be  within  the  power  of  the  lungs.  He 
utilized  only  from  the  i6th  to  the  32nd  part  of  his 
enormous  tube,  but  it  gave  him  the  command  of  the 
semitones. 

This  great  incumbrance  of  length  is  not  necessary  in 
a  cylindrical  stopped  tube.  It  will  take  up  its  own 
octave  according  to  the  ratio  of  its  length  to  its 
diameter.  We  have  here  an  example  in  a  resonating 
tube  invented  by  Charles  Wheatstone  just  fifty  years 
ago.  The  lectiure  for  which  he  invented  it  was  after- 
wards reported  in  the  twenty-fifth  volume  of  the 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Science ^  Literature ^  and  Art^ 
January  to  March,  1828.  Both  he  and  I  knew  Eulen- 
stein,  an  accomplished  musician,  whose  admirable  skill 
in  playing  upon  the  Jew's  harp  was  the  inducing  cause  of 
that  particular  lecture.  Eulenstein  had  a  pecuUar  facility 
for  contracting  and  expanding  the  cavity  of  his  mouth, 
through  the  pliability  of  his  very  thin  cheeks  and  by  the 
management  of  his  tongue,  so  that  he  could  fit  them  for 
any  harmonic  note  within  a  certain  compass.  Wheat- 
stone  then  gave  the  law,  that  a  perfect  harmonic  scale 
might  be  drawn  from  a  single  tuning-fork,  or  from  the 
vibrating  tongue  of  a  Jew's  harp,  by  resonators  adapted, 
or  adapting  themselves,  to  multiples  of  the  original 
number  of  vibrations.  "  I  took,"  said  Sir  Charles,  "  a 
tube,  closed  at  one  end  by  a  movable  piston,  and  placed 
before  its  end  the  branch  [or  prong]  of  a  vibrating  timing- 
fork  of  the  ordinary  pitch— C.  The  length  of  the  column 
of  air  [within  the  tube]  was  six  inches.  On  diminishing 
the  length  of  the  column  of  air  to  three  inches  [by  moving 
up  the  pistonlj  the  sound  of  the  tuning-fork  was  no  longer 
reciprocated  [in  unison],  but  its  octave  was  produced." 
"It  is  therefore  evident  from  experiments,"  says  he 
"  that  a  column  of  air  may  vibrate  by  reciprocation,  not 
only  with  another  body  whose  vibrations  are  isochronous 
[or  in  unison]  with  its  own,  but  also  when  the  number  of 
its  own  vibrations  is  any  multiple  of  the  sounding  body." 
Again,  he  says  :  "  No  other  sounds  can  be  produced  by 
reciprocation  from  a  column  of  air,  but  those  which  are  ^ 
perfectly  identical  with  the  multiplications  oi  the  original 
vibrations  of  the  tuning-fork  or  the  tongue  of  the  Jew's 
harp."  I  produced  the  original  tube  in  this  room  about 
two  years  ago,  to  check  a  recent  theory — that  reso- 
nators strengthened  the  ear,  and  answered  only  in 
unison,  and  Sir  Charles  ordered  this  one  for  me,  made 
by  Mr.  Groves,  under  his  own  superintendence.  The 
improvement  in  this  is,  that  the  piston  now  works  in  a 
groove  and  is  not  liable  to  stick.  Two  octaves  are  pro- 
duced from  the  tongue  of  one  Jew's  harp  as  rapidly  as 
the   piston    can    be   moved    up   and    down.    There  is 


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no  slurring  between  one  sound  and  another,  but  clear 
jumps  from  one  multiple  to  another,  and  every  one  of 
them  may  be  arrested  and  heard  by  itself  by  checking  the 
piston.  But,  although  I  am  glad  to  produce  this  tube 
before  those  who  were  not  present  on  the  last  occasion, 
and  to  do  honour  to  the  memory  of  our  eminent  vice- 
president,  who  declined  to  refer  in  any  way  to  himself,  I 
have  another  motive  also.  This  is  a  principle  which  has 
never  been  utilised.  We  have  had  pipes  stopped  at  the 
top,  like  the  usual  pitch-pipe,  but  they  have  been  found 
too  slow  in  action  to  be  suitable  for  any  other  purpose. 
This  is  rapidity  itself,  and  might  surely  be  utilised  for 
some  such  purpose  as  pedal-pipes  for  an  organ.  The 
piston  can  be  balanced  outside  to  the  greatest  nicety, 
and  one  such  pipe  will  take  the  scale  of  C,  and 
another  that  of  F.  All  that  is  required  is  to  blow  across 
the  top  in  the  manner  of  the  Pandean  pipes,  or,  as  it 
appears,  better  still,  to  set  free  a  fan  or  cogged  wheel  at 
the  mouth  tuned  to  each  of  the  two  fundamental  notes. 
The  wheel  might  be  set  free  by  the  action  of  the  foot 
upon  the  pedal.  It  is  now  well  known  that  the  length 
of  a  32  or  a  16  foot  pipe  may  be  greatly  reduced  by  breadth 
of  scale.  We  Europeans  have  made  little,  if  any,  use  of 
resonators,  and  yet  they  have  been  long  in  use  in  Java. 
The  drawing  on  the  wall  is  of  an  instrument  brought 
from  Java  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  more  than  half  a 
century  ago.  There  is  one  of  the  same  kind  in  the 
British  Museum.  But  this  is  perhaps  of  greater  interest, 
as  it  may  have  suggested  to  Wheatstone  the  prm- 
ciple  of  the  resonating  tube.  The  natives  of  Java  cast 
metal  plates  which  they  suspend  in  a  row  upon  strings, 
and  strike  them  with  drum-sticks,  which  are  fitted  into 
circular  heads.  As  all  cast  metal  is  more  or  less  false  in 
tone,  owing  to  inequalities  and  lack  of  homogeneity,  they 
place  some  of  the  largest  bamboos,  cut  to  short  lengths, 
and  placed  upright,  under  the  metal  to  make  the  true 
sounds  of  these  resonators  to  overcome  the  false  har- 
monics of  the  metal  plates. 

Resonators  were  used  in  the  theatres  of  ancient  Greece 
—we  here  find  them  used  in  Java  ;  but  these  powerful 
auxiliaries  to  tone  still  await  their  development  in  modem 
Europe. 

And  now,  in  conclusion,  permit  mc  to  draw  your  atten- 
to  a  harmonium  with  two  keyboards,  the  upper  one 
having  four  octaves  of  our  scale  tuned  without  tempering, 
and  the  lower  with  the  five  octaves  of  the  harmonic  scale, 
and  the  sixteen  notes  in  the  fifth  octave.  Much  has  been 
said  of  the  harmonic  scale,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  only 
instrument  on  which  the  harmonics  can  be  fully  heard 
and  sustained  for  experimental  use. 

ROBERT  SWINHOE,   F.R.S. 

WITHIN  the  last  thirty  years  or  so  their  respective 
vocations  happen  to  have  called  two  able  lovers  of 
natural  history  in  the  direction  of  the  Celestial  Empire 
— Mr.  Robert  Swinhoe,  from  England,  and  the  P^re 
Armand  David,  a  Frenchman.  The  simultaneous  inves- 
tigations of  these  two  biologists  have  added  immensely 
to  our  knowledge  of  a  country  whose  fauna  not  long  ago 
was  thought  to  be  in  no  way  interesting,  because  the  huge 
population  had  succeeded  in  extirpating  all  the  indige- 
nous species.  How  far  from  the  truth  such  an  assumption 
is,  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  researches  of  the  two 
naturalists  above  mentioned,  the  lamented  death  of  the 
former  of  whom,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-one  years,  wc 
recorded  last  week. 

Mr.  Swinhoe  was  born  at  Calcutta  on  September  i, 
1836,  and  was  educated  at  Kin^s  Collc|;e,  London, 
whence  he  matriculated  at  the  Umversity  of  London,  in 
1853.  The  next  year  he  went,  as  supernumerary  inter- 
preter, to  Hong  Kong,  being  transferred  to  Amoy  in  1855, 
and  to  Shanghai  in  1858.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
attached  to  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  special  mission  to  China, 


and  afterwards  to  H.M.S.  Inflexible  as  interpreter  in  a 
circumnavigating  expedition  round  Formosa,  in  search 
of  certain  Europeans  said  to  have  been  held  in  captivity 
at  the  sulphur  mines  on  the  island. 

In  i860  Mr.  Swinhoe  attended  Gen.  Napier,  and  after- 
wards Sir  Hope  Grant,  the  Commander-in-Chief,  as  inter- 
preter, and  received  a  medal  for  war  service*  At  the  end 
of  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  Vice-Consul  at  Taiwan, 
Formosa,  and  in  1865  to  the  full  Consulship,  In  1866  he 
was  Consul,  temporarily,  at  Amoy,  and  in  1868  went  to 
explore  the  Island  of  Haman.  From  May,  J871,  to 
February,  1873,  ^^  ^^  acting  Consul  at  Ningpo,  and  at 
Chefoo  until  October  of  the  Utter  year,  when  he  had  to 
retire  from  the  service,  on  account  of  increasing  para- 
plegia, from  which  he  died  on  October  28  last. 

Mr.  Swinhoe  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Asiatic  Societies  of 
China  and  of  Bengal,  as  well  as  of  many  other  societies, 
having  been  elected  into  the  Royal  Society  in  1876. 

By  far  the  majority  of  Mr,  Swinhoe's  scientific  com- 
munications— fifty-two  in  niunber — mostly  on  the  mam- 
malia and  birds  of  China,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London  between  1861  and 
1S74.  Other  papers  appeared  in  the  Ibis  and  the  Annals 
and  Magazine  0/  Natural  History  within  the  same 
period.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the 
*'  Catalogues  ^  of  the  mammals  and  birds  of  China  and 
its  islands,  in  which  are  to  be  found  descriptions  of  many 
new  species  of  both  classes,  among  which  are  St.  John's 
Macaque  {Macacus  saticti-jokannis),  the  Water  Deer  of 
Shanghai  {Hydropotes  incruris\  the  Mantchurian  Deer 
(Cervus  mantchuricus\  the  Orange-bellied  Helictis 
\h elicits  subaurantiac£i)y  the  Superb  Flying  Squirrel 
{Pteromys  grandis)^  Boyce*s  Stork  [Ciconia  boyciatic), 
together  with  a  great  number  of  other  birds,  for  a  com- 
plete account  of  which  we  cannot  do  better  than  refer  our 
readers  to  a  work  upon  the  birds  of  China,  by  M.  I'Abbd 
David  and  M.  E.  Oustalet,  published  at  Paris  a  week  ago. 

Michie's  Deer  {JLophotra^us  michianus)  is  the  name 
given  by  Mr.  Swinhoe  to  a  small  deer  trom  Ningpo,  with 
antlers  more  diminutive  than  many  other  species.  This, 
or  a  very  closely-allied  species,  was  previously  sent  to 
Paris  by  P^re  David,  and  described  by  M.  A.  Milnc- 
Edwards  under  the  name  Elaphodus  cephalophus, 

Mr.  Swinhoe,  besides  the  collections  which  he  made, 
was  indefatigable  and  particularly  successful  in  his 
endeavours  to  send  living  animals  from  China  to  this 
country,  and  there  are  many  species,  including  Cervus 
swinhoiif  Hydropotes  incruris^  and  Ciconia  boyciana, 
which  were  first  procured  by  him. 

It  will  be  some  time,  we  fear,  before  so  enterprising  a 
naturalist  as  Mr.  Swinhoe  takes  up  his  residence  in 
China,  and  employs  every  available  opportunity  for  the 
prosecution  of  his  favourite  line  of  research. 


DOUGLAS  A.  SPALDING 

OUR  readers  .most  be  familiar  with  this  name  as  that 
of  an  occasional  contributor  to  Nature  of  thought- 
ful and  acute  articles  in  the  department  of  mental 
science ;  they  will  be  sorry  to  hear— but  those  who  knew 
him  will  not  be  surprised— that  Mr.  Spalding  died  on 
October  3c,  at  Dunkirk,  just  as  he  was  preparing  to  go  to 
Uie  Mediterranean  coast  to  spend  the  winter.  Not  much 
is  known  of  Mr.  Spalding's  early  life,  but  we  are  told  by 
one  who  ought  to  know  that  his  parents,  belonging  to 
Aberdeenshire,  were  in  very  humble  circumstances,  and 
that  he  was  bom  in  London  about  the  year  1840.  He 
himself  spent  his  early  years  in  Aberdeen  as  a  working 
^ter,  domg  his  best  to  educate  himself.  By  the  kind- 
ness of  Pro£  Bain  Mr.  Spalding  was  allowed  to  attend 
the  classes  of  Literature  and  Philosophy  in  Aberdeen 
University  free  of  charge,  in  the  year  I1862.  After  that 
he  got  some  teaching  about  London,  and  worked  very 
hard  to  support  himselfi  and  even  managed  to  keep  his 


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NATURE 


{Nov.  8,  1877 


terms  as  barrister,  though  he  never  practised.  It 
was  during  this  period  of  privation  that  he  contracted 
disease  of  the  lungs,  from  which  he  suffered  greatly  up  to 
the  time  of  his  premature  death.  The  first  thing  that 
brought  him  to  the  notice  of  the  scientific  world  was  his 
experiments  on  the  instinctive  movements  of  birds,  which 
were  first  described  at  the  Brighton  meeting  of  the  British 
Association  in  1872,  and  published  in  Macmillatis  Maga- 
zine for  February,  1873.  From  a  series  of  interesting 
experiments  on  chickens  he  showed  that  the  only  theory 
in  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  instinct  that  has  an 
air  or  science  about  it  is  the  doctrine  of  inherited  associa- 
tion. Instinct,  he  maintained,  in  the  present  generation 
of  animals,  is  Uie  product  of  the  accumulated  experiences 
of  past  generations.  In  another  paper  at  the  Bristol 
meeting  of  1875  he  communicated  the  results  of  further 
experiments,  some  described  in  Nature,  vol.  viiL  p.  289, 
bearing  out  still  more  strongly  the  conclusions  he  had 
already  reached,  and  which  he  summed  up  in  the  statement 
that  "animals  and  men  are  conscious  automata."  The 
Brighton  paper  brought  Mr.  Spalding  into  deserved  repute. 
"While  travelling  in  France  he  became  acquainted  with 
John  Stuart  MiU,  and  through  him  afterwards  with  many 
other  distinguished  men,  who  all  treated  Spalding  with 
great  respect.  Through  Mill  also,  we  believe,  he  became 
acquainted  with  Lord  and  Lady  Amberley,  with  whom  he 
lived  as  companion  and  tutor  to  their  children  from  1873 
until  the  death  of  Lord  Amberley.  Mr.  Spalding  was 
appointed  guardian  to  the  children,  but  was  ultimately 
compelled  to  withdraw  from  this  office  owing  to  his 
religious  opinions.  Earl  Russell,  however,  allowing  him 
to  retain  for  life  the  salary  settled  upon  him  by  Lord 
Amberley.  For  the  last  two  years  Mr.  Spalding  has  lived 
mostly  in  the  south  of  France,  bearing  his  fatal  and  pro- 
tracting illness  with  the  greatest  equanimity,  regretting 
only  his  powerlessness  to  work  and  his  enforced  absence 
from  London. 

As  to  the  value  of  his  scientific  work  our  readers  having 
the  material  before  them  are  able  to  judge.  By  his  experi- 
ments on  animals  he  didmuch  not  only  to  dearup  the  nature 
of  what  is  call  .d  instinct,  but  also  to  shed  a  new  light  on 
certain  mental  phenomena  in  man  himself.  His  papers  in 
Nature,  mo  .tly  reviews  of  works  connected  with  psycho- 
logy, on  the  metaphysics  of  instinct  and  evolution— of  the 
latter  doctrine  he  was  a  warm  advocate — ^were  good  speci- 
mens of  clear  and  close  reasoning.  That  he  had  a  tender 
side  to  his  character  is  evident  from  even  his  Association 
papers,  and  still  more  so  from  the  interesting  letters  written 
by  him  to  Nature,  last  April,  on  the  swallows  and 
cuckoos  at  Menton.  All  who  knew  him  felt  that  had  his 
health  permitted  he  would  have  added  largdy  to  scientific 
knowledge  in  the  special  department  to  which  he  had 
devoted  himself— physiological  psychology. 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 
The  Solar  Eclipse  of  1878,  February  2.— The 
eclipse  of  the  sun  in  February  next  will  be  annular,  but 
the  central  line  passes  at  such  high  southern  latitudes  that 
the  annular  phase  is  not  bkely  to  be  observed  unless  it  be 
in  the  western  parts  of  Tasmania  near  sun-set.  Thus  the 
central  eclipse  will  commence  in  longitude  103^0'  west  of 
Greenwich,  latitude  73°  8'  south,  and  will  end  in  longi- 
tude 149''  25'  east,  latitude  40''  58',  and  the  eclipse  is  cen- 
tral at  noon  in  longitude  \  12®  27'  west,  and  latitude  84®  3' 
south.  Another  point  upon  the  central  line  is  in  longitude 
145°  25' east,  and  latitude  42**  25',  where  the  sun's  altitude, 
however,  will  be  less  than  40 ;  this  point  lies  on  the  west 
coast  of  Tasmania.  Launceston  is  near  the  central  line, 
but  at  the  middle  of  the  eclipse  the  sun  at  that  place  is 
almost  in  the  horizon. 

A  large  partial  eclipse  will  be  visible  over  the  southern 
parts  of  Australia.  At  Melbourne  it  will  commence  at 
oh.  im.  P.M.  local  mean  time,  at  120''  from  the  sun's  north 


point  towards  the  west,  and  will  attain  its  greatest  magni- 
tude 0*91,  just  before  sunset,  or  at  7h.  4.  At  Adelaide  the 
eclipse  will  begin  at  sh.  44m.  local  time  and  will  be  greatest 
about  6h.  45m.,  when  the  magnitude  will  be  0*85,  with  the 
sun  at  an  altitude  of  between  s""  and  6^  At  Perth,  in 
Western  Australia,  the  whole  eclipse  will  be  visible ; 
greatest  about  sh.  25m.  local  time,  magnitude  0*66,  with 
the  sun  at  an  elevation  of  23**. 

The  next  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  visible  in  those  parts 
of  the  earth  will  take  place  on  the  morning  of  September 
9,  1885.  At  Wellington,  New  Zealand,  the  ecUpse  begins 
about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  after  sunrise  ;  totality  com- 
mences at  7h.  42m.  A.M.,  but  continues  only  about  fcuty 
seconds ;  in  175^  3'  east,  and  ^  34'  south,  on  the  central 
line,  the  duration  of  totality  is  im.  54s.  It  should  be 
stated  that  these  figures  are  founded  upon  the  tables  of 
Damoiseau  and  Carlini. 

The  Minor  Planet  Euphrosyne.— It  does  not 
frequentiy  happen  that  we  have  to  look  for  a  planet  at  60*^ 
of  north  declination  ;  such,  however,  will  be  the  case  at 
the  end  of  the  present  year,  and  in  the  first  da3rs  of  1878 
as  regards  Euphrosyne,  No.  31  of  the  group,  which  was 
discovered  by  Ferguson  at  Washington,  on  September  i, 
1854.  The  planet  will  be  in  opposition  on  December  18, 
with  the  brightness  of  a  star  of  the  tenth  magnitude. 
The  following  are  its  calculated  positions  when  passing 
its  greatest  northern  decUnation. 

Distance 
xak  Berlin  M.T.  Rifht  Asoeosioa.      Declination.        from  die 

n.  ni.    f .  a    t    m  Earth. 

1877,  December  31  ...    53017-1    ...    60256    ...    1*613 

1878,  January       i  ...    51849*5    ...    60259    ...    1*614 
„         „  2...    517^*1    ...    60238    ...    r6i8 

The  star  L.  10067  in  Camelopardus,  which  Lalande 
calls  an  eighth,  and  Argelander  a  seventh,  will  be  a  good 
guide  for  identifying  the  planet  in  this  position.  At 
midnight  at  Greenwich  on  January  i,  by  calculation, 
Euphrosyne  will  precede  the  star  seven  seconds  in  R.A., 
seven  minutes  to  the  south  of  it 

The  latest  elements  of  this  body  which,  it  will  be  seen, 
approaches  much  nearer  to  the  pole  of  the  equator  than 
the  generality  of  the    small    planets,  are    as    follows, 
according  to  the  computations  of  Mr.  S.  W.  Hill  \^ 
Epoch  1877,  December  18  o  M.T.  at  Berlin. 


Mean  Longitude  

Longitude  of  Perihelion 

,,  Ascending  Node 

Inclination  

Eccentricity        

Semi-axis  major 


90  1023 
931730 
313323 
262834 
0*222786 
3'I490« 


Comets  of  Short  Period  in  1878.— Of  the  comets 
known  to  be  performing  their  revolutions  in  periods  of 
less  than  ten  years,  two  are  due  in  perihelion  again  in  the 
ensuing  year,  probably  within  a  few  days  of  each  other. 
According  to  Dr.  von  Asten's  elements  of  Encke's  comet 
at  its  appearance  in  1875,  the' next  perihelion  passage, 
neglecting  perturbation,  would  fall  about  July  270, 
wmch  involves  an  apparent  track  in  the  heavens  un- 
favourable for  observation.  In  1845,  when  the  con- 
ditions were  more  nearly  the  same  than  at  any  of  the 
comet's  returns  since  its  per  odicity  was  first  ascertained, 
only  four  observations  were  secured  between  July  4  and 
14— at  Rome,  Philadelphia,  and  Washington.  If  the 
comet  is  not  observed  [before  the  perihelion  in  1878, 
while  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  earth,  it  may 
be  found  at  the  observatories  of  the  southern  hemisphere, 
after  perihelion,  or  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  when  it 
makes  its  nearest  approach  to  us,  although  its  distance  at 
that  time  will  not  be  less  than  the  mean  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun.  The  second  comet,  which  is  due  in 
perihelion  in  1878,  is  that  discovered  by  Dr.  Tempel  on 
July  1, 1873.  The  period  of  revolution  assigned  by  Mr. 
W.  E.  Plimmier  from  observations  extending  to  October 
20,  is  1,850  days ;  and  the  comet,  neglecting  perturbations 


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Nov.  8,  1877] 


NATURE 


37 


which  are  not  likely  to  be  material,  would  be  in  pevihelion 
again  about  July  20  ;  this  date,  however,  will  be  uncer- 
tain, as  thus  far  no  definite  discussion  of  the  observations 
in  1873  ^as  been  published.  Some  time  since  it  was 
stated  that  Herr  Schulhof,  of  the  Vienna  Observatory, 
was  at  work  upon  this  comet.  With  the  above  date  for 
perihelion  passage,  the  apparent  path  would  be  favourable 
for  observations,  and  the  comet  would  approach  the  earth 
almost  as  closely  as  is  possible  with  the  actual  form  of 
orbit 

NOTES 

The  session  of  the  Royal  Society  opens  next  Thursday  with  the 
Bakerian  Lecture  On  the  Organisation  of  the  Fossil  Plants  of  the 
Coal  Measures,  Part  ix.,  which  will  be  delivered  by  Prof.  W. 
C.  Williamson,  of  Manchester,  F.R.S. 

We  learn  from  the  Times  that  the  foUowing  is  the  list 
of  the  new  Council  which  will  be  submitted  to  the  Royal 
Society  for  election  at  their  annivervary  meeting  on  St. 
Andrew's  Day  next,  the  30th  instant : — President,  Sir 
Joseph  Dalton  Hooker,  C.B.,  K.C.S.I,  M.D.,  D.C.L., 
LL.D.  ;  Treasurer,  William  Spottiswoode,  M.A.,  LL.D. ; 
Secretaries,  Prof.  George  Gabriel  Stokes,  M.  A.  D.CL.,  LL.D., 
Prof.  Thomas  Henry  Huxley,  LL.D. ;  Foreign  Secretary,  Prof. 
Alexander  William  Williamson,  Ph.D.  ;  other  members  of  the 
Council— Frederick  A.  Abel,  C.B.,  V.P.C.S.,  William  Bow- 
man, F.R.C.S.,  Frederick  J.  Braro  well,  M.LCE.,  William  B. 
Carpenter,  C.B.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  William  Carruthers,  F.L.S., 
William  Crookes,  V.P.C.S.,  Prof.  P.  Martin  Duncan,  M.B., 
P.G.S.,  William  Farr,  M.D.,  D.C.L.,  Prof.  WUliam  H.  Flower, 
F.R.C.S.,  Prof.  G.  Carey  Foster,  B.A.,  F.C.S.,  John  Russell 
Hind,  F.R.A.S.,  Lord  Rayleigh,  M.A.,  Vice-Admiral  Sir  G. 
H.  Richards,  C.B.,  Prof.  Henry  J.  Stephen  Smidi,  M.A., 
Prof.  B»lfour  Stewart,  M.A.,  and  Prof.  Allen  Thomson,  M.D., 
F.R.S.E. 

Mr.  F.  M.  Balfour,  Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  has  joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Microscopic  Science,  The  journal  will  in  future  be  conducted 
by  Prof.  Ray  Lankester  as  responsible  editor,  with  the  co-opera- 
lion  of  Mr.  Archer  in  Dublin,  Mr.  Balfour  in  Cambridge,  and 
Dr.  Klein  in  London.  The  volume  for  the  year  just  concluded 
shows  an  increase  in  the  number  and  efficiency  of  the  lithographic 
plates.  Instead  of  sixteen  octavo  plates  as  usual  four  years  ago, 
there  are  twenty-five,  many  of  which  are  double  sized,  and  some 
coloured. 

Madame  Leverrier,  theVidow  of  the  astronomer,  died  on 
November  I,  at  the  age  of  fifty-eight  years.  This  lady  was 
suffering  from  a  protracted  illnes.«,  when  the  loss  of  her  husband 
produced  a  shock  from  which  she  was  not  able  to  recover.  She 
was  a  daughter  of  M.  Choquet,  an  eminent  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  Paris.  Her  father,  about  e'ghty  years  old,  was  present 
at  the  funeral.  On  the  very  day  that  Madame  Leverrier  died, 
the  ydumai  Officiel  published  a  decree,  signed  by  M.  Brunet, 
the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  ordering  the  bust  of  Leverrier 
to  be  placed  in  the  Palace  at  Versailles,  where  are  to  be  collected 
the  memorials  of  the  great  Frenchmen  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
This  honour  has  been  decreed  to  a  number  of  other  men  who 
have  ranked  foremost  amongst  litUrateurs^  artists,  or  politidans. 
M.  Leverrier,  it  is  strange  to  say,  has  been  chosen  as  the  only 
representative  of  science. 

The  French  Academy  of  Medicine  has  been  authorised  by  the 
ministry  to  accept  a  legacy  of  4,000/.  bequeathed  by  Dr.  Demur- 
quay,  to  hdpthem  to  build  a  hall  of  meeting. 

M.  Faye,  Inspector-General  in  Science  of  Secondary  Edu- 
cation in  France,  has  been  appointed  to  a  similar  office  for 
superior  education  in  succession  to  the  late  M.  Leverrier.  M. 
Fernet  has  succeeded  to  M.  Faye's  post 


M.  Wattevillb,  director  of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  the  French 
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  has  issued  a  circular  notifjring 
that  a  special  exhibition  will  be  held  at  the  Champ  de  Mars,  for 
collecting  the  results  of  the  scientific  missions  granted  by  the 
French  Government  in  1867.  Almost  every  country,  civilised 
and  barbarian,  near  or  remote,  has  been  visited. 

M.  Bertrand,  the  perpetual  secretary  of  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences,  has  been  appointed  by  M.  Bonnet  member  of  the 
International  Metric  Commission. 

Commander  Guisbppe  Telfener  has  announced  his  inten- 
tion of  pladng  at  the  disposal  of  the  Italian  Geographical 
Society  a  sum  of  40,000  francs  to  found  a  section  of  conunerdal 
geography  and  organise  at  Rome  a  museum  to  contain  specimens 
of  all  the  products  which  Italy  exports  and  imports. 

At  a  meeting  held  at  the  London  Library  on  October  26 
(Mr.  Robert  Harrison  in  the  chair),  it  was  determined  to  form 
an  Index  Society,  with  the  immediate  object  of  compiling  subject 
indexes  and  indexes  of  standard  books  of  facts,  to  be  printed 
and  circulated  among  the  members  ;  and  with  the  ultimate 
object  of  building  up  a  general  index  of  universal  literature, 
which  can  be  referred  to  at  the  office  of  the  society  during  com- 
pilation. The  great  aim  of  the  society  will  be  the  gradual 
accumulation  of  aids  towards  the  preparation  of  a  key  to  all 
knowledge,  and  with  this  object  a  library  of  indexes  will  be 
commenced.  The  subscription  will  be  one  guinea.  Subscribers' 
names  and  suggestions  on  the  subject  of  (he  proposed  society  will 
be  received  by  Henry  B.  Wheatley,  hon.  sec  pro  tem.,  5, 
Minford  Gardens,  West  Kensington  Park,  W.  The  utility  of 
such  a  society  and  such  an  index  to  scientific  men  of  all  cbsses 
and  grades  will  be  obvious,  and  the  effort  now  being  made 
deserves  their  hearty  support. 

The  system  under  which  the  official  addresses  are  made  at  the 
annual  meetbg  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  seems  curiously  complicated,  and  sometimes  is 
a  puzzle  even  to  the  old  members  of  that  body.  The  retiring 
president,  who  has  been  the  presiding  officer  in  the  preceding 
}ear,  makes  the  opening  address,  which  is  the  presidential 
address  for  that  year.  The  presidents  of  the  sections,  on  the 
other  hand,  who  have  just  entered  on  their  dutier,  open  their 
sections  respectively  with  an  address.  There  are  only  two  sec- 
tions, A  and  B  ;  other  divisions  are  parts  of  these,  and  are 
characterised  as  sub-sections.  Section  A  has  charge  of  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  and  microscopy  ;  Section 
B  of  zoology,  botany,  geology,  palaeontology,  ethnology,  and 
archseology.  There  is  a  further  complication  in  the  circumstance 
that  the  presidents  of  the  sections  are  also  the  two  vice-presidents 
of  the  Association.  To  illustrate  this  anangement,  we  may  cite 
proceedings  at  the  meeting  of  last  August  at  Nashville.  Prof. 
W.  B.  Rogers,,  who  was  the  president  of  the  Association  last 
year,  and  president  at  the  Buffalo  meeting,  was  expected  to  open 
the  Nashville  meeting  with  the  presidential  address,  but  was 
prevented  by  illness.  Professors  E.  C.  Pickering  and  O.  C. 
Marsh  are  respectively  presidents  for  the  present  year  of  Sections 
A  and  B,  and  also  vice-presidents  of  the  Association.  The 
address  on  "The  Introduction  and  Succession  of  Vertebrate 
Life  in  America,"  by  Prof.  Marsh,  which  we  recently  published 
in  full,  was  his  official  address  as  the  president  of  Section  B, 
delivered  at  the  opening  of  the  Section.  To  carry  the  illustra- 
tion further,  it  may  be  added  that  Prof.  Marsh,  who  was  elected 
at  this  year's  meeting,  president  of  the  Association,  will  not 
preside  till  next  year  at  St.  Louis,  and  will  not  be  expected  to 
deliver  his  presidential  address  until  the  meeting  of  the  following 
year,  1879. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Dr.  Henry  Lawson,  imtil  recently 
editor  of  the  Popular  Science  Review* 

Mr.  James  Flower,  for  many  years  the  articulator  of  the 
skeletons  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons^  has  just  died  from 


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38 


NATURE 


\JNov.  8,  1877 


carcinoma  of  the  rectum,  ^m  which  he  had  been  sufTering 
for  some  time  past  Mr.  James  Flower  was  seventy-seveD  years 
of  age,  and  had  served  in  the  army  in  his  younger  days. 

From  statements  made  at  a  meeting  of  the  California  Academy 
of  Sciences,  the  eucalyptus  tree  may  be  enumerated  among  the 
means  for  checking  fire.  Eucaljrptus  shingles  are  said  to  be 
firC'proof.  A  tree  of  this  species  was  exposed  to  the  San  Fran- 
cisco fire  of  1876,  and  is  still  flourishing.  The  notion  is  urged 
that  the  spread  of  fires  in  cities  could  be  checked  by  setting  out 
such  trees  for  shade  and  ornament.  All  varieties  of  the  euca- 
lyptus are  said  to  possess  this  valuable  property. 

The  first  examination  of  Surveyors  and  Inspectors  of  Nuisances 
by  the  Sanitary  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  took  place  on  Monday, 
October  29.  Eight  candidates  presented  themselves,  five  of 
whom  were  successful  in  obtaining  certificates  of  competence, 
namely,  Mr.  H.  M.  Robinson,  Surveyor,  Ulverston ;  Mr.  J. 
Parker,  ditto,  Bridgwater ;  Mr.  F.  Booker,  Inspector  of  Nui- 
sances, Bradford ;  Mr.  W.  S.  Prebbles,  ditto,  Blackburn ;  Mr. 
Thomas  Blanchard,  ditto,  Evesham.  Fifteen  candidates  have 
already  entered  their  names  for  the  next  examination. 

News  has  been  received,  the  Geographical  Magazine  states, 
from  M.  Kelsief,  who  has  been  making  researches  during  the 
past  summer  along  the  Muimanian  coast  and,  in  Lapland,  for 
the  Moscow  Anthropological  Exhibition  of  1879.  M.  Kelsief 
had  been  travelling  with  M.  Singer,  secretary  of  the  Natural 
History  Society;  and  the  two  had,  up  to  the  time  of  their 
parting  company  on  the  borders  of  the  White  Sea,  made  a  good 
collection  of  stone  implements  and  other  prehistoric  remains, 
M.  Kelsief  then  took  a  cruise  in  a  small  vessel,  and  traversede 
with  considerable  difficulty,  about  800  versts  in  all  in  the  White 
and  Polar  Seas,  and  passed  the  whole  of  the  summer  within  the 
Arctic  circle.  Along  the  Murmanian  coast  he  visited  the  Lapps, 
who  inhabit  there  subterranean  dwellings,  grouped  at  intervals 
of  between  70  and  100  versts.  He  was  accompanied  by  only 
one  servant,  and  afler  enduring  considerable  hardships  through 
exposure  and  insufficiency  of  food,  he  started  on  August  29  for 
the  north  of  Finland,  where  he  proposes  to  visit  the  Lapps  of 
Lake  Enara,  and  to  return  to  St.  Petersburg  by  way  of  Tomea. 

The  portion  of  the  Indus  River  where  it  emerges  from  Kash- 
mir territory  and  flows  through  the  mountainous  region  of  Gilgit 
and  Chilas  to  rejoin  our  frontier  near  Darband — a  strip  in  all  of 
about  120  miles  in  length—has  just  received,  we  learn  from  the 
Geographical  Magaxtne^  detailed  exploration  at  the  hands  of  a 
Punjab  surveyor.  This  piece  of  work  will  complete  our  geo- 
graphical knowledge  of  this  river,  and  will  contribute  useful 
topographical  information  to  our  future  maps,  though  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  general  course  of  the  river  had  been 
pretty  accurately  determined  in  1870  by  Capt.  Carter's  careful 
triangulation  of  the  peaks  flanking  its  eastern  and  western 
banks. 

The  London  papers  contain  frequent  announcements  of 
expected  high  tides,  which  are  no  doubt  useful  to  many  as  fore- 
warnings  of  danger.  But  we  cannot  understand  why  the  burden 
of  such  predictions  should  fall  solely  upon  Capt.  Saxby.  Is  he 
the  only  one  qualified  and  concerned  to  make  such  predictions? 

We  have  received  a  reprint  of  four  important  papers  which 
originally  appeared  in  the  New  York  Tribune^  and  which  are 
now  sold  separately  by  that  paper  at  the  insignificant  price  of 
10  cents.  The  papers  are  on  the  Evolution  of  Life,  by  Dr. 
Draper ;  Ancient  Life  in  America,  by  Prof.  Marsh ;  Catas- 
trophism  and  Environment,  by  Mr.  Clarence  King;  and  the 
Peabody  Museum  (illustrated),  by  Mr.  Wyckoff.  This  is  No. 
37  of  these  science  numbers  of  the  Tribune ;  evidently,  then, 
it  is  the  interest  of  the  management  to  find  space  for  so  much 
idence. 


A  CQ^MITTEB  has  been  formed  in  Holland  under  the  patron- 
age of  Prince  Henry  of  the  Netherlands,  and  24,000  florins  have 
been  collected,  to  send  out  in  May  of  next  year  a  small  but  strong 
sailing  vessel  to  the  west  coast  of  Spitsbergen,  with  the  view  of 
reaching  the  mouth  of  the  Yenissei.  The  objects  of  the  expe- 
dition are  to  explore  the  new  commercial  route  to.  the  Siberian 
rivers,  to  train  sailors  who  might  ultimately  be  intrusted  "with 
the  formation  of  a  scientific  station,  and  to  erect  a  few  tnoou- 
ments  to  the  memory  of  the  early  Dutch  arctic  navigators. 

The  celebrated  mammalian  and  reptilian  remains  obtained  by 
Mr.  Beckles  from  the  base  of  the  middle  Purbecks  at  Durdle- 
stone  Bay,  and  described  by  Prot  Owen  in  the  Palseontographical 
Society's  Memoirs  were  acquired  last  year  by  the  British 
Museum.  Under  the  care  of  Mr.  Davis  they  have  been  carefally 
cleaned,  mounted,  and  labelled,  and  are  now  being  placed  in 
cases.  The  total  number  of  specimens  acquired  was  about  2,000, 
but  only  some  of  the  best  are  exhibited. 

The  tank  prepared  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium  for  the 
whale  is  now  used  as  a  seal  pond.  Its  large  size  gives  ample 
scope  for  the  gambols  of  the  young  seals,  which  can  now  be 
seen  under  circumstances.more  favourable  than  have  before  been 
oflered  in  London. 

Mr.  O.  H.  a.  Moggs  writing  to  the  Times  from  BuUpits, 
Bourton,  Dorset,  states  that  that  place  was  visited  on  Friday 
last  by  what  seemed  to  be  two  shocks  of  an  earthquake.  The 
first  occurred  at  about  8. 10  A.  M.,  and  was  accompanied  b^  a 
rumbling  sound,  which  lasted  about  ten  or  twelve  seconds.  The 
vibration  of  the  ground  was  very  slight,  although  it  could  be  dis- 
tinctly felt.  The  second  shock  was  felt  at  1 1 .  20  a.  m.  The  vibration 
of  the  ground  viras  very  violent,  causing  houses  to  shake  and  the 
windows  to  rattle.  This  lasted  about  six  seconds,  and  was 
accompanied  by  a  rumble  like  the  former,  only  heavier,  which 
lasted  about  eight  or  ten  seconds. 

A  SLIGHT  shock  of  earthquake  was  felt  on  Sunday  afternoon 
at  New  York.     It  was  also  felt  in  New  Brunswick  and  Quebec 

Messrs.  J.>and  A.  Churchill  have  published  in  a  separate 
form,  for  the  use  of  students,  the  valuable  "Notes  on  Embryology 
and  Classification ''  by  Prof.  Lankester,  from  the  current  number 
of  the  Quarterly  JoumcU  of  Microscopic  Science, 

Under  the  title  of  "  The  Lazy  Lays  and  Prose  Imaginings, 
written,  printed,  published,  and  reviewed  by  William  H. 
Harrison,"  of  Great  Russell  Street,  the  author  has  published  a 
collection  of  verse  interspersed  with  short  prose  pieces  partly 
sentimental  but  mostly  intended  apparently  to  be  funny.  Scien- 
tific men  and  matters  are  in  one  or  two  cases  alluded  to,  and  the 
imprint  bears  that  the  work  is  published  "a.d.  1877  (popular 
chronology) ;  A.M.  5877  (Torquemada) ;  a.m.  50,800,077 
(Huxley)."  We  believe  our  readers  may  derive  a  little  amuse- 
ment from  a  perusal  of  the  volume. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  an  Anubis  Baboon  \Cynocephalus  anubis)  from 
West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  Ward;  a  Macaque  Monkey 
{Macacus  cynomolgus)  from  India,  presented  by  Dr.  W.  B. 
Stirling  ;  a  Grey  Ichneumon  {fferpestesgriseus)  firom  India,  pre* 
sented  by  Mrs.  Henry  Jephson  Mello ;  a  Central  American 
Agouti  (Dasyprocta  isthmica)  from  Central  America,  presented 
by  Mr.  A.  Stradling;  three  Sclater's  Curassows  {Crax  sclateri) 
firom  Paraguay,  presented  by  Mr.  Alex.  F.  Baillic ;  a  Puff  Adder 
{Vtpera  arietans)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  A.  Biden; 
a  Pike  (Esox  lucius)  from  British  Fresh  Waters,  presented  by 
Mr.  A.  D.  Bartlett ;  an  Axis  Deer  {Cervus  axis)  from  India,  a 
Three-banded  Armadillo  (Tolypeutes  conurus)  from  La  Plata, 
deposited ;  a  Cape  Buffalo  (Bubalus  coffer)^  two  Coatis  {Nasua 
fuuica),  bom  in  the  Gardeni. 


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Nov.  8,  1877] 


NATURE 


39 


AMERICAN   SCIENCE 

THE  chief  signal  officer  of  the  U.S.  army  has  been  urging  that 
physical  observations  of  the  sun  be  made,  as  of  son-spots, 
faculse,  protuberances,  &c,  in  reference  to  their  supposed  influence 
upon  terrestrial  meteorology,  and  has  offered  to  publish  the  results 
monthly,  or  such  of  them  as  may  be  considered  desirable  by  the 
observer,  in  the  Monthly  Weather  Revitw,  The  United  States 
Naval  Otxiervatory  at  Washington  has  already  accepted  this 
proposition,  and  it  is  considered  very  desirable  that  some  other 
observatories  in  the  east,  and  at  least  one  on  the  western  coast, 
co-operate  in  this  uiulertaking. 

Dr.  C.  A.  White,  palaeontologist  to  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical and  Geographical  Survey  of  the  Territories,  has  spent  the 
past  season  msdcing  a  critical  study  of  the  mesozoic  and  cainozoic 
strata  of  the  great  Rocky  Mountain  Region,  and  the  results  have 
tended  to  confirm  in  a  remarkably  clear  manner  the  statement 
so  often  expressed  by  Dr.  Hayden  in  his'annual  reports,  that  the 
entire  series  of  deposits  are  consecutive  from  the  Dakota  group 
of  cretaceous  age  below,  to  the  Bridger  group  of  tertiary  age 
above.  The  sedimentation  was  evidently  continuous  through  all 
the  jchanges,  from  marine  to  brackish,  and  from  brackish  to 
fresh  waters,  that  successively  took  place  in  that  great  region, 
^though  those  changes  in  aqueous  conditions  produced  corre- 
sponding changes  in  Uie  then  prevailing  forms  of  invertebrate  life. 

The  annual  report  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  for  1876  has  been  published,  and,  as  usual,  contains 
a  great  deal  of  matter  interesting  to  men  of  science.  The  por- 
tions of  the  volume  detailing  the  operations  of  the  institution  for 
1876  is  more  especially  occupied  with  an  account  of  what  was 
done  in  connection  with  the  International  Exhibition  of  1876, 
at  Philadelphia,  and  especially  of  the  very  extensive  and  valuable 
presents  made  to  the  United  Sutes  b^  the  various  foreign  com- 
missions, and  taken  charge  of  by  the  institution,  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  Congress.  Reference  is  made  to  an  application 
for  an  appropriation  to  erect  an  additional  building  to  accommo- 
date  these  objects,  for  which  it  is  estimated  that  a  floor  space  of 
80,000  square  feet  will  be  required.  Until  this  is  done  the  col- 
lections in  question  must  remain  in  their  original  oackages,  more 
than  4,000  m  number,  which  are  stored  on  four  floors  of  a  sepa- 
rate building,  50  by  100  feet,  and  filling  them  completely  from 
floor  to  ceUing.  As  usual,  the  funds  of  the  institution  are 
reported  as  being  in  a  favourable  condition,  the  income 
not  being  exceeded  by  the  expenditure,  and  an  available 
balance  even  remaining  in  hand  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year. 
The  second  part  of  the  volume  embraces  biographical  notices  of 
Dom  Pedro  II.,  and  also  of  Gay-Lussac,  articles  on  the  kinetic 
theories  of  gravitation,  the  revolutions  of  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
the  asteroids  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  and  a  number  of  papers 
on  ethnology  and  archaeology.  Of  these  the  most  im[>ortant  is 
by  Prof.  Mason  on  the  I^timer  collection  of  antiquities  from 
Porto  Rico,  in  which  the  more  interesting  objects  of  this  unique 
series  are  figured.  Other  papers  on  ancient  mines  and  mounds, 
implements  of  various  kinds,  &c.,  are  also  contained  in  thevolume. 

We  have  to  record  the  death  of  Mr.  Timothy  Abbott 
Conrad,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  accomplished  palaeontologists 
of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Conrad  was  bom  in  1803,  and  com- 
menced hb  investigations  early  in  the  century,  beginning  with  the 
tertiary  and  cretaceous  formations  of  the  United  States.  In 
1832  he  commenced  an  illustrated  work  on  the  ''  Fossil  Shells 
of  the  Tertiary  Formations  of  the  United  States,''  which  was, 
however,  preceded  in  1831  by  his  "American  Marine  Con- 
chology."  Most  of  his  papers  appeared  in  the  Amtrican  Journal 
of  Scunce  and  Arts^  and  in  the  Proceedings  arid  Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia.  He  also  contributed 
largel]^  to  the  reports  of  the  various  government  exploring 
expeditions. 

The  Nation  announces  the  death  of  Mr.  John  G.  Anthony,  for 
many  years  a  devoted  coadjutor  of  Agassiz  in  the  Museum  of 
Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge,  where  he  had  charge  of  the 
conchological  department.  Long  residence  and  extensive  travel 
in  the  Ohio  Valley  had  made  him  the  first  authority  in  the 
United  States  on  fresh-water  sheUs.  He  accompanied  the 
Thayer  expedition  to  Brazil,  but  sickness  prevented  him  from 
taking  part  in  it  alter  its  arrivaL  In  addition  to  his  special  work 
Mr.  Anthony  always  maintained  an  interest  in  Botany  and  horti- 
culture. He  was  a  native  of  Rhode  Island,  and  was  in  the 
seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age. 

Prof.  Manh  makes  the  announcement  of  the  interesting  dis- 


covery of  the  remains  of  two  species  of  fossil  bison  in  the  lower 
pliocene  of  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  They  were  much  larger  than 
the  existing  bison,  with  more  powerful  horns. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambrjdgx.— The  Vice-Chancellor,  Dr.  Atkinson,  on  resign- 
ing his  office  on  November  3  (he  has  been  re-slected)  spoke 
of  the  progress  of  scientific  teaching  in  the  Universitv.  The 
efficiency  of  the  University  as  a  school  of  natural  science  has  been 
greatly  promoted.  Dr.  Atkinson  stated,  during  the  past  year  by 
the  erection  of  the  new  buildings  for  the  department  of  compara- 
tive anatomy  and  physiology.  Although  the  whole  building  is 
not  yet  completed,  many  of  the  rooms  are  already  in  use,  and 
the  accommodation  whidi  is  thus  provided  for  both  teachers  and 
students  will  be  of  the  greatest  advantage.  In  connection  with 
this  subject  Dr.  Atkinson  referred  to  Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell's 
announcement  that  His  Grace  the  Chancellor  has  now  completely 
equipped  the  Cavendish  Laboratory  with  all  the  apparatus  and 
instruments  which  the  professor  considers  that  a  first-class  insti- 
tution of  thb  kind  ought  to  possess.  This  singular  munificence, 
continued  so  steadily  and  ungrudgingly  for  such  a  number  of 
years,  is  but  one  of  the  many  proofs  which  His  Grace  is  constantly 
giving  of  his  unwearied  care  and  concern  for  the  welfare  of  the 
Universitv. 

The  following  gentlemen  have  been  elected  to  fellowships  at 
St.  John's  College  : — Arthur  Milnes  Marshall,  B.A.,  Senior  in 
Natural  Science  Tripos,  1874,  and  Donald  M'AUster,  6.A., 
Senior  Wrangler  and  First  Smith's  Prixeman,  1877. 

Oxford. — At  a  special  meeting  of  the  Town  Cotmcil  held  at 
Oxford  on  Monday  it  was  resolved  to  establish  a  fir^t-dass 
grammar  school,  the  Corporation  granting  a  site  in  the  centre  of 
the  city  of  nearly  an  acre  in  extent,  4,000/.  towards  the  building, 
and  100/.  per  annum  towards  its  maintenance.  There  are  to  be 
filtv  free  scholarships  tenable  for  three  years,  thirty  of  which  are 
to  be  filled  up  firom  the  public  elementary  schools. 

London. — ^The  Council  of  University,  College,  London,  have 
appointed  the  Rev.  T.  G.  Bonney,  B.D.,  of  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  Professor  of  Geology  and  Mineralogy  for  five  years. 

St.  Andrews.— Mr.  George  Chrystal,  B.A.,  Fellow  and 
Lecturer  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  has  been 
appointed  to  succeed  Prof.  Fischer  in  the  chair  otmathematics. 

Among  the  names  likely  to  be  brought  forward  by  the  students 
for  the  honorary  and  honourable  post  of  rector  of  Uie  University, 
that  of  Prof.  Tyndall  is  mentioned. 

SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Morpkologisehes  Jahrhueh^  vol.  iii.  Part  3. — R.  Bormet,  on 
the  structure  of,  and  circulation  in,  the  gills  of  Acephala,  pp.  45, 
three  plates.— C  Hasse,  fossil  vertebrae  (the  Squatinse),  two 
plates.— -R.  Wiedersheim,  the  skull  of  Urodeles,  pp.  97,  five 
plates ;  a  most  valuable  memoir  on  Menobranchus,  Siren,  Pro- 
teus, Amphiuma,  Cryptobranchus,  Menopoma,  Salamandrina, 
Triton,  Axolotl,  Plethodon,  Spelerpes,  EUipsoglcssa,  Ambly- 
stoma. — M.  Fiirbringer,  on  the  cephalic  skeleton  of  Cephalopods. 

Annalen  der  Physik  und  Chemie^  No.  9. — On  discontinuous 
liquid  motions,  by  M.  Oberbeck. — Explanation  of  Dufour's  and 
Merget's  experiments  on  the  diffiision  of  vapours,  by  M.  Kundt 
— On  the  diffiision  of  liquids,  by  M.  Johannisganz. — On  the 
internal  friction  of  solid  bodies,  by  M.  Schmidt. — On  the  photo- 
electricity of  fluorspar,  by  M.  HankeL—On  the  resistance  of 
flames  to  the  galvanic  cuirent,  by  M.  Hoppe.— On  the  electro- 
chemical process  at  an  aluminium  anode,  by  M.  Beets. — Further 
experiments  on  galvanic  expansion,  by  M.  Exner. — Reply  to 
Zollner's  objections  agijnst  my  electro-dynamic  views,  oy  M. 
Clausius.— On  a  mode  of  inference  employed  by^  Prof.  Tait  in 
the  mechanical  theorv  of  heat,  by  M.  Clausius. — On  the  sonndine 
of  air  in  pipes,  by  M.  Ciamician. — The  spectrum  of  nitrous  an3 
hyponitric  add,  by  M.  Moser^— On  optical  illusion,  by  M. 
Trappe. 

Beibldtter  %u  den  Annaien,  &c.,  No.  8.— On  the  equilibrium 
of  a  drop  between  two  horizontal  plates,  by  M.  Bosscha. — On 
cylindrical  sound-waves,  by  M.  Grin  wis. — Application  of  the 
galvanic  current  to  investigation  of  the  spheroidal  state  of  some 
hquids,  by  M.  He&ehus.—On  the  tenacity  of  copper  and  steel, 
by  MM.  Pisati  and  Saporita  Ricca. — On  the  polymorphism  of 
crystals,  by  M.  Moutier.— The  heat  of  solution  of  chlorine, 
bromine^    and   iodine  compounds,   by   M.    Thomsen, — ^New 


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NATURE 


\Nov.  8,  1877 


saccharimeter,   by   M.    Laurent — Lecture  experiment  on  the 
coIonr>change  of  certain  double  iodides,  by  M.  Boettger. 

No.  9.— On  physical  isomerism,  by  M.  Lehmann. — On  the 
elasticity  of  gyp«nm  and  mica,  by  M.  Coromilas. — On  the  influ- 
ence of  pressure  on  the  temperature  at  which  water  shows  a 
maximum  density,  by  M.  Van  der  Waals. — Apparatus  for 
measurement  of  the  expansion  of  rigid  bodies  by  heat,  by  M. 
Reusch. 

SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
Chemical  Society,  November  I.—Dr.  Gladstone  in  the 
chair. — The  following  papers  were  read: — On  some  hydro- 
carbons obtained  from  the  homolognes  of  dnnamic  acid,  by 
W.  H.  Perkin.  These  hydrocarbons  were  prepared  either  by 
heating  the  acids  or  by  treating  the  hydrobromo  adds  with 
bases.  The  following  acids  were  prepared  and  examined : — 
Hydrobromodnnenylacrylic,  hydrobromocinnenylcrotonic,  hy- 
drobromodnnenylangelic.  The  following  hydrocarbons  were 
obtained  : — Isopropylvinylbenzene,  isopropylallylbenzene,  iso- 
propylbutenylbenzene,  allylbenzene,  and  butenyl benzene ;  the 
dibromides  of  these  bodies  were  also  prepared  and  examined. — 
On  anethol  and  its  homolognes,  by  W.  H.  Perkin«  By  heating 
methylparoxyphenylacrylic  add,  vinylic  anethol  was  obtained, 
similarly  allylic  or  ordinary  anethol  and  butenylic  anethol  were 
prepared,  in  oondusion  the  author  discusses  the  formation  of 
the  hydrocarbons  from  the  hydrobromo  adds,  and  concludes 
that  they  are  formed  simply  by  the  separation  of  hydrobromic 
add  and  carbonic  anhydride. — On  two  new  methods  for  esti- 
mating bismuth  volumetrically,  by  M.  M.  P.  Muir.  To  a 
solution  of  bismuth  in  nitric  acid  an  excess  of  sodium  acetate  is 
added,  and  then  a  measured  volume  of  standard  sodium  phosphate 
solution  also  in  excess  ;  the  bismuth  is  precipitated,  the  predpi- 
tate  filtered  off,  and  the  excess  of  phosphoric  acid  determined  in 
the  filtrate  by  uranium  acetate.  The  other  method  given  does 
not  yidd  such  accurate  results. — On  the  oxidation  of  ditolyl,  by 
T.  Camelly.  By  the  oxidation  of  solid  ditolyl  the  author 
obtained  diparatolylphenylcarbonic  add  and  diparadiphenyldi- 
carbonic  add  ;  liquid  ditolyl  yielded  ortboparatolylphenylcar- 
bonic  acid,  orthoparadiphenylcarbonic  acid,  and  finally  tere- 
phthallic  add. — On  a  new  manganese  reaction,  by  J.  B.  Hannay. 
If  a  solution  of  a  manganous  sut  in  strong  nitric  add  is  warmed 
in  the  presence  of  an  iron  salt  with  some  crystals  of  potassic 
chlorate,  the  iron  and  manganese  are  jpredpitated  as  a  double 
manganate  of  iron  and  manganese.  The  author  proposes  this 
reaction  for  separating  iron  from  aluminium,  &c. 

Paris 
Pf  Academy  of  Sciences,  October  29. — M.  Peligotin  the  chair. 
— The  following  papers  were  read  \—Risumi  of  a  history  of 
nutter  (second  article),  by  M.  ChevreuL — On  the  solar  photo- 
soheric  S3rstem,  by  M.  Janssen. — The  tdephone  of  Mr.  Graham 
Bell,  by  M.  Breguet — On  the  determination  of  the  quantity  of 
mud  contained  in  current  water,  by  M.  Bouquet  de  la  Grye.  He 
uses  an  instrument  named  a  pelometer  {-xiiXot^  mud),  consisting 
of  a  V-shaped  vessel  whose  rectangular  faces,  inclined  one-tenth, 
are  of  thin  glass,  while  its  sides  are  of  coppo*  or  white  iron«  One 
glares  face  has  a  centimetre  scale  commendng  from  the  angle. 
The  pelometer  is  filled  and  hdd  vertical ;  it  then  presents  a  suc- 
cession of  vertical  layers  of  increasing  thickness  upwards,  and,  by 
comparison  with  glass-ended  tubes  containing  muddy  water  of 
various  known  densities,  the  proportion  of  mud  may  be  ascer- 
tained. Other  methods  are  given.  Experiments  made  at  Rochelle 
show  that  the  quantity  of  mud  per  litre  varies  from  one  to  ten 
times  according  to  the  depth.  He  considers  regular  measurements 
of  the  khid  on  watercourses  desirable  for  agriculture,  &c. — 
On  an  American  vine-stock  not  attacked  by  T>hylIoxera,  by  M. 
Fabre.  This  vine  bdongs  to  the  species  Riparia,  Among 
other  merits  (besides  its  immunity)  it  gives  cuttings  readily, 
recdves  grafts  from  French  species  better  than  any  other 
American  variety,  thrives  in  most  arid  soils,  compact  clays,  and 
soil*  long  exhausted  by  vine  cultivation,  and  grows  very  rapidly. 
— On  treatment  of  phylloxerised  .vines  with  sulphocarbonate  of 
potassiom  applied  with  the  distributing  paiU  in  1876-77,  by  M. 
Gueyraud.--Observations  of  the  planet  (175)  Palisa,  made  at  the 
Paris  Observatory,  with  the  west  equatoriai  of  the  Garden,  by 
MM.  Paul  and  PrcMper  Henry. — Stellar  systems  of  36  Ophinchus 
and  40  Eridan,  by  M.  Flammarion. — General  form  of  coeffidents 
of  certain  devdopments,  by  M.  Andr^. — New  mode  of  plane 
representation  of^ classes  of  graduated  surfaces,  by  M.  Mannhdm. 
— Experiments  on  the  diaruptive  discharge  made  with  the 
chloride  of  sUvcr  batteiy  by  MM.  Warren  de  la  Roe  and  H.  W. 


Miiller. — Rheoitatic  machine,  by  M.  Plants.     He  combines   a 
number  of  condensers  (made  of  mica  and  tin),  so   as  to    be 
easily  charged,   from  a    secondary  battery,   in   quantiiy    and 
discharged  in  tension.    The  commutator  is  a  long  cylinder  of 
hardened  caoutchouc,  having  longitudinal  metallic  iMmds,  and 
traversed  by  bent  copper  wire  (for  the  two  objects  named). 
MetaUic  springs  are  connected  with  the  two  armatures  of  each 
condenser,  and  fixed  on  an  ebonite  plate  on  each  side  of  the 
cylinder,  which  is  rotated.    A  series  of  sparks  can  be  got  between 
the  branches  of  the  exdter  in  this  arrangement,  quite  like  those 
from  dectric  machines  with  condensers.     The  discharges  are 
always  In  the  same  direction,  and  the  loss  of  force  is  less  than  in 
induction  apparatus.     A  great  many  discharges  can  be  had  with* 
out  the  secondary  battery  being  perceptibly  weakened,  as  each 
discharge  removes  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  electricity. — On 
semi-diurnal  barometric  variations,  by  M.  de  Parviile.      The 
tropical  hours  may  present,  at  a  few  days*  interval,  divergences 
amounting,  during  the  great  period,  to  forty-five  minutes.     The 
barometric  variations  in  the  tropical  hours  are  not  uniform  ;  the 
maximum  of  descent  of  the  mercury  column  occurs  about  three 
o'clock.    Equality  between  the  periods  of  day  and  night  has 
never  occurred.     The  amplitude  of  the  variation  is  grea'^er  by  day 
than  by  night,  and  during  the  dry  season  than  during  the  wet. — 
On  the  action  of  anhydrous  adds  on  anhydrous  bases,  by  M. 
Bechamp.     They  are  capable  of  uniting  wholly. — On  the  deter- 
mination of  reducing  sugar  contained  in  commerdal  products,  by 
M.  Girard. — On  the  reducing  sugar  of  commerdal  products  in 
its  relations  to  saccharimetry,  by  M.  Morin.      He  shows   the 
optical  inactivity  of  this  sugar. — On  the  production  of  racemic  add 
in  the  manufacture  of  tartaric  add,  by  M.  Jungfldscb.— On  some 
physical  properties  of  querciU^  by  M.  Prunier. — Action  of  solar 
light  with  variable  degrees  of  intensity  on  the  vine,    by   M. 
Macagno.     Diminution  of  intensity  hinders  the  production  of 
glucose ;  the  other  dements  (produced  or  assimilated)  are  in 
direct  ratio  of  the  luminous  intensity.     A  portion  only  of  potash 
is  in  inverse  ratio  of  the  luminous  intensity  :  the  contrary  occurs 
in  the  case  of  potash  combined  with  tartaric  acid. — On  the  Ortbo- 
nectida,   a  new  class  of  animal  parasites  of  Echinoderms  and 
Turbdlaria,  by  M.  Giard. — On  the  calcareous  algae  belonging  to 
the  group  of  vertidUate  Stphoneae  (Dasydadeoe,  Harv,),  and'con- 
founded  with  the  Foraminiferae,  by  M.  Munier  Chalmas. — Effects 
of  faradisation  in  a  case  of  hydrophobia  in  man,  by  M.  Menesson. 
Considerable  sedative  effects  were  obtained ;  the  patient,  however, 
died  after  two  days  through  a  sudden  stoppage  of  the  heart's 
contractions. 


CONTENTS 


Pagb 


Explosions  in  Mins^     By  W.  Gai.loway 

'I'HB  Sun's  Photosphbrs     By  J.  Normam  Lockybk,  F.R.S.    .    .    . 

PowNBs*  "  Manual  op  Chbuistky  " 

OuB  Book  Shblp  :— 

Brycc's  *'  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat ;  being  Notes  of  a  Yacatioo 
Tour  in  the  Autumn  of  1876  ** « 

WormeU's ''Thermodynamics" •    .    . 

*'  Simple  Lessons  for  Home  Use  " 

Lbttbbs  to  thb  Editob  :— 

Appunn  and  Koenig.— Beats  in  Confined  Air — ^Albxandbb   J. 
Ellis,  F.RS.    .    .        

The  Radiometer  and  iu  Lessons  —  Dr.  W.  B.  Cakpbntbr,  F.R.S.  : 
ProC  0!>B0RNB  Reynolds.  F.R.S 

Potential  Energy  —G.  M.   Mincimn 

Eflecu  of  Urticating  Organs  of  Millepora  on  the  Tongue — L.  F. 
Poubtalbs   

Drowned  by  a  Devil  rish.—H.  N.  MosBLBY,  F.RS 

The  Earthworm  in   Relation  to  the   Fertility  of  the  Soil. —Rev. 
Hbhry  Coopbr  Key  ;  A.  Stephen  Wilson 

M.  AUuard's    Condensing    Hygrometer.— G.    J.    Symons  {IViik 
%iliustratum)  ...  '•••         •..  .... 

Optical  Spectroscopy  of  the  Red   End  of  the  Solar  Spectrum.— 
J.  B.  N.  Hennessey 

Singing  Mice. — Joseph  Siobbotham  ;  Geobge  J.  Romanes    .    • 

Meteor.- Ralph  Copeland 

International  Polar  Expedition.    By  E.  J.  Rbbd»  CB.,  F.R  S. 
The  Norwegian  Debp-Sba  Expedition.    By  Dr.  H.  Mohn  (^ith 

Ma/) 

On  the  Diffusion  of  Matter  in  Relation  to  the  Second  Law 

OF  Thermodynamics     By  S  Tolvbr  Preston 

Music  A  Science  of  Numbers.    By  W.  Chappell,  F.S. A.   .    .    .    . 

Robert  Swinhoe,  F.R.S 

Douglas  A  Spalding 

Qua  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Sotar  Eclipse  of  1788,  February  a 

The  Minor  Planet  E  jphrosyne 

Comeu  of  Short  Period  in  1878 

Notes ; 

American  Science 

UNnnutsiTY  AMD  Educational  iNTBLUCEMca 

SciBNTxnc  Serials 

Socam^s  ahd  Acaobmibs 


as 
as 
•5 


a6 
*7 

a? 
•7 

98 

a8 


«9 
•9 
»9 


3« 
3a 
35 
35 

36 
36 
36 
37 

39 
39 
39 

4 


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NATURE 


41 


THURSDAY,   NOVEMBER    15,   1877 


BREHM'S  THIERLEBEN 

Die  Saugethiere,  von  Dr.  A.  E.  Brehm,  2  vols. ;  and  Die 
Iftsekten,  von  Dr.  E.  Taschenbcrg,  i  vol,  (Leipzig: 
Verlag  des  bibliographiscben  Instituts,  1877.) 

I^HE  three  fine  volumes  of  Natural  History  with  the 
above  titles  form  part  of  Brehm's  well-known 
"  Thierleben/'  a  book  which  has  had  a  well-merited 
success  in  Germany  and  on  the  Continent  generally.  The 
volumes  on  the  mammalia,  of  which  those  under  con- 
sideration are  new  and  enlarged  editions,  and  which 
contain  the  Quadrumana,  Chiroptera,  Camivora,  Insec- 
tivora,  Rodentia,  Edentata,  Marsupialia,  and  Monotremes, 
had  been  well  appreciated  in  this  country  on  account  of 
its  excellent  illustrations,  trustworthy  anecdotes,  and 
general  literary  merits.  The  new  edition  issued  in  1876 
surpasses  the  old,  for  not  only  are  the  additional  and 
new  drawings  of  first  class  art  and  most  truthful,  but 
much  of  the  context  is  more  decidedly  scientific  than 
before.  Brehm,  with  his  practical  knowledge  of  animals, 
especially  of  some  important  groups,  and  his  literary 
powers  and  judicious  choice  of  illustrative  anecdote,  was 
just  the  man  to  undertake  a  popular  natural  history ; 
and  the  success  of  the  very  bulky  attempt  not  only  is 
greatly  to  his  credit,  but  is  a  testimony  of  the  love  of 
good  reading  amongst  the  mass  of  his  countrymen.  A 
familiarly  written  introduction  on  the  structure  and 
physiology  of  the  Mammalia  occcupies  the  first  chapter, 
and  then  the  Primates  arc  considered.  There  are 
two  plates  of  sitting,  standing,  jumping,  climbing, 
and  swinging  Aailliropomorpha  which  are  exquisite, 
and  evidently  carefully  taken  from  the  life.  The  rare 
Troglodytes  Tschiego,  the  Nsehie^o  mbouvS  anatomised 
by  Duvemay,  is  delineated  in  four  attitudes,  and  the 
reach  of  the  fingers  below  the  knee  is  well  shown  ;  below 
it  are  three  capital  chimpanzees,  but  none  of  them 
equalling  Wolf's  admirable  swinging  chimpanzee  in  the 
possession  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  The 
orangs  with  their  globular  heads,  projecting  lips,  and 
hirsute  arms,  are  drawn  with  great  force,  and  three 
gibbons,  spidery  and  dangling,  complete  the  show.  A 
plate  of  hands  and  feet  illustrates  this  part  of  the  book, 
and  the  transition  from  the  highest  hand,  probably  that 
of  T,  ischiego,  for  it  is  more  symmetrical  than  that  of 
gorilla,  to  the  lowest  paw  amongst  the  American  mar- 
mosets is  admirably  shown.  The  dwindling  of  the  thumb, 
the  gradual  equalisation  in  length  of  the  three  middle 
fingers,  and  the  march  first  on  the  knuckles,  and  then, 
in  the  lower  groups,  on  the  palms  are  carefully  demon- 
strated. Osteological  anatomy  is  not  much  cared  for, 
and  therefore  the  skeleton  of  gorilla  is  not  worthy  of 
the  book  ;  but  in  the  chapter  on  this  great  ape  there  are 
some  very  remarkable  plates  which  enable  us  to  approach 
the  truth. 

The  chimpanzee  comes  next — and  oh  !  there  is  such  a 
sly-faced  fellow  in  a  woodcut,  utterly  beyond  the  capacity  of 
anyBritishcutteron  wood— illustrating  the  genial  species, 
after  which,  instead  of  before,  as  one  woidd  think  ought  to 
have  been  done,  comes  Du  Chaillu's  bald  Troglodyte,  the 
T.  tschiego.  With  regard  to  this  little-known  beast, 
Vou  XVII.— No,  4J9 


Brehm  gives  some  more  information  about  its  size  and 
general  zoology,  but  he  does  not  enlarge  on  the  Troglo- 
dytes  aubryi  of  Gratiolet  and  Alix.  A  group  of  Entellus 
monkeys,  with  their  forehead  tufts  rather  exaggerated, 
illustrates  in  part  the  few  pages  on  the  Semnopitheci,  and 
the  Macaci  are  finely  delineated,  a  life-like  savagery  being 
given  to  the  Rhesus  and  pig-tailed  kinds.  Brehm's  anec- 
dotes about  the  baboons  are  first-rate,  and  although  the 
drawings  of  Hamadryas  and  the  mandrill  arc  slightly  in 
exaggeration  of  what  is  common,  they  give  a  capital  idea 
of  the  impudence  of  the  one  and  the  brutality  of  the 
other. 

Brehm  has  collected  all'thegood  anecdotes  and  descrip- 
tions from  Humboldt,  Schomburgk,  Rennger,  and  Henfel 
about  the  Howlers,  and  in  spite  of  the  silence  of  those  in 
captivity  in  Europe  we  can  imagine  the  terrific  noise  of  a 
tree  full  of  the  adults  of  Myceics  caraya.  Bartlett  is  fully  and 
deservedly  quoted  in  jllustration  of  the  natural  history  of 
the  spider  monkeys,  and  the  delineations  of  the  group  are 
fairly  done,  ease  of  position  being  often  wanting  in  the 
illustrations,  however.  The  short-tailed  Brachyures  are 
for  once  described  and  drawn  not  in  caricature  ;  the 
context  is  mainly  from  Bates,  and  the  sketch  looks  like  a 
monkey  and  not  like  the  distressed  old  man  with  a  tail 
like  an  American  vegetable  marrow  which  is  usually  given 
in  books.  The  Saimaris  are  introduced  under  the  generic 
title  Pithesciurus  to  which,  and  indeed  to  much  of 
Brehm's  zoological  nomenclature,  we  demur.  The  mar. 
mosets  are  grouped,  as  by  Huxley,  as  Arctopitheci,  a  name 
given  to  some  sloths  by  Gray,  and  there  is  much  con- 
fusion in  introducing  new  generic  terms  to  the  genera 
Hapale  and  Midas.  The  use  of  the  term  Leopithecus  for 
Hapale,  of  Hapale  for  Midas,  for  instance,  shows  the 
necessity  for  a  final  zoological  arrangement  of  these  small 
monkeys.  No  less  than  239  pages  are  devoted  to  the 
apes  and  monkeys,  and  then  the  Lemuroida  are  com- 
menced under  the  old-fashioned  terms  Hemipitheci  or 
Prosimii.  Sonnerat,  Pollen,  and  Peters  are  Brehm's 
authorities  for  the  natural  history  of  this  group,  and  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  had  the  advantage  of  studying 
Mivart,  Murie,  Grandidier,  and  Owen ;  nevertheless  the 
article  is  of  good  scientific  value  and  of  course  the  illus- 
trations are  super  excellent.  There  is,  however,  the  old 
jumble  of  synonyms  for  the  genus  Indris,  and  Lichanotus 
and  Propithecus  are  put  in  most  unadvisedly.  The  queer 
Stenops,  oddly  named  gracilis^  Galago  with  his  ears  on  the 
move  and  a  bogie  of  Tarsius  spectrum — if  it  were  as  big  as 
a  man  how  truly  hobgoblin-like  it  would  be — are  excellent 
pictures.  There  is  nothing  new,  however,  about  the  group, 
and  really  more  good  information  on  anatomical  and 
physiological  subjects  might  have  been  given  without 
detracting  from  the  popular  nature  of  the  book.  The 
Chiroptera  are  arranged  in  rather  an  old-fashioned 
manner,  and  are  rather  curtly  treated;  and  then  the 
second  part  of  the  volume  opens  with  the  Camivora,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  Insectivora.  The  lion  of  course 
comes  first,  and  although  there  is  nothing  to  notice 
particularly  in  the  context,  every  one  must  admire  Leo 
capensis  and  the  lioness  of  Leo  senegalensis^  although  the 
specific  determinations  should  sink  into  those  of  varieties. 
The  sequence  of  species  then  becomes  rather  strange  to 
English  natural  l^story,  the  puma  and  Felis  eyra  pre- 
ceding "  Tigris  regalis'\  or  Felis  tigris.     The  clouded 

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tiger  comes  next  as  '*  Neofelis,''  and  the  Ulustration  is 
hardly  that  of  the  short-legged  meek- looking  creature  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens.  The  jaguar,  as  drawn  in  the  next 
page  is  too  long  in  the  neck,  but  the  rounded  top  to  the 
head  is  well  given  ;  the  anecdotes  and  general  history  of 
this  fine  South  American  beast  are  beyond  ordinary  praise. 

Brehm  has  paid  unusual  attention  to  the  smaller  cats, 
and  the  pages  devoted  to  them  are  amongst  the  most 
interesting  in  the  book,  and  when  telling  of  the  lynx,  he 
gives  a  wood  engraving  by  Beckmann  of  the  common 
form  which  is  wonderful  in  its  details  of  face-expression 
and  fur  (p.  490).  The  Cheetahs,  so  interestingly  numerous 
just  now  in  our  Zoological  Gardens,  are  fully  considered, 
and  in  the  illustration  there  is  the  upward  whisk  of  the 
tail  given  to  perfection,  but  the  muzzle  of  the  beast  is  too 
long,  and  the  fore  legs  hardly  long  and  stilty  enough. 
Cryptoprocta  concludes  the  Felidae,  and  Canis  primcevus 
of  Cashmir  commences  a  most  interesting  article  on  the 
dogs.  Amongst  other  beauties  there  is  "  Der  BuUdogg  oder 
Boxer,"  and  Mr.  Bill  Sykes  would  have  been  surprised  to 
have  learnt  that  it  is  called  Canis  familiaris  molossus 
gladiator.  It  is  "ein  wiithendes,  unzugangliches  imd 
stumpfsinniges  Thier."  Then  there  is  its  relation,  Mops^ 
with  its  sharply  curled-up  tail  and  black  short  nose,  the 
tiny  tongue  tip  not,  howtver,  being  shown  in  the  engrav- 
ing, which  teUs  the  ladies  of  the  period  that  Pug's  real 
name  is  Canis  familiaris  molossus  fricator.  Amongst 
other  dogs  a  sketch  of  a  pointer  by  Beckmann  is  capital ; 
he  is  pointing,  and  just  a  little  in  doubt,  the  tail  dropping 
slightly  and  the  head  being  not  over-expectant.  The  first 
volume  concludes  with  the  natural  history  of  Otocyon  and 
Canis  procyonides. 

The  second  volume  commences  with  a  notice  of  the 
hyaenas^  and  although  there  is  not  much  to  be  said  in 
praise  of  this  contribution  to  their  literature,  still  the 
delineations  of  H,  crocuta  and  //.  brunnea  place  the  dis- 
tinctions between  the  species  plainly.  H.  crocuta  is 
admirably  drawn  and  the  artist  has  managed  to  give  it 
the  peculiar  weak  look  of  the  hind  legs  and  drooping 
quarters  of  the  caged  animal.  The  Viverridae  are  shortly 
treated,  and  one  of  the  few  doubtful  drawings  of  the  work 
is  in  illustration  of  Cynogale  benfuttii.  The  genus 
Herpestesy  the  habits  of  some  of  whose  species  have  taxed 
the  imagination  of  Europeans  as  well  as  that  of  Eastern 
races,  follows ;  it  is  judiciously  described  and  the  anecdotes 
are  good.  The  fur-yielding  martens  and  their  allies  and 
other  small  carnivora  valuable  to  the  furrier  are  well 
illustrated,  but  Brehm  had  not  the  valuable  volume  on 
their  natural  history,  lately  issued  by  the  American 
Survey,  to  learn  from.  The  bears  form  a  very  interesting 
part  of  the  book,  but  many  of  the  illustrations  have  the 
positions  of  the  animals  rendered  awkward  by  the 
attempt  to  give  prominence  to  specific  and  peculiar 
structural  points.  Thus  the  polar  bear  in  the  water  is 
wretchedly  done,  thanks  to  the  endeavour  to  render  the 
claws  and  narrowish  snout  very  definitely  comprehensible. 
The  moles  and  hedgehogs  are  fairly  noticed,  but  want  of 
space  begins  to  affect  the  treatment  of  these  lower  groups, 
but  Galeopithecus,  very  shortly  described,  is  properly 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Insectivora.  The  Rodentia 
are  of  course  full  of  anecdote  and  Ught  literature,  but 
Brehm't  illustrations  are  by  no  means  as  good  as  those  of 
the]  other  groups ;  perhaps  the  most  striking  is  that  of 


Cercolahes  prehensilis,  A  capital  plate  of  the  sloth  shows 
the  shqrt  snout  which  almost  looks  moist,  and  for  once  in 
a  way  amongst  books  of  this  kind,  there  is  a  truthful 
rendering  of  the  long  narrow  wrist  with  its  two  claws. 
The  essay  on  the  sloths  and  ant-eaters  is  admirable,  but 
the  anxiety  to  show  the  ^peculiar  progression  of  the  last 
group,  on  the  anterior  extremities  and  the  position  of  the 
claws,  has  often  led  the  artist  to  exaggerate.  The  Mar- 
supials are  well  illustrated  and  with  great  ability,  but  we 
miss  some  of  Gould's  most  life-like  sketches  so  familiiir  in 
most  popular  works.  The  pages  devoted  to  the  Mono- 
tremes  contain  the  usual  stories,  and  unfortunately  were 
written  before  those  important  additions  to  their  natural 
history  were  published,  and  which  have  lately  been  noticed 
in  Nature. 

The  other  volume  (the  ninth  of  the  work)  before  us  is  by 
Taschenberg,  of  Halle,  and  is  a  second  edition  of  the  part 
containing  the  Insecta,  Myriopoda,  and  Arachnida.     The 
species  representing  groups  are  of  course  well  chosen  as 
types,  and  the  author  has  often  taken  pains  to  place  novel- 
ties before  the  reader,  especially  in  the  way  of  illustration- 
The  short  anatomical  introduction  is  sufficient  for  the 
general  reader,  but   barely  so   for  the   young   student. 
Amongst  unusual  forms,  or  rather  unusual  to  the  common 
routine  of  book  making,  is  Mormolyce  phyllodes^  from  the 
upper  hill  country  of  Java,  with  its  wide  leaf-looking  elytra 
and  long  antennas,  and  the  very  common  and  opposite- 
looking  Scarites  pyracmon.    The  burying  propensities  of 
Necrophorus  are  told  and  illustrated,  and  there  is  a  very 
curious  and  striking  plate  of  a  mole  hanging  by  the  neck 
in  a  trap,  with  a  crowd  of  Silphidae  (shield  beetles)  and 
larvae,  besides  blow-flies,  on  and   about  it,  doing  their 
best  to  turn  its  protoplasm  into  theirs.    Some  pests  to 
museum-keepers  and  housekeepers  are  especially  figured 
in  the  act  of  working  away  at  a  hare's  foot  which  rests 
on  pen,  ink,  and  paper  Anthrenus  muscsrum  larva   and 
adult,  Attagenus  pellio  and    Derfnestes   lardarius    are 
there  in  full  enjoyment  of  their  mischievous  propensities. 
The  natural  history  of  Lampyris,  Meloe,  and  Sitaris,  is  cut 
too  short,  doubtless  for  want  of  space,  but  their  interest- 
ing life  cycles  merit  more  attention  than  that  of  many 
others  which  are  barely  more  than  mentioned  by  name 
and  might  be  left  out.    Apoderus  longicollis,  a  Javanese 
species  looking  hke  a  cameleopard  amongst  beetles,  and 
unfortunately  little  known,  has  an  interesting  engraving  ; 
and  equally  good   is  that  of  the  langkafer  Brenthus, 
Amongst  the    Hymenoptera    the  habits   and   nests  of 
Bombus  terrestriSy  of  Odynerus  parietum,  and  of  the 
curious  Belonogaster  and  the  Sandwasp  are  very  well 
explained  and  drawn  ;  and  great  praise  must  be  given  to 
the  deUneations  of  the  hfe  cycle  of  Othalia  and  Cimbex, 

The  only  fault  to  be  found  in  the  treatment  of  the 
Lepidoptera  is  that  the  article  is  too  short,  but  the  illus- 
trations are  very  good.  A  plate  of  a  rush  of  a  myriad  of 
the  maggots  of  Sciara  nUlitaris  is  a  strange  subject,  but 
very  eflfective,  and  the  long  crowd  of  closely-packed  dark- 
headed  long  things  looks  as  if  short  work  was  to  be  made 
of  carrion.  Amongst  the  leaf  insects  there  is  Mantis 
religiosa  preying  rather  than  praying  with  a  fly  in  its 
clasp,  and  a  host  of  larvae  escaping  from  a  mass  of  eggs ; 
and  there  is  an  equally  interesting  cut  of  Bacillus  Rossii^ 
one  of  the  Phasmodea.  A  short  chapter  on  the  unsavoury 
subject  of  Pediculi  precedes  a  sketch  of  the  Cochineal 


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insects,  and  then,  a£ler"noticing  the  Chermes  that  attacks 
that  very  strong  food  the  larch,  we  come  to  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  Phylloxera  vastatrix.  The  Hemiptera  are  shortly 
mentioned,  and  then  the  Myriopoda.  There  is  a  good 
picture  of  Geophilus  clinging  around  its  great  prey,  a 
large  earthworm,  and  also  of  a  Polydesmus.  Amongst 
the  Scorpions  the  long-armed  Phr3mus  and  Gonoleptes, 
and  amongst  the  Spiders  a  long  Tetragnatha  and  the 
extraordinary-bellied  Gasteracantha,  form  admirable  illus- 
trations. A  short  chapter  on  Pycnogonum  and  Nymphon 
concludes  this  really  wonderful  volume.  P.  M.  D. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Heat,    By  B.  Loewy  (Lardner's  Handbook  of  Natural 
Philosophy.     Crosby  Lockwood  and  Co.,  1877.) 

This,  though  not  a  bulky  book,  is  a  sort  of  miniature 
Encyclopaedia  of  the  subject.  So  far  as  we  have  read  it 
it  seems  to  have  all  the  faults  of  the  original  (?)  work  to 
which  Lardner's  name  was  prefixed,  with  the  important 
exception  of  the  inaccuracies.  These  have  been  to  a 
great  extent  removed,  and  the  work  has  been  brought  up 
to  date,  but  there  is  still  the  woeful  want  of  order,  or 
indeed  of  any  guiding  principle  whatever  which  distin- 
guished the  former  editions.  It  is  a  very  curious  mixture 
of  good  and  bad,  and  cannot  be  called,  in  any  sense, 
attractive  to  the  reader.  Numerous  tables  of  expe- 
rimental data  are  given,  but  they  are  in  many  cases 
earned  to  a  number  of  places  of  figures  quite  beyond  the 
present  power  of  experimental  science.  Two,  or  perhaps 
three  of  tlie  figures  in  the  earlier  places  of  each  number 
are  probably  correct ;  the  others  give  a  show  of  minute 
accuracy  which  may  altogether  deceive  the  beginner.  The 
treatment  of  the  theoretical  part  is  very  meagre,  but  in 
the  experimental  part  many  curious  facts  not  usually 
known  are  given.  The  book  may  be  useful  as  a  work  of 
reference  to  those  who  are  not  in  possession  of  Balfour 
Stewart's  treatise,  but  we  cannot  say  more  in  its  favour. 

FemSy  British  and  Foreign,  The  History^  Organography, 
Classification^  attd  Enumeration  of  the  Species  0/ Garden 
Ferns,  with  a  Treatise  on  their  Cultivation,  By  John 
Smith,  A,L.S.,  Ex-Curator  of  the  Royal  Gardens,  Kew. 
New  and  Enlarged  Edition.  (London  :  Hardwicke 
and  Bogue,  1877.) 

That  Mr.  Smith's  "  Ferns,  British  and  Foreign  "  should 
have  reached  a  new  edition  in  a  comparatively  short 
time  is  no  small  tribute  to  its  value  as  a  book  of  reference 
for  amateurs  and  fern  cultivators.  The  chief  portion  of 
this  very  neatly  got  up  work  is  occupied  by  an  enumera- 
tion of  cultivated  ferns.  The  different  genera,  as  under- 
stood by  the  author,  who  was  one  of  the  foremost  pteri- 
dologistsiof  his  day,  are  described  and  figured,  while  a  list 
of  the  cultivated  forms,  with  synonyms  and  range  of 
geographical  distribution,  follow  under  each  genus,  no 
attempt  being  made  to  give  a  diagnosis  of  the  species. 
The  scope  of  the  work  is  therefore  entirely  different  from 
that  of  the  "  Synopsis  Filicum "  of  Hooker  and  Baker. 
The  classification  adopted  is  that  propounded  by  Mr. 
Smith  in  his  early  publication  on  ferns,  an  arrangement 
not  much  used  by  modem  writers.  An  appendix  of 
recently-introduced  ferns  is  given.  These  have  been  col- 
lected and  arranged  under  their  respective  genera  and 
tribes,  as  their  names  have  from  time  to  time  been 
noticed  in  the  horticultural  journals  and  in  nurserymen's 
catalogues.  The  list  has  thus  no  pretensions  to  be  a 
critical  one.  The  most  interesting  part  of  the  book  is  the 
history  of  the. introduction  of  exotic  ferns,  a  subject  about 
which,  probably,  no  man  living  knows  more  than  Mr. 
Smith.  This  is  followed  by  an  explanation  of  terms  used 
in  describing  ferns,  perhaps  the  least  satisfiactory  part  of 
the  whole  volume,  as  many  of  the  terms  are  more  or  less 


obsolete,  or  only  used  in  the  book  now  before  us.  In  this 
section  nothing  is  said  about  the  recent  researches  into 
the  nature  of  the  prothallus,  construction  of  the  reproduc- 
tive organs,  and  morphological  nature  of  the  sporangia. 
The  last  part  of  the  work  is  occupied  by  an  essay  on  the 
cultivation  of  ferns,  reprinted  without  alteration  from  the 
first  edition,  but  giving  the  results  of  long  expeiience  of 
the  successful  cultivation  of  all  groups  of  ferns.  As  a 
work  of  reference  and  guide  to  the  cultivation,  this  book 
will  most  undoubtedly  be  of  great  service  to  the  fern- 
growing  public. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himsel/ responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  unaertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonyptous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  ana  novel  /acts,] 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

I  HAVE  litde  doubt  that  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  is  much  more 
competent  than  I  am  to  say  what  is  or  is  not  consistent  with  the 
kinetic  theory  of  gases,  but  I  hardly  think  that  he  gives  evidence 
of  this  in  his  letter  to  last  week's  Nature  (p.  27).  Unless  my 
ignorance  of  the  matter  is  more  complete  than  I  am  aware  of, 
the  law  that  the  rate  of  communication  of  heat  to  a  gas  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  density,  applies  only  when  the  space  occupied 
by  the  gas  is  so  great,  or  the  variations  of  density  so  small, 
that  these  variations  do  not  alter  the  temperatures  of  those 
portions  of  the  gas  which  are  at  each  instant  respectively  re- 
ceiving and  giving  out  heat  This  condition  cannot,  I  imagine, 
be  fulfilled  m  the  radiometer,  where  it  seems  to  me  inevitable 
that  an  action  of  the  kind  to  which  Mr.  Johnstone  Stoney 
called  attention  must  take  place.  G.  Carey  Foster 

P.S. — Since  writing  my  previous  letter  to  Nature,  a  fort- 
night ago,  I  have  read  a  paper  by  Mr.  R.  Finkener,  in  Poggen- 
dorff  *s  Annalen  (vol.  clviii.  pp.  572-595).  This  paper  contains, 
besides  a  theoretical  investigation  of  the  motion  of  the  radio- 
rfititt  founded  on  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases,  an  experimental 
proof  that  the  action  becomes  much  less  when  an  extremely  high 
degree  of  rarefaction  is  reached.  The  paper  itself  is  not  dated, 
but,  as  the  Part  of  the  Annalen  which  contains  it  was  "  closed  " 
on  July  31,  1876,  the  experiments  described  in  it  cannot  have 
been  much,  if  at  all,  subsequent  to  those  (communicated  to  the 
Ro>al  Society,  June  13,  1876)  which  led  Mr.  Crookes  to  a  like 
result.  G.  C.  F. 

Until  I  read  Dr.  Carpenter's  letter  in  your  issue  of  the  8th 
inst.,  it  had  never  occurred  to  me  that  ms  "special  purpose" 
was  to  bring  out  strongljr  my  **  thoroughly  scientific  and  philo- 
sophical method  I  '*  This  is  an  act  of  disinterested  kindness 
which  recalls  to  me  the  exquisite  truth  ot  Dean  Swift's  remark, 
"  No  enemy  can  match  a  friend/ 

Dr.  Carpenter's  only  reply  to  my  letter  which  appeared  in 
your  issue  of  the  ist  inst.  is  contained  in  the  following  passage  : — 
**If  I  had  not  found,"  he  says,  "after  the  publication  of  my 
Lectures,  that  he  had  himself  been  'digging  up  the  hatchet,'  which 
I  was  qwte  disposed  to  keep  buh^,  by  giving  his  public 
attestation  to  the  '  spiritualistic  genuineness  of  what  had  been 
proved  to  be  a  most  barefaced  imposture,  I  should  not  have 
again  brought  his  name  into  the  controversy." 

Further  on  Dr.  Carpenter  paraphrases  passages  from  his  article 
in  Eraser's  Magazine  for  this  month,  in  which  he  goes  more  into 
detail  touching  this  "  pubHc  attestation,"  of  which  in  his  eyes  I 
stand  accused. 

"  Eva  Fay,"  he  says,  "returned  to  the  United  States,  carrying 
with  her  a  letter  from  Mr.  Crookes,  whidi  set  forth  that  since 
doubts  had  been  thrown  on  the  Spiritualistic  nature  of  her 
*  manifestations,'  and  since  he  in  common  with  other  Fellows  of 
the  Royal  Society  had  satisfied  himself  of  their  genuineness  by 
'  sdentific  tests,'  he  willingly  ^ve  her  the  benefit  of  his  attesta- 
tion. Ihis  letter  was  published  in  facsimile  in  American 
newspaperSb" 

My  answer  to  this  calumny  shall  be  brief. 

It  is  untrue  that   I  dog  up  the  hatcbet-^Dr.   Carpenter's 


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expression — in  the  interval  between  November  30,  1875,  when 
he  proposed  it  should  be  buried,  and  the  time  of  his  first 
subsequent  attack  upon  me. 

It  is  untrue  that  during  this  interval,  or  at  any  other  time,  I 
gave  my  *'  public  attestation  to  the  spiritualistic  genuineness  of 
what  had  been  proved  to  be  a  most  barefaced  imposture." 

It  is  untrue  that  I  gave  Eva  Fay  a  letter,  speaking  of  the 
"Spiritualistic  nature  of  her  manifestations,"  and  referring  to 
"  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society." 

It  is  untrue  that  Eva  Fay  **  returned  to  the  United  States 
carrying  with  her  "  such  a  letter. 

It  is  untrue  that  '*  this  letter  was  publbhed  in  facsimile  in 
American  newspapers." 

When  Dr.  Carpenter  limits  himself  to  definite  statements,  my 
task  is  not  difficult.  It  is,  ho  i^ever,  less  easy  to  answer  a  rumour 
of  something  which  somebody  told  Dr.  Carpenter  I  privately 
admitted. 

"It  has  been  rumoured,"  says  Dr.  Carpenter,  in  Erasers 
Magazine,  "that  Mr.  Crookes  has  privately  admitted  that  some 
of  his  'mediums,'  when  they  could  not  evoke  the  *  manifesta- 
tions *  by  fair  means,  have  done  so  hj/ouiy 

I  admit  that  such  a  rumour  respecting  Eva  Fay  was  circulated 
in  the  United  States,  and  a  Boston  gentleman  wrote  and  asked 
roe  if  there  was  any  truth  in  this  sUtement.  I  replied  as  follows 
under  date  November  8,  1875  :  — 

**  In  reply  to  your  favour  of  October  25,  which  I  have  received 
this  morning,  I  beg  to  state  that  no  one  has  any  authority  from 
me  to  state  that  I  have  any  doubts  of  Mrs.  Fay*s  mediumship. 
The  published  accounts  of  the  test  siances  which  toak  place  at 
my  house  are  the  best  evidence  which  I  can  give  of  my  belief  in 
Mrs.  Fay's  powers.  I  should  be  sorry  to  find  that  any  such 
rumours  as  you  mention  should  injure  Mrs.  Fay,  whom  I  always 
found  most  ready  to  submit  to  any  conditions  I  thought  fit  to 
propose." 

Considering  that  this  was  a  private  letter  from  one  gentleman 
to  another,  written  currente  calamo  without  any  thought  of  sub- 
sequent publication,  few  of  your  readers,  I  believe,  will  see 
much  harm  in  if.  Not  being  aware  that  private  communications 
were  less  sacred  in  America  than  in  England,  I  was  certainly 
surprised  one  moiling  to  receive  a  copy  of  an  American  news- 
paper containing  a  facsimile  of  this  private  letter. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  letter  Is  dated  November  8,  1875, 
whereas  the  "  burythe-hatchet "  episode  took  place  on  Novem- 
ber 30,  1875 ;  this  therefore  cannot  be  the  letter  which  convicts 
me  of  attesting  to  a  **  barefaced  imposture  "  subsequent  tcT 
November  3a 

Moreover,  this  letter  does  not  contain  the  words  "  Spiritual- 
istic nature  of  her  manifestations."  Neither  does  it  allude 
to  **  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society."  Nor  did  Eva  Fay  return  to 
•*the  United  Sutes,  carr)ring  with  her  this  letter."  Nor  was  it 
even  addressed  to  Eva  Fay.  It  is  then  impossible  that  this  can 
be  the  letter  to  which  Dr.  Carpenter  refers,  and  I  demand  that 
he  prove  the  truth  of  his  allegation  by  producing  a  copy  of  the 
"American  newspapers"  containing  z.  facsimiie  of  a  letter 
written  by  me  answering  his  description,  containing  the  words 
which  he  professes  to  quote  from  it,  and  justifying  his  defamatory 
remarks. 

In  your  issue  of  last  week  (p.  26)  Dr.  Carpenter  says  nothing 
about  this  facsitnile  letter,  but  lays  stress  on  an  article  written 
by  me  ten  months  previously.  Does  he  seriously  mean  that  the 
publication  in  March,  1875,  of  an  account  of  some  (est  experi- 
ments is  a  breach  on  my  part  of  his  "  bury-the-hatchet "  offer 
made  the  following  November  ? 

I  have  evidently  been  labouring  under  a  misapprehension  as 
to  what  Dr.  Carpenter  meant  when  he  proposed  to  "  bury  the 
hatchet"  I  supposed  he  intended  to  cease  misrepresenting  my 
views  and  falsifying  my  experiments  at  his  public  lectures,  and 
never  afterwards  to  repeat  such  calumnies  on  my  scientific  posi- 
tion as  he  had  anonymously  contributed  to  the  Quarterly  Review 
for  October,  1871.  It  seems,  however,  that  Dr.  Carpenter  really 
meant  that  I  was  no  longer  to  go  poaching  on  his  own  special 
preserve,  and  was  to  abstain  for  the  rest  of  my  life  from  writing 
even  a  private  letter  on  a  subject  which  he  has  investigated  for 
more  tlum  thiity  vears,  and  about  which  he  is  now  writing  and 
lecturing  with  redoubled  vigour. 

Dr.  Carpenter  refers  to  an  offer  made  in  May,  1875,  "  by  Eva 
Fay's  manager,  that  for  an  adeouate  sum  of  money  the  *  medium ' 
thoald  expose  the  whole  affair,'^  and  he  vouches  for  its  truth  by 
•aying  he  has  seen  "copies  of  the  letters."  I  can  supply,  not 
copta^  but  original  letters.  I  have  before  me  letters  from  Eva 
Fay,  dated  Birmingham,  May,   1875,  speaking  bitteriy  of  the 


temptations  and  persecution  to  which  she  was  being  subjected 
to  induce  her  to  join  in  the  scheme,  to  which  she  was  no  party. 

But  how,  may  I  ask,  does  an  abortive  conspiracy  to  complicate 
"  jMf  big  guns  "  prove  that  my  "  scientific  tests  "—which  with 
all  deference  to  Dr.  Carpenter's  "good  authority"  can  not  be 
evaded  by  a  "dodge" — were  useless,  and  that  in  spite  of  them 
Eva  Fay  cheated  me  ? 

I  am  weary  of  protesting  against  the  imputation  which  £>r. 
Carpenter  conveys  in  the  words  "scientific  advocates  of  the 
system."  I  emphatically  deny  that  I  have  ever  advocated  any 
"system"  in  connection  with  the  phenomena  ascrit>ed  to 
spiritualism.  I  have  never  for  one  m3ment  doubted  that  this 
name  has  covered  an  enormous  mass  of  fraud  and  trickery  ;  but 
being  convinced  that  amidst  all  this  falsehood— which  it  is  Dr. 
Carpenter's  mission  to  denounce  in  the  most  fervid  eloquence  at 
command — there  was  a  solid  nucleus  of  fact,  and  believing  that 
every  unrecognised  fact  is  a  reproach  to  science,  and  every  unin- 
vestigated pl^nomenon  is  a  probable  mine  of  discovery,  I  con- 
sidered myself  not  merely  entitled,  but  almost  bound  in  scientific 
honour,  to  attempt  the  solution  of  the  question.  My  attempt  to 
bring  the  so-called  supernatural  within  the  realm  of  fact,  to  turn 
the  light  of  science  on  1  problem  that  required  investigation,  has 
expo^  me  to  many  misrepresentations,  but  especially  to  the  ire 
of  Dr.  Carpenter,  who  never  tires  of  repeating  every  idle  tale 
from  hearsay  evidence.  I  look  back  to  the  days  of  the  alchemists, 
and  find  the  very  same  kind  of  fraud,  mysticism,  and  trickery, 
differing  but  little  from  the  impostures  of  the  present  day.  But 
then,  as  now,  there  were  a  fe«v  earnest  students  who  detected 
the  germs  of  truth  amidst  the  ravings  and  juggleries  of  the  gold 
makers  ;  they  cherished  these  germs,  and  although  the  Dr.  Car- 
penter of  that  period  would  doubtless  have  denounced  those 
students  as  "  scientific  advocates  of  the  system  "  of  alchemy,  and 
felt  it  his  duty  to  "  undermine  "  their  reputations,  they  persevered 
through  calumny  and  ridicule,  and  thereby  laid  the  foundations 
of  our  modern  science  of  chemistry. 

The  readers  of  Nature  have  now  before  them  ample  illus- 
tration of  the  falsity  of  the  accusations  with  which  I  have  been 
persecuted  for  so  many  years.  A  calumny  once  born,  said  the 
Great  Napoleon,  can  never  be  killed.  I  have,  however,  done  my 
utmost  to  prove  the  groundlessness  of  the  very  serious  charges 
Dr.  Carpenter  has  brought  against  me,  down  to  the  grave  indict- 
ments in  your  issue  of  last  week  (p.  26).  There  is  not  a  sin;;le 
charge  which  Dr.  Carpenter  has  ever  brought  against  me  that  I 
am  unable  to  answer  with  like  completeness ;  and,  judging  from 
long  experience,  I  venture  to  say  that  any  future  charges  he  may 
bring  will  be  equally  unfounded.  But  I  cannot,  out  of  regard 
for  your  readers,  to  say  nothing  of  the  sacrifice  of  time,  continue 
to  defend  myself  from  every  petty  accusation  ;  and  unless  really 
forced  by  some  imputation  too  serious  to  pass  over,  this  must  be 
my  last  letter  on  a  subject  which  to  me  involves  painfully  too 
much  self- reference.  I  have  been  constrained,  in  self- defence, 
to  speak  in  somewhat  downright  fashion,  but  Dr.  Carpenter's 
industrious  misconstruction  has  drawn  this  protest  from  me. 
Misstatements  expressed  in  a  few  lines  may  re<|uire  pages  to 
refute  them.  A  calumny  which  takes  a  mmute  to  write  may 
demand  days  to  answer.  Memories  of  half-forgotten  occurrences 
have  to  be  revived,  conversations  recalled,  old  letters  hunted  out, 
journals  exhumed,  and,  in  fact,  as  much  time  and  trouble  ex- 
pended as  if  getting  up  evidence  for  an  important  legal  trial.  So 
great  a  tax  for  so  trivial  a  purpose  is  monstrous  in  its  dispropor- 
tion, and  I  can  waste  on  this  fniitless  discussion  no  more  precious 
time  —  time  stolen  from  my  physical  work  in  the  laboratory, 
already  too  much  curtailed  by  the  pressure  of  outward  business. 

November  10  William  Crookes 

The  latter  half  of  Dr.  Carpenter's  letter  in  last  week's  Nature 
(p.  26)  consists  of  almost  verbat'mi  extracts  from  his  article  in  this 
month's  Fraser,  I  beg  to  refer  your  readers  to  a  reply  to  Dr. 
Carpenter's  attack,  and  a  full  expoiure  of  his  false  accusations 
against  Mr.  Crookes  and  myself,  which  will  appear  in  the  next 
issue  of  that  magazine.  They  will  then  see  who  has  been  led  by 
"  prepossession  "  to  adopt  **  methods  which  are  thoroughly  mm. 
scientific,"  and  whose  are  '*the  statements  which  ougtit  to  l>e 
rejected  as  completely  untrustworthy." 

Alfred  R.  Wallace 


Experiment  on  Fluid  Films 

I  AM  experimenting  on  the  optical  phenomena  exhibited  by 
thin  fluid  blms  in  a  state  of  vibration,  and  have  just  obtained 


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same  beautiful  results,  including  the  formation  of  fixed  straight 
and  curved  coloured  bands,  arranged  in  symmetrical  figures,  and 
of  pairs  of  colour-Tortices  rotating  in  opposite  directions. 

Unless  these  results  prove  to  have  been  already  described,  I 
shall  shortly  publish  an  account  of  my  experiments. 

Sedley  Taylor 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  November  12 


Expected  High  Tides 

In  your  '  'Notes  "  last  week  you  say  that  you  cannot  understand 
why  the  burden  of  such  predictions  should  fall  solely  upon  Capt. 
Saxby.  This  is  what  many  of  the  public  also  do  not  understand. 
Why  does  not,  say,  the  Meteorological  Office  take  the  matter  in 
'.  And,  and  not  leave  it  to  some  private  individual  ?  There  can  be 
no  doubt  the  forewamings  are  often  of  the  greatest  service  and  have 
saved  the  public  tens  of  thousands  of  pounds  and  prevented  a  great 
deal  of  misery.  What  I  think  Capt.  Saxby  is  to  be  blamed  for 
is  the  desire — it  may  be  only  appirent — to  make  a  mystery  of  his 
predictions  with  the  general  public  ;  and  what  gives  weight  to 
this  b  the  fact  that  the  Astronomer- Royal  and  the  heads  of  the 
Meteorological  Office  and  Society  do  not  offer  the  public  aoy  aid 
in  what  is  a  purely  scientific  and  eminently  practical  subject,  in 
which  Londoners  are  more  interested  than  in  the  transit  of  Venus, 
and  quite  as  much  as  in  the  storm-warnings  for  the  Channel. 

When  in  March,  1874,  Capt.  Saxby  came  forward  and  in  an 
oracular  way  predicted  a  great  tide  on  the  20th,  he  gave  no 
reasons.  This  many  felt  was  unsatisfactory.  Knowing  that  it 
most  result  from  the  action  of  natural  lavrs  curiosity  led  me  to 
investigate  the  matter,  and  I  found  that  the  subject  of  extraordi- 
nary tides  was  a  matter  of  much  simplicity ;  that  the  chief  factors 
reside  in  the  moon  with  its  varying  distances  and  declinations ; 
the  next  in  the  sun  and  the  seasons ;  the  next  in  the  winds  and 
atmosphere ;  and  the  next,  perhaps.  In  the  action  of  the  planets, 
as  Venus  and  Jupiter,  the  former  of  which  we  kno^  affects  the 
orbit  of  the  eaith.  and  both  have  probably  some  power  in  pro- 
ducing the  atmospheric  disturbances  in  the  sun. 

^tth  these  factors  I  predicted  a  year  in  advance  the  extra- 
ordinary tide  of  November,  1875,  which  had  escaped  Capt. 
Saxby 's  notice.  I  was  also  able  to  say  that  there  are  two  un- 
usually high  tides  revolving  through  the  year,  exactly  six-and-a- 
half  synodic  months  apart,  each  forty-eit^ht  days  after  the  same 
tide  of  the  previous  year ;  that  these  with  the  preceding  and 
succeeding  tides  are  chiefly  those  which  may  with  bad  weather 
develop  into  extraordinary  ones  ;  and  that  the  next  great  one — 
a  very  giant  among  tides — will  be  on  March  20,  1878. 

If  Capt.  Saxby  has  some  knowledge  on  the  subject  which 
others  have  not,  how  is  it  he  did  not  predict  the  unusually 
high  tide  of  October  26  last,  which  happened  when  the  moon 
was  neither  full  nor  new,  nor  in  perigee  ?  Why  it  happened  is 
somewhat  of  a  mystery ;  the  only  explanation  I  can  suggest  is, 
that  the  moon  had  her  highest  northern  declination  on  that  day, 
and  that  a  barometric  depression  passed  over  the  North  Sea  the 
previous  day,  both  whidi  would  tend  to  heighten  the  tide. 

November  12  B.  G.  Jenkins 

The  Towering  of  Wounded  Birds 

Last  season  I  fired  at  a  song  thrush  at  a  distance  of  fifty 
yards,  but  the  bird  continued  its  course,  as  if  uninjured,  for 
upwards  of  200  yards,  when  it  suddenly  "towered"  in  the  air, 
and  as  suddenly  fell  to  the  ground.  Upon  examination  the  bird 
was  found  to  have  been  shot  through  tne  lungs  alone,  and  had 
bled  internally,  the  throat  being  full  of  clotted  blood.  The 
head  was  totally  free  from  any  injury.  I  have  known  similar 
instances  occur  in  the  pigeon,  swallow,  and  starling.  In  all 
t)  «•  cases  the  head  remained  uninjured,  and  death  occurred 
thro-jgh  internal  haemorrhage.  In  the  case  of  the  starling  one 
pellet  entered  the  spine ;  the  bird  continued  its  course  for  a  few 
yards,  towered,  and  suddenly  fell  to  the  ground  dead. 

Should  you  consider  these  instances  boiring  on  the  matter  of 
sufficient  importance  for  an  insertion  in  Nature  they  may  prove 
acceptable  to  those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject. 

Heeley,  near  Sheffield  Charles  Dixon 


Cruelty  to  Animals'  Act  and  Physiological  Teaching 

I  AM  desirous  of  knowing  through  your  many  readers  if, 
amonjgst  phvsiologists,  the  belief  is  anything  like  general,  that 
showing  under  the  microscope  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  a 


web  of  a  frog's  foot  is  a  contravention  of  "  The  Cruelty  to  Animab' 
Act.  1876.'^ 

Dr.  M.  Foster,  in  hb  "  Primer  of  Physiology  "  (Macmillan  and 
Co.,  1877),  advises  the  reader  to  "  go  and  look  at  it  at  once ;  ]rou 
will  never  know  any  physiology  till  you  do ; "  and  some  naturalists 
here  say  if  no  incision  is  made,  the  animal  being  merely  tied 
down,  the  exhibition  of  the  phenomenon  is  quite  legitimate,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  Ptof.  Huxley,  in  his  paper  before  the  Domestic 
Economy  Congress  (reported  in  Nature,  voL  xvi.  p.  234)  states 
it  as  his  opinion  that  a  teacher  is  '*open  to  the  penalty  of  fine 
and  imprisonment  if  he  uses**  a  frog  "for  the  purpose  of  exhi- 
biting one  of  the  most  beautiful  ai^  instructive  of  physiological 
spectacles." 

It  was  this,  the  expressed  opinion  of  so  distinguished  an 
authority  as  Profl  Huxley,  which  caused  me  first  to  doubt  the 
teacher's  right  to  exhibit  the  experiment,  and  it  is  because  of  the 
differences  of  opinion  I  have  mentioned  that  I  seek  to  know 
through  your  columns,  if  a  teacher  is  or  is  not  at  liberty  to 
illustrate  the  blood  circulation  by  this  harmless  experiment. 

Frank  W.  Young 

High  School,  Dundee,  November  12 


Smell  and  ^Hearing  in  Moths 

Numbers  of  moths,  of  many  different  species,  ars  attracted 
into  my  room  on  summer  evenings  by  the  light ;  and  they  are 
fond  of  resting  on  the  lamp  shade.  One  night  I  was  using  some 
very  strong  ammonia  solution — and  by  way  of  driving  them  off  I 
held  a  3-ounce  bottle  of  it  with  the  open  mouth  almost  close  to 
them.  To  my  surprise  they  seemed  quite  unconscious  of  'it  as  a 
smtll ;  they  would  bear  it  unmoved  for  a  minute,  or  sometimes 
for  two  or  three  minutes,  and  they  then  merely  walked  an  inch 
or  two  further  away  from  it.  I  have  since  tried  the  experiment 
repeatedly,  and  with  several  different  s:  ecies  ;  but  none  of  them 
seem  to  detect  the  presence  of  ammoaia  except  as  a  man  might 
detect  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  or  of  nitrogen  in  excess,  that 
is,  by  their  effects  on  his  system  generally. 

The  common  black  and  white  ''magpie  moth,"  it  is  well 
known,  often  feigns  death  when  captured.  I  caught  two,  one 
after  the  other ;  both  pretended  to  be  dead,  and  I  laid  them 
gently  en  the  table  a  few  inches  apart  They  had  remained 
motionless  for  ten  minutes,  when  I  took  up  a  wine  glass  by  the 
stem,  and  gave  it  one  sharp  stroke  with  a  pencil,  about  six  inches 
away  from  them.  Both  moths  flew  off  at  the  instant  the  sound 
was  heard.  I  repeated  this  many  times  with  the  same  result — 
both  with  these  and  with  other  individuals  of  the  sime  species; 
and  I  also  found  that  merely  )\plding  the  glass  near  them  and 
waving  the  pencil  about  noiselessly,  did  not  arouse  them. 

Loughton  J.  C. 

Bees  Killed  by  Tritoma 

In  a  friend's  garden  here  where  there  are  quantities  of  Tri- 
tomasor  "red-hot-pokers,"  hundreds  of  bees  have  been  this 
year  destroyed  by  them.  The  honey  produced  by  the  flower  is 
very  abundant,  and  the  bees  enter  the  tube  of  the  corolla  to  get 
at  it ;  but  the  tube,  which  is  only  just  large  enough  at  the 
mouth,  tapers  gradually,  and  so  the  l>ee  gets  wedged  in  and 
cannot  extricate  itself.  I  saw  numbers  so  caught,  some  in  the 
fresh  flower,  while  others  remained  in  the  completely  withered 
and  decaying  blossoms.  Perhaps  it  may  be  due  to  the  fine  warm 
days  we  have  had  this  autumn,  inducing  the  bees  to  work  too 
late  after  our  native  honey-producing  flowers  have  been  destroyed 
by  the  wet  and  frosts  ;  or  is  it  a  regular  thing  which  happens 
every  year  ?  If  so  bee-keepers  should  discourage  the  Tritoma, 
or  set  to  work  to  select  varieties  with  flowers  large  enough  not 
to  kill  their  bees.  Alfred  R.  Wallace 

Dorking,  November  3 

Lecture  Experiment 

The  experiment  described  below  illustrates  in  a  very  striking 
manner  the  particular  instance  of  the  "  conservation  of  energy ' 
exhibited  by  the  equilibrium  of  liquids  of  unequal  densities,  in 
communicating  venels. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  two-necked  bottle,  having  in  one 
neck  a  very  strong  glass  tube  half  a  metre,  or  more,  in  length, 
and  terminating  above  in  a  funnel  of  200  c.c.  capacity,  while  its 
lower  end  nearly  reaches  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  ;  in  the  other 
neck  is  a  piece  of  glass  tube,  drawn  to  a  jet,  and  passing  only  a 
short  distance  into  the  bottle.    As  the  pressure  inside  the  appa« 


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rattts  is  considerable,  the  corks  by  which  these  tabes  are  fixed 
must  fit  very  tightly. 

la  using  the  arrangement  the  bottle  is  filled  with  water,  the 
jet  is  then  closed  with  the  finger,  and  the  fiinnel,  which  should 
be  supported  on  the  ring  of  a  retort  st ind,  is  filled  with  mercury ; 
on  removing  the  finger  from  the  jet  the  mercury  falls  into  the 
bottle,  expaling  the  water  which  rises  in  a  fountain  to  a  height 
depending  upon  that  of  the  column  of  mercury,  but  rather  less 
than  is  deoretically  possible,  the  height  of  the  fountain  being 
ten  or  eleven  times  that  of  the  fall  of  mercury.  By  employing 
mercury  as  the  falling  liquid  in  Hero's  fountain  a  similar  increase 
of  effect  may  be  obtained  with  that  apparatus. 

W.  A.  Shbnstone 


Fownes'  "Manual  of  Chemistry" 

In  my  review  of  Fownes*  "  Manual  of  Chemistry  "  are  two 
mistakes  which  I  beg  to  correct.  On  page  25,  line  i,  read 
improbable  instead  of  improvable ;  and  line  o,  dimorphidts 
instead  of  isomorphides.  The  Reviewer 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Transit  of  Mercury,  May  6,  1878.— The 
transit  of  Mercury,  which  will  occur  on  May  6  in  the 
ensuing  year,  is  the  last  during  the  present  century  in 
which  the  plzoiet  can  be  observed  upon  the  sun's  disc  for 
any  length  of  time  in  this  country,  and  on  that  occasion 
the  nearest  approach  of  centres  will  take  place  only  half 
an  hour  before  sunset ;  owing,  however,  to  the  long  dura- 
tion of  the  transit,  7h.  35m.  geocentric,  Mercury  will  have 
been  upon  the  disc  more  than  four  hours  and  a  quarter 
when  the  sun  sets.  Reducing  to  Greenwich  by  the 
Nautical  Almanac  data  it  appears  the  first  external 
contact  will  occur  at  3h.  lom.  58s.  mean  time,  and  the 
first  internal  contact  at  3h.  14m.  4s.,  or  the  planet  will  be 
3m.  6s.  in  wholly  entering  upon  the  d'sc.  The  least 
distance  of  centres  will  occur  at  yh.  cm.,  and  sim-set  at 
7h.  29m.  The  duration  of  the  transit  is  longer  than  in 
any  other  of  this  century,  or  indeed  than  in  any  one  that 
has  occurred  since  the  year  1756. 

Up  to  the  present  year  twenty-four  transits  of  Mercury 
have  been  more  or  less  observed ;  in  this  number  are 
included  that  of  1631,  November  7,  predicted  by  Kepler, 
when  the  planet  was  seen  upon  the  sun's  disc  for  the  first 
time  by  Gassendi,  at  Paris,  who  observed  on  the  dark- 
chamber  method— by  allowing  the  sun's  light  to  pass  into 
the  room  through  a  small  aperture  in  the  window,  and 
throwing  his  image  upon  a  white  screen ;  that  of  165 1, 
November  3,  imperfectly  seen  by  Shakerley  at  Surat.  and 
that  of  1707,  May  6,  which  was  observed  through  clouds 
by  Roemer  at  Copenhagen  near  the  f  gress.  Of  these 
twenty-four  transits  it  is  singular  that  only  eight  have 
taJcen  place  at  the  descending  node  or  in  May,  as  will  be 
the  case  next  year.  Two-thirds  of  the  number  have 
therefore  occurred  in  November,  when  we  might  have 
expected  the  hindrances  to  observation  to  have  operated 
unfavourably  in  these  latitudes. 

Of  the  three  transits  of  the  present  century  subsequent 
to  1878,  that  of  1 88 1,  November  7,  will  be  wholly  invisible 
in  this  country,  the  ingress  taking  place  at  loh.  16m.  and 
the  egress  at  ish.  37m. ;  in  the  transit  of  1891,  May  10, 
the  egress  occurs  soon  after  sun-rise ;  and  in  that  of 
1894,  November  10,  it  occurs  near  sun-set  The  reader 
who  is  curious  respecting  the  transits  of  Mercury  in  the 
next  century  may  consult  a  communication  from  the  Rev. 
S.  J.  Johnson  to  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  the 
Monthly  Notices^  voL  xxxvii.  p.  425  ;  and  for  an  account 
of  Gassendi's  long  watch  for  the  transit  of  163 1,  and  his 
successful  observation  of  it,  he  may  be  referred  to  Prof. 
Grant's  classical  work,  the  *'  Histo^  of  Physical  Astro- 
nomy." 

Nova  Cygni,  1876.— Prof.  Julius  Schmidt  mentions 
that  the  star  which  he  ^%\.  remarked  on  November  24^ 
1876  (and  which  is  not  found  in  the  Durchmustirung) 


13m 

y  =  Nova  -  IX) 

n 

a  =     „       -  1-6 

"•5 

4r  =     „      +  4*6 

diminished  very  regularly  from  January  to  August  of 
the  present  year  ;  it  exhibited  none  of  the  slight  osciUa^ 
tions  in  brightness  which  are  still  seen  in  T  Coronae,  and 
we  may  add  in  other  "  Novae."  With  the  Athens  rc^' 
fractor  he  has  observed  three  small  stars  near  the 
variable,  with  the  following  differences  of  right  ascensioa 
and  declination*: — 

Nova  —  45 
„  -  81 
„       +  20 

It  will  be  remembered  that  this  star  suddenly  shone  out  of 
3*4  magnitude,  and  had  diminished  to  the  limit  of  naked> 
eye  vision  soon  after  the  middle  of  December.  Its  mead 
place  for  i88o*o  is  in  R.A.  2ih.  36m.  59'9S.,  N.P.D, 
47°  42'  16". 

Comet  1873,  IV.— M.  Raoul  Gautier  has  worked  out 
definitive  elements  of  the  comet  discovered  by  M.  Borrelly 
on  August  20, 1873,  and  finds  the  observations  best  repre- 
sented by  an  ellipse  with  a  period  of  3,27  7 J  years,  the 
probable  errors  of  perihelion  distance  and  eccentricity 
limiting  the  period  between  3,012  and  3,585  years.  This 
comet,  however,  was  observed  for  one  month  only,  or' 
through  an  orbital  arc  of  only  58"^,  and  such  results  of 
calculation  in  the  present  case  are  not  perhaps  to  be 
allowed  any  great  weight  There  are  many  other  comets 
which  we  imagine  would  better  have  repaid  the  labour 
expended  by  M.  Gautier  upon  Comet  1873,  IV.  Express- 
ing his  best  parabolic  elements  in  the  manner  adopted 
in  catalogues  of  comet-orbits,  we  have  the  following 
figures  : — 

Perihelion  Passage,  1873,  September  10  83679  M.T.  at  Berlin. 

Longitude  of  perihelion 36  48  40  )  .^r  tt     .0 

Lcending  node ...  230  38    4  {  ^'^^  *^73  o 

,,  inclination 84    o  50  1 

Log.  perihelion  distance 9*899956 

Motion — retrograde. 

?»liNOR  Planets. — A  remark  in  this  column  some  tnr.e 
since  upon  the  probability  of  several  discoveries  of  so- 
called  new  planets  proving  to  be  observations  of  bodies 
previously  detected,  appears  to  be  justified  by  recent 
experience.  Thus  the  object  announced  as  a  new  planet 
by  Prof.  Watson  and  M.  Borrelly  in  August  last  was 
shown  by  Herr  Kuorre,  of  Berlin,  to  be  identical  with 
No.  141,  detected  by  M.  Paul  Henry  at  Paris,  on  January 
13,  1875,  and  it  is  now  stated  that  the  small  planet 
remarked  by  Herr  Palisa  at  Pola  on  October  2  is  really 
No.  161,  which  was  discovered  by  Prof.  Watson  on 
April  18,  1876,  and  received  the  name  Athor,  As  was  to 
be  expected  from  the  rapidity  with  which  discoveries  of 
small  planets  have  succeeded  one  another  of  late  years, 
calculation  is  now  considerably  behind  observation,  and 
we  are  still  without  published  elements^  of  a  number  of 
the  bodies  lately  brought  to  light — Prof.  Peters  states 
that  he  has  proposed  the  name  Idunna  for  the  planet 
discovered  by  him  on  October  14,  which  is  No.  175,  a 
name  which  he  says  will  be  understood  by  those  members 
of  the  "  Astronomische  Gesellschaft "  who,  at  their  late 
meeting  at  Stockholm,  participated  in  the  hospitality  of 
"  Ydun." — There  is  now  a  strange  confusion  of  my]>  - . 
logies  and  systems  of  nomenclature  in  the  minor-plai. .. 
group,  a  state  of  things  that  at  one  time  might  have  been 
readily  avoided. 


THE  ROYAL  DUBLIN  SOCIETY 

A  SCHEME  for  the  reorganisation  of  this  society  as 
•^^  a  branch  of  the  National  Museum  of  Science  and 
Art  established  by  the  Government  has  been  under  con- 
sideration for  some  time,  and  a  report  of  the  council  on 
the  subject  was  submitted  to  the  society  at  its  meeting 
on  November  8.    The  scheme  includes  a  recommenda* 


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NATURE 


47 


tion  in  favour  of  the  amalgamation  of  the  agricultural 
department  of  the  sodetv  and  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  under  the  title  of  the  Royal  Irish  Agrictdtural 
Society;  after  some  discussion  the  report  was  carried. 
The  following  are  the  principal  points  involved  in  the 
reorganisation : — 

In  accordance  with  the  agreement  entered  into  with 
the  Government,  the  principal  conditions  of  which  are 
embodied  in  the  "  Act  for  the  Establishment  in  Dublin 
of  a  Science  and  Art  Museum  and  the  Development  of 
the  Library  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society  into  a  National 
Library,"  Uie  property  of  the  society  in  land,  buildings, 
and  collections  has  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
Government.  The  society  will,  in  accordance  with  such 
agreement,  receive  the  sum  of  10,000/.,  which  will  be  in- 
invested  in  such  security  as,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Treasury,  may  be  selected  ;  it  will  continue  to  be 

?rovided  with  the  requisite  accommodation  in  Leinster 
louse  ;  the  members  will  have  free  access  to  the  several 
departments  as  heretofore,  whilst  the  existing  members, 
as  well  as  all  those  who  shsdl  be  admitted  before  January  i 
next,  will  have  the  right  to  borrow  books  from  the 
National  Library.  In  order  to  assist  in  the  more  com- 
plete development  of  that  part  of  the  society's  work 
which  is  devoted  to  the  promotion  of  science  and  the 
useful  arts,  it  has  been  arranged  that  all  the  scientific 
serials  and  transactions  of  learned  societies,  as  well  as  all 
dui>licates  in  the  library,  shall  remain  the  property  of  the 
society ;  the  Lecture  Hall  and  Laboratory  will  be  reserved 
for  its  use ;  and  the  collections  in  the  Botanic  Garden 
and  Museum  of  Natural  History  will  be  available  as  for- 
merly for  the  illustration  of  papers  read  before  the  society. 
The  most  important  condition,  however,  for  the  success- 
ful prosecution  of  the  society's  scientinc  work,  pure  as 
^  well  as  applied,  is  that  for  five  years  the  cost  of  printing 
^~k  the  scientific  papers  read  before  the  society  will  be  de- 
frayed by  the  Government  Concessions  equally  favour- 
able have  been  obtained  for  ^e  agricultural  department. 
Thus  in  lieu  of  the  premises  around  Leinster  House, 
which  will  be  required  for  museum  buildings,  &c.,  the 
Government  has  undertaken  to  provide  accommodation 
for  agricultural  shows  elsewhere,  and  to  reimburse  the 
society  for  any  pecuniary  loss  it  may  sustain  in  conse- 

?[uence  of  the  change  of  site  from  the  city  to  the  suburbs, 
n  order  to  develop  the  scientific  work  of  the  society,  and 
thus  secure  to  the  fullest  extent  the  great  advantage  of 
having  the  scientific  papers  read  before  it,  printed,  the 
Committee  of  Science  have  submitted  a  scheme  for  the 
complete  reorganisation  of  the  department  under  their 
superintendence.  Thus,  the  meetings  for  the  discussion 
of  subjects  connected  with  science  pure  and  applied  will 
be  held  in  these  sections  : — i.  For  the  physical  and  ex- 
perimental sciences.  2.  For  the  natural  science,  includ- 
ing geology  and  physical  geography.  3.  Science  applied 
to  the  useful  arts  and  industries.  The  papers  to  be  read 
at  these  sectional  meetings  will  be  published  in  8vo,  as 
the  Scientific  Proceedings,  the  more  important  to  be 
published  in  4to,  under  the  title  of  "  Transactions."  In 
order  to  consolidate  and  economise  both  work  and  time 
other  scientific  bodies  have  been  invited  to  associate 
themselves  with  the  work  of  the  sections,  the  meetings 
«  of  which  will  be  held  simultaneously  on  the  third  Mon- 
day of  each  month,  an  invitation  to  which  the  Royal 
Geological  Society  and  the  Scientific  Club  have  re- 
sponded. A  special  committee  is  now  engaged  in  con- 
sidering the  measures  most  advisable  to  adopt  with  regard 
to  the  &ture  of  the  society,  so  as  to  maintain  it  as  an 
object  of  attraction  to  the  educated  classes,  and  a  pre- 
liminary report  has  been  presented  to  the  council,  in 
which  it  is  advised  that  in  addition  to  the  more  complete 
organisation  of  the  scientific  department  steps  should  be 
taken  to  render  the  reading-rooms  more  efficient,  to 
establish  a  lending  library  for  the  use  of  future  as  well  as 
present  members,  to  arrange  for  the  delivery  of  lectures 


for  the  elucidation  of  the  latest  discoveries  in  science, 
and  to  hold  occasional  conversaziones.  According  to 
one  of  the  conditions  contained  in  Lord  Sandon's  letteir 
of  February  9,  1876,  the  National  Library  will  be  placed 
under  the  superintendence  of  a  councU  of  twelve  trustees, 
eight  of  whom  are  to  be  nominated  by  the  Royal  Dublin 
Society  and  four  by  the  Government 

Then  followed  the  Report  of  the  Committees  of  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society  and  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  on  the  subject  of  amalgamation,  which,  as  we 
have  said,  was  adopted.  The  two  societies  will  to  some 
extent  remain  connected  ;  the  Agricultural  Society,  Lord 
Powerscourt  stated,  would  be  a  branch  of  the  Royal 
Society,  though  under  different  management. 


aV  THE  EOCENE  FLORA  OF  BOURNEMOUTH 

DURING  this  last  summer  and  autumn  I  have  seized 
several  opportunities  of  continuing  my  examination 
of  the  Bagshot  Beds  of  Hampshire  and  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
some  of  the  results  of  which  I  think  may  interest  your 
readers.  This  series  is,  as  is  now  well  known,  of  great 
importance  from  the  fact  of  its  being  almost  the  only 
senes  from  the  tertiaries  whose  absolute  relative  geological 
age  is  positively  known,  it  being  under  and  overlapped  on 
the  mainland  bv  the  London  clay  and  Bracklesham  beds 
respectively,  whilst  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  occurring  in  a 
complete  series  of  eocene  strata,  upheaved  verticaQy,  its 
true  position  is  even  still  more  plainly  seen.  It  is  further 
important  as  exhibiting  in  gradual  sequence  the  change 
from  an  upland  to  a  swamp  flora,  and  represents  very 
fairly  the  local  flora  of  a  long  period  and  of  an  entire 
continent  that  has  passed  away.  Of  the  richness  and  com- 
pleteness of  the  flora  an  idea  may  be  formed  from  the  fact 
that  I  can  reckon  in  my  own  collection  not  less  than  10,000 
selected  specimens,  many  of  large  size,  exclusive  of  twice 
that  number  which  I  have  discarded,  whilst  there  are  also 
local  collections  at  Bournemouth,  a  splendid  series  in  the 
Cambridge  Museum,  and  a  scarcely  less  important  one 
from  Alum  Bay,  at  the  British  Museum.  But  perhaps 
Uie  most  valuable  discovery — to  the  botanist,  at  all 
events — is  that  of  various  beds  containing  well-preserved 
fruits  above  the  horizon  of  the  leaf-patches,  identifiable 
with  fruits  from  Sheppey  which  are  tound  in  the  London 
clay,  and  therefore  below  the  leaves.  We  thus  appear  to 
have  at  Bournemouth  the  leaves  of  trees  which  may  be 
descended  from  those  whose  fruits  are  imbedded  at 
Sheppey.  The  assistance,  it  will  be  readily  seen,  of  the 
Sheppey  fruits  will  be  of  the  greatest  value  in  deter- 
mining the  genera  of  the  Bournemouth  leaves  and  flowers. 
At  Bournemouth  about  sixteen  kinds  of  fruit  may  be 
collected  in  the  seed-beds  just  mentioned,  including 
Nipadites,  Hightea,  Cucumites,  and  Petrophiloides,  quite 
sufficient  to  establish  the  fact  that  no  break  took  place  in 
the  succession  of  the  London  clay  flora. 

The  number  of  forms  also  common  to  Bovey  Tracey 
is  worthy*  of  note.  The  most  abundant  fern  at  either 
locality  is  Pecopteris  li^nitum  (now  believed  to  be  an 
Osmunda).  Patmacites  dcemonorops  of  Heer,  from  Bovey, 
is  no  other  than  the  Cactus  of  which  I  have  frequently 
made  mention.  The  dicotyledons  of  Bovey  ascribed  to 
Laurus,  Ficus,  Daphnogene,  Dryandroides,  &c.,  appear 
also  to  be  identical  with  those  of  the  Bagsbots,  and  it  is 
therefore  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  miocene  age  of 
the  Bovey  Tracey  beds,  determined,  as  it  seems  to  me, 
on  most  slender  grounds,  will  have  to  be  reconsidered. 

The  extremely  local  distribution  of  the  leaves  in  patches, 
each  with  its  distinguishing  group  of  plants,  has  again  in 
fresh  instances  come  prominently  under  my  notice.  At 
Studland,  in  one  bed,  fan  palms  with  a  three-foot  radius 
lie  massed  together,  but  in  a  decomposed  state ;  and  I 
only  succeeded  by  using  the  utmost  care  in  extracting 
one  specimen  showing  the  full  length  of  the  leaf.    At 


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NATURE 


[Nov.  15,  1877 


Bournemouth  a  small  bed  of  dark  clay  was  found  full  of 
leaves  of  feather  palm,  crossing  each  other  in  every  direc- 
tfon  ;  the  tip  of  a  frond  in  my  collection  measures  four 
feet  in  length,  by  three  feet  broad.  Amongst  other 
interesting  specimens  is  a  Smilax  leaf  of  larger  dimensions 
than  any  now  living,  and  a  twig  of  Dryandra,  with  manv 
leaves  attached,  from  Alum  Bay,  which  imites  in  itself 
several  of  M.  Watelet*s  species  from  the  Gr^s  du 
Soissonnais.  The  discovery  of  a  finely  preserved  neurop- 
terous  wing,  and  of  two  apparently  hemipterous  abdomens, 
are  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  large  series  of  insect 
remains  from  Gurnet  Bay,  Isle  of  Wight,  lately  deposited 
in  the  British  Museum. 

The  history  remains  to  be  written]  of  the  subsidence  of 
the  great  continent,  whose  further  limits  Edward  Forbes 
surmised  are  yet  traceable  in  the  banks  of  Gulf  Weed, 
ranging  between  the  15th  and  4$th  parallels.  Many, 
however,  have  written  on  Atlantis,  but  lacking  the  direct 
proof  of  its  former  existence  in  comparatively  recent 
times,  which  has  since  come  to  li^ht.  The  disappearance 
of  almost  an  entire  continent,  is  not  a  more  startling 
proposition  than  the  elevation  of  the  Alps,  Pyrenees, 
Apennines,  and  Carpathians,  over  whose  highest  summits 
the  sea  rolled  at  this  period.  Of  the  history  of  this  dis- 
appearance Bournemouth  presents  us  with  but  a  page, 
still  a  page  full  of  meaning.  The  incoming  and  disap- 
pearance in  succession  of  oaks  and  beeches,  figs  and 
laurels,  palms  and  delicate  ferns,  the  swamp-loving  aroids 
and  Eucalyptus,  Chrysodeum  and  Osmunda,  on  the  same 
spot ;  the  appearance  in  masses  of  the  fruit  of  Nipa, 
which  is  stated  by  travellers  to  be  found  in  brackish 
estuaries  ;  the  incoming  of  shore  crabs  and  mud-boring 
Crustacea,  sea-shells  and  Flustra,  shingle  beeches  and 
deeper  sea  deposits,  are  each  well-marked  stages  in  the 
history  of  the  disappearance  of  this  continent,  whose 
existence  at  this  and  a  later  period  may  be  gathered  from 
the  writings,  made  from  different  standpoints,  of  Prestwich, 
Godwin-Austen,  Sorby,  and  many  others.  The  Bourne- 
mouth and  Sheppey  vegetable  [remains  were  brought 
down  by  one  of  the  rivers  draining  this  continent,  which 
at  a  later  period  silted  over  the  reptiles  of  Hordwell  and 
the  estuanne  shells  of  the  fiuvio-marine  series.  That  the 
oscillations  which  gradually  led  to  the  disappearance  of 
the  land,  vestiges  of  which  remain  in  Cornwall,  the 
Channel  Isles,  Brittany,  Madeira,  &c.,  have  not  ceased, 
even  in  historic  times,  there  is  ample  local  evidence  to 
show.  This  branch  of  the  subject,  however,  is  scarcely 
yet  ripe  for  discussion,  nor  would  space  here  allow  it  to  be 
fully  entered  into. 

Baron  Ettingshausen  and  myself  are  preparing  a 
monograph  upon  the  ferns  of  this  flora  which  I  hope  very 
shortly  to  place  in  the  hands  of  the  Palaeontographical 
Society.  J.  S.  GARDNER 

THE  TELEPHONE 

A  T  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  on  the  evening 
•**-  of  October  31a  lecture  of  great  interest  was  given 
by  Prof.  Graham  Bell  on  the  Telephone,  with  the  inven- 
tion and  improvement  of  which  his  name  is  so  intimately 
connected.  The  lecture  was  largely  illustrated  by  dia- 
grams, to  which  Prof.  Bell  made  constant  reference,  and 
with  these  illustrations  will  be  published  at  length  in  the 
forthcoming  part  of  the  Journal  of  Uie  Society.  We 
have  already  given  a  full  account  of  the  telephone  and  its 
principles,  and  will  only  now  refer  to  some  of  the 
intcresiirjg  episodes  which  occurred  in  the  course  of  Prof. 
Bell's  experiments. 

Prof.  Bell's  account  of  his  experiments  for  devising 
methods  of  exhibiting  the  vibrations  of  sound,  specially 
for  use  in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb,  is  very  interesting. 
For  some  time  he  carried  on  experiments  with  the  mano- 
metric  capsule  of  Koenig,  and  with  the  phonautograph  of 
L^on  Scott     He  was  led  to  the  idea  of  constructing  a 


phonautograph  modelled 'closely  on  the  mechanism  of  the 
human  ear,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  C.  J.  Blake,  he 
made  use  of  the  human  ear  itself,  a  specimen  of  ^niiich 
was  prepared  by  Dr.  Blake,  for  conducting  these  experi- 
ments. 

It  occurred  to  him  that  if  a  membrane'as  thin  as  tissue 
paper  could  control  the  vibration  of  bones  that  were. 
compared  to  it,  of  immense  size  and  weight,  why  shoala 
not  a  larger  and  thicker  membrane  be  able  to  vibrate  a 
piece  of  iron  in  front  of  an  electro-magnet,  in  which  case 
the  complication  of  steel  rods  in  his  first  form  of  telephone 
could  be  done  away  with,  and  a  simple  piece  of  ir<m 
attached  to  a  membrane  be  placed  at  either  end  of  the 
telegraphic  circuit. 

The  form  of  apparatus  he  was  then  employing  for  pro- 
ducing undulatory  currents  of  electricity  for  the  purposes 
of  multiple  telegraphy  he  describes  thus  :  a  steel  reed  vvas 
clamped  firmly  by  one  extremity  to  the  uncovered  leg  of 
an  electro-magnet,  and  the  free  end  of  the  reed  projected 
above  the  covered  leg.  When  the  reed  was  vibrated  in 
any  mechanical  way,  the  battery  current  was  thrown  into 
waves,  and  electrical  undulations  traversed  the  circuit, 
throwing  into  vibration  the  corresponding  reed  at  the 
other  end  of  circuit.  He  immediately  proceeded  to  put 
his  new  idea  to  the  test  of  practical  experiment,  and  for 
this  purpose  he  attached  the  reed  loosely  by  one  extremity 
to  the  uncovered  pole  of  the  magnet,  and  fastened  the 
other  extremity  to  the  centre  of  a  stretched  membrane  of 
goldbeater's  skin.  He  presumed  that  upon  speaking  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  membrane  it  would  be  thrown 
into  vibration  and  cause  the  steel  reed  to  move  in  a 
similar  manner,  occasioning  undulations  in  the  electrical 
current  that  would  correspond  to  the  changes  in  the  density 
of  the  air  during  production  of  the  sound  ;  and  he  further 
thought  that  the  change  of  the  intensity  of  the  current  at 
the  receiving  end  would  cause  the  magnet  there  to  attract 
the  reed  at  that  end  in  such  a  manner  that  it  should  copy 
the  motion  of  the  reed  at  the  transmitting  end,  in  which 
case  its  movements  would  occasion  a  sound  from  the 
membrane  there  similar  in  timbre  to  that  which  had 
occasioned  the  original  vibration. 

The  results,  however,  were  unsatisfactory  and  discour- 
aging. With  a  reduction,  however,  in  the  size  and  weight 
of  the  spring  employed,  distinctly  audible  effects  were 
obtained.  "I  remember,"  Prof.  Bell  said,  "an  experi- 
ment made  with  this  telephone,  which  at  the  time  gave 
me  great  satisfaction  and  delight.  One  of  the  telephones 
was  placed  in  my  lecture-room  in  the  Boston  University, 
and  the  other  in  the  basement  of  the  adjoining  building. 
One  of  my  students  repaired  to  the  distant  telephone  to 
observe  the  effects  of  articulate  speech,  while  I  uttered  the 
sentence,  *  Do  you  understand  what  I  say?'  into  the 
telephone  placed  in  the  lecture-hall.  To  my  delight  an 
answer  was  returned  through  the  instrument  itself,  articu- 
late sounds  proceeded  from  the  steel  spring  attached  to 
the  steel  membrane,  and  I  heard  the  sentence,  *  Yes,  I 
understand  you  perfectly.*  It  is  a  mist^e,  however,  to 
suppose  that  the  articulation  was  by  any  means  perfect, 
and  expectancy  no  doubt  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  my 
recognition  of  the  sentence ;  still,  the  articulation  was 
there,  and  I  recognised  the  fact  that  the  indistinctness  was 
entirely  due  to  the  imperfection  of  the  instrument"  After 
a  time  he  produced  a  form  of  instrument  which  served 
very  well  as  a  receiving  telephone ;  and  it  was  in  this 
condition  his  invention  was  exhibited  at  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  in  Philadelphia.  It  was  in  this  condition  also 
that  Sir  William  Thomson  exhibited  the  instrument  to 
the  British  Association  in  Glasgow. 

In  pursuing  his  investigations  Prof.  Bell  has  come  across 
many  interesting  facts  which  we  regret  we  cannot  refer  to 
in  detail.  It  has  long  been  known  that  when  an  inter- 
mittent current  of  electricity  is  passed  through  the  coils 
of  an  electro-magnet  a  musical  tone  proceeds  from  the 
magnet.    "  I  have  discovered,"  he  said,  **  that  these  sounds 


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49 


are  not  due  wholly  to  sudden  changes  in  the  magnetic  con- 
dition of  the  iron  core,  as  heretofore  supposed,  but  that  a 
portion  of  the  effect  results  fromjvibrations  in  the  insulated 
copper  wires  composing  the  coils.  An  electro-magnet 
was  arranged  upon  circuit  unto  an  instrument  for  inter- 
rupting the  current,  the  rh^otome  being  placed  in  a 
distant  room  so  as  to  avoid  interference  with  the  experi- 
ment. Uf>on  applying  the  car  to  the  magnet  a  musical 
note  was  clearly  perceived,  and  the  sound  continued  after 
the  iron  core  had  been  removed  from  the  coils.  The  effect 
may  probably  be  explained  by  the  attraction  of  the  coils  for 
one  another  during  the  passage  of  the  galvanic  current 
and  the  sudden  cessation  of  such  attraction  when  the 
current  ceased.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  a  molecular 
vibration  is  occasioned  in  the  conducting  wire  by  the 
passage  of  an  intermittent  current.  I  have  found  that 
very  distinct  sounds  proceed  from  straight  pieces  of  iron, 
steel  retort-carbon,  and  plumbago,  when  an  intermittent 
current  is  passed  through  them." 

When  a  powerful  current  is  passed  through  the  body  a 
musical  note  can  be  perceived  when  the  ear  is  closely 
applied  to  the  arm  of  the  person  experimented  upon. 
The  sound  seems  to  proceed  from  the  muscles  of  the  fore- 
arm and  from  the  biceps  muscle.  Mr.  Elisha  Gray  has 
also  produced  audible  effects  by  the  passage  of  electricity 
through  the  human  body.  An  extremely  loud  musical 
note  is  occasioned  by  the  spark  of  a  Ruhmkorff's  coil 
when  the  primary  circuit  is  made  and  broken  with  suffi- 
cient rapidity  ;  when  two  rheotomes  of  different  pitch  are 
caused  simultaneously  to  open  and  close  the  primary 
circuit  a  double  tone  proceeds  from  the  spark. 

A  curious  discovery  has  been  made  by  Prof.  Blake. 
He  constructed  a  telephone  in  which  a  rod  of  soft  iron, 
about  six  feet  in  length,  was  used  instead  of  a  permanent 
magnet.  A  friend  sang  a  continuous  musical  tone  into 
the  mouth-piece  of  a  telephone,  which  was  connected 
with  the  soft  iron  instrument  alluded  to  above.  It  was 
found  that  the  loudness  of  the  sound  produced  in  this 
telephone  varied  witlk  the  direction  in  which  the  iron  rod 
was  held,  and  that  the  maximum  effect  was  produced 
when  the  rod  was  in  the  position  of  the  dipping  needle. 

This  curious  discovery  of  Prof.  Blake  has  been  verifLed 
by  Prof.  Bell. 

"  Prof.  Peirce  has  observed  the  most  'curious  sounds 
produced  from  a  telephone  in  connection  with  a  tele- 
graph-wire during  the  aurora  borealis ;  and  I  have  just 
heard  of  a  curious  phenomenon  lately  observed  by  Ut, 
Channing.  In  the  City  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
there  is  an  over- house  wire  about  one  mile  in  extent  with 
a  telephone  at  either  end.  On  one  occasion  the  sound  of 
music  and  singing  was  faintly  audible  upon  one  of  the 
telephones.  It  seemed  as  if  some  one  were  practising 
vocal  music  with  a  pianoforte  accompaniment.  The 
natural  supposition  was  that  experiments  were  being 
made  with  the  telephone  at  the  other  end  of  the  circuit, 
but  upon  inquiry  this  proved  not  to  have  been  the  case. 
Attention  having  thus  been  directed  to  the  phenomenon, 
a  watch  was  kept  upon  the  instruments,  and  upon  several 
subsequent  occasions  the  same  fact  was  observed  at  both 
ends  of  the  line  by  Dr.  Channing  and  his  friends.  It  was 
proved  that  the  sounds  continued  for  about  two  hours, 
and  usually  commenced  about  the  same  time.  A  searching 
examination  of  the  line  disclosed  nothing  abnormal  in  its 
condition,  and  I  am  unable  to  give  you  any  explanation 
of  this  curious  phenomenon.  Dr.  Channing  has,  how- 
ever, addressed  a  letter  upon  the  subject  to  the  editor  of 
one  of  the  Providence  papers,  giving  the  names  of  such 
songs  as  were  recognised,  with  full  details  of  the 
observations,  in  the  hope  that  publicity  may  lead  to  the 
discovery  of  the  performer,  and  thus  aiford  a  solution  of 
the  mystery." 

Prof.  Bell  referred  to  some  experiments  made  by  Mr.  F. 
A.  Gower  and  himself  to  show  the  slight  earth  connection 
required  to  establish  a  circuit  for  the  telephone. 


''  One  experiment  which  we  made  is  so  very  interesting 
that  I  must  speak  of  it  in  detail.  Mr.  Gower  made  earth 
connection  at  his  end  of  the  line  by  standing  upon  a  grass 
plot,  whilst  at  the  other  end  of  the  line  I  stood  upon  a 
wooden  board.  I  requested  Mr.  Gower  to  sing  a  con* 
tinuous  musical  note,  and  to  my  surprise  the  sound  was 
very  distinctly  audible  from  the  telephone  in  my  hand. 
Upon  examining  my  feet  I  discovered  that  a  single  blade 
of  grass  was  bent  over  the  edge  of  the  board,  and  that  my 
foot  touched  it  The  removal  of  this  blade  of  grass  was 
followed  by  the  cessation  of  the  sound  from  the  telephone, 
and  I  found  that  the  moment  I  touched  with  the  toe  of 
my  boot  a  blade  of  grass  or  the  petal  of  a  daisy,  the  sound 
was  again  audible." 

Prof.  Bell  concluded  as  follows  : — '^  The  question  will 
naturally  arise,  through  what  length  of  wire  can  the 
telephone  be  used  ?  In  reply  to  this  I  may  say  that  the 
maximum  amount  of  resistance  through  which  the  undu- 
latory  current  will  pass,  and  yet  retain  sufficient  force  to 
produce  an  audible  sound  at  the  disturbed  end,  has  yet 
to  be  determined ;  no  difficulty  has,  however,  been  expe- 
rienced in  laboratory  experiments  in  conversing  through 
a  resistance  of  60,000  ohms,  which  has  been  the  maximum 
at  my  disposal.  On  one  occasion,  not  having  a  rheostat 
at  hand,  I  may  mention  having  passed  the  current  through 
the  bodies  of  sixteen  persons,  who  stood  hand  in  hand. 
The  longest  length  of  real  telegraph  line  through  which  I 
have  attempted  to  converse  has  been  about  253  miles. 
On  this  occasion  no  difficulty  was  experienced  so  long  as 
parallel  lines  were  not  in  operation.  Sunday  was  chosen 
as  the  day  on  which  it  was  probable  other  circuits  would 
be  at  rest.  Conversation  was  carried  on  between  mjrself, 
in  New  York,  and  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Watson,  in  Boston, 
until  the  opening  of  business  upon  the  other  wire;.  When 
this  happened  the  vocal  sounds  were  very  much  dimi- 
nished, but  still  audible.  It  seemed,  indeed,  like  talking 
through  a  stornL  Conversation,  though  possible,  could 
be  carried  on  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  distracting 
nature  of  the  interposing  currents. 

"  I  have  had  the  opportunity  of  testing  the  telephone 
upon  the  artificial  cable  owned  by  Sir  WUliam  Thomson. 
No  difficulty  was  experienced  in  conversing  through  the 
equivalent  of  120  miles  of  submarine  cable.  Vocal 
sounds  were  audible  when  the  equivalent  of  the  whole 
Atlantic  cable  was  interposed  between  the  two  telephones, 
but  the  sounds  were  so  faint  that  conversation  could  not 
be  carried  on.  Songs  that  were  sung  into  one  telephone 
were  readily  recognised  at  the  other  exul  of  the  circuit,  and 
the  articulation  of  pre-arranged  sentences  was  readily 
recognised.  That  the  sounds  were  electrically  produced 
was  evident  from  the  fact  that  they  ceased  when  the  cir- 
cuit was  broken  and  when  the  coils  of  the  telephone' were 
short  circuited.  No  difference  was  observed  between  the 
pitch  of  the  note  which  was  transmitted  through  the  arti- 
ficial cable  and  the  same  note  when  transmitted  directly 
through  the  air.  The  artificial  cable  experimented  upon 
had  four  times  the  resistance  of  the  Atlantic  cable,  and 
one-fourth  its  electrostatic  capacity.  I  am  informed  by 
my  friend,  Mr.  Preece,  that  conversation  has  been  success- 
fully carried  on  through  a  submarine  cable,  sixty  miles  in 
length,  extending  from  Dartmouth  to  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  by  means  of  hand  telephones." 

In  a  lecture  on  the  8th  inst.  at  Glasgow,  Prof.  Bell, 
referring  to  the  use  of  the  telephone  in  mines,  pointed  out 
how  the  instrument  might  be  of  the  greatest  service  in 
determining  whether  the  ventilation  of  a  mine  was  perfect 
or  not ;  for  by  listening  to  the  telephone,  if  the  mine  was 
in  good  order,  a  little  sound  could  be  heard  every  moment. 


AFRICAN  EXPLORATION 

MR.  STANLEY'S  letter  and  the  map  in  the  Telegraph 
of  Monday  enable  us  to  realise  somewhat  more 
fully  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  discoveries  made  by  the 


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NATURE 


\Nm).  15,  1877 


intrepid  traveller.  Mr.  Stanley  is  bent  on  calling  the 
great  river,  so  much  of  which  he  has  explored,  by  the 
name  of  Livingstone.  As  a  rule  we  think  it  a  mistake  to 
change  native  geographical  names  where  these  can  be 
satisfactorily  ascertained.  In  the  case  of  the  Lualaba- 
Congo,  however,  the  river  seems  to  have  quite  as  many 
names  as  there  are  tribes  or  villages  on  its  banks,  and  it 
would  be  a  happy  solution  of  the  difficultv  to  confer  upon 
it  the  most  memorable  name  among  African  explorers. 
Mr.  Stanley  himself  has  taken  great  pains  to  obtain  accu- 
rately the  native  names  of  tribes  and  places,  and  he 
animadverts  with  severity  on  geographers  for  crowding 
the  map  of  Africa  with  names  that  probably  correspond 
to  nothing.  For  this  they  cannot  be  greatly  blamed, 
neither  need  he  be  too  hard  on  previous  travellers  for 
misunderstanding  the  significance  of  native  words. 

A  glance  at  the  map,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  based  to 
some  extent  on  conjecture,  shows  at  once  the  vast  import- 
ance of  Mr.  Stanley's  discovery.  Great  tributaries  join 
the  main  river  from  both  sides,  and  we  are  assured  there 
are  many  more  besides  these  shown  on  the  map.  For 
more  than  800  miles  of  its  course,  above  the  Yellala  Falls, 
the  river  looks  more  like  a  long  winding  lake  than  any- 
thing else,  forming  a  magnificent  channel  for  navigation. 
Above  the  upper  cataract,  again,  about  the  equator,  many 
other  long  reaches  are  capable  of  navigation,  while  the 
affluents  will  afford  over  1,200  miles,  and  perhaps  much 
more.  Some  idea  of  the  increasing  magnitude  of  the 
river  below  Nyangwe  may  be  obtained  from  Stanley's 
statement  that  at  Nyangwe  the  volume  is  124,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  while  Behm's  calculation  on  the  basis  of 
Tuckey's  trustworthy  observations  makes  its  volume  at 
the  mouth  to  be  1,800,000  cubic  feet  per  second  Poor 
Tuckey  comes  in  for  a  share  of  Stanley's  castigadon, 
because,  according  to  Stanley,  the  former  mistook  the 
number  of  stages  of  the  Yellala  Rapids ;  even  if  Tuckey 
was  a  little  out  in  his  coimting,  which  we  doubt, 
he  will  still  be  found  to  have  been,  all  circumstances 
considered,  an  accurate  observer.  Many  points,  also,  in 
connection  with  the  map,  show  how  true  was  Living- 
stone's geographical  instinct>  and  how  near  the  truth  his 
inferences  came  from  the  information  obtained  from  the 
Arabs  and  natives.  Stanley  is  probably  right  in  conjec- 
turing that  the  Aruwimi,  coming  from  the  north-east,  and 
joining  the  Livingstone  a  little  north  of  the  equator,  is  the 
WeUe,  and  that  the  Ikelemba  is  the  lower  course  of  the 
Kasai.  The  water  of  the  latter  is  of  the  colour  of  tea, 
and  does  not  thoroughly  mingle  with  the  main  stream 
until  after  130  miles  below  the  confluence.  The  banks  of 
the  great  river  are  thickly  populated  by  what  appear  to 
be  industrious  people  living  in  extensive  and  well  laid  out 
towns,  and  naturally  jealous  of  intruders.  The  three  most 
powerful  tribes  on  the  middle  and  lower  rivers  are  the 
Wa-Mangala,  the  Warunga,  and  the  Wyanzi. 

The  Livingstone,  Mr.  Stanley  found,  is  subject  to  periodi- 
cal rises  mamly  owing  to  the  rains,  and  varying  from  eight 
to  fifty  feet  The  entire  length  of  the  Livingstone  Mr. 
Stanley  calculates  at  2,900  miles,  and  its  basin  at  860,000 
square  miles.  The  extreme  sources  of  the  Bemba  Lake, 
from  which  the  Luapula  flows,  are  in  33®  £.  long.  Lake 
Bemba,  or  Bangweolo,  Stanley  states — and  there  appears 
to  be  good  ground  for  the  belief^is  the  residuum  of  an 
enormous  lake  that  in  very  ancient  times  must  have 
occupied  an  area  of  500,000  square  miles,  "  until  by  some 
great  convulsion  the  western  maritime  mountain  chain 
was  riven  asunder,  and  the  Livingstone  began  to  roar 
through  the  fracture."  As  to  the  "great  convulsion" 
and  the  ^^  fracture,"  geologists  may  l^  able  to  decide 
when  they  are  in  possession  of  full  information  as  to  Mr. 
Stanleys  observations.  Nyangwe,  Mr.  Stanley  informs 
us,  is  m  4°  16'  S.,  and  ^fi"  5'  £. ;  but  by  an  unaccount- 
able mistake  in  another  place  he  gives  the  latitude  as  26"* 
IS'  4S'%  <^  ^^ ^^  while  pointing  out,  in  his  peculiar 
way,  a  slight  mistake  in  the  position  on  Stanford's  map  of 


1874.  The  position  then  was  perfectly  correct  accordin^^ 
to  the  data,  and  in  the  latest  editions  the  position  is 
exactly  as  Stanley  gives  it. 

Mr.  Stanley  insists  on  the  importance  of  the  river 
as  a  commercial  highway,  the  coimtry  traversed  by  it 
being  abundantly  rich  in  products  that  would  find  a  ready 
market  in  Europe.  Naturally,  on  Monday  night,  Africa 
was  the  burden  of  the  president's  address  at  the  openings 
of  the  Geographical  Society.  Sir  Rutherford  Alcock  in- 
sisted that  it  now  remained  with  the  merchant,  aided  if  need 
be  by  Government,  to  open  up  Africa  still  further.  Indeed 
the  country  is  now  being  attacked  by  national  and  private 
expeditions  on  all  sides,  and  if  a  basis  for  minute  explo- 
ration were  formed  by  trading  stations  under  government 
sanction  and  regulation,  along  the  Livingstone,  our  know- 
ledge of  the  country  would  grow  rapidly,  and  the  benefits 
to  commerce  would  be  incalculable.  Only,  however, 
could  the  natives  have  fair  play  by  governmental  r^u- 
lation  of  private  enterprise.  There  is  no  danger  of 
extinction  for  ^the  native  African,  and  it  would  be  both 
prudent  and  just  to  protect  him  from  the  horrible  cruelties 
at  which  Mr.  Stanley  hints  in  the  conclusion  of  his  letto*. 

It  is  worth  noticing  that  in  the  map  the  Lukuga  runs 
boldly  from  Lake  Tanganyika  and  joins  the  Lusdaba,  and 
the  source  of  the  Alexandra  Nile  is  brought  to  near  4^ 
south  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake. 

According  to  latest  intelligence  Mr.  Stanley  is  at  the 
Cape  wanting  to  get  his  followers  sent  back  to  Zanzibar. 
In  his  letter  in  yesterday's  Telegraph  he  gives  an  inter- 
esting account  of  his  companion,  Frank  Pocock,  of  whom 
he  speaks  in  the  highest  terms,  and  whose  death  is  a  real 
loss  to  African  exploration. 

The  Daily  News  Alexandria  Correspondent  writes  (on 
the  5th)  that  Signori  Gessi  and  Matteucci  have  just 
started  from  Cairo  for  Khartum,  vid  Assouan,  by  the 
Nile,  instead  of  taking  the  shorter  route  by  the  Red  Sea 
to  Massowa.  They  are  provided  with  the  newest  and 
most  improved  scientific  instruments,  and  having  promised 
to  keep  up  constant  communication^ ith  the  Geographical 
Society  at  Rome,  interesting  accounts  of  their  movement 
and  progress  will  be  looked  for. 


MODERN  TORPEDO  WARFARE 

nrWO  elements  have  contributed  to  make  torpedo 
•■'  warfare  what  it  is  :  electricity  and  the  new  explosive 
compounds.  It  is  true  that  in  the  Whitehead  or  fish 
torpedo  recourse  is  had  only  to  the  latter  of  these,  but  it 
is  the  sole  material  exception,  and  all  the  mischief  effected 
by  this  branch  of  marine  warfare  has  been,  so  far,  the 
result  of  electric  torpedoes.  Both  on  the  Danube  and  in 
the  last  American  war,  when  no  less  than  twenty-five 
ships  were  sunk  by  the  Confederates,  the  electric  torpedo 
has  worked  extensive  injury,  and  it  is  no  wonder  therefore 
that  a  keen  interest  should  be  taken  in  all  that  pertains 
to  so  novel  and  destructive  a  method  of  killing  and 
wounding. 

We  have  called  the  torpedo  a  novel  weapon,  and  the 
instruments  that  go  by  the  name  to-day  undoubtedly  are 
sa  At  the  time  of  the  Crimean  war,  we  had  to  do  with 
torpedoes  of  a  kind ;  nay,  even  so  far  back  as  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  floating  charges, 
called  petards,  were  employed,  but  these  were  of  too 
insignificant  a  nature  to  merit  attention.  The  "infernal 
machines"  strewn  in  the  Baltic  by  the  Russians  twenty 
years  mjo  were  small  canisters  of  powder  containing  by 
way  of  igniting  arrangement  a  mixture  of  chlorate  of 
potash  and  sugar,  together  with  a  glass  bulb  with  sul- 
phuric acid  ;  and  the  latter,  escaping  from  its  envelope 
when  this  was  broken  by  a  shock  or  collision,  brought 
about  an  immediate  explosion.  These  mechanical  tor- 
pedoes had  two  disadvantages ;  the  igniting  arrangement 
was  of  such  a  character  that  it  could  be  set  in  action  just 
as  well  by  friend  as  by  foe,  and  the  explosion  of  the  gua« 


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powder  was  insufficient  to  eflfect  any  material  injury.  All 
this  has  been  remedied.  Electricity  is  nowadays  em- 
ployed as  the  igniting  agent,  and  those  terribly  violent 
explosives,  gun-cotton  and  dynamite,  replace  the  com- 
paratively innocuous  gunpowder. 

Electric  torpedoes  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two 
classes :  offensive  and  defensive  torpedoes.  The  latter 
are  employed  for  the  protection  of  harbours,  channels,  and 
roadsteads  ;  the  former,  in  the  iBhape  of  drifting  or  spar- 
torpedoes,  are  carried  to  the  attack  in  small  swift-sailing 
steam-launches.  In  this  country  we  are  favourably  dis- 
posed to  the  employment  of  compressed  gun-cotton  in  our 
machines,  while  on  the  Continent  they  seem  to  entertain  a 
predilection  for  nitroglycerine,  or  rather  dynamite.  Both 
compounds  are  what  chemists  term  nitro- compounds,  in 
contradistinction  to  gimpowder,  which  comes  under  the 
class  of  nitrate-compounds,  and  appear  to  exercise  an  ex- 
plosive force'of  almost  similar  violence,  measuring  the  sub- 
stances weight  for  weight.  Compressed  gun-cotton,  we 
need  hardly  say,  is  cotton  yam  acted  upon  by  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids  and  then  pulped  and  washed,  so  that  the 
result  is  a  finely-divided  mass  which  may  be  made  to 
assume  any  shape  or  form.  As  a  rule  the  materisd  is 
pressed  into  cakes  of  disc-like  form,  which  weigh  from  a 
few  ounces  to  a  pound,  and  while  still  wet  the  slabs  are 
stored  away  in  the  magazines.     In  this  moist  condition 


Fig.  I.— Fish  Torpedo  exploding  against  a  ship 

the  compressed  pulp  is  not  only  non-explosive,  but  actu- 
ally non-inflammable,  except  one  possesses  the  key  to  its 
detonation.  This  is  nothing  more  than  a  dry  cake  of  the 
same  material,  or  as  the  latter  is  termed  in  military  par- 
lance, a  "primer,"  which  on  being  detonated  by  a  few 
grains  of  fulminate,  brings  about  the  explosion  of  any 
wet  gun-cotton  in  its  immediate  neighbourhood.  Thus 
if  simply  a  net  is  filled  with  gun-cotton  slabs  and 
Uirown  into  the  sea,  the  whole  charge  may  be  ignited 
by  a  primer  contained  in  a  waterproof  bag  having 
an  electric  fuze  and  wire  attached.  The  possibility 
of  communicating  explosion  in  this  way  by  vibration 
instead  of  by  spark  or  flame  is,  too,  as  we  shall  presently 
see,  the  germ  of  a  system  of  counter-mining,  or  torpedo 
annihilation,  which  bids  fair  to  develop  into  a  particularly 
effective  means  of  defence  against  these  terrible  machines. 
Dynamite  is  similarly  exploded  to  gun-cotton.  The 
active  principle  in  this  case  is  nitro-glycerine,  or,  if 
you  will,  liquid  gun-cotton,  prepared  by  simply  allowing 
glycerine  to  fall  drop  by  drop  into  nitric  acid.  As  a  solid 
is  usually  more  convenient  to  handle  than  a  liquid,  the 
use  of  pure  nitro-glycerine  has  given  way  to  dynamite, 
which  may  be  described  as  siliceous  earth  impregnated 
with  the  explosive  fluid. 

Dynamite  and  gun-cotton  explode  with  something  like 
four  or  five  times  the  force  of  gunpowder,  and  for  this 
reason    a   very    destructive  charge   may   be   confined 


within  a  comparatively  small  space.  Moreover  thev  are 
peculiarly  adapted  to  submarine  mines,  since  nitro- 
glycerihe  is  no  more  affected  by  water  than  gun-cotton  ; 
and  the  6ld  adage  "to  keep  your  powder  dry"  does  not 
apply  to  either  of  them.  In  the  case  of  moored  torpedoes 
which  are  connected  with  batteries  to  the  shore  or  carry 
their  own  means  of  generating  electricity,  as  in  the  Herz 
topedo  of  our  German  cousins,  there  is  no  limit,  to  size, 
and  machines  containing  as  much  as  500  lbs.  of  gun  cotton 
have,  in  fact,  been  constructed  ;  but  for  a  spar- torpedo, 
or  in  other  words  one  which  is  thrust  under  an  enemy's 
keel  by  means  of  a  thirty-foot  pole  projecting  from 
the  prow  of  a  launch,  the  charge  must  be  con- 
siderably smaller,  and  for  two  reasons.  A  great  weight 
at  the  end  of  such  a  lever  could  not  be  properly  ma- 
nipulated, while  the  explosion,  if  the  charge  were  a  very 
large  one,  would  destroy  both  the  attacking  and  attacked. 
A  big  moored  torpedo  of  500  lbs,  has  been  found,  when 
sunk  in  thirty  or  forty  feet  of  water,  to  be  fatal  to  a  strong 
ironclad  if  the  latter  happens  to  be  within  this  distance  of 
the  source  of  explosion  ;  or,  in  other  words,  a  cushion  of 
water  forty  feet  m  thickness  is  not  sufficient  to  secure  the 
immunity  of  such  a  vessel  What  would  happen  if  this 
terrible  volcano  were  to  erupt— if  we  may  use  the  word — 
in  contact  with  the  sides  of  an  armoured  ship,  must  be 
left  to  the  imagination  ;  but  despite  Mr.  Ward  Hunt's 
opinion  to  the  contrary,  we  do  not  think  it  would  require 


Fig.  2. — ^A  moored  Torpedo  cxplodixg.     Height  of  column  60  feet,  base 
220  feet. 

three  such  torpedoes  successfully  exploded,  to  bring  our 
boasted  Inflexible  to  grief.  And  in  this  opinion  our 
readers,  we  suspect,  will  fully  agree,  when  we  inform  them 
that  a  heavy  torpedo  hke  this  throws  up  a  cone  of  water 
sixty  feet  in  height,  with  a  diameter  at  its  base  of  no  less 
than  220  feet  Such  an  heaving  of  waters,  if  it  did  not 
break  the  back  of  an  ironclad,  as  there  is  every  reason 
to  suppose  it  would,  must  inevitably  capsize  her  with- 
out more  ado.  But  it  is,  ot  course,  only  on  very  rare 
occasions  that  such  a  monster  torpedo  could  be  brought 
to  bear,  and  in  all  cases  of  attack  the  charge  must  needs 
be  considerably  less.  The  smaller  Whitehead  torpedoes, 
which,  as  our  readers  know  very  well,  are  narrow  cigar- 
shaped  weapons,  that  move  through  the  water  by  the 
agency  of  compressed  air,  do  not  in  all  probability  carry 
more  than  a  40  lb.  or  50  lb.  charge  in  the  head,  while  a 
spar  or  drift  torpedo  of  100  lbs.  is  already  as  large  as 
would  be  convenient  to  handle.  At  the  same  time  either 
of  these  would  quite  suffice  to  fracture  an  iron  plate 
several  inches  in  thickness,  and  therefore  be  fatal,  pro- 
bably, to  any  ironclad  afloat,  supposing  there  was  no 
water-cushion  between  the  craft  and  the  torpedo.  We 
have  no  definite  information  respecting  the  size  or  weight 
of  the  torpedoes  which  sank  the  Turkish  monitor  m  the 
Matchin  Canal,  but  as  the  expedition  was  hastily  arranged 
and  organised,  the  charges  were,  no  doubt,  not  very  large. 
The  fish  torpedo  is  a  rare  example  of  a  complicated 
apparatus  coming  into   practical  use,  and  its  elaborate 


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construction  and  fine  workmanship  may  be  imagined 
when  the  reader  is  informed  that  the  machines  cost  500/. 
a  piece  to  manufacture.  The  long  tube  is  divided  into 
three  compartments :  the  head,  which  contains  the 
explosive  charge,  the  reservoir,  in  which  the  compressed 
air  is  stored,  and  the  machinery  by  means  of  which  the 
stored-up  energy  is  converted  into  a  propdling  force. 
The  air  is  compressed  to  the  extent  of^  6<x>  lbs.  on  the 
square  inch,  and  to  bring  about  this  result  an  exceedingly 
powerful  air-pump  is  necessary,  which  forms  an  addi- 
tional itfem  of  expense  in  the  case  of  this  torpedo.  The 
latter  when  properly  charged  will  do  a  journey  of  a  mile, 
or  mile  and  a  half,  under  water,  the  first  1,000  yards  being 
got  over  at  a  rate  of  no  less  than  twenty  miles  an  hour, 
and  if  unaffected  by  tide  or  current,  the  machine  will 
proceed  in  a  perfectly  straight  direction.  It  floats  at  any 
distance  imder  water  that  may  be  desirable,  but  is  usually 
made  sufficiently  buoyant  to  swim  at  eight  feet  from  the 
surface  ;  it  explodes  on  striking  any  object,  but  the 
machine  is  so  contrived  that  if  it  fails  to  strike,  then  it 
floats  to  the  surface,  and  a  trigger  guard  renders  the  fish 
at  the  same  time  innocuous,  and  permits  of  its  recapture 
without  risk.  Ingenious  as  the  little  creature  is,  there  has 
been,  we  repeat,  no  authenticated  employment  of  it  during 
the  present  war. 

On  the  Danube  the  spar-torpedo^alone  seems  to  have 
been  used  against  Turkish  monitors.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
Thorny  cr of t\^MXi(^^oi  which  we  are  to  have  a  flotilla  of  thirty 
in  the  British  navy,  the  torpedo  is  projected  at  the  end  of  a 
spar,  and  is  ignited  either  by  concussion  or  by  electricity. 
The  Turkish  ironclad  at  Matchin  was  the  victim  of  two 
torpedoes  of  this  class,  the  first  of  which,  we  are  told,  was 
ignited  by  the  crew  of  the  launch  by  electricity,  and  the 
other  on  concussion  with  the  vessel  attacked.  These 
Russian  torpedoes  are  said  to  be  innocuous  at  a  distance 
of  ten  feet  from  the  seat  of  explosion,  and  hence  those  in 
the  launch  do  not  suffer  much  except  from  the  water  that 
is  thrown  into  the  air.  From  the  fact  that  small  batteries 
in  the  boat  are  used  to  fire  the  charges,  we  may  safely 
conclude  that  their  explosion  is  brought  about  by  a 
platinum  wire  fuze,  which,  together  with  a  few  grains  of 
fulminate,  would  determine  the  detonation  of  dynamite  or 
gun-cotton.  Each  launch  is  provided  with  a  pair  of  these 
spar  torpedoes,  carried,  when  not  in  action,  on  each  side, 
running  the  length  of  the  boat,  and  only  on  making  an 
attack  is  one  or  other  projected  at  the  bow,  the  torpedoist 
being  stationed  behind  a  shield,  or  under  an  iron  screen, 
where  he  can  make  his  observations  tolerably  free  from 
danger. 

In  the  case  of  moored  torpedoes  depending  for  their 
ignition  upon  electricity,  many  points  of  scientific  interest 
have  recently  been  brought  to  light  Some  experiments 
undertaken  in  Denmark  two  or  tluree  years  ago  showed 
most  conclusively  that  dynamite  torpMedoes  cannot  be 
placed  close  together  without  incurring  the  danger  of  one 
charge  bringing  about  the  explosion  of  others.  A  dyna- 
mite torpedo  of  1 50  lbs.  ignited  in  ten  feet  of  water,  was 
found  capable  of  exploding  other  charges  at  a  distance  of 
300  feet  by  the  mere  vibration  imparted  to  the  water  ;  so 
that  in  constructing  coast  defences  with  dynamite  tor- 
pedoes it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  them  far  apart 
from  one  another.  Another  point  was  also  noted.  A 
current  of  electricity,  if  it  emanates  from  a  powerful  fric- 
tional  electric  machine,  traversing  one  of  a  bundle  of 
wires,  will  induce  a  current  in  the  other  wires,  and  thus 
bring  about  the  explosion  of  torpedoes  other  than  that 
which  the  operator  on  shore  desires  to  ignite.  It  b  these 
facts  particularly  which  have  led  to  the  development  of  a 
system  of  counter-attack  and  have  enabled  our  sailors  to 
devise  a  means  of  defending  themselves  from  the  terrible 
sea-monstf  rs.  Both  dynamite  and  gun-cotton  are  pecu- 
liarly sensitive  to  vibration — indeed  their  detonation,  as 
we  have  seen,  is  brought  about  by  no  other  cause — and 
hence  a  captain  of  a  man-of-war  by  exploding  coimter- 


mines  in  his  vicinity  may  soon  get  rid  of  any  lurking 
torpedoes  lying  in  wait  for  him,  at  any  rate  if  thc^  contain 
a  nitro-gl^cerine  compound,  and  so  speedily  clear  a  way 
for  his  ship. 

This  is  certainly  subject  for "  congratulation,  for  it 
seemed  at  one  time  as  if  the  poor  sailor  was  absolutely 
defenceless  against  these  submarine  abominations.  A 
crinoline  of  spars  and  wire  rope  may  be  employed  to 
catch  the  fish  torpedo  and  explode  the  vermin  harmlessly 
in  its  toils,  provided  the  ingenious  brute  is  not  a  very 
large  one,  and  the  net  is  at  some  distance  from  the  ship  ; 
but  heavy  moored  torpedoes  have  been  hitherto  con- 
sidered too  dangerous  to  approach,  so  that  marine  coun- 
termining must  prove  invaluable.  The  spar  or  drifting 
torpedo  cannot  be  dealt  with  by  nets  or  booms  alone,  and 
in  this  case  the  only  plan  would  seem  to  be  to  meet  a^ack 
with  attack  and  beat  off  launches  with  other  small  boats. 
That  all  ironclads  in  time  of  war  will  have  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  lesser  craft  as  a  protection  is  a  matter  that 
we  may  now  take  for  granted,  as  also  that  such  vessels 
must  be  provided  with  some  powerful  means  of  illumina- 
tion— the  electric  light,  for  instance — to  prevent  swift, 
low-lying  torpedo  launches  from  approaching  unperceived 
at  night  time. 

Special  schools  of  instruction  for  acquainting  officers 
with  the  science  of  electricity  and  explosives  have  for 
some  time  past  been  established,  and  there  is  indeed 
scarcely  a  naval  power  which  has  not  paid  attention  to 
submarine  warfare ;  consequently  we  may  expect  to  see 
future  battles  upon  the  sea  carried  on  just  as  much  under 
water  as  above  it  In  this  country  we  have  a  torpedo 
school  on  board  H.M.S.  Vernon  at  Portsmouth,  while  at 
the  Royal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich  instruction  in  the 
experimental  sciences  now  forms  one  of  the  most  important 
items  in  the  curriculum.  France  has  its  naval  torpedo 
school  at  Boyardville,  where  both  officers  and  seamen  are 
made  acquainted  with  the  principles  of  submarine  warfare. 
Germany,  as  all  the  world  knows,  practised  torpedo  war- 
fare to  such  good  purpose  seven  years  ago  that  the  mag- 
nificent fleet  of  the  French  never  once  ventured  to  visit  the 
coast  of  the  Fatherland.  Both  at  Kiel  and  at  Wilhelms- 
haven  are  to  be  found  torpedo  depdts  and  a  well-orga- 
nised staff  of  instructors.  Lastly  the  news  comes  to  us 
from  Russia  that  the  Czar  has  sanctioned  the  organisation 
of  a  distinct  torpedo  service,  and  two  depdts  and  instruc- 
tional schools  are  to  be  formed  at  Kertch  and  Cronstadt, 
whence  torpedo  appliances  are  to  be  issued  for  the 
defence  of  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea. 


NOTES 

Mr.  Darwin  will  receive  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  at 
Cambridge  on  Saturday  next,  at  2  P.M.,  at  a  congregation 
specially  convened  for  the  purpose.  In  the  evening  the  annual 
dinner  of  the  Philosophical  Society  will  take  place  in  the  Hall  of 
Clare  College,  when  a  brilliant  gathering  is  expected  to  meet  the 
illustrious  visitor, '  among  the  non-resident  guests  being  Profs. 
Huxley,  Tyndall,  and  Parker,  and  Sir  John  Lubbock. 

Thb  Postmaster-General  of  the  German  Empire  is  about  to 
have  an  extensive  series  of  experiments  made  with  a  view  to  the 
introdnction  of  the  telephone  into  the  telegraphic  service.  Several 
hundred  spedmens  of  the  telephonic  apparatus  manufactured  by 
Siemens  and  Halske  have  been  ordered. 

Thb  French  Ministry  had  granted  a  pension  to  the  widow  of 
Leverrier.  Unfortunately  the  lady  died,  as  we  mentioned  in  our 
last  number,  before  the  first  monthly  instalment  became  due.  It 
is  hoped  that  a  part  of  the  pension  will  go,  against  ordinary  roles, 
to  the  son  and  daughter  of  the  astronomer. 

Thb  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  has  been  authorised  by  a 


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decree  of  the  President  of  the  French  Republic  to  accept  a  sum 
of  8,000/.,  bequeathed  by  Madame  Thuret,  in  order  to  establish 
at  Antibes,  in  the  Department  of  Alpes  Maritimes,  an  agricul- 
tural station  connected  with  the  lectureship  on  Agriculture  and 
Botany  of  the  Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History. 

Mr.  Park  Ha&rison  has  completed  the  exploration  of 
the  galleries  belonging  to  the  '*Cave  Pit"  at  Cissbury — in 
which  rune-like  characters  were  found  in  1875 — ^and  found 
that  they  communicate  with  galleries  connected  with  other 
shafts,  at  distances  of  from  20  to  30  feet,  on  the  north,  west, 
and  east  sides.  Mr.  Harrison  thinks  there,  appears  to  be 
sufficient  evidence  that  they  were  used  for  purposes  of  shelter  or 
concealment  long  after  they  were  originally  excavated.  One  of 
the  shafts  last  cleared  out,  was  found  to  have  been  left  in  an 
incomplete  state,  as  if  the  work  had  been  for  some  reason  inter- 
rupted. On  the  south  of  the  cave  pit,  and  immediately  adjoining 
it,  Mr.  Harrison  has  discovered  several  small  pits,  the  largest 
being  5  feet  in  diameter,  and  4  feet  6  inches  deep.  All  con* 
tained  flint  flakes,  sling-stones,  smd  a  few  bones.  In  some  there 
were  small  ornaments,  pots  of  good  quality,  bone  combs,  terra- 
cotta beads,  and  hard  polishing-stones.  In  one  pit  there  was  an 
iron  hook. 

The  following  testimony  from  so  competent  and  disinterested 
an  observer  as  Prof.  Monier  Williams  to  the  necessity  for  syste- 
matic meteorological  observation  in  India  is, valuable,  and  we 
hope  will  have  weight  with  the  proper  authorities.  In  the  last 
of  his  series  of  articles  on  his  second  tour  in  India,  in  the  Times 
of  November  7,  Prof.  Williams  writes  thus  :— "  One  thing  re- 
quires instant  attention.  The  connection  between  agriculture, 
meteorology,  and  astronomy  is  now  admitted  on  all  hands,  and 
no  country  in  the  world  would  be  benefited  more  than  India  by 
/  systematic  meteorological  and  astronomical  observations  carried 
on  under  Government  direction.  Much  is  aheady  being  done  in 
this  way.  Yet  I  could  only  And  one  effective  astronomical 
observatoiy,  and  that  not  adequately  supported  by  Government, 
though  I  travelled  from  Cashmere  to  Cape  Comorin.  It  is  not 
generally  known  that  from  his  observations  of  the  present  con- 
dition of  the  disc  of  the  sun,  in  connection  with  various  atmo- 
spherical phenomena,  the  Madras  astronomer,  Mr.  Pogson,  pro- 
phesied in  1876  a  recurrence  of  the  drought  and  famine  in 
1877." 

On  October  24,  we  learn  from  V Exploration^  Signor  D*  Albertis 
and  ProC  Od.  Beccari  left  Genoa  in  the  steamer  Amtralia  for  a 
year's  voyage  round  the  world.  They  will  first  visit  Egypt,  and 
thence  to  India,  China,  and  Japan,  returning  to  Europe  by  New 
York.  They  intend  to  collect  during  their  voyage  birds, 
mammals,  and  insects  for  the  museums  of  Italy,  principally  for 
that  of  Genoa. 

For  several  years  past  Major  J.  W.  Powell,  in  charge  of  the 
United  States  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Region,  has  been  paying  particular  attention  in  his 
researches,  to  the  ethnology  and  philology  of  the  American 
Indians ;  and  having  received  from  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
an  immense  mass  of  material  on  this  subject,  collected  during  a 
period  of  many  years,  he  has  called  to  his  assistance  numerous 
experts  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  a  series  of  memoirs  on  these 
topics.  We  have  now  a  partial  result  of  his  labour  in  the  first  of 
a  series  of  quarto  volumes^  entitled  "Contributions  to  North 
American  Ethnology,'*  and  published  in  most  excellent  style, 
with  numerous  illustrations,  at  the  Government  Printing-office. 
The  present  volume  is  occupied  with  the  Indians  of  North-western 
America,  embracing  several  papers  by  Mr.  Dall  smd  others  on 
the  tribes  of  Alaska  and  adjacent  territories,  and  a  number  of 
vocabularies,  principally  by  the  late  Mr.  George  Gibbi. 

Our  readers  may  remember  that  last  spring  Capt.  Burton 
made  an  expedition  into  the  Land  of,  Midian,  which  lies  to  tiie 


south-east  of  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  in  the  Red  Sea.  He  was 
accompanied  by  a  mining  engineer,  M.  Marie^  and  the  two 
explorers  came  upon  traces  of  extensiTe  mining  operations,  the 
ruins  of  ancient  towns,  and  many  other  evidences  of  a  flonriahing 
mining  district  They  brought  back  specimens  containing  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  other  metals,  and  were  most  sanguine  as  to 
their  discovery.  Capt.  Burton  is  now  again  in  Egypt,  the  Tiwtes^ 
Alexandria  correspondent  writes,  preparing  another  expedition 
to  Midian.  He  is  now  determined  to  investigate  thoroughly  that 
biblical  country  of  which  he  only  got  a  superficial  idea  in  his 
twenty-day  visit  last  spring.  His  intention  now  is  to  penetrate 
to  the  mountains  in  the  interior,  and  thoroughly  satisfy  himself 
as  to  their  nature  and  capabilities.  He  estimates  the  distance 
under  twenty  days'  march.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  these  mines 
were  known  to  the  ancients  so  long  ago  as  the  time  of  Ramses 
III.,  whose  cartouche  is  inscribed  on  the  Needle  which  is  on  its 
way  to  England.  In  the  Harris  Papyrus  in  the  British  Museum 
is  a  passage  referring  to  the  copper  mines  of  Akaba. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society,  the 
Secretary  gave  some  account  as  to  this  year's  expeditions  sent 
out  by  the  Society.  The  results  of  Prshevalsk/s  expedition  are 
a  survey  from  Kuldja  for  800  miles  into  the  interior  of  the  country, 
seven  determinations  of  latitudes  and  longitudes,  many  baro- 
metrical measurements  of  heights  along  the  route,  a  botanical 
collection  of  about  300  species,  a  zoological  collection,  numbering 
85  mammalia,  180  species  (500  specimens)  of  birds,  50  speci- 
mens of  fishes,  150  reptiles,  and  2,000  insects.  The  most  im- 
portant objects  in  the  collection  are  four  skins  of  wild  camels. 
All  the  collections  are  now  in  Kuldja,  and  will  be  forwarded  to 
SL  Petersburg  during  the  winter.  Aboat  the  end  of  August  M. 
Pishevalsky^had  started  for  Tibet.  M.  I^otanin  has  returned 
without  having  penetrated  far  into  the  interior  of  Mongolia.  He 
proposes  now  to  go  to  the  sources  of  the  Yenissei.  M.  Mainoff 
has  returned  from  his  travels  among  the  Mordva  population  of 
Elastem  Russia  with  very  valuable  materials.  He  has  obtained 
anthropological  measurements  according  to  the  126  queries  of  the 
programme,  of  5 10  individuals,  and  he  brings  detailed  answers  on 
the  queries  of  the  programme  as  to  the  ethnographical  and 
juiidical  customs  of  the  Mordva,  as  well  as  numerous  skuUa, 
photographs,  tools,  and  dresses. 

A  RAILWAY  official  in  Berlin  was  lately  fined  by  the  district 
courts  for  appending  to  his  name  the  title  of  doctor  Juris 
utriusque^  on  the  strength  of  a  diploma  from  the  University  of 
Philadelphia.  An  appeal  to  a  higher  court  resulted  in  a  confir- 
mation of  the  sentence. 

We  notice  a  very  useful  Russian  work,  just  published  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  Committee  of  Primary  Education,  being  a  review 
of  all  works  that  have  appeared  in  Russia  in  the  department  of 
primary  instruction.  The  book,  640  pages,  gives  a  complete 
catalogue  of  such  works,  with  critical  notices  on  each  of  any 
importance,  and  it  is  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  for  the  use  of 
primary  teachers. 

A  YOUNG  schoolmistress  of  Tlemcen  (Algeria)  has  successfully 
passed  her  examinations  before  the  Faculty  of  Aix  for  Bacca- 
laureate in  Letters,  and  has  been  warmly  congratulated  by  the 
Board. 

The  statue  of  Lagrange,  the  celebrated  mathematician,  bom 
in  Italy,  but  a  naturalised  Frenchman,  was  erected  last  week  in 
the  hall  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes.  ^ 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  a 
letter  from  M.  Fabre  to  M.  Dumas  was  read,  referring  to 
an  American  vine  which  he  had  cultivated  for  a  long 
time  in  the  very  heart  of  phylloxeric  centres,   but  which  has 


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54 


NATURE 


{Nov.  15,  1877 


escaped  the  least  sign  of  infection.  It  flourishes  under  the 
most  unfavoutable  circumstances,  grows  rapidly,  and  readily 
receives  grafts  from  French  vines. 

The  French  Association  Polytechnique,  created  in  1830,  has 
just  published  its  programme  for  1 877-1 878,  Lectures  are  given 
by  this  institution  to  working  men]  in  each  of  the  twenty 
municipal  districts  of  Paris,  and  in  almost  every  manufacturing 
district  of  France.  For  the  first  time  the  programme  of  lectures 
is  uniform,  and  special  text-books  are  published  at  a  cheap  rate 
under  its  authority.  No  salaries  are  given  to  teachers,  and  no 
fees  taken  from  pupils.  It  is  called  * '  La  Sorbonne  de  TOuvrier. " 
All  expenses  are  covered  by  voluntary  contributions.  M.  Dumas, 
the  perpetual  secretary  of  the  Institute  has  been  elected  pre- 
sident of  the  Association.  He  has  filled  this  important  position 
for  a  number  of  years. 

The  yardin  (T AcclimaUUion  of  Paris,  as  we  recently  stated, 
has  received  a  family  of  Esquimaux,  who  are  quartered  alongside 
the  Nubians,  who  were  recently  in  London.  They  consist  of 
three  men,  a  woman,  and  two  children,  and  ^have  charge  of  a 
collection  of  phocas,  white  bears,  and  tmined  dogs.  The 
customary  Esquimaux  huts  have  been  erected  for  their  accommo- 
dation, and  their  time  is  spent  in  the  ordinary  occupations  to 
which  they  are  accustomed  in  the  Polar  regions.  The  Soci^U 
d^ Antkropologie  de  Paris  has  appointed  a  commission  to  study 
these  unusual  visitors,  consisting  of  Dr.  Broca,  president,  and 
MM.  Bordier,  Dolly,  Girard  de  Rialle,  Mazard,  and  Topinard. 

The  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  has  just  estabUshed,  in 
Paris,  a  "  Biblioth^que  Universitaire,"  containing  all  works 
appearing  from  the  pens  of  the  professors  of  the  French 
University. 

Among  the  medals  awarded  by  the  Photographic  Society  in 
connection  with  their  Exhibition,  are  one  for  the  best  micro- 
photograph,  "  Proboscis  of  a  Blowfly,"  to  Mr.  Edward  Viles,  and 
a  special  medal  to  Mr.  W.  J.  A.  Grant  for  his  Arctic  Views. 

The  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  resumed  its  meetings  on 
Tuesday.  Among  the  papers  announced  to  be  read  early  in  the 
session  are,  a  **  Review  of  the  Progress  of  Steam  Shipping 
during  the  last  Quarter  of  a  Century,"  by  Mr.  Alfred  Holt, 
M.  Inst.  C.E.  of  Liverpool,  whilst  the  latest  development  of 
electrical  invention  and  its  application  to  lighting  purposes,  will 
be  discussed  in  a  paper  by  Dr.  Paget  Higgs  and  Mr.  Brittle, 
Assocs.  Inst.  C.E.,  entided  ''  Some  Recent  Improvements  in 
Dynamo-Electric  Apparatus." 

The  fourth  annual  meeting  of  the  Dundee  Naturalists'  Society 
was   held  recently.     Mr.  Grothe,   the  president,  occupied  the 
chair.     The  secretary  read  the  council's   report  for  the  past 
year,  which  showed  that  it  had  been  one  of  great  activity  and 
prosperity.    The  year  began  with  a  membership,  including  all 
classes,  of  232,  but  at  the  date  of  the  report   this  number  had 
increased  to  401,  being  an  increase  of  169.     The  property  of  the 
society  had  also  been  considerably  increased  during   the  year, 
chiefly  by  gi(ts  of  books  and  specimens  for  the  society's  museum . 
During  the  last  winter  nine  origiosd  papers  had  been  read  by 
members  at  the  ordinary  meetings  of  the  society,  treating  of 
geological,  biological,    physical,   and    archaeological    subjects. 
During  the  summer  the  interest  in,  and  work  of,  the  society  was 
kept  alive  by  a  series  of  very  attractive  excursions.    One  excur- 
sion was  a  sea-dredging  expedition,  and  opened  up  for  the  society 
a  new  field  for  its  energies.     In  order  [to  secure  a  more  ex- 
haustive and  systematic  treatment  of  the  various  branches  of  I 
natural  science,  the  society  was  formed  ,  into  sections,  three  in  : 
number,  vii. :— i-  Physical  and  Chemical;  2.  Geological;  3.  | 
Biological      From  this  arrangement  it  is  hoped  that  much  good  I 
will  result.    The  society  b  in  a  very  h^thy  and  vigorous  | 
coodition. 


The  following  modification  of  an  experiment  of  Prof  Tyndall's 
is  described  by  M.  Terquem  in  the  Journal  de  Physique  for 
October.     A  trump§t-bell  connected  by  a  thick  caoutchouc  tube 
with  one  of  Konig's  manometric  flames,  is  fixed  vertically  over  a 
square  plate,  which  is  vibrated  so  as  to  give  two  nodal  lines  mm 
in  Tyndall's  experiment     If  the  axis  of  the  bell  be  placed 
exactly  over  the  centre  of  the  plate,  the  flame  remains  quite 
motionless,  and  the  same  if  the  bell  be  placed  above  a  nodal 
line.     On  the  other  hand,  the  flame  vibrates  when  the  bell  is 
displaced,  however  little,  and  the  vibrations  become  very  strong 
when  ^the  bell  is  placed  above  a  ventral  segment    With  two 
similar  trumpet-bells  placed  over  two  ventral  s^ments  having 
similar,  or  contrary  movements,  the  vibrations  may  be  united  on 
a  single  flame,  by  means  of  a  Y*tube,  a  drawing- tube  being 
placed  in  the  passage  of  one  of  the  vibratory  movements.     The 
advantage  of  this  arrangement  consists  in  producing  very  strong 
separate  vibrations ;  moreover,  it  is  possible  to  give  them  exactly 
the  same  intensity  by  displacing  laterally  one  of  the  bells.     To 
obtain  absolute  motionlessness  in  the  flame  the  two  combined 
movements  must  have  exactly  the  same  amplitude.     To  render 
the  flame  more  brilliant  M.  Terquem  passes  the  gas  through 
pumice-stone  soaked  with  benzine  or  the  like,  and  incloses  the 
jet  in  a  tube  through  which  a  current  of  oxygen  is  sent.     A 
cylinder  of  mica  blackened  interiorly,  except  on  the  side  next  the 
revc^ving  mirror,  surrounds  the  flame. 

A  recently-published  report  by  the  Criminal  Administra- 
tion of  France  gives  some  curious  statistics  with  regard  to 
suicides  in  1874.  There  were  in  that  year  5,6x7  suicides,  the 
highest  number  ever  recorded  in  the  country.  Of  these  4,435 
(79  per  cent)  were  committed  by  men,  and  1,182  (21  per  cent.) 
by  women.  The  ages  of  105  of  the  suicides  are  unknown.  The 
5,512  others  are  thus  divided  :— Minors  of  16  years,  29  ;  16  to  ^ 
21  years  of  age,  193;  21  to  40,  1,477;  40  to  60,  2,214;  uid 
beyond  60,  1,599.  Among  the  suicides  there  are  enumerated 
1,946  celibates  (36  per  cent),  2,645  (48  per, cent.)  were  married, 
and  881  (16  per  cent.)  were  widowed.  Of  the  number  of  those 
forming  the  last  two  categories  there  weie  2,259,  or  nearly  two- 
thirds,  who  had  children.  The  civil  state  of  145  individuals 
could  not  be  ascertained.  More  than  seven-tenths  of  the  suicides 
were  by  strangulation  (2,472),  or  by  submersion  (1,514).  The 
suicides  were,  as  always,  more  frequent  in  spring  (31  per  cent.) 
and  in  summer  (27  per  cent)  than  in  winter  (23  per  cent )  and  in 
autumn  (19  per  cent).  As  to  the  motives,  there  is  no  informa- 
tion  about  481  of  the  suicides ;  the  others  are  classed  as  fol- 
lows : — Misery  and  reverses  of  fortune,  652  ;  family  troubles, 
701  ;  love,  jealousy,  debauchery,  misconduct,  815  (of  which  572 
were  brought  about  by  drunken  habits) ;  physical  suflerings, 
798 ;  various  troubles,  '489  ;  mental  maladies,  1,622 ;  suicides 
of  persons  guilty  of  capital  crimes,  59. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Eastbourne  Natural  History  Society, 
of  October  19,  Mr.  Roper  read  an  important  paper  on  "The 
Addition  to  the  Flora  of  Eastbourne  since  1875." 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Tiger  {Felis  ti^is)  from  China,  presented  by 
Mr.  A.  Forbes  Angus ;  a  Macaque  Monkey  {Macacos  cynomolgus) 
from  India,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Henderson  ;  a  Saker  Falcon  / 
{Falco  sacer)  from  Egypt,  presented  by  Mrs.  Arthur  Coote ;  two 
Grey  Plovers  {Squatarola  helvetica)^  a  Ringed  Plover  (CEgiaHtis 
hiaticula)^  a  Dunlin  ( Tringa  cinclus),  European,  presented  by 
Mr.  F.  Cresswell ;  a  Califomian  Quail  {Callipepla  californica) 
from  California,  presented  by  Mrs.  A.  H.  Jamrach;  a  Ring 
Hals  Snake  {Sepedon  hcenuuhates)  from  South  Africa,  presented 
by  Mr.  Eustace  Pillans ;  a  Brown  Pelican  {Pelecanus  Juscus)  ixom. 
West  Indies,  a  Cape  Zorilla  {Icionyx  zorilla)  from  South  Africa, 
purchased;  five  Reindeer  (Rani/cr  iarandus)  from  Lapland, 
deposited ;  a  Cape  BuflUo  (Bubaius  caffer)  from  South  Africa, 
received  in  exchange. 


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Nov.  15,  1877] 


NATURE 


55 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

Edinburgh.— The*  Marquis  of  Hartiugton  has,  by  a  large 
majority  over  Mr.  Cross,  been  elected  Lord  Rector  of  Edinburgh 
Unirersity. 

Prussia.-— We  notice  from  the  last  report  of  the  Prussian 
Minister  of  Instruction  that  the  present  number  of  instructors  in 
the  ten  universities  amounts  to  896,  viz.,  466  ordinary  professors, 
7  honorary,  199  extraordinary,  and  224  frwat-docenten.  The 
philosophical  faculties  include  400,  the  medical,  250^  the  legal,  86, 
and  the  theological,  i  la  The  number  of  instructors  varies  from 
29  at  Munster,  to  201  at  Berlin.  The  number  of  students  is 
about  nine  times  that  of  the  professors,  viz.,  8,209,  and  includes 
1,080  from  other  countries  than  Prussia.  According  to  their 
faculties  they  are  divided  as  follows  :  evangelical- theological,  684, 
catholic-theological,  289,  legal,  2,261,  medical,  i,349»  and  philo- 
sophical, 3,626.  The  attendance  at  the  universities  during  the 
past  summer  was  Berlin  2,237,  Breslau,  1,245,  Gottingen,  9J7» 
Bonn,  897,  Halle,  827,  Konigsberg,  620^  Greifswald,  503, 
Marburg,  401,  Miinster,  315,  and  Kiel,  241. 

In  the  budget  submitted  to  the  present  Prussian  House  of 
Deputies  are  the  following  items  :— Erection  of  the  German 
Industrial  Museum,  998,000  mk. ;  erection  of  a  Polytechnic  in 
Berlin,  8,393,370  mk. ;  erection  of  an  Ethnological  Museum  in 
Berlin,  1,800,000  mk.  ;  and  for  the  Berlin  University,  erection 
of  a  Herbarium,  422,000  mk.  ;  of  a  Clinic,  1,955,000  mk.  ; 
of  a  new  building  for  a  second  Chemical  Laboratory,  as  well  as 
of  a  Technical  and  Pharmaceutical  Institute,  967,000  mk. 

Bonn. — On  entering  upon  the  duties  of  rector  of  the  Univer- 
sity, Prof.  Kekule,  the  distinguished  chemist,  delivered,  on 
October  18,  a  brilliant  address  on  the  scientific  position  of  che- 
mistry, and  the  fundamental  principles  of  this  science.  He 
made  the  following  definition  of  chemistry  as  distinct  from 
physics  and  mechanics  : — "  Chemistry  is  the  science  of  the  statics 
^  and  dynamics  of  atoms :  physics  that  of  the  statics  and  dynamics 
of  molecules ;  while  mechanics  considers  the  masses  of  water  con- 
sisting of  a  large  number  of  molecules.  '*  After  rai>idly  sketching 
the  growth  of  the  present  atomic  theory,  he  claimed  that  the 
mass  of  results  now  obtained  showed  that  chemistry  was  slowly 
but  surely  approaching  its  goal,  the  knowledge  of  the  constitu- 
tion of  matter.  In  opposition  to  the  opinion  that  theory  should 
be  banished  from  the  exact  sciences,  he  regarded  it  as  an  actual 
felt  necessity  of  the  human  mind  to  classify  the  endless  series  of 
individual  facts  from  general  standpoints—at  present  of  a  hypo- 
thetical nature — and  Uiat  it  was  precisely  the  discussion  of  these 
hypotheses  which  often  led  to  the  most  valuable  discoveries. 

Vienna.— In  Vienna  the  question  is  being  agitated  of 
separating  the  natural  sciences  at  the  University  into  a  separate 
faculty,  apart  from  the  philosophical  faculty,  as  is  the  case  in 
Strassburg  and  a  few  other  universities,  which  have  risen  superior 
to  the  old  mediaeval  classification. 

Strassburg. — The  imperial  authorities  have  finally  decided 
upon  extensive  appropriations  for  the  new  buildings  of  the  Uni- 
versity. They  will  embrace  edifices  for  lecture-rooms,  chemiod 
and  physical  laboratories,  and  chirurgical  and  psychiatric  clinics. 
The  new  observatory  will  be  completed  next  year,  and  the 
botanical  gardens  are  rapidly  being  laid  out  In  1882  the 
University  expects  to  occupy  its  new  buildings. 

Konigsberg,— -Prof.  W.  Lossen,  of  Heidelberg,  well  known 
by  his  researches  on  hydroxylamine,  has  accepted  a  call  to  the 
,    Chair  of  Chemistry  at  the  University  of  Konigsberg. 

Upsala. — ^The  University  is  attended  at  present  by  1,395 
students,  of  whom  the  half  are  included  in  the  philosophical 
faculty.  The  corps  of  teachers  embraces  sixty-tl^e  ordinary 
and  extraordinary  professors,  and  fifty-four  prwat-docentetu  Of 
these  eighty-two  are  in  the  philosophical  faculty. 

St.  Petersburg.— The  lectures  at  the  St.  Petersburg  Ladies* 
High  Medical  School  re-opened  this  year  on  October  13.  One 
hundred  and  eighteen  students  were  admitted,  though  a  £iir  larger 
number  of  apphcants  passed  the  examination.  The  number  of 
the  students  admitted,  however,  was  limited  as  above  because  of 
want  of  room.  A  fifth  class  has  now  been  added,  and  the 
students  receive,  after  having  finished  the  studies,  th€  degree  of 
surgeons. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
L!nnean  Society,  November  1. — Prof.  Allman,  F.R.S«> 
president,  in  the  chair.— Messrs.  S.  M.  Samuel  and  P.  W^att 
Squire  were  dulv  elected  fellows  of  the  Society. — A  communica- 
tion was  read  by  Dr.  G.  King  on  the  source  of  the  winged 
cardamom  of  Nepal.  By  Dr.  rereira  it  had  been  regarded  as 
the  ^TO^MQtoi  Amomum  maximum^  RoxK;  but  this  is  indigenous 
to  Java.  Roxburgh  named  two  Indian  species.  A,  aromaiicum 
and  A.  subulatum^  and  Dr.  King  shows  tnat  the  latter  is  the  so- 
called  winged  cardamom  of  Nepal,  its  true  habitat  being  the 
Morung  mountains  and  not  the  Khasia  hills  as  asserted  by  Voigt. 
— There  followed  a  paper  by  Capt  W.  Armit  on  Australian 
finches  of  the  genus  PoiphUa,  Mr.  Gould  had  recognised  two 
birds,  P,  gouldia:  and  P,  mirabUis^  as  good  and  dbtinct  specific 
forms,  a  statement  questioned  bv  Mr.  Diggles  at  the  QueoisL 
Phil.  See,  1876.  Capt.  Armit  having  studied  the  live  birds  in 
their  native  haunts  gives  his  evidence  in  favour  of  Mr.  Gould  as 
to  the  just  separation  of  the  said  Australian  finches.  —  The 
self-fertilisation  of  plants  formed  the  subject  of  an  interesting 
paper  by  the  Rev.  G.  Henslow,  a  notice  ;of  which  we  shall  give 
elsewhere. — Mr.  Ed.  J.  Miers  gave  a  revision  of  the  Hippidea." 
This  group  of  the  Anomourous  Crustacea,  although,  by  their 
elongated  carapace  and  antennx*  bearing  considerable  resem- 
blance to  certain  of  the  Corystoldea,  to  wit  the  Chilian,  BU^ 
pharipoda  spinnimana  and  PseudocorysUs  sicariuSf  yet  the 
author  considers  their  true  affinities  to  be  with  the  Oxystomatous 
Brachyura,  through  the  Raninidx.  The  Hippidea  inhabit  all 
the  warmer  temperate  and  tropical  seas  of  the  globe.  Their  life 
history  and  habits  lately  have  received  considerable  elucidation 
at  the  hands  of  Mr.  S.  J.  Smith,  of  Connecticut,  in  a  study  of 
the  development  of  the  common  species  of  the  eastern  shores  of 
the  United  States.  Their  limits  are  restricted  northwards 
by  the  cold  winters.  The  H.  ialpoidm  lives  gr^arionslv, 
burrowing  in  the  loose,  changing  sands  near  low-water  mark. 
Other  species,  however,  inhabit  deep  water,  such  as  the  Albunta 
guerinii  in  the  Gulf  of  Algiers,  &c. — Mr.  £.  M.  Holmes 
laid  before  the  meeting  the  late  Dr.  Hanbury*s  collection 
of  cardamoms  (from  toe  Pharmaceutical  Society)  in  illus- 
tration of  Dr.  King's  paper  above  mentioned;  he  also  drew 
attention  to  an  undetermined  fungus  in  a  sugar  cane,  which  mould 
had  caused  the  destruction  of  a  plantation  in  South  India. 
— The  Rev.  T.  H.  Sotheby  exhibited  branches  of  two  remark- 
able shrubs,  Colletia  crudaiOf  Hook.,  and  C  Bictomnsis^ 
Lindl.,  grown  in  Lady  Rolles'  garden  at  Bicton.  These  South 
American  plants  it  seems,  are  not  unknown  in  this  country  (one 
Fellow  present  stating  he  possessed  them  now  in  flower),  but  the 
history  of  their  introcuiction,  nevertheless,  is  a  curious  one. — Dr. 
Masters  showed  an  unusual  specimen  of  a  grape  within  a  grape^ 
viz.,  adventitious  finiit  devdoped  in  place  of  the  normal  seeds ; 
he  also  explained  tlie  rationale  of  adventitious  tubas  producing 
buds  on  the  root  of  some  examples  of  Brassica  Rapa  exhibited 
by  him. — Some  twigs  and  flowers  of  British  grown  gum  trees 
were  shown  by  Mr.  A.  O.  Walker,  among  others  PensUmon 
Clevelandii  said  to  have  flowered  here  for  the  first  time. 

Physical  Society,  November  3.— Prof.  G.  C.  Foster,  pre- 
sident, iA  the  chair. — The  following  candidate  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Society  :  Alexander  Jesseman.— Prof.  McLeod 
described  some  experiments  he  has  recently  made  to  determine 
the  exact  number  of  vibrations  of  tuning  forks  by  means  of  the 
apparatus  he  exhibited  to  the  Society  on  Apnl  28  last,  and 
which  was  designed  for  determining  slight  variations  in  the 
speed  of  machinery  or  other  analogous  purposes.  He  has 
studied  two  sets  of  forks  belonging  to  Uie  Physical  Laboratory  at 
South  Kensington,  and  a  new  set  just  received  from  Konig,  and 
his  results  exhibit  a  remarkable  concordance,  the  extreme  results 
in  the  worst  set  of  observations  on  a  fork  of  2^6  complete  vibra- 
tions only  dificring  by  o'oos  per  cent,  and  in  a  good  set  they 
agreed  within  0*00078  per  cent.  Examining  the  new  series 
from  256  to  512,  he  found  them  to  give  from  0*3  to  0*5  of  a 
vibration  more  than  was  anticipated,  but  as  this  variation^mav 
be  due  to  a  difference  between  the  temperature  and  that  at  which 
they  were  adjusted,  he  is  waiting  to  ascertain  what  this  was.  He 
considers  also  that  the  manner  in  which  the  fork  is  held  has  an 
effect  on  its  vibrations,  and  he  hopes  to  be  able  to  get  some 
information  as  to  the  effect  of  temperature  on  elasticity. — Dr. 
Huggins  exhibited  some  artificial  gems  recently  prepared  by  M. 
Feil,  the  well-known  ^lass  manufacturer  of  Pans,  who  has 
succeeded   in    crystallismg    stones^  of    the    corundum    class. 


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NATURE 


[Nov.  15,  1877 


RabiOy  as  wdl  as  a  topaz  and  emerald,  were  exhibited.  Dr. 
Hoggins  believes  that  the  colour  is  imparted  by  small  quantities 
of  metallic  oxides,  and  that  the  mass  is  mixed  with  boracic  acid 
and  maintained  in  a  fused  condition  for  a  considerable  period. 
M.  Feil  hopes  to  obtain  larger  stones  by  maintaining  the  heat 
constant  for  several  weeks  consecutively. — Dr.  Lodge  then  read 
a  communication  from  Professors  Ayrton  and  Perry,  of  the 
Imperial  College,  Japan,  in  continuation  of  one  read  to  the 
Society  on  May  26  last,  on  ice  as  an  electrolyte^  and  since  pub- 
Ibhed  in  the  Philosophical  Magasine,  The  experiments  therein 
described  led  them  to  expect  a  very  sudden  rise  in  the  specific 
inductive  capacity  as  the  temperature  of  the  ice  increased  through 
zero  and  it  became  water.  Recent  results  have  shown  that, 
though  rapid,  this  increase  is  not  as  great  as  they  anticipated, 
and,  whereas  at  -  I2<'  C.  the  capacity  is  0'002  microfarads,  at 
-¥  5<^  C.  it  is  0' 1 18^  microfarads,  and  after  this  temperature  the  in- 
crease was  so  rapid  as  to  render  exact  readings  difficult  Referring 
to  Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell's  theory  in  which  he  compares  electro- 
macnetic  disturbances  with  light  vibrations,  they  point  out  that  he 
exclusively  regards  a  conducting  medium.  But  they  showed  in 
a  fonner  paper  that  no  dielectric  can  be  considered  non-conduct- 
ing, hence  they  conclude  that  the  measured  specific  inductive 
capacity  can  never  be  even  approximately  equal  to  the  square  of 
the  index  of  refraction.  Prof.  Foster  mentioned  that  he  re- 
cently had  occasion  to  collect  as  many  results  as  possible  on 
specific  inductive  capacity  and  refractive  index,  and  he  found 
that,  where  these  figures  were  low,  the  agreement  with  the  law 
was  fairly  close,  but  with  greater  values  the  inductive  capacity 
and  the  square  of  the  refractive  index  separate  very  rapidly. — 
Prof.  Guthrie  described  a  simple  means  for  showing  the  inter- 
ference between  two  plane  waves  by  means  of  two  long  cords 
vibrating  side  by  side.  If  a  vibration  of  considerable  amplitude 
be  imparted  to  them,  and  the  plane  in  which  they  travel  be  care- 
fully examined,  two  faint  black  lines  will  be  seen,  which  cross 
and  recross  each  other  more  rapidly  as  the  cords  are  less  and 
less  in  unison,  and  with  perfect  unison  remain  stationary. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  November  7.— Mr.  H.  C. 
Sorby,  president,  in  the  chair.— A  paper  was  read  by  Mr. 
Thos.  Palmer  on  the  study  of  evergreens  by  means  of  the  micro- 
spectroscope^  in  which  he  described  the  results  of  his  examination 
of  solutions  of  the  colourine  matters,  oils,  &c.,  from  the  leaves 
in  various  stages  of  grow£.  The  paper  was  illustrated  by 
drawings  and  by  the  exhibition  under  the  micro-spectroscope  of 
some  of  the  solutions  referred  to. —A  paper  by  Mr.  F.  A.  Bedwell 
on  the  building  apparatus  of  Mdicerta  ringens^  was  read  by  the 
secretary.  It  minutely  described  the  structure  and  functions  of 
those  or^ms,  and  was  an  important  addition  to  the  number  of 
contributions  to  the  history  of  this  beautiful  rotifer.  The  paper 
was  illustrated  by  drawings,  some  of  which  were  enlarged  upon 
the  black  board  by  Mr.  Charles  Stewart. — A  paper  was  taken  as 
read  on  the  lachrymal  gland  of  the  turtle,  by  Mr.  Charles 
Stewart. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  November  5.— M.  Peligot  in  the 
chair. — ^The  following  papers  were  read  :-~On  some  applications 
of  elliptic  functions  (continued),  by  M.  Hermite.— ^^mot/  of  a 
history  of  matter  (third  article),  by  M.  ChevreuL  This  comprises 
from  the  thirteenth  to  the  seventeenth  century.— On  the  hydroge- 
nation  ot  benzine  and  aromatic  compounds,  by  M.  Berthelot.  'Uie 
experiments  show  that  the  action  (snrticiently  intense  and  pro- 
longed) of  hydriodic  acid  brings  all  these  carburets  to  the  com- 
position of  carburets  absolutely  saturated,  such  as  hydride  of 
hexylene,  Ci,Hj4,  volatile  about  69^— Reply  to  a  recent  note  of 
M.  de  Parvillc,  "On  the  semi-diurnal  variation  of  the  baro- 
meter," by  M.  Faye.— The  echidna  of  New  Oninea,  by  M. 
Orvais.  This  animal  is  very  different  from  the  echidna  of 
Australia.  Inter  alia,  it  is  larger  and  has  darker  hair;  the 
claws  (which  are  strong  and  adapted  for  digging)  number  three 
on  the  fore  as  on  the  mnd  feet ;  and  the  (black)  muzzle  is  much 
longer  than  in  E,  aculeata,  and  sensibly  ardied  ;  the  tongue  is 
also  much  longer  and  very  slender,  and  the  homy  papilbe  are 
differently  arranged  ;  the  number  of  vertebrae  and  ribs  is  dif- 
ferent, &C.  M.  Orvais  regards  the  animal  as  belonging  to  a 
separate  genus,  termed  Acanthoglossus. — On  a  project  ofan  inter^ 
oceanic  canal ;  studies  of  the  international  commission  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  by  M.  de  Lesseps.  This  relates  to  a  report 
of  recent  scienufic  exploration  by  Lieut.  Wvse  (of  the  French 
Navy).  The  project  comprises  a  tunnel  of  about  17  kilometres, 
the  remainder  of  the  len^  being  about  35  kilometres.    The 


total  cost  is  estimated  at  600^000,000  francs. — Stellar  sjrstems 
formed  of  stars  associated  in  a  common  and  rapid  proper  motion, 
by  M.  Flammarion.— On  the  order  (or  class)  of  a  plane  algebraic 
curve,  of  which  each  point  (or  each  tangent)  depends  on  a  corre- 
sponding point  of  another  plane  curve  and  on  the  taDe[ent  at  that 
pKoint,  by  M.  Fouret. — Applications  of  a  mode  of*  plane  repre- 
sentation of  classes  of  ruled  surfaces,  by  M.  Mannheim. — ^On  the 
liquefaction  of  acetylene,  by  M.  Cailletet.     The  gas  v^as  com- 
pressed by  means  of  a  hydraulic  pump  through  mercury,  in  an 
apparatusof  special  form.     Acetylene  is  liquefied,  ^.^.,  at  4-   i<» 
under  48  atm.,  at  18''  under  83  atm.,  at  37**  under  103  atm.    The 
liquid  is  colourless  and  extremely  mobile ;  it  seems  very  refringeat, 
and  is  lighter  than  water,  in  which  it  can  be  largely  dissolved.      It 
dissolves  paraffin  and  fatty  matters.     Hydride  of  ethylene  was 
liquefied  in  the  apparatus  at  a  slightly  higher  pressure  than  that 
of  acetylene.     The  tensions  of  these  two  carburets  and  ethylene 
are  but  little  different  about  zero.    Reaction  of  chlorhydric  acid 
on  two  isomeric  butylenes  and  on  olefines  in  general,  by  M.  Le 
Bel.    The  ethylenic  carburets  combine  with  cold  chlorhydric 
acid  ;  on  the  contrary^  the  hydrocarbons  CH,  =  CHR  and  pro- 
bably those  with  the  formula  CUR  =  CHR'  are  not  attacked. — 
On  the  alteration  of  ^gs  produced  by  mould  from  without,  by 
MM.  B^champ  and  Eustache.     Hen's  eggs  may  remain  long  in 
a  medium  filled  with  infusoria  without  Siese  organisms  pene- 
trating.   The  shell  and  its  lining  membrane  can  l^  traversed  by 
mucedineae,  which  develop  abundantly  on  the  inner  face  of  the 
latter.     The  yolk-membrane,  however,  is  impenetrable  by  mnce- 
dineae  or  any  other  microzoa  or  microphytes.      The  mediate 
relations  of  mucedineae   with   the    yolk  produce  a   true    fer- 
mentation  apart    from    any  organic    ferment    except    micro- 
zymas.      The    acidification  of   the  white    is  due    exclusively 
to  the  mycelium  of  the  mould.     The  production  of  bacteria  in 
the  yolk  is  due  to  development  of  the  normal  microzymas  of  the 
yolk. — On  a  new  function  of  the  genital  glands  of  sea-urchins, 
by  M.  Giard.     During  part  of  the  year  these  glands  play  the 
part  both  of  excretory  organs  and  of  deutoplasmigenic  organs. 
This  fact  presents  a  new  point  of  relation  between  echinoderms 
and  annelids,  and  even  arthropods. — Causes  which  determine 
the  liberation  of  agile  bodies  (zoospores,  antherozoids)  in  the 
lower  plants,  by  M.  Comu.     The  exit  is  not  the  result  simply  of 
a  physical  phenomenon  of  endosmose,  but  is  at  least  partly  due 
to  the  activity  of  the  corpuscles  themselves.     This  activity  re- 
quires a  sufficient  temperature,  or  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen 
(furnished  directly  or  by  oxidation  of  the  green  parts),  for  its 
exercise. — Meteorological  observations  made  in  a  balloon,  by 
M.  Terrier.    This  ascent  was  made  on  October  18,  at  3.30  p.m., 
from  Paris.     It  is  affirmed  that  the  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
spheric layers  at  sunset  decreases  uniformly  with  increase   of 
height  (the  decrease  was  i**  per  100  metres).     The  lower  winds 
are  less  stable  than  the  upper,  and  it  is  necessary  to  interpret 
the  latter  for  weather  prognostication.     The  aerial  currents  of 
small  height  and  velocity  are  influenced  and  notably  deflected  by 
the  inequalities  of  the  ground. 


CONTENTS  Pag« 

Brehm's  Thibrlbbbn 41 

Oua  Book  Shblf  :^ 

Loewy's  "Heat" 43 

Smith's  **  Feras,  British  and  Foreiga.  The  History,  Organo- 
graphy, Classification,  and  Enumeration  of  the  Species  of  Gardea 
Ferns,  with  a  Treatise  on  their  Cultivation  ** 43 

LSTTBSS  TO  THB  EotTOK  •." 

The  Radiometer  and  iu  Lessons  —Prof  G.  Carcy  Fostbr,  F.R.S. ; 

William  Crooicbs.  F.R  S.  ;  Alfred  R.  NVallacb 41 

Expected  High  Tides— B.G  Jbnkins 45 

Experiment  on  Fluid  Films.— Ssolby  Taylor 44 

The  Towering  of  Wounded  Birds. — Charlbs  Dixon 45 

Cruelty  to  Animals'  Act  and  Physiological  Teaching.— Frank  W. 

Young  . 45 

Smell  and  Hearing  in  Moths — ^J  C 45 

Bees  Killed  by  Tntoma.~ALFR8D  R.  Wallace 45 

Lecture  Experiment.— W.  A-  Shbnstonb 45 

Fownes'  "  Manual  of  Chenustry."— Thb  Revibwbr 46 

Oua  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Transit  xA  Mercury,  May  6^  1878 46 

NovaCygni,  1876 46 

Comet  1873,  IV 46 

Minor  Planets , 46 

Thb  Royal  Dublin  Socibty 46 

On  thb  Eocbnb  Floba  or  Bournemouth.    By  J.  S  Gardner     .    .  47 

ThbTmLBPHONB 4() 

Afbican  Exploration 4^ 

Modern  Torpbdo  Warfare  {With  lUtutratioruX 50 

NotBS    .•.......•......;...  (.51 

UMiyaasmr  and  Educational  Intblliqbnce 55 

SOUETUa  AMD  AcAWMiaa ^ 55 


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THURSDAY,   NOVEMBER   22,   1877 


DANISH  GREENLAND 

Danish  Greenland;  its  People  and  its  Products,  By  Dr. 
Henry  Rink.  Edited  by  Dr.  Robert  Brown,  F.LS. 
With  Illustrations  by  the  Eskimo  and  a  Map.  (London  : 
Henry  S.  King  and  Co.,  1877.) 

*HERE  is  a  strange  fascination  about  Greenland, 
which  may  be  partly  owing  to  the  mystery  that 
fhrouds  its  early  history,— partly  to  its  being  an  almost 
Arctic  country,  the  scanty  population  of  which  seems  to 
furnish  an  example  of  a  nation  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  very 
primitive  culture  ;  and  partly  because  it  seems  very  prob- 
able that  it  was  from  it  started  the  voyagers  who  were 
the  first  discoverers  of  what  is  now  called  America. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  early  history  of  Greenland  is 
limited  to  what  we  can  gather  from  the  Icelandic  sagas 
or  popular  tales,  and  from  these  we  find  that  about  the 
year  986  an  Icelander  called  Erik  the  Red,  who  had  been 
outlawed,  sailed  to  the  west  to  look  for  some  land  which 
had  some  years  previously  been  sighted  by  Gunbj6rn,  the 
son  of  Ulf  Kraku,  another  Icelander  who  had  once  been 
driven  far  westward  by  a  very  fierce  storm.  Erik  found 
the  land,  made  a  two  winters'  stay  thereon,  giving  names 
to  many  places,  and  returning  10  Iceland  called  this  new 
country  Greenland,  because,  said  he,  people  would  sooner 
be  induced  to  go  thither  in  case  it  had  a  good  name. 

This  first  colonisation  of  Greenland  seems  at  the 
time  to  have  been  fairly  successful,  and  several  ruins 
are  still  to  be  found  which  throw  a  light  on  the  habits 
of  these  seafaring  people.  The  present  Eskimo  station, 
Igaliko,  situated  on  an  isthmus  between  two  fjords,  is 
thought  to  have  been  the  ancient  residence  of  Erik.  One 
of  Erik's  friends,  named  Herjulf,  had  a  son  called  Bjarni, 
a  promising  youth,  and  very  iond  of  travelling  abroad. 
One  year  he  would  spend  in  Iceland,  another  with  his 
father  in  Greenland.  Wishing,  however,  to  spend  one 
Yule-tide  with  his  father,  he  set  sail  for  Greenland,  where 
his  father  was,  with  a  crew  who  had  never  been  in  the 
Greenland  Ocean  before,  and  the  consequence  seems  to 
have  been  that  he  found  himself  after  many  days  near  a 
country  covered  wiih  wood,  which  was  certainly  not 
Greenland,  and  turning  his  back  upon  it  to  histen  to  find 
his  parent,  he  succeeded  in  landing  at  the  very  spot 
where  his  father  lived.  It  is  probable  that  during  this 
voyage  he  had  discovered  the  tract  of  country  stretching 
from  Connecticut  to  Newfoundland. 

The  news  of  Bjarni*s  venturesome  voyage  spread  to 
Iceland  and  to  Norway,  and  Leif,  the  son  of  Erik  the 
Red,  bought  his  ship,  and  set  sail  for  the  new  country,  on 
^  which  they  landed,  and  which,  from  finding  on  it  a  species 
of  "fox-grapes,"  they  called  Vinland.  Returning  the 
next  year  to  Greenland,  it  was  no  wonder  that  Vinland 
was  all  the  talk,  and  Thorvald,  about  1002,  wtnt  to  settle 
there  and  finally  had  a  battle  with  the  natives,  in  which  he 
was  killed.  This  Vinland  was  probably  the  present  Massa- 
chusetts. Half  a  century  later  tidings  fr<>m  the  Green- 
lard  colonies  suddenly  became  rare,  but  in  1126  the 
then  pope  sent  them  a  bishop,  the  ruins  of  who^e  church 
are  still  pointed  ou%  and  about  1261  the  Greenlanders 
became  subjects  of  Norway.  '  From  this  date  to 
Vou  XVII.— No,  421 


1450  tidings  of  the  colonists,  stones  of  their  doings, 
and  records  of  their  misfortunes,  came  less  and  less 
frequently  to  Europe.  The  very  sailing  route  passed 
into  oblivion,  and  the  country  was  only  again  re- dis- 
covered in  1 585  by  John  Davi?,  whose  name  will  be  for  ever 
remembered  in  connection  with  the  Straits  also  discovered 
by  him.  Another  century-and-a-half  passed  away  before 
the  present  European  stations  in  Greenland  were  founded 
by  the  well-known  Danish  missionary,  Hans  Egede, 
who  in  172 1  landed  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Godthaab-fjord  and  founded  a  regular  colony.  From 
then  until  now,  with  many  a  vicissitude ;  an  epidemic 
of  smallpox  in  1734,  a  total  interruption  with  Den- 
mark (1807-18 14)  on  account  of  the  war  ;  the  colonies 
have  struggled  on.  The  trade  was  for  some  part  of 
the  former  century  made  a  private  monopoly,  but  in 
order  to  keep  up  the  commerce,  the  government  was 
finally  obliged  to  take  it  in  hand,  and  since  1774  it  has 
continued  to  be  a  royal  monopoly.  Following  the  steps  of 
the  extending  trade,  the  missionary  institutions  have 
gradually  incorporated  the  whole  population  into  Christian 
communities. 

Dr.  Rink's  book  tells  us  in  a  very  succinct  though 
most  interesting  manner,  of  the  results  of  the  European 
transactions  thus  carried  on  in  Greenland,  for  now  over  a 
century,  and  he  describes  the  present  state,  and  hints  at 
the  future  prospects  of  the  population.  More  than  this,  he 
gives  us  in  well- written  chapters,  an  account  of  th« 
configuration  and  general  physical  features  of  this  almost 
frozen  up  island,  he  tells  of  its  "  inland  ice,''  and  of  the 
origin  of  the  '*  floating  icebergs."  We  read  of  the  tempera- 
ture, prevailing  winds,  the  wonderful  changeableness  of 
its  weather,  and  we  find  here  a  risume  of  all  that  is 
known  about  its  lakes  and  streams,  its  mysterious  fjords, 
and  of  its  great  fields  of  drifting  ice.  Nor  is  the  natural 
history  of  the  country  overlooked,  for  we  have  a  chapter 
on  its  geological  and  mineral  products.  Of  these  latter 
cyohte  appears  to  be  the  only  one  that  has  become  a 
regular  article  of  trade,  about  10,000  tons  thereof  being 
exported  each  year.  There  are  also  chapters  on  its  plants 
and  animals,  with  special  ones  on  the  capture  of  whales 
and  sf  als,  and  on  the  Greenland  fisheries. 

From  an  Eskimo  point  of  view  the  commercial  import- 
ance of  the  seal  and  whale  fisheries  is  very  great  The 
flesh  and  blubber  of  these  animals  not  only  supply  the 
Greenlander  with  nutritious  food,  but  also  provide  him 
with  heat  and  light.  The  sealskins  too  a^Tord  material 
fcr  clothes,  boats,  and  tents,  and  whaleskin  called 
"  maiak,"  yields  a  favourite  article  of  diet  It  may  givi! 
some  idea  of  the  vast  numbers  of  these  animals  killed 
)  early  to  summarise  the  average  annual  catch  as  follows  : 
Of  Phoca  foetuia^  51,000  ;  of  P,  vttulina,  2,000;  of  P, 
^roentandica,  33,000  ;  of  P,  barbata^  1,000  ;  of  Cystophora 
cristata^  3,ooo;  and  of  narwhals,  white  whales,  and 
walruses  nearly  1,000.  The  right  whale  has  nearly  dis- 
appeared and  the  mean  annual  catch  of  tiie  ''humpback" 
wbale  is  scarcely  over  two. 

The  m«>st  important  fisheries  in  addition  appear  to  be 
those  of  the  cod  fi^h,  the  hal  but,  and  the  cap.?lin. 

Perhaps  there  was  not  much  to  be  said  about  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  people  in  the  olden  time  ,*  the 
change  in  religion  seems  to  have  very  early  modified  the 
social  condition  of  the  people,  and  this  portion  of  Dr. 

Digitized  by  VrrOO^lC 


58 


NATURE 


\N0V,  22,   1877 


Rink's  book  is  the  one  that  satisfied  our  curiosity  the 
least.  The  sketches  of  Greenland  life  by  natives,  as 
translated  from  the  "  Greenland  Journal,"  are  interesting, 
but  they  tell  us  of  very  little  except  marvellous  escapes 
from  snowstorms  and  icebergs.  The  great  endurance  of 
sufifering,  as  detailed  in  some  of  these  stories,  demon- 
strates that  heroes  can  be  found  even  in  Greenland  ;  the 
sublime  spirit  of  martyrdom  seems  to  breathe  in  the 
account  of  the  "  Kayakers  cast  ashore  in  a  snowstorm." 

Scattered  through  this  volume  are  some  sixteen  plates, 
representing  Greenland  ways  of  life.  These  are  exact 
copies  of  partially  coloured  drawings  executed  by  natives 
entirely  after  their  own  ideas.  The  greater  number  are 
the  work  of  a  seal- hunter  living  in  Kangek,  who,  falling 
sick,  could  not  leave  his  bed.  With  the  drawing  which 
forms  plate  16,  he  wrote  to  say  that  increasing  illness  pre- 
vented him  from  doing  more,  and  he  ended  the  letter  with 
"  from  exhaustion  I  must  cut  my  letter  short,  this  too  will 
be  my  future  fate,"  and  shortly  after  he  died. 

E.  P.  W. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

A  Sketch  of  the  Geology  of  Leicestershire  and  Rutland* 

By  W.  J.  Harrison.  (Sheffield  :  W.  White.) 
This  is  a  creditable  compendium  of  what  is  known 
regarding  the  geology  of  the  two  countries  of  which 
it  treats.  It  was  originally  prepared  by  its  author  for 
White's  "  History  and  Gazetteer  of  the  Coimties,"  and  has 
been  reprinted  in  a  separate  form.  It  can  be  had 
embellished  with  twelve  photographs  of  various  parts  of 
the  crystalline  nucleus  of  Leicestershire.  These  are  not 
particularly  successful  Mr.  Harrison  has  done  well  to 
put  the  best  of  them  as  a  frontispiece.  It  represents  the 
"  coarse  ashy  slates  "  of  Chamwood  Forest  As  a  local 
guide  this  book  may  no  doubt  be  useful ;  fuller  informa- 
mation  can  be  found  in  the  works  which  Mr.  Harrison 
cites,  and  especially  in  the  maps  and  memoirs  of  the 
Geological  Survey. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himsdf  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  commumcations. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com" 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novd  facts."] 

Expected  High  Tides 

If  I  may  judge  from  the  note  published  in  your  issue  of 
November  8  (p.  38),  and  Mr.  Jenkins*  letter  in  the  last  number 
of  Nature  (p.  45),  it  would  appear  that  the  general  public  are 
unaware  of  publications  which  contain  information  respecting 
high  tides. 

The  Admiralty  tide  tables  contain  the  time  and  height  of 
every  tide  in  the  ytar  for  twenty-four  of  the  principal  ports  of 
the  United  Kiogdom.  There  are  also  numerous  other  tide 
tables  published,  which  give  the  heights  as  well  as  the  times  of 
high  water.  Amongst  these  may  be  mentioned  Holden's  Liver- 
pool tables,  which  contain,  besides  Liverpool,  eight  other  port! 
(London  inc'uded),  and  at  Liverpool  are  held  in  higher  estima- 
tion than  the  Admiralty  tables,  inasmuch  as  Holden*s  predictions 
take  into  account  the  effect  of  the  diurnal  inequality  at  Liver- 
pool, which  heretofore  has  been  neglected  in  the  Admiralty 
tables.  There  are  also  publbhed  at  South  Shields,  Ainslcy's, 
and  at  Hartlepool,  Pearson's  tables,  and  at  Bristol,  Ariovvsmith's 
tables  (formerly  Bunt's),  which  have  deservedly  a  high  reputa- 
tation  for  Bristol  and  the  Bristol  Channel  ports  gjenerally. 

Any  one  who  will  select  from  these  publications  the  highest 


perigean  spring  tides  about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes,  and  will 
send  them  to  the  papers,  can  apparently  earn  for  himself  the 
credit  of  "  predicting  "  high  tides. 

The  increased  range  of  tide  in  the  Thames  of  about  twenty 
inches  daring  the  last  twenty  years,  is  undoubtedly  due,  among 
other  improvementi,  to  the  construction  of  the  embankments,  Uie 
increased  water-way  at  the  bridges  at  Westminster,  and  notably 
at  Blackfrian,  the  improved  line  of  wharfage  continually  being 
carried  out,  and  the  removal  from  the  Pool  of  the  colliers,  which 
at  low  water  acted  as  a  dam,  and  prevented  the  improvement  of 
the  bed  of  the  river. 

An  overflow  in  the  Thames  at  'above-average  spring-tides  is 
now  a  matter  of  meteorolo^cal  circumstances  only.  It  nas  been 
observed,  I  believe,  without  exception  that  the  overflows  have 
been  ctused  by  a  strong  northerly  wind ;  the  most  disastrous 
overflows,  however,  have  followed  a  strong  south-west  wind, 
changing  suddenly  to  a  stiff  north-west  wind.  The  reason  is 
obvious.  An  increased  amount  of  tidal  water  with  a  south-west 
wind  and  generally  low  barometer,  is  carried  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  northern  parts  of  the  North  Sea,  a  sadden  change  in  the 
wind  to  north-west  brings  the  whole  of  this  water  to  the  south- 
ward, with  probably  litue  or  no  disastrous  effects  antil  it  reaches 
the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  where  it  meets  with  the  tidal  water  of 
the  £nglish  Channel  brought  through  the  Straits  of  Dover.  It 
then  rushes  up  the  Thames,  and  an  additional  height  is  given  to 
the  water,  amounting  sometimes  to  as  much  as  four  feet  or  more 
if  there  is  much  flood  water  meeting  it,  and  an  overflow  is  the 
consequence.  I  find  the  effeit  of  a  soath-west  wind  on  the  tide 
in  the  Thames,  as  traced  on  a  self-registering  tide-gauge  I  have 
placed  at  Greenwich  pier,  is  to  depress  the  water  considerably. 
The  high  water  of  Monday  morning  succeeding  the  hezvy  gale 
of  Sunday,  November  1 1,  was  neany  two  feet  below  the  pre- 
dicted height,  the  extreme  pressure  of  wind,  as  registered  at  the 
Royal  Observatory,  being  31  lbs.  on  the  square  foot  In  the 
middle  of  October  the  effect  of  a  south-west  gale  was  still  greater, 
probably  owing  to  its  longer  condnuance,  although  the  registered 
pressure  did  not  exceed  23  lbs.  No  overflow  need  therdbre  be 
feared  from  a  continued  south-west  gale. 

Mr.  Jenkins  is  perhaps  uiuiware  that  Mr.jSaxby  has  "predicted  ** 
high  tides  for  many  years,  and  that  on  one  occasion,  I  believe 
in  September  or  October,  1869,  the  Astronomer- Rojral  wrote 
reassuring  the  public  that  there  was  nothing  extraordinary  in  the 
then  forthcoming  spring  tides  to  occasion  unnecessary  alarm.  If 
Mr.  Saxby  has  discovered  some  law  by  which  he  can  foretell  the 
direction  and  force  of  the  wind  he  will  undoubtedly  confer  an 
inestimable  boon  by  its  publication,  but  from  the  foUonring 
extract  from  the  Times  of  November  5  he  does  not  appear  to 
claim  any  such  knowledge : — "  Capt.  Saxby  ^rther  states :  *  If 
the  wind  should  blow  fr6m  a  northerly  quarter  on  either  the 
7th  of  November  or  22nd  of  December  next,  very  full  tides  miy 
be  reasonably  expected.' "  The  spring  tides  about  December  22 
are  slightly  below  average,  and  as  no  overflow  has  yet  occurred 
with  below-average  spring  tides,  but  little  apprehension  need 
be  felt  respecting  them. 

With  respect  to  the  actions  of  Venus  and  Jupiter ;  although 
theoretically  they  cause  tides,  the  ^values  have  hitherto  not  been 
evaluated,  being  almost  insensible. 

The  high  tide  of  October  26th  was  entirely  due  to  the  northerly 
wind ;  the  effect  due  to  the  maximum  northern  dedinatiou  of  the 
moon  is  very  small  in  the  Thames,  and  is  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  its  effect  in  decreasing  the  value  of  Uie  lunar  semi- 
diurnal tide. 

Mr.  Jenkins'  statement  respecting  two  great  tides  revolving 
through  the  year  exactly  six-and-a-half  syaodic  months  apart  is 
merely  on  account  of  thirteen  semilunations  being  very  nearly 
equal  to  seven  anomalistic  months,  aad  therefore  the  lunar  perigee 
has  again  the  same  phase  with  respect  to  new  or  full  moon.  I 
may  mention  that  ninety-nine  semilunations  exceed  four  years  by 
about  eighteen  hours  only,  and  also  fifty-three  anomadistic 
months  by  less  than  thirty-three  hours.  So  that  after  a  cycle  of 
four  years  the  perigean  spring- tides  fall  very  nearly  on  the  si  me 
days  of  the  year.  This  of  course  fails  to  take  into  account  the 
variations  due  to  the  moon's  declination. 

The  following  table  of  the  heights  of  the  above-average  spring- 
tides for  London  for  next  year  may  be  useful  not  only  to  river- 
side owners  and  dwellers,  but  also  to  marine  naturalists,  who  will 
on  these  days  have  unusually  favourable  opportunities  at  low- 
water  of  engaging  in  theur  pursuits.  It  at  such  times  the  baro- 
meter should  be  high  the  low-water  level  will  be  still  further 
depressed.  It  will  also  act  as  a  guide  to  tourists  wishing  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  best  chances  of  witnessing  the  bore  m  riven. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Nov.  22,    1877] 


NATURE 


59 


notably  on  the  Severn,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Alfred  Tylor, 
F.G.S.,  is  seen  to  best  advantage  with  a  rising  sun  from  Stone- 
bench  Inn,  aboat  three  miles  below  Gloucester. 


Height 

1 

Height 

Height 

1878. 

above 

1B78.        1 

above 

I 

878. 

above 

average- 

iverage. 

average 

ft.    in. 

ft. 

in. 

ft.    in. 

Jan.  20  p.m. 

0     4 

April 

17  a.m. 

0 

8 

Sept. 

I  a.m. 

I    3 

„     21  a.m. 

0     7 

»» 

„  p.m. 

0 

II 

ff 

fi  p.m. 

0  II 

•  f       If    P-Dl. 

0    9 

If 

18  a.m. 

I 

I 

}f 

2  a.m. 

0    7 

„       22  a.m. 

0  10 

»» 

f.  p.«n. 

I 

3 

„     ,,  p.m. 

0  11 

t> 

19  a.m. 

I 

3 

fi 

26  a.m. 

0    I 

„     23  a.m. 

0  10 

19 

„  p.m. 

I 

0 

ff 

If  p.m. 

0    7 

,,     ,,  p.m. 

0    7 

y) 

20  a.m. 

0 

9 

fi 

27  a.m. 

I    0 

„    24  a.m. 

0    4 

»» 

If  pm. 

0 

5 

II 

1.  p.m. 

I    4 

If 

21  a.m. 

0 

1 

If 

28  a.m. 

I     7 

Feb.  18  a.m. 

0    5 

II 

„  p.m. 

I     8 

„     „  p.ro. 

0  II 

May 

16  a.m. 

0 

I 

II 

29  a.m. 

I    7 

„     19  a.m. 

I     4 

If 

If  P  m. 

0 

2 

If 

,1  pm. 

I    4 

„     „  p.m. 

>    5 

ff 

I7a.m 

0 

3 

i» 

30  a.m. 

I     I 

„    20  a.m. 

I     6 

If 

1,  p.m. 

0 

3 

»» 

f.  p.m. 

0    9 

„     „  pm. 

I    6 

If 

18  a.m. 

0 

3 

Oct. 

I  a.m. 

0    4 

„     21  a.m. 

I    5 

ff 

„  p.m. 

0 

2 

„     „  p.m. 

I    3 

f  1 

25  a.m. 

0    2 

„    22  a.m. 

0  10 

July 

31pm. 

0 

3 

ff 

II  p.m. 

0    6 

„     „  p.m. 

0    4 

Aug. 

1  a.m. 

0 

5 

II 

26  a.m. 

0  10 

ff 

II  p.m. 

0 

7 

fi 

II  pm. 

I    0 

Mar.  18  p.m. 

0    3 

If 

2  a.m. 

0 

9 

II 

27  a.m. 

I    2 

„     19  a.m. 

0    9 

If 

II  p.m. 

0 

9 

If 

1.  p.m. 

I     4 

„     „  p.m. 

I    3 

ff 

3  a.m. 

0 

9 

ff 

28  a.m. 

I     2 

„     20  a.m. 

1    6 

If 

fi  pm. 

0 

6 

If 

fi  p.m. 

0  11 

„     „  p.m. 

I    9 

ff 

4  a.m. 

0 

3 

If 

29  a.m. 

0    8 

„    21a.m. 

1    9 

fi 

II  p.m. 

0    4 

„     „  p.m. 

1    7 

ff 

28  pm. 

0 

I 

„     22  a.m. 

I    S 

ff 

20  a.m. 

0 

6 

Nov 

.  24  a.m. 

0    I 

„     „  p.m 

I     I 

If 

„  p.m. 

0 

» 

II  P.m. 

0    3 

„     23  a.m. 

0    8 

ff 

30  a.m. 

3 

If 

25  a.m. 

0    4 

„     „  p.m. 

0    I 

If 

„  p.m. 

5 

f» 

»  p.m. 

0    4 

ff 

31  a.m. 

5 

If 

26  a.m 

0    5 

April  16  p.m. 

0    4 

If 

„  p.m. 

5 

If 

II  p.m. 

0    3 

From  the  above  table  it  appears  that  the  highest  tides  of  the 
year  will  occur  on  March  20-21  and  September  28.  The  heights 
will  be  found  probiU)ly  to  exceed  those  of  the  Admiralty  TaUes, 
as  I  have  employed  larger  factors  in  the  necessary  corrections  to 
the  semi-menstrual  inequality. 

As  a  London  tide  table  appears  to  be  a  desideratum,  I  have 
been  induced  to  publish  one  for  next  yeatr,  in  which  the  *'  dan- 
ger "  tides  will,  be  distinguished  in  Sr  new,  bojd,  and  unmistak- 
able manner.  Edward  Roberts 

3,  Vcfulam  Buildings,  Gray's  Inn,  Novemb•^^ 


Rainfall  in  the   Temperate   Zone   in   Connectip;i  ,vith 
the  Sun-spot  Cycle 

This  mondi'a  number  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  contains  an 
article  on  the  qonnecti^n  of  rainfall  with  the  eleven  years'  cycle 
of  sun-spots.  It  takes  a  carefully-selected  area  in  which  such  a 
coincidence,  if  it  e^dsted,  would  be  well  marked.  The  great 
tract  of  water  spreading  southwards  from  Asia  to  th^  soumem 
pole  affords  an  arena  for  the  undisturbed  play  of  solar  activity, 
it  may  leadily  be  imderstood  that  any  excess  of  solar  energy  has 
a  more  direct  and  uniform  influence  upon  the  rainfall  gathered 
from  this  vast  aqueous  expanse,  than  it  would  have  upon  smaller 
areas  of  water  intermingled  with  tracts  of  land,  and  cut  off  from 
each  other  by  ranges  of  mountains,  as  in  the  European  and 
American  continents.  Other  reasons  exist  which  would  render 
solar  influence  a  more  directly  potent  factor  in  the  rainfall 
gathered  from  the  Indian  Ocean  than  in  that  of  the  temperate 
zone.  Without  doing  more  than  alluding  to  the  fact  that  sun- 
spot  activity  is  confined  to  a  belt  of  considerable  thickness  on 
either  side  of  the  sun's  equator,  there  are  several  well-ascertained 
causes  which  would  render  an  excess  of  solar  activity  more 
directly  felt  in  the  equatorial  regions  of  our  earth  than  in  those 
nearer  the  poles.  While,  therefore,  I  believe  that  the  coinci- 
.doioe  of  a  rain  cycle  and  of  a  cycle  of  wind  disturbances  with 
the  eleven  years'  cycle  of  sun-spots,  has  now  been  established  as 


regards  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Madras  rainfall,  I  am  anxious 
to  guard  against  the  conclusion  bein^  pushed  too  far.  The 
article  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  proves  much,  but  it  would  be 
a  misfortune  at  this  still  early  stage  of  the  inquiry,  if  wider 
inductions  were  drawn  from  it  than  are  justified  by  the  evidence 
which  it  brings  forward. 

It  seems  right,  therefore,  to  state  that  so  far  as  my  investiga- 
tion of  the  rain  returns  of  the  temperate  zone  yet  enables  me  to 
form  an  opinion,  the  cyclic  coincidence  of  the  rainfall  with  the 
eleven  years*  cycle  of  sun-spots,  seems  to  shade  off  in  extra- 
tropiod  regions  until  it  ceases  to  exist  at  all.  This  opinion  is 
based  upon  an  examination  of  the  returns  of  between  one  and  two 
hundred  stations  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  but  only  with 
regard  to  one-third  of  them  is  the  evidence  sufficiently  complete  as 
to  raise  more  than  a  presumption  either  for  or  against  the  exist- 
ence of  a  cycle.  Further,  I  have  not  yet  been  able,  except  in 
comparatively  small  groups  of  stations,  to  examine  the  monthly 
returns  or  to  separate  the  winter  from  the  summer  rainfall.  This 
separation  forms  one  of  the  first  essentials  to  arriving  at  a  final 
opinion  on  the  question.  Subject  to  these  remarks,  I  beg  to 
state  the  facts  with  regard  to  the  rainfall  of  the  northern  extra- 
tropical  zone  in  India,  Europe,  and  America.  It  is  chiefly  with 
the  first  and  last-named  countries  that  the  present  contribution 
will  deal. 

In  my  "  Cycle  of  Drought  and  Famine,"  printed  in  India  on  the 
commencement  of  the  late  dearth,  I  mentioned  that  the  rainfall 
which,  in  periods  of  minimum  sun-spots,  passes  uncondensed  over 
the  Southern  Presidency,  might  possibly  "fall  in  the  temperate 
zone.  The  excessive  rain,  if  it  takes  place  anywhere,  will  probably 
be  found  in  India  between  the  22nd  and  32nd  degree  of  north  lati- 
tude, to  the  south  of  the  great  Himalayan  partition  wall."  The 
conjecture  was  based  upon  the  configuration  of  the  Indian  con- 
tinent, which,  in  its  lower  and  middle  regions,  receives  the  rainfall 
gathered  from  a  vast  ocean,  and  is  provided  with  a  barrier  at 
me  upper  end  to  arrest  the  rain-clouds  on  their  further  progress 
northward.  Prof.  Archibald's  examination  of  the  rainfall  in 
Northern  India  now  throws  a  clear  light  on  this  side  of  the 
question.  He  has  published  in  the  leading  Calcutta  paper,  the 
Englishman^  a  series  of  carefully-compiled  returns  from  stations 
within  the  ten  degrees  of  latitude  above  mentioned.  He  shows 
that  the  rainfall  of  the  sub  tropical  tegion,  from  22°  to,  say,  30**, 
is  in  some  respects  (but  only  in  some  respects)  complementary 
to  the  rainfall  of  Southern  India,  and  in  a  recent  letter  to  me  he 
thus  summarises  his  conclusions  :— First,  the  winter-rainfall  of 
Northern  India  varies  inversely  with  the  sun-spots  in  a  well- 
marked  manner  at  all  |he  stations.  Second,  the  summer  rain- 
fall varies  directly  with  the  sun-spots,  in  a  manner  well  marked 
in  the  north-western  provinces,  by  no  means  marked  in  the 
lower  provinces  of  Bengal,  but  sufficiently  well  marked  when 
the  returns  of  the  several  stations  are  combined. 

Let  us  examine  the  meaning  of  these  facts.  The  returns  from 
Madras  and  Bombay  (lately  published  in  Naturb  and  elsewhere) 
prove  that  when  the  summer  monsoon  strikes  Southern  India, 
Its  aqueous  burden  varies  directly  with  the  sun-spots.  Prof. 
Archibald's  returns  now  show  that  the  ramfall  brought  by  the 
summer  monsoon  to  Northern  India  also  varies  directly  with  the 
sun-^pots.  But  they  prove  more  than  this.  They  show  that 
the  rain-clouds  whidi,  in  years  of  minimum  sun-spots  pass  over 
India  without  dropping  their  watery  burden,  are  found,  on  their 
being  stopped  by  the  Himalayan  partition  wall,  to  be  charged 
with  a  more  than  average  surplus  (so  to  speak)  of  moisture.  In 
Northern  India,  therefore,  the  summer  monsoon,  on  its  passage 
up,  brings,  as  in  Southern  India,  a  rainfall  varying  directly  with 
sun-spot  activity ;  but  the  winter  rainfall,  i>.,  the  immediate 
rebound  of  the  rain-clouds  from  the  Himalayan  barrier,  varies 
inversely  with  sun-spot  activity.  X  ^y  the  immediate  rebound, 
for  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  north-eastern  monsoon 
(October  to  December),  When  it  strikes  Madras  in  its  full  develop- 
ment, after  collecting  its  aqueous  freight  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
follows  the  same  law  as  the  summer  monsoon  (May  to  Sep- 
tember), and  varies  directly  with  the  sun-spots. 

Passing  from  the  sub-tropical  region  of  Northern  India  (22°  to 
32°  lat.)  to  the  temperate  zone,  we  find  the  evidence  of  a  cycle 
either  very  faint  or  altogether  wanting.  With  regard  to  Europe, 
I  am  not  vet  prepar^  to  offer  any  new  facts.  The  existing 
evidence  only  amounts  to  this  :  (i)  Mr.  Baxendell,  from  observa- 
tions for  a  comparatively  short  period  but  very  carefully  rec^trded 
and  scrutinised,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  even  at  an  English 
station,  notwithstanding  the  manifold  disturbing  influences 
incident  to  our  insular  meteorology,  changes  take  place  in  the 
nun£Ul  as  well  as  in  the  temperature  and  barometric  pressure, 


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which  correspond  closely  in  their  maxima  and  minima  periods 
with  those  of  snn-spots.  (2)  A  more  comprehensive  survey  of 
the  European  rainfall  has  so  far  failed  to  establish  thi^ 
correspondence.  Dr.  Jelinek's  examination  of  fourteen  sia- 
tions,  from  1833  to  1069,  showed  that  the  coincidence  held 
Kood  in  6fty-two  case*,  but  failed  in  forty-two.  While 
frankly  accepting  this  as  evidence  agiinst  a  real  coinci- 
dence, it  should  be  remeoibered  that  a  general  law  such  as 
a  common  periodicity  in  sun-spot  bctivily  and  terirestriU  rainfall 
will  be  subjected  to,  and  sometimes  overruled  by,  the  local 
surroundings  of  individual  s.ations.  (3)  On  the  other  side, 
Gustav  Wcx,  from  ihe  recorded  depths  of  tie  Elbe,  Rhine,  Oder, 
Danube,  and  Vistula,  for  fcix  sun-spot  cycles  (1800-1S67),  fuund 
that  the  maximum  amount  of  water  occurred  during  period^i  of 
maximum  sun  spots,  while  the  minimum  levels  were  reached  in 
the  periods  of  minimum  sun-spots.  The  ev.dence,  as  regards 
Europe,  is,  therefore,  conflicting  ;  and  it  is  safer  for  the  present 
to  reckon  it  as  against  a  well-marked  cojimon  periodicity.  I 
hope  at  no  distant  date  to  submit  the  results  of  a  new  and  more 
exhaustive  examination  of  the  European  rain- registers. 

I  now  proceed  to  the  North  American  rainfall.  Here,  as  in 
Europe,  the  question  is  complicated  not  merely  by  disturbing  me- 
teorological influences,  such  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  but  by  the  uncer- 
tain  value  of  the  rain-returns.  The^e  are  causes  which  even  at  a 
carefully  supervised  station  render  it  difficult  to  estimate  the 
number  of  inches  yielded  by  long-coatinued  or  very  violent  snow- 
storms. At  badly  supervised  stations,  or  in  the  case  of  private 
gauges  where  the  supervision  is  a^t  to  be  of  a  still  more  hap- 
hazard character,  tbtse  difficulties  often  suffice  to  render  the 
returns  quite  worthless.  Yet  it  is  the  latter  class  of  records  on 
which  we  have  chiefly  to  depend  in  an  attempt  to  deal  with  the 
American  rainfall  during  a  long  series  of  years.  Nowhere  does 
meteorology  now  receive  more  careful  and  s:ientific  study  than 
in  the  Western  Continent,  but  in  many  of  the  most  valuable 
tteries  the  clemint  of  time  is  siill  necessarily  wanting.  Tbe 
evidence  hitherto  received  from  America  has,  ou  the  whole, 
been  favourable  to  ttie  exis'.ence  of  a  qpmmon  periodiciiy.  Mr. 
Dawsoo,  Geologist  to  the  British  North  American  Boundary 
Commission,  found  a  correspoadence,  although  by  no  means  an 
abaolute  one,  between  the  fluctuations  of  the  great  lakes  and  the 
sun-spot  periods.  This  question  has  been  lately  revived  and 
interpreted  afresh  by  a  distinguished  meteorological  observer  in 
Northern  India.  Prof.  Brocklesby's  contributions  to  the  Ame- 
rican Jvumal  of  Science  also  point  to  a  connection  between 
variations  in  the  sim-spot  area  and  annual  rainfall. 

It  was  with  a  knowledge  of  these  statements  that  I  undertook 
a  systematic  inquiry  into  the  American  raiu'retums.  I  ought  at 
once  to  say  that  the  result  of  that  inquiry  altogether  fails  to 
establish  the  existence  of  a  common  cycle,  so  fiur  as  concerns  the 
temperate  zone.  I  divided  the  American  stations  into  four 
groups.  The  first  gron^  consbted  of  eleven  stations  in  east 
coast  or  Atlantic  Sutes,  lying  between  40^  and  45*  N.  latitude. 
The  second  group  consisted  of  seven  stations  in  inland  States, 
fiom  ^8°  to  48*.  The  third  group  was  intended  to  consist  of 
stations  in  the  West  Coast  or  Pacific  States,  but  1  have  obtained 
the  rctnmi  (and  those  lor  a  period  altogether  too  brief)  for  only 
a  single  West  Coast  Station,  San  Francisco.  I  give  them,  how- 
ever, for  what  they  are  worth.  The  fourth  group  consists  of 
three  coast-ktations  in  the  Southern  States,  between  30"*  and 
33** ;  or  just  above  the  sub-tropical  region  with  which  Mr. 
Archibald's  returns  for  the  Bengal  stations  deal. 

The  results  of  the  examination  of  the  four  American  groups 
may  be  summarised  thus  :  (i)  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  returns  from 
the  twenty -two  stations  do  not  exhibit  any  common  periodicity 
between  the  rainfall  and  the  sun-spots  ;  nor  do  they  disclose  an 
eleven  year's  cycle  corresponding  to  the  one  which  I  have  shown 
to  exist  in  the  rainfall  (at  Madras  and  elsewhere)  gathered  from 
the  Indian  Ocean.  (2)  That  as  regards  the  three  northern 
groups,  stretching  acroM  the  continent  from  38*  to  48**  N.  lat., 
the  rainfall,  so  lar  as  any  symptoms  of  periodicity  can  be  detected 
at  all,  tends  to  vary  inversely  with  the  sun-spots  ;  but  that  it  is 
impossible  to  discover  any  real  periodicity  whatever.  (3)  On  the 
other  hand,  that  as  regards  the  southern  group,  bet  wee. 1  30*"  aiid 
33°,  there  are  symptoms  of  a  periodicity  tending  to  coind  e  witU 
tbe  sun-spot  variations  ;  but  tnat  these  symptoms  are  not  suffi- 
ciently uniform  in  the  small  number  of  souihem  stations  which  I 
have  examined,  to  justify  any  conclusion. 

rhe  calculations  on  which  these  results  are  based  would 
occupy  many  pages,  but  their  general  line  may  be  indicated  m  a 
fe  m  sentences.  Thus  the  mean  rainfall  at  the  twent>  -two  stations 
during  the  years  of  maximum  sun-spots  for  which  the  records 


have  been  obtained,  was  37^  inches,  while  during  the  years  of 
mmimum  sun-sp«)ts  it  was  39.  The  years  of  maximum  sun-s  Kits 
together  wi  h  the  years  immediately  preceding,  had  a  mean  fail 
at  the  twenty-two  stations  o'  40*2  inches;  wnile  the  mmi  auai 
years  of  sun-spots,  taken  together  with  the  years  immediately 
preceding,  had  an  almost  exactly  equal  rainfall  of  40*1  inches. 
In  the  northernmost  group  of  eleven  /itlantij  stations  the  mean 
rainfall  of  the  years  of  maximum  sun-spots  was  39  inches,  agai  ist 
an  average  of  41  i aches  in  years  of  minimum  f^u  t-&pot« ;  in  the 
second  group  of  seven  inland  stations  (38'  to  48°)  the  me  in  raia- 
fall  of  the  years  of  maximum  su<i-spots  was  precisely  equal  10 
that  of  years  of  minim  am  sun-spits,  t>eing  33]  inches  in  t>oth  ; 
in  the  third  group,  Sm  Francisco,  the  m.-ai  rainfall  yeard  of 
maxiinum  sun-spots  was  21  inchci  against  23 j^  inches  in 
minimum  vears  ;  in  the  fourth  group  of  criree  sou'.aern  stations 
(30**  to  33  )  tne  returns  for  the  minimum  and  maximum  years  are 
broken  ;  but  taking  these  years  ani  the  precidiog  ones  togecher, 
the  mean  rainfa  1  of  tie  years  of  miximuoi  &ua-spots  with  the 
years  immediately  preceding  was  51  inches,  against  48^  tnchss 
in  the  years  of  minimum  sun-spots  and  immediately  preceding 
ones. 

The  returns  have  also  been  examined  by  another  method.  I 
have  shown  elsewhere  that  the  rainfall  at  Madras  and  other 
stations  around  the  Iniian  Ocean,  follows  a  weil-marked  cycle  uf 
eleven  years,  with  a  miximum,  minimum,  and  iatermediate 
period,  cjrrespoading  with  the  maximum,  minima  n,  and  inter* 
mediate  perioi  of  sun-spjts.  Tne  American  stations  not  only  fail 
to  show  such  a  correspoadence,  bat  as  regards  the  three  northern 
groups  so  far  as  any  symptoms  of  periodicity  exist,  they  point  in 
the  opposite  direction.  The  fourth  or  souihem  group  of  stations^ 
on  the  other  hand,  so  far  as  they  disclose  a  periodicity,  tend  to 
coincide  with  the  periodical  variations  in  the  sun-spots.  The 
following  table  will  show  this.  Tne  Madras  rainfiil  in  the 
tropics  discloses  a  cycle  closely  correspondmg  with  the  eleven 
cycle  of  sun-spots  ;  speaking  generally,  the  American  raiolall 
in  the  temperate  zone  discloses  no  such  cycle  ;  but  the  southern 
stations  t>egin  to  furnish  symptoms  of  such  a  cycle. 

TaMe  of  Madras  and  American  Rain  fill  Compared  with  the 
Eleven  Yeats  fycle  of  Sun-spots 


Runfall  and  sun-spots  shown  in 

if 

ft. 

III 

tbe  miaimum,  iatermediate,  and 
maximum  groups  of  the  eleven 

|tl 

Mi 

Remarks. 

yean*  cycle. 

11^ 

S 

•^a 

s 

Eleven  years'  cfde  of  sun-tpou 

(from  Woir«  lim)        

Eleven  years'  cycle  of  rainfall  at 

126 

43*5 

768 

Inches. 

Indies. 

Inches. 

Common 

Madras 

40*3 

490 

53*5 

I    Period- 

Eleven  years'   cycle   of  rainfall; 

(idty  well- 

mean  of  three  stations  around 

marked. 

the  Indian  Ocean „    ... 

43*4 

48-1 

Sa'a 

Ntfrtk  American  Rainfall, 

Mean  of  eleven  sutioas  in  East 

V  oast  States.  40*  to  45*.  N.  lat. ... 

40« 

4X-6 

40*1 

1        No 
I   common 
(    Period- 
J      idty. 

Mean  of  seven  stations  in  Inland 

5Utes,  38*  w  48*  N.  lat.     

35*3 

35*8 

34"^ 

San   rrancisco;  West  Coast  Su- 

tion,  i8-N.  lat.     ...  , 

Mean  of  three  stations  in  Southern 

aa  9 

199 

aa*3 

btates,  30*  to  33*  N  lat 

470 

51a 

49« 

Symptoms 
of  commoa 
Periodicity. 

NoTB.— The  sun-spot  figures  represent  the  relative  number*,  reduced  inna 
Wolf,  the  rainfall  ts  expres,ed  i.i  inches.  Th«  Sau  Fraadscj  ceiurns  deal 
with  only  twenty-one  year.<^  or  not  quite  two  complete  cycles ;  much  too 
sh  jrc  a  p^ioi  for  aay  oefinite  conclusion. 

The  records  of  the  twenty-two  American  stations  extend  over 
bricl  periods  cojkpared  wiih  the  Madras  retoriis.  Several  of 
them  disdose  breaks  or  gaps  ;  few  of  them  have  been  kept  witn 
the  minnte  care  bestowed  oy  the  professional  astronomical  staff 
on  the  rain  gaage  at  ttie  Madras  Ooscrvatory,  and  the  value  of 
most  of  the  eigntcen  northern  ones  is  rendered  in  some  degree 
imcertain  by  snow-storms.  It  is  probable,  moreovei,  tbat  better 
and  mnch  more  complete  returns  are  available  to  Ameiicaa 
meteorologists  than  I  possen  for  the  twenty-two  stations  w^ic^ 


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I  have  examiaed.  They  will  come  to  the  criticism  of  my  results 
with  fuller  materials  thaa  are  available  to  me  here,  but  so  far  as 
these  materials  enable  me  to  form  an  opinion,  the  result  is  against 
the  existence  of  a  common  periodicity  in  the  sun-spots  and  in  the 
American  rainfidl  within  the  temperate  zode 
AUanton,  Lanarkshire,  November  4  W.  W.  Hunter 

Contribution  to  the  Sun-spot  Theory  of  Rainfall 

Thb  Lucknow  Meteorological  Observatory  has  been  estab- 
lished since  1868,  and  regular  observations  have  been  recorded 
since  that  year  under  my  superintendence. 

In  Nature  of  December  la,  1872,  Mr.  Lockycr  published  a 
notice  of  Mr.  Meldrum's  discovery  of  the  coincidence  between 
the  maximum  and  minimum  sun-spot  periods,  and  the  maximum 
and  minimum  rainfall  in  certain  places.  After  reading  it  I 
examined  the  annual  rainfall  at  Lucknow  from  1868  to  1872, 
and  found  that  there  was  reason  to  believe  that  the  rainfall  at 
Lucknow  followed  the  same  cycle  as  that  of  the  sun-spots.  The 
figures  were : — 

1868 27*6  inches. 

1869 4«'9     >f 

1870 64*6     ,, 

1871     650     „ 

1872 4«'4     f. 

The  equal  amount  of  rainfall  (41  inches)  on  both  sides  of  the 
maximum  fall  of  1870  and  1871  was  very  striking,  and  as  there 
was  a  rise  in  the  rainfall  from  1868  to  1870-71,  and  after  that  a 
decrease,  and  having  just  read  Meld rum*s  discovery,  I  conjectured 
that  the  annual  rainfall  would  continue  to  decrease  till  it  reached 
its  minimum.  In  my  annual  abstract,  which  I  submitted  to 
Government  in  April,  1873,  and  on  the  slender  evidence  of  five 
ve-ir's  rainfall,  I  ventured  to  state  that  if  Meldrum's  law  be  true,  we 
had  in  Lucknow  lately  passed  the  period  of  maximum  rainfdl, 
and  were  descending  towards  a  minimum,  s>  that  during  1877, 
1878,  and  1879  there  would  be  a  scarcity  of  rain,  and  in  one  of 
thuse  years  the  minimum  rainfall  of  the  cycle  would  occur.  I 
am  now  able  to  give  the  annual  rainfall  of  almost  a  complete 
cycle, ^and  the  fi^uies  will  speak  for  themselves  : — 

1867  was  a  sun-spot  minimum  period. 

1868 276 

1869 419 

r  1870 64*6 

1871     650 

1872 ...  414        Inches  of 

1873 35*1  \      rainfall 

1874 51*4  in  Lucknow. 

1875 43*5 

1876 23-6 

1877 "7 

(Up  to  date  October  22). 

This  is  October  22,  1877,  and  the  total  fall  up  to  date  has  been 
orly  117  inches  about  a  third  of  which  fell  in  the  months  of 
January,  February,  aod  March.  The  lall  during  the  rainy  season 
of  1877  has  been  so  small  that  great  fear  of  a  famine  has  been 
felt  I  considered  Meldrum's  discovery  so  important  that  at  the 
end  of  my  annual  abstract  of  meteorological  observations  for 
1872,  I  mserted  a  long  abstract  of  Mr.  Lockyer's  article  in 
Nature,  in  order  to  make  the  theory  more  widely  known. 

I  believe  meteorologists  are  on  the  track  of  a  most  important 
law.  I  w>>uld  not  expea  the  maxiaaum  and  minimum  rainfalls 
in  every  place  to  coincide  with  the  sun-spot  maximum  and  mini- 
mum so  completely  as  that  given  above.  Possibly  in  some  places 
the  figures  m  ght  be  reversed,  owing  to  a  changed  direction  in 
the  water-bearing  currents  of  the  amusphere ;  but  that  the 
changes  occurring  in  the  sun  have  a  direct  influence  on  rainfall 
there  cannot,  I  think,  be  any  doubt.  £.  Bonavia 

.    Lucknow,  October  22 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

I  WISH  that  Prof.  G.  C,  Foster  had  been  more  explicit  in  his 
answer  to  my  letter  ;  for  as  it  is  I  cannot  understand  to  what 
"variations  of  density  "  he  refers.  So  far  as  I  know  there  are 
no  variations  of  density  in  the  gas  in  question  except  ihose  which 
arise  from  variations  ot  temperature ;  but  these  variations  certainly 
do  not  afiiect  the  rate  at  which  heat  diffuses  into  and  through  the 
gas,  for  this  rate  is  independent  of  the  density  smd  for  the  same 
^]depends  oolyon  the  a^gradatioQ  of  temperature  in  the  direction 
m  which  the  diflfusion  takes  place. 


I 


It  ii  obvious  that  the  law  of  diffuiiion  holds  good  only  so  long 
as  the  gas  is  undisturbed  by  Cumvectioa  currents.  Such  currents 
which  certainly  exist,  increa«  the  rate  at  which  heat  is  cooimuni- 
cated  to  the  gas,  that  is  to  say,  the  hot  surface  instead  of  being 
exposed  to  the  action  of  still  air  is  exposed  to  a  wind  which 
tends  to  increase  the  rate  of  cooling.  But  the  velocity  ot  the 
wind  does  not  increase  writh  the  rarefaction,  and  the  co  jling  effect 
of  a  wind  of  a  certain  velocity  does  increase  with  the  density  of 
the  air.  Hence,  as  I  pointed  out  in  my  first  paper,  the  motion 
of  the  air  will  favour  tne  force  resulting  from  the  communication 
of  heat  less  and  less  as  the  rarefaction  is  increased. 

As  regards  Mr.  Johnstone  Stoney's  theory.  The  post  which 
brought  me  thb  week's  Nature  brought  me  also  a  paper  from 
Mr.  Stoney,  on  which  I  venture  to  comment.  In  doing  this, 
however,  I  may  say  that  I  have  no  wish  to  criticise  what  Mr. 
Stoney  has  written.  The  fact  that  Mr.  Stoney  has  in  no  way 
referred  to  my  work,  although  I  preceded  him  by  some  two 
years,  has  relieved  me  from  all  obligation  to  discuss  Mr.  Stoney's 
theory  ;  ani  I  certainly  should  not  do  so  naw  were  it  not  that, 
as  Prof.  F  jsx.tr  has  instanced  his  theory  as  disproving  what  I 
believe  to  be  the  truth,  I  feel  bound  either  to  show  wherein  it  is 
wrong  or  ackno«vledge  my  inability  to  do  so. 

In  the  paper  which  I  have  just  received,^  Mr.  Stoney  starts 
with  an  assumption  that,  but  tyx  the  effect  of  gravitation,  *'  a 
flat  stratum  of  gas  in  contact  Wtth  a  hot  sorlace.  A,"  and  "  every 
subject  to  the  same  pressure  "  can  exist  in  a  state  of  equilibrium 
*' except  at  the  limits,"  without  any  passage  of  heat  from  the 
hotter  to  the  colder  pare,  although  *'  witnin  the  stratum  the 
temperature  gradually  decreases,  from  within  outwards,  from  9| 
the  temperature  of  A  to  9,  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding 
gas." 

In  support  of  thi^  assumpt'ou  I  cannit  find  any  proof  is  offered 
except  that  which  is  contained  in  the  following  portion  of  a  sen- 
tence :—**  We  know,  from  familiar  experimeuts,  which  show 
gases  to  be  bad  conductors  of  heat,  that  after  the  brief  interval  of 
adjustment  a  permanent  state  would  ensue  in  wuich  there  would 
btf  no  further  change  of  density,  or  motion  of  heat,  except  by 
radiation." 

Now  this  assumption  and  the  statement  in  support  of  it — in 
both  of  which  Mr.  Stoney  seems  to  have  ignored  the  very  exist- 
ence of  diffusion  of  heat  in  gases — ^are  contrary  to  all  experience 
as  well  as  to  the  deductions  from  the  kinetic  tbeorv  of  gases  ; 
for  it  follows  directly  from  the  kinetic  theory,  aad  has  been 
abundantly  established  by  experiment,  that  under  no  circumstances 
can  there  exist  a  variaiion  in  the  lem^jeratureof  acontiuuous  layer 
of  gas  without  heat  d  ffusing  from  ihe  hotter  to  the  cooler  part. 

I  think  that  I  need  &ay  no  more.  This  assumed  condition  of 
gas  forms  the  base  of  all  Mr.  Stoney's  reasoning,  and  although  in 
a  subsequent  part  of  his  pajier  he  appears  to  me  to  have  arrived  at 
deductions  which  contradict  his  fundimental  assumption,  still  this 
assumption  may  be  held  accountable  for  the  anomalies  which  he 
has  found.  Osborne  Reynolds 

November  17 


I  BEG  to  call  the  attention  of  the  readers  of  Nature  to  the 
following  passage  at  the  commencement  of  Mr.  Ciojkes'»  lec- 
ture at  the  Roy<il  Institution  on  February  11,  1876,  '*0n  the 
Mechanical  Action  of  Light "  : — 

*'  To  generate  motion  has  been  found  a  characteristic  common, 
with  one  exception,  to  all  the  phases  of  physical  force."  [Illus- 
trations are  then  ^iven  of  the  production  of  motion  by  beat, 
ma^eiism,  elecr.ricity,  gravitation,  sound,  and  chemical  force.] 

'*But  lighty  in  some  respects  the  highest  of  the  powers  of 
nature,  htu  not  hitherto  bttn  found  capabli  of  direct  conversion  into 
motion;  and  such  an  exception  cannot  out  be  regarded  as  a  singular 
anomaly. 

"This  anomaly  the  researches  which  I  am  about  to  bring 
before  you  have  now  removed ;  and,  like  the  other  form*  oi* 
force,  light  is  found  to  be  capable  of  direct  conversion  into  motion^ 
and  of  being  most  delicately  ani  accurately  measured  by  ih : 
amount  of  motion  thus  produced." 

I  cannot  but  suppose  that  Mr.  Crookes  and  Prof.  Carey 
Foster  have  alike  forgotten  the  existence  of  this  passage.  If 
it  does  not  convey  an  interpretation  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
radiometer  which  is  now  admitted  on  all  hands  to  be  wron/, 
and  imply  a  claim  to  t  he  discovery  of  '\a  new  mode  of  force,*'  I 
am  incapable  of  understanding  the  meaning  of  word>'. 

I  may  add  that  one  after  another  of  my  emment  scientific 

■  "  On  the  Penetratioa  of  Heat  across  Layers  of  Gas/'  Sciemti/Sc  Trans- 
action* of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  November,  1877. 


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friends  has  assured  xne  that  I  was  perfectly  justified  in  my 
statement  on  this  point ;  and  it  was  by  one  of  these,  who  was 
present  at  the  lecture  in  question,  that  I  was  informed  of  the 
very  explicit  statement  made  on  that  occasion  by  Mr.  Crookes 
of  the  views  he  then  held,  which  were  universally  understood  in 
their  plain  common-sense  meaning. 
November  20  William  B.  Carpenter 

Fluid  Films 

With  reference  to  Mr.  Sedley  Taylor's  interesting  note  on 
Fluid  Films,  allow  me  to  say  that  if  a  drop  of  water,  clinging  to 
the  outside  of  a  glass  goblet,  be  lightly  dusted  with  Ivcopodium 
powder,  and  a  fiddle-bow  be  drawn  across  the  edge  of  the  glass, 
the  drop  will  exhibit  vortices,  rotating  in  opposite  directions. 

Highgate,  N.,  November  19  C.  Tomlimson 


Tuckey  and  Stanley.— The  Yallala  Rapids  on  the 
Congo 

Capt.  Tuckey  is  dead  and  gone  and  cannot  answer  for  him« 
self ;  it  may  therefore,  perhaps,  serve  to  clear  his  memory  in  some 
measure  of  a  doubt  about  the  correctness  of  his  description  di 
the  Yallala  Rapids  in  1 8 16,  arising  from  the  very  different 
account  of  them  given  by  Stanley  sixty  years  afterwards,  if  I 
mention  one  of  several  facts  in  connection  with  American  rivers. 

The  late  Sir  J.  Franklin,  in  his  first  and  disastrous  overland 
journey  to  the  Arctic  Sea  in  1821,  describes  the  "  Bloody  Fall" 
on  the  Coppermine  River  as  •*  a  shelving  cascade  about  three 
hundred  yards  in  len(;tb,  having  a  descent  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet." 

Between  1848  and  185 1  this  "fall"  was  visited  five  times  ;  on 
one  or  other  of  such  occasions  the  water  was  either  at  high  spring 
flood,  at  low  summer  level,  or  at  an  intermediate  elevation,  yet 
under  none  of  these  conditions  was  the  "fall "  found  to  be  more 
than  thirty  yards  long,  if  so  mudi,  Uie  height  being  about  fifteen 
feet 

Franklin  and  the  officers  with  him  were  most  carefiil  and  cor- 
rect observers,  so  that  I  can  only  attribute  this  wonderful  change 
(from  three  hundred  yards  long  to  thirty)  in  the  form  of  the  cas- 
cade to  the  wearing  away  of  the  material  forming  the  bed  of  the 
river,  by  the  action  of  the  water,  assisted  in  a  great  measure  by 
the  large  masses  of  ice  and  the  stones  carried  down  with  it  during 
the  breaking  up  of  the  navigation  in  the  courie  of  thirty  seasons, 
only  half  the  interval  of  time  between  Tuckey's  and  Stanley's 
vbits  to  the  Congo. 

Supposing  a  somewhat  similar  attrition,  but  in  a  less  rapid 
manner,  to  have  been  going  on  at  the  Yallala  Rapid,  the 
description  given  by  the  former  as  he  saw  it  may  be  equally 
correct  as  that  of  the  latter  when  he  visited  it  in  its  altered  shape 
to  1877. 

May  I  add  that  a  catarsct  may  become  a  fall  or  a  series  of 
falls,  and  vice  versd,  according  as  the  water  in  a  river  is  in  flood 
or  at  low  level.  J.  Rae 

Scientific  Club,  November  16 


The  Future  of  our  British  Flora 

It  may  interest  Mr.  Shaw  to  know  that  the  stations  given  by 
Lightfoot  in  his  "  Flora  Scotica,  1777,"  still  exist  (as  far  as  I  am 
aware,  and  I  have  visited  by  far  the  greater  number  of  them)  at 
the  present  day.  Experience  has  led  me  to  the  condnsion  that 
a  plant  however  maltreated,  does  not  become  extinct  unless  the 
natural  conditions  are  changed,  as  by  the  draining  of  a  marsh, 
&C.  I  have  over  and  over  agam  found  plants  in  stations  where 
they  were  reported  as  "extinct  vears  ago."  Perhaps  if  Mr. 
Shaw  visits  his  station  for  the  "  Lizard  Orchis  "  (is  this  Orchis 
hircina,  L.  ?  if  so  it  is,  I  fancy,  new  to  Scotch  botanists)  in  the 
course  of  a  year  or  two  he  may  find  it  in  as  large  quantity  as  ever. 
As  regards  the  maltreatment  of  plants,  I  agree  with  what  Mr. 
Sbaw  tays  respecting  professors  of  botany.  Eadi  teacher  of  the 
science  ought  to  teach  his  students  that  it  is  a  crime  to  extermi- 
nate a  plant,  and  that  thev  can  best  learn  botany  from  the 
observation  of  the  common  plants  of  their  district ;  there  is  great 
room  for  improvement  in  this  respect 

While  a  student  I  was  often  disgusted  bj  seeing  rare  plants 
torn  up  snd  then  cast  away  as  if  they  had  been  a  hanoful  of 
grass,  or,  worw  still,  put  in  the  vascumm  and  foivotten  till  the 
next  Saturday,  when  they  were  thrown  away :  and  all  this  without 
awotdofrcmoasUanoefromthosewfao  oi^ttohate  cxerdaed 


authority,  "  that's  villainous,  and  shows  a  most  pitiful  ambitioa 
in  the  man  who  uses  it" 

Provided  we  reform  a  little,  I  do  not  think  that,  judging  of 
the  future  by  the  past  we  have  any  reason  to  expect  m  large 
decrease  in  the  ranks  of  our  native  flora.  I  do  not  suppose  any 
species  given  by  Lightfoot  100  years  ago  has  become  extinct  even 
in  his  stations,  and  on  the  other  hand  we  have  had  a  consider- 


able number  added  to  it  since  his  time. 
£dinburg|h 


A.  Craio-Chblistix 


Selective  Discrimination  of  Insects 

In  continuation  of  the  interesting  observations  of  "  S.  B."  on 
selective  discrimination  of  insects  m  Nature,  vol  xvi.  p.  522, 
permit  me  to  send  you  the  following  notes  from  my  joiunal, 
made  in  August  last : — 

"  Watched  by  the  roadside  near  Kew  Bridge  Station,  serersl 
species  of  Hymenoptera,  of  the  genus  Bombms  principally  ;  one 
visited  thirty  flowers  of  Lamium  purfmreum  in  succession, 
passing  over  without  notice  all  the  other  plants  in  flower  on  the 
same  bank— species  of  Convolvulus,  Rubus,  Solanum,  Two  other 
species  of  Bombus  and  a  Pieris  rapa  also  patronised  the  Lamitttn, 
seeking  it  out  deep  in  the  thicket,  thrusting  their  probosces  even 
into  withered  cups,  although  the  Rubui  flowers  were  fiar^more 
accessible  and  seemed  much  more  attractive,  being  fresh  and 
well-expanded. 

"  On  the  same  bank  several  species  of  Diptera~.^/7»4Mj chiefly 
— ^were  visiting  the  Rubus,  ignoring  the  Lamium,  On  another 
bank,  some  distance  removed  from  the  first,  I  observed,  how- 
ever, that  the  diptera  were  visiting  the  Lamium  (one  species 
was  very  busy  on  the  convolvulus,  applying  its  proboscis  to  the 
external  aspect  of  the  anther)  while  the  Hymenoptera,  species 
of  wasp,  were  giving  their  attention  to  the  Rubus,  ^* 

I  am  sorry  not  to  be  in  a  position  to  identify  the  species  of 
Hymenoptera  and  Diptera,  being  unable  to  capture  specimens  of 
either.  Henry  O.  Forbes 

Highgate,  N. 

The  Earth-worm  in  Relation  to  the  Fertility  of  the  Soil 

In  vour  number  of  the  8th  instant  there  are  some  interesting 
remarks  upon  the  habits,  &&,  of  the  common  earth-worm. 
From  firequent  observations  I  fully  concur  with  the  remark  that 
the  worm  does  not  consume  living  vegetation  but  only  vegetable 
matter  undergoing  decomposition. 

I  am  also  rather  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  there  are  (or  may 
be)  two  reasons  for  the  drawing  in  to  their  holes  dead  leaves, 
&C.,  the  one  being,  for  use  as  food»  and  the  other  to  protect  the 
holes  firom  a  too  plentiful  supply  of  water. 

In  this  same  connection  I  may  mention  what  I  have  not  before 
seen  mention  of,  namely,  the  little  mounds  of  small  gravel  stones 
which  the  worms  heap  up  around  the  entrance  to  their  holes. 
These  are  veiy  curious  and  may  be  partly  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  water ;  and  also,  as  I  think,  partly  for  rubbing  against  the 
worm's  slimy  body,  as  fish  do. 

It  is  very  remarkable  the  extent  to  which  loose  gravel-stones 
(some  as  larse  as  a  hazel-nut,  and  even  larger)  are  removed  from 
a  gravel-walk  from  distances  quite  beyond  a  foot,  leaving  the 
wsuk  pitted  all  over.  I  have  never  seen  a  worm  in  the  act  of 
moving  these  stones  and  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  it  is  done, 
but  as  it  generally  takes  place  in  wet  weather,  it  may  probably 
be  by  an  adhesion  of  the  stone  to  the  slimy  body  of  the  worm. 

As  regards  fertilising  efiiects,  it  would  be  interesting  to  know 
whether  the  earthy  matter  composing  worm-casts  had  passed 
through  the  worm's  body,  as  the  writer  supplies,  for  in  that  case  it 
would  probably  have  more  fertilising  properties  than  if  consisting 
merely  of  the  natural  soil  thrown  up  as  by  molea 

The  remark  by  one  of  your  correspondents  as  to  his  observation 
of  a  line  of  darker  soil  thrown  up  by  worms  from  a  substratum  of 
ashes  deposited  a  considerable  time  before,  would  almost  nu'  ^ 
it  appear  that  the  mole-like  action  above  referred  to  took  place. 
The  writer,  however,  repeats  his  conviction  that  the  matter 
composing  worm-casU  has  passed  through  its  (the  worm's)  body. 

31,  Stockwell  Park  Road  Geo.  H.  Pbipps 

Smell  and  Hearing  in  Moths 

"  J.  C  seems  to  draw  inferences  that  moths  have  not  the 
power  of  smell  but  have  that  of  hearing.  I  feel  ouite  certain 
they  poness  the  former,  bat  am  in  doubt  about  the  latter.  For 
the  purpose  of  catching  moths  I  use  a  preparation  of  beer  and 


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sugar  boiled  together,  to  which  (afcer  boiling)  is  added  a  little 
spirit,  placing  rags  several  folds  thick,  saturated  in  the  pre- 
paration, upon  gaiden-seais,  low  branches  ot  trees,  &c.  I  have 
in  one  evening  taken  as  many  as  thirty  six  moths  (including  red, 
yellow,  crimson,  undenting,  swordgrass,  anglcshade,  &c.,  &&). 
What  has  attracted  them  unless  smell  ?  or  what  generally  leads 
them  to  their  food  ? 

With  reference  to  the  sound  of  the  glass,  is  it  not  the  ouick 
ivotion  of  the  hand  which  disturbs  the  moth  ?  E.  H.  K. 


Carnivorous  Plants 

Prof.  Serrano  Fatigati,  of  Ciudad  Real  (Spain),  his  made 
some  investigations  upon  two  insect- feeding  piaots  which  he 
found  during  his  last  excursion  to  the  province  of  Cordova,  and 
on  the  general  peculiaiities  of  viscous  piants  during  their  flower- 
ing. The  first  of  these  plants  is  Ononis  natnx  ;  it  grows  at  Siena 
Palacios.  The  second  appears  to  be  ^idene  viscosa^  and  was  found 
on  the  hill  which  connects  the  village  of  Belmery  with  the  station. 
The  experiments  made  upon  these  plants  prove  that  when  alive 
they  were  both  covered  abundantly  wi  h  a  viscous  fluid,  which  in 
Silene  was  still  visible  after  the  specimens  had  been  dried  for 
four  months.  Prof.  Fatigati  has  obierved  in  several  instances 
that  every  insect  which  touches  their  surface,  and  remains 
adherent  to  them,  dies  in  a  very  few  minutes.  Remains  of  ani- 
mals in  different  stages  of  decomposition  may  be  seen  on  the 
plants  he  possesses. 

The  mi'  roscopical  study  of  these  plants  has  enabled  the  struc- 
ture of  their  secretory  glands  to  be  examined.  The  glands  of 
the  plant  Ononis  are  at  ttie  extremity  of  hairs  composed  of  cylin- 
drical cells,  and  are  ovoid  and  multicellular.  The  protoplasm 
of  the  cylindrical  cells  always  forms  a  parietal  coating  to  the 
cell  wall.  The  glands  of  the  SiUne  ^re  simply  conical  epider- 
mical  protuberances,  and  are  divided  into  two  cells  at  the  close 
of  their  development. 

Prof.  Serrano  Farigati  has  observed  that  in  these  species  and 
in  Cistus  ladaniferus  the  secretion  of  the  viscous  fluid  increases 
during  th^ir  period  of  flowtring ;  he  is  stud>ing  this  matter,  in 
order  to  ascertan  whether  this  circumstance  l^ars  any  connec- 
tion with  I  he  production  of  heat  and  carbonic  acid  possessed  by 
plants  during  the  flowering  period.  Francisco  Ginez 

Espar  ecos  9,  Madrid 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 
^f  INOR  Planets. — Mr.  J.  N,  Stock  well,  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  who  has  had  much  experience  in  calculations  re- 
lating to  the  small  planets,  draws  attention  to  a  curious 
circumstance  connected  with  the  observations  of  Gerda, 
discovered  by  Prof.  Peters  at  Clinton,  N.Y.,  on  July  31, 
1872.  It  had  been  supposed  that  this  planet  was  ob- 
served again  in  1873,  1876,  and  1877,  but  on  forming 
equations  of  condition  for  the  correction  of  the  elements, 
Mr.  Stockwell  found  that  the  observations  of  1873  are 
quite  irreconcilable  with  those  of  the  other  oppositions, 
cr  that  some  incompatible  conditions  had  been  introdu  .cd 
into  the  equations.  "  The  discovery  of  these  incom- 
patible conditions,"  he  writes,  "  has  been  the  occasion  of 
an  unusual  amount  of  trouble  and  annoyance,  and  will  be 
the  source  of  future  mortification,  should  the  explanation 
at  which  I  have  arrived  ultimately  prove  to  be  erroneous.** 
Mr.  Stockwell's  conclusion  is  this,  that  notwithstanding 
the  planet  observed  from  September  27  to  November  12, 
i873»  was  very  near  the  computed  place  of  Gerda,  it  was 
resiliy  another  body  that  was  observed  in  that  year.  To 
decide  this  point  he  calculated  an  orbit  upon  the  observa- 
tions of  1873,  which  it  appears  are  very  well  adapted  to 
furnish  reliable  results,  and  finds  the  following  elements, 
placing  the  elements  of  Gerda,  as  perturbed  to  the  same 
date,  in  juxtaposition  for  the  sake  of  comparison.  The 
epoch  is  1873,  November  7*0  M.T.  at  Washington,  longi- 
tudes from  M.Eq.  1873-0  :— 

Planet  of  1873.  Gerda. 


Mean  long. 

w     

a    

I     

^    

/*     


35    4  57 

213  14  38 

178  53    9 

I  36    3 

I  58  40 


35  47  14 
208  19  29 
178  56  40 

1  36  19 

2  o  51 
6i4"-384a 


It  will  be  seen  that  four  of  the  elements  of  the  planet  of 
1873  are  almost  identical  with  tho^e  of  Gerda,  while  the 
lines  of  apsides  differ  about  five  degrees.  The  actual 
distance  of  the  planets  from  each  other  on  November  7 
wjuld  be  00188  of  the  earth's  mean  distance  from  the 
sun.  Mr.  Stockwell  adds,  *'  if  there  are  really  two  planets 
moving  in  orbits  so  extremely  near  together,  it  must 
happen  in  the  course  of  time,  unless  the  mean  distances 
are  exactly  the  same,  that  they  will  approach  each  other 
so  closely  that  their  mutual  perturbations  will  cause  them 
to  unite  and  form  a  single  planet." 

A  similar  case  of  near  coincidence  between  the  orbits 
of  two  minor  planets  is  that  of  Fides  and  Maia,  to  which 
attention  was  flrst  directed  we  believe  by  M.  Lespiaulc,  of 
Bordeaux.     In  1876  the  elements  were  as  follow : — 


Epoch  ... 
Mean  long. 

T  

ft  

(  

^  

/*  


Fides.  Maia. 

...  July  270  Berlin' M.T.       Oct.  45  Berlin  M.T. 


326  33  33 
06  27  20 

8  15  15 

3    6  49 

10  II  21 

826" -44 1 7 


27  37  21 
48  8  26 
8  17  I 
3  5  40 
10  431 
824"-6400 


Here,  however,  the  planets  are  much  further  from  each 
other  than  in  the  case  of  Gerda  and  the  planet  of  1873. 

At  piesent  Gerda  and  its  companion  will  not  be  favour- 
ably placed  for  observation,  but  in  the  ensuing  year  no 
doubt  an  effort  will  be  made  to  decide  if  there  are  really 
two  bodies  revolving  in  such  near  proximity  to  eacn 
other.  Questions  of  much  interest  may  arise  if  this 
should  prove  to  be  the  case. 

The  discoveries  of  minor  planets  during  the  present 
year  now  stand  as  follow  : — 
No.  170,  Myrrha,  January      lo,  by  Perrotin,  at  Toulouse. 

„    171,  Ophelia,  January      13,  by  Borrelly,  at  Marseilles. 

„    172,  Baucii,    February     5,  „  „ 

>»    I73» August        2,  „  „ 

„    174,    September  2,  by  Watson,  at  Ann  Arbor,  U.S. 

„    175,    October     14,  by  Peters,  at  Clinton,  U.S. 

„     176,    November  5,  by  Paul  Henry,  at  Paris. 

„    177,    November  6,  by  Palisa,  at  Pola. 

A  planet, November  12,  by  Watson,  at  Ann  Arbor. 

We  adopt  Prof.  Peters*  name  for  No.  170,  instead  of  the 
inappropriate  one  proposed  in  Frauce. 

The  Comet  of  1672. — Madler  has  pointed  out  a 
distant  resemblance  beiween  the  elements  of  the  comet  of 
1672  calculated  by  H alley,  and  those  of  the  comet  of 
1812,  which  has  been  found  to  have  a  period  of  revolution 
of  about  seventy  years,  and  which  therefore  might  h  ive 
been  in  perihelion  in  the  former  year.  The  comet  of 
1672  was  observed  by  Hevelius  from  March  6  to  April  21, 
and  also  by  Richer  off  the  coast  of  Africa  during  his 
voyage  to  Cayenne,  from  March  15  to  the  end  of  the 
month,  though  he  only  described  its  position  roughly. 
Ttie  observations  of  Hevelius  are  published  in  the  rare 
volume  of  his  "  Machina  Coelcstis ''  (of  which,  by  the 
way,  the  British  Museum  passesses  two  copies),  and  we 
believe  in  the  small  special  publication  issued  at  Dantzig 
in  the  same  year,  and  entitled,  "  J.  Heveiii,  Epistola  de 
Cometi,  anni  1672,  Gedani  observato,  ad  Henrtcum 
Oldenburgium." 

Halley's  orbit  gives  for  three  dates  of  observation  by 
Hevelius,  adopting  his  corrected  times,  the  following 
positions : — 

G  M.T.       Right  Ascensnn.  Dec'inatbn. 

1672,  March   6,  at  15  39    ...    35%  16    ...     34  57  N. 
„      15,  at    744    ...       18    2    ...    3725 
„        „      29,  at    8    8    ...      5221     ...    3021N. 
Without   attempting   an   accurate    reduction   of  the 
Dantzic  observations,  it  may  be  seen  that  they  agree 
sufficiently  well  with  the  positions  deduced  from  Halley's 
orbit  to  render  it  probable  that  his  elements  would  not  be 
so  far  changed  by  a  calculation  from  the  improved  places 
as  to  bring  them  materially  closer  to  those  of  the  comet  of 


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NATURE 


[Nov.   22,    1877 


1812,  the  re-appearance  of  which  is  shortly  expected. 
We  have  akeady  mentioned  that  sweeping-ephemerides 
have  been  prepared  by  Herr  Mahn,  of  Strasburg,  and 
may  be  found  m  '*  Vierteljahrsschrift  der  Astronomischen 
Gesellschaft,  12  Jahrgang,  2  Heft" 


MR.  DARWIN  AT  CAMBRIDGE 

AS  we  intimated  last  week,  the  honorary  degree 
of  LL.D.  was  conferred  on  Mr.  Charles  Darwin 
at  Cambridge  on  Saturday.  The  occasion  was  in 
many  ways  remarkable,  and  suggestive  of  reflections 
that  must  occur  to  all,  and  which  need  not  be  put 
formally  into  words.  The  university  seems  to  have  been 
conscious  of  the  honour  Mr.  Darwin  was  doing  it,  and 
seldom,  it  is  said,  was  a  more  exciting  scene  seen  in  the 
senate-house.  To  appoint  a  special  congregation  of  the 
senate  for  the  transaction  of  no  other  business  but  the  con- 
ferment of  a  solitary  degree,  although  it  be  honoris  causd,  is 
only  resorted  to  in  exceptional  and  important  cases.  The 
step  taken  by  the  university  evidently  has  met  with  general 
approval  to  judge  by  the  tone  of  the  assembly  in  the 
senate-house  on  Saturday.  The  building  was  packed,  and 
the  inevitable  pastime  of  the  undergraduates  assumed  a 
form  extremely  appropriate,  however  questionable  its 
taste  may  have  been. 

The  appearance  of  Mr.  Darwin  entering  the  senate- 
house  by  a  side  door,  with  the  Master  of  Christ's,  of 
which  College  Mr.  Darwin  is  a  member,  was  the  signal  for 
a  burst  of  applause  whic^  was  evidently  the  result  of 
genuine  enthusiasm,  and  was  certainly  thoroughly  hearty. 
At  two  o'clock  the  Vice-Chancellor  took  his  seat  on  the 
raised  4ais,  and  the  bu&iness  of  the  day  began.  Standing 
side  by  side  with  Mr.  Darwin  in  the  centre  of  the  senate- 
house,  Mr.  Sandys,  the  Public  Orator,  commenced  the 
delivery  of  the  customary  Latin  oration.  Interruptions  from 
the  galleries  occasionally  interfered  with  the  orator's  efforts 
to  make  himself  heard,  but  the  pleasant  manner  of  his 
delivery,  combined  with  great  tact  and  judgment,  helped 
to  quiet  the  undergraduates' "  chaff,"  and  assisted  him 
materially  in  getting  throagh  his  task. 
We  have  been  favoured  with  a  copy  of  the  Public 
^  Orator's  address,  which  our  readers  will  no  doubt  read 
'  with  interest,  both  on  account  of  the  elegance  of  its 
Latin,  and  for  its  neat  summary  of  Dr.  Darwin's  work ; 
indeed,  in  its  way,  it  is  somewhat  of  a  literary  curiosity. 

"ORATIO  AB  ORATORE  PUBLICO  HABITA  CANTABRIGIAE 
DIE  XVir  NOVEMBKIS  A.  S.   MDCCCLXXVIl 

"  DiGNiSSiME  domine,  domine  Procancellarie,  et  tota 
Academia : — 

**  Meministis  Horatianum  illud,  *  fortes  creantur  forti- 
bus ' ;  vix  igitur  necesse  est  commemorare  vih  huius  de 
rerum  natura  optime  meriti  patrem  fuisse  medicum  egre- 
giuin,  avum  poeam  quoque  insignem.  *  Doctrina  sed 
vim  promovet  insitam ' ;  iuvat  igitur  recordari  pueritiam 
huius  fovisse  scholam  celeberrimam  Salopiensem ;  adu- 
lescentiam  alui!>se  non  modo  Caiedonicas  illas  Athenas, 
sed  in  hac  etiam  Academia  Miltoni  nostri  Collegium. 
Tanti  in  laudem  alumni,  nisi  fallor,  ipsa  patemi  fluminis 
nympha,  non  immemor  hunc  primum  patefecisse  insu- 
larum  corallinarum  originem,  ilia  inquam  Sabrina  quae 
Miltoni  in  carmine  vivit, 

curalio  nitida  roseum  caput  exseret  unda, 

frcntemque  tam  venerabilem  sua  praecinget  corolla. 

"  Quanta  cum  voluptate  accepimus  insularum  illarum 
circulos,  sese  e  vadis  sensim  attollentes,  quasi  florum 
immortalium  palmarumque  victricium  corona  locos  illos 
virides  placidosque  in  Oceani  campo  deiignare,  ubi 
priores  insulae  depressae  et  sepultae  sunt.  Quam  facete 
descnbit,  quo  modo  varios  sensuum  affectus  exprimant 
indices  illi  \a'tus  et  ipsa  tacitonim  ocidorum  eloauentia ; 
quo  more  apes,  dum  dulce  illud  nectar  e  flore  aelibant, 
quod  continuandae  tloris  stirpi  utile  sit,  ipsae  aliunde 


referant  Quam  venuste  explicat,  quo  modo  captet  Venus 
ipsa  muscas;  quali  ex  origine  sint  Veneris  volucres, 
'  raucae,  tua  cura,  palumbes ' ;  <}uibus  cantuum  illecebris, 

5uo  splendore  plumarum,  concilientur  volucrum  atnores. 
[uam  £amiliariter,  velut  rex  ille  excellcnti  sapientia,  de 
tot  rebus  disserit,  quicquid  volat,  quicquid  natat,  quicquid 
serpit  humi ;  quam  varia  eruditione  disputat  de  tabuloso 
illo  lepadum  bsdanorumque  marinorum  genere,  de  xnon- 
tium  igneorum  miraculis,  sed  idem  de  gracili  vitfe  pam- 
pino  et  lentis  hederarum  bracchiis  in  apncum  enitentium ; 
quanta  Uberalitate  in  patrocinium  suum  vindicat  non 
modo  'aurea  pavonum  saecla,'  sed  etiam  minus  pulchram 
simiarum  familiam.  Qua  de  re  quanquam  poeta  vetus 
dixit,  '  simia  quam  simllis  nobis ' ;  nobis  tamen,  viri 
Academici,  cum  oratore  Romano,  yiro  Academicae  prae- 
sertim  philosophiae  dedito,  gloriari  licet, '  mores '  esse  '  in 
utroque  dispares.' 

"  Illud  certe  extra  omnem  controversiam  constat,  pul- 
chrum  esse  tantam  rerum  naturae  varietatem  contemplari, 
regiones  remotas  invisere,  silvarum  incaeduarum  solitudi- 
nem  penetrare,  insularum  prope  ignotarum  recessus  per- 
scrutari,  varias  denique  animalium  formas  comparare 
inter  se  et  distinguere  ;  pulchrius,  haec  omnia  accora- 
tissime  observata  aliorum  in  usum  voluptatemque  lit- 
terarum  mandare  monumentis ;  omnium  pulcherrimum, 
infinita  talium  rerum  multitudine  ad  leges  quam  paucissi- 
mas  revocata^  ipsum  fontem  et  originem  omnium  repetere. 

Suanta  igitur  laude  vir  hie  dignus  est,  qui  adhuc  iuvenis, 
iorum  ma^is  quam  suo  commodo,  tot  terras  lu^traverit^ 
lustratas  feliciter  descripserit ;  qui  maturiore  aetate,  tot 
generibus  animantium  et  earum  rerum  quas  terra  gignit 
diligenter  investigatis,  illi  praesertim  legi  constituendae 
operam  dederit,  qua  docere  conatus  est,  ita  e  perpetuo 
prope  ad  intemecionem  debellantium  certamine  aptissi- 
mam  quamque  novae  stirpi  propagandae  speciem  vivam 
victricemque  superesse,  ut  tot  species  inter  se  divers ae 
alia  ex  alia  minutatim  per  immensam  annorum  seriem 
generari  potuerint 

'  Usus  et  impigrae  simul  experientta  mentis 
paulatim  docuit  pedetemtim  progredientes. 
sic  unumquicquid  paulatim  protrahit  aetas 
in  medium  ratioque  in  luminis  erigit  oras. 
namque  alid  ex  alio  clarescere  et  ordine  debet 
ommius,  ad  summum  donee  venere  cacumen.' 

**Tu  vero,  qui  leges  naturae  tam  docte  illustraveris, 
legum  doctor  nobis  esto. 
"  Duco  ad  vos  Carolum  Darwin." 

The  conclusion  of  this  oration  was  greeted  with  loud 
applause,  and  the  proceedings  ended  with  the  Vice- 
Chancellor  conferring  the  degree  on  Mr.  Darwin  in  the 
usual  formal  manner. 

In  the  evening  the  anniversary  dinner  of  the  Cambridge 
Philosophical  Society  was  given  in  the  Hall  of  CUre 
College.  The  president  of  the  Society,  Prof.  Liveing, 
occupied  the  chair,  and  among  the  visitors  present  were 
Professors  Huxley,  Ramsay,  Tyndall,  Parker,  Burdon 
Sanderson,  Drs.  Giinther,  Wilks,  Pye  Smith,  Mr.  Francis 
Galton,  &C.  Prof.  Ramsay  proposed  the  toast  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  Prof.  Huxley  responded  to 
that  of  Mr.  Darwin,  who  was  unable  to  be  present  In 
his  speech  Prof.  Huxley  sarcastically  spoke  of  the  Uni- 
versity as  reserving  its  highest  honour  till  all  other 
distinctions  had  been  heaped  on  Mr.  Darwin,  that  its  own 
chaplet  might  crown  the  whole,  and  not  be  covered  up. 
Prof.  Huxley  spoke  of  Mr.  Darwin  as  the  foremost 
among  men  of  science,  with  one  exception,  since  the  days 
of  Aristotle. 

A  special  meeting  of  the  Philosophical  Society  is  to  be 
held  next  Monday  in  the  combination  room  of  Christ's 
College,  to  consider  the  best  means  of  making  a  permanent 
memorial  of  Mr.  Darwin  in  the  University.  Would  not 
a  Darwin  Professorship  of  General  Biology  be  a  vciy 
suitable  memorial  ? 


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NATURE 


65 


INTERNATIONAL  GEOLOGICAL  CONGRESS 

AT  the  late  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Dr. 
T.  Sterry  Hunt  presented  a  report  on  the  ahove  subject, 
of  which  at  the  time  we  gave  a  brief  note.  The  follo^nng 
extracts,  which  have  been  sent  us,  will  no  doubt  be  more 
satisfactory  to  geologists  : — 

"  The  committee  to  arrange  for  an  International  Geo- 
logical Exhibition  and  Congress,  to  be  held  in  Paris  in 
1878,,  was  appointed  by  this  Association  at  Buffalo  in 
August,  1876,  and  consisted  of  Messrs.  W.  B.  Rogers, 
James  Hall,  J.  W.  Dawson,  J.  S.  Newberry,  T.  Sterry 
Hunt,  R.  Pumpelly,  and  C.  H.  Hitchcock,  together  with 
T.  H.  Huxley  for  England,  O.  Torrcl  for  Sweden,  and 
£.  H.  von  Baumhauer  for  Holland.  At  a  meeting  of  the 
committee  at  Buffalo  on  August  25,  1876,  James  Hall  was 
chosen  chairman,  and  T.  Sterry  Hunt  secretary.  It  was 
then  agreed  to  prepare  a  circular  setting  forth  the  plan  of 
an  International  Geological  Exhibition,  which  should 
form  a  part  of  the  general  exhibition  to  be  held  at  Paris 
in  1878,  and  indicating  a  scheme  for  the  organisation  of 
the  geological  collections  to  be  sent  thereto  by  the  nations 
taking  a  part  in  that  exhibition,  and  moreover,  proposing 
an  International  Geological  Congress  to  be  held  at  Paris. 

"  The  circular  in  accordance  with  this  plan  was  duly 
prepared,  and  printed  in  English,  French,  and  German, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  year  had  been  sent  by  the 
secretary  to  the  principal  scientific  societies  and  academies, 
as  well  as  to  the  workers  in  geology  throughout  the 
world.  The  response  to  this  invitation  has  been  most 
gratifying.  The  Geological  Society  of  France  has  for- 
mally recognised  the  great  importance  of  the  objects 
proposed,  and  promised  its  hearty  co-operation,  while 
private  letters  from  its  president  to  the  secretary  of  the 
committee,  and  from  Prof.  Hubert  to  Prof.  Hall,  give 
cordial  assurances  of  the  same  kind.  Spanish  and  Italian 
geologists  have  translated  and  published  the  circular  in 
their  respective  languages,  and  have  communicated  to 
the  secretary  their  hearty  approval  of  the  plan.  Prof. 
Capellini  has,  in  this  connection,  published  an  interesting 
correspondence,  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  1874 
he  had  laid  the  project  of  a  similar  International  Geolo- 
gical Congress,  to  be  held  in  Italy,  before  the  Italian 
Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry,  and  Commerce. 

"  The  Geological  Society  of  London  and  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Great  Britain  have  also  formally  signified  their 
approval  of  our  objects,  and  the  co-operation  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  Russia,  and  Austro- Hungary,  is  promised.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  Germany  has  declined  to  take  a 
part  in  the  International  Exhibition  of  1878,  but  we  trust 
that  this  will  not  prevent  her  geologists  from  joining  in 
the  proposed  Congress.  The  director  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Japan  promises  to  aid  in  our  work,  and  we 
have  the  same  assurance  from  Brazil,  where  the  circular 
has  been  translated  into  Portuguese.  Chili  and  Mexico 
have  also  responded,  and  promise  an  ample  representa- 
tion of  their  geology  at  Paris  next  year ;  while  Canida, 
both  through  her  Geological  Survey  and  in  the  person  of 
Dr.  Dawson,  will  probably  be  represented  there. 

"The  Government  of  the  United  States  has  as  yet 
failed  to  accept  the  invitation  of  France  to  take  a  part  in 
the  Exhibition  of  1878,  so  that  American  geologists  are  not 
certain  that  they  will  be  able  to  participate  in  the  Interna- 
tional Geological  Exhibition  of  1878.  We  are,  however, 
assured  that  the  Government  is  very  desirous  to  have  our 
country  duly  represented  at  Paris  ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  at  the  approaching  extra  session  of  the  United  States 
Congress,  measures  will  be  taken  for  accepting  the  French 
invitation,  and  appointing  a  commission,  so  that  our 
people  may  secure  a  representation  in  Paris.  I  am 
assured,  on  all  sides,  that  our  geologists  desire  to  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  International  Geological  Exhibition, 
and  even  at  this  late  day  it  will  be  possible  to  do  much. 


In  any  event  it  is  probable  that  several  members  of  our 
committee  will  be  present  at  the  proposed  Geological 
Congress.  The  precise  date  of  this  has  not  yet  been 
fixed,  though  your  secretary  is  now  in  correspondence 
with  the  Secretary  of  the  Geological  Society  of  France 
upon  this  point,  and  believes  that  with  the  co-operation 
of  that  body  a  time  convenient  to  all  will  be  agreed 
upon. 

"  It  is  recommended  by  the  Standing  Committee  of  the 
Association  that,  in  addition  to  the  names  of  Prof.  J.  P. 
Lesley,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Prof.  A.  C.  Ramsay,  director 
of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  already  added 
to  the  International  Committee,  the  presidents  for  the 
time  being  of  the  Geological  Societies  of  France,  Lon- 
don, Edinburgh,  and  Dublin,  of  Berlin,  of  Belgium, 
Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  the  Imperial  Geological  In- 
stitute of  Vienna,  be  invited  to  form  part  of  our  Com- 
mission. T.  Sterry  Hunt 

"  Secretary  of  the  International  Conmiittee." 

Shortly  after  the  presentation  of  the  above  report,  the 
secretary  received  official  notice  that  the  Geological 
Society  of  France  had,  in  co-operation  with  the  above 
plan,  appointed  at  Paris  a  local  committee  of  organisa- 
tion for  the  proposed  Congress,  constituted  as  follows  : — 
Hubert,  President ;  Toumouer  and  Albert  Gaudry,  Vice- 
Presidents  ;  Bioche,  Treasurer ;  Jannetaz,  Secretary- 
General  ;  Delaire,  Sauvage,  Brocchi,  and  V^lain,  Secre- 
taries ;  with  the  following  :  Belgrand  Bureau,  de  Chan- 
courtois,  G.  Cotteau,  Damour,  Daubr^,  Delafosse, 
Delesse,  Descloizeaux,  Desnoyers,  Fougu^,  V.  Gervais, 
Gruner,  De  Lapparent,  Mallard,  Milne- Edwards,  Pellat, 
Marquis  de  Roys  and  L.  Vaillant,  Members .  of  the 
Committee.  * 

A  circular  issued  by  this  committee  bearing  date  July 
31,  invites  all  those  interested  in  geological,  mineralogical, 
and  paixontological  studies  to  take  part  in  the  approach- 
ing congress,  and  to  subscribe  the  sum  of  twelve  francs 
each,  which  will  give  a  card  of  admission  to  the  Congress, 
and  right  to  all  the  publications  thereof.  All  those  who 
intend  to  be  present  are  at  the  same  time  invited  to  send, 
as  soon  as  possible,  a  list  of  the  questions  which  seem  to 
them  worthy  of  general  discussion,  as  well  as  of  the 
communications  which  they  propose  to  make  touching 
these  questions.  They  are  also  invited  to  indicate  the 
date  which  appears  to  them  most  convenient  for  the 
meeting  of  the  Congress. 

As  regards  an  International  Geological  Exhibition,  the 
Paris  Committee  of  Organisation  state  that  the  difficulty 
of  finding  a  suitable  locality  seems  to  them  an  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  realising^  this  part  of  the  .programme.  They 
hope,  however,  that  there  will  be  many  special  collections 
sent,  and  beg  the  exhibitors  of  such  to  give  the  committee 
due  notice  of  these,  in  order  that  a  special  catalogue  of 
them  may  be  prepared. 

The  secretary  of  the  International  Cooimittee  desires, 
in  this  connection,  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  his 
circular  did  not  contemplate  the  holding  of  an  Inter- 
national GeologicU  Exhibition  apart  from  the  universal 
exhibition,  but,  in  the  language  of  that  circular,  the 
making  as  complete  as  possible  the  geolot^ical  depart ^nent 
of  the  universal  exhibition.  It  is  cenatn  that,  as  at  all 
previous  similar  exhibitions,  the  different  nations  will 
contribute  more  or  less  of  geological  material,  and  it  was 
conceived  that  such  collections,  extended  and  syste- 
matised  in  accordance  with  the  plan  set  forth  in  the 
circular,  would,  while  forming  a  part  of  the  universal 
exhibition,  without  farther  cost  meet  all  the  requirements 
of  an  International  Geological  Exhibition.  To  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  end  it  will  only  be  necessary  for 
the  exhibitors  of  all  nations  to  send  a  list  of  their  geolo- 
gical contributions  to  the  Locat  Committee  of  Organisation 
at  Paris. 

All  correspondence  relating  to  the  Congress  should  be 


K  2 


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{Nov.   22,   1877 


addressed  to  Dr.  Jannetaz,  S^cr^taire-g^n^ral,  rue  des 
Grands  Augustins,  7,  Paris,  France ;  and  all  moneys  sent 
to  Dr.  Biocbe,  at  the  same  address. 


THE  MODERN  TELESCOPE 

THE  gain  to  astronomy  from  the  discovery  of  the 
telescope  has  been  twofold.  We  have  first,  the  gain 
to  physical  astronomy  from  the  magnification  of  objects, 
and  secondly,  tlie  gain  to  astronomy  of  position  from  the 
magnification,  so  to  speak,  of  space,  which  enables  minute 
portions  of  it  to  be  most  accurately  (juantified. 

Looking  back,  nothing  is  more  cunous  in  the  history  of  ! 
astronomy  than  the  rooted  objection  which  Hevel  and 
others  showed  to  apply  the  telescope  to  the  pointers  and 
pinnules  of  the  instruments  used  in  their  day  ;  but  doubt-  ' 
less  we  must  look  for  the  explanation  of  this  not  only  in 


the  accuracy  to  which  observers  had  attained  by  the  old 
method,  but  in  the  rude  nature  of  the  telescope  itself  in 
the  early  times,  before  the  introduction  of  the  micrometer  ; 
the  modem  accuracy  has  been  arrived  at  step  by  step. 


Fig.  I.— a  portico  of  the  constdljuion  Gemini  teeo  w«h  the  naked  eye. 

Let  US  see  ^hat  the  telescope  does  for  us  in  the 
domain  of  that  grand  physical  astronomy  which  deals 
with  the  number  and  appearances  of  the  various  bodies 
which  people  space. 


^  Fic.  a. — ^The  &ame  region,  as  seeu  through  a  large  telescope. 


Let  us,  to  begin  with,  try  to  see  how  the  telescope  helps 
us  in  the  matter  of  observations  of  the  sun.  The  sun  is 
about  90,000,000  of  miles  away ;  suppose,  therefore, 
by  nrieans  of  a  telescope  reflecting  or  refracting,  whichever 
we  like,  we  use  an  eyepiece  which  will  magnify  say  900 
times,  we  obviously  bring  the  sun  within  100,000  miles  of 
us ;  that  is  to  say,  by  means  of  this  telescope,  we  can 
observe  the  sun  with  the  naked  eye  as  if  it  were  within 
100,000  miles  of  us.  One  may  say,  this  is  something,  but 
not  too  much  ;  it  is  only  about  half  as  far  as  the  moon  is 
from  us.  But  when  we  recollect  the  enormous  size  of  the 
sun,  and  that  if  the  centre  of  the  sun  occupied  the  centre 
of  our  earth  the  circumference  of  the  sun  would  extend 
considerably  beyond  the  orbit  of  the  moon,  then  one  must 
acknowledge  we  have  done  something  Ito  bring  the  sun 
within  half  the  distance  of  the  moon.  Suppose  for  looking 
at  the  moon  we  use  on  a  telescope  a  power  of  1,000,  that 
is  a  power  which  magnifies  1,000  times,  we  shall  bring  the 
moon  within  240  milts  of  us,  and  we  shall  be  able  to  see 


the  moon  with  a  telescope  of  that  magnifying  power  pretty 
much  as  if  the  moon  were  situated  somewhere  in 
Lancashire — Lancaster  being  about  240  miles  from 
London. 

It  might  appear  at  first  sight  possible  in  the  case  of  all 
bodies  to  magnify  the  image  formed  by  the  object-glass 
to  an  unlimited  extent  by  using  a  sufficiently  powerful  eye- 
piece. This,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  as  an  object  is 
magnified  it  is  spread  over  a  larger  portion  of  the  retina 
than  before ;  the  brightness,  therefore,  becomes  diminished 
as  the  area  increases,  and  this  takes  place  at  a  rate  equal 
to  the  square  of  the  increase  in  diameter.  If,  therefore, 
we  require  an  object  to  be  largely  magnified  we  must  pro- 
duce an  image  sufficiently  bright  to  biar  such  magnifica- 
tion ;  this  means  that  we  must  use  an  object- glass  or 
speculum  of  large  diameter.  Again,  in  observing  a  very 
faint  object,  such  as  a  nebula  or  comet,  we  cannot,  by 
decreasing  the  power  of  the  eye-piece,  increase  the  bright- 
ness to  an  unlimited  extent,  for  as  the  power  decreases. 


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the  focal  length  of  the  eye-piece  also  increases,  and  the 
eye-piece  has  to  be  larger,  the  emergent  pencil  is  then 
larger  than  the  pupil  of  the  eye  and  consequently  a 


portion  of  the  rays  of  the  cone  from  each  point  of  the 
object  is  wasted. 
We  get  an  immense  gain  to  physical  astronomy  by  the 


Fig.  3. — Orion  and  the  neighbouring  constellations. 


revelations  of  the  fainter  objects  which,  without  the  tele- 
scope, would  have  remained  invisible  to  us  ;  but,  as  we 
know,  as  each  large  telescope  has  exceeded  preceding 
ones  in  illummating  power,  the  former  bounds  of  the 
visible  creation  have  been  gradually  extended,  though 
even  now  we  cannot  be  said  to  have  got  beyond  certain 
small  limits,  for  there  are  others  beyond  the  region  which 
the  most  powerful  telescope  reveals  to  us  ;  though  we 
have  got  only  into  the  surface  we  have  increased  the 
3,000  or  6,000  stars. visible  to  the  naked  eye  to  something 
Uke  twenty  millions.    This  space-penetrating  ponver  of  i 


the  telescope,  as  it  is  called,  depends  on  the  principle  that 
whenever  the  image  formed  on  the  retina  is  less  than 
sufficient  to  appear  of  an  appreciable  size  the  light  is 
apparently  spread  out  by  a  purely  physiological  action 
until  the  image,  say  of  a  star,  appears  of  an  appreciable 
diameter,  and  the  effect  on  the  retina  of  such  small  points 
of  light  is  simply  proportionate  .to  the  amount  of  light 
received,  whether  the  eye  be  assisted  bv  the  telescope  or 
not ;  the  stars  always,  except  when  sufficiently  bright  to 
form  diffraction  rings,  appearing  of  the  same  size.  It 
therefore  happens  that  as  the   apertures   of  telescopes 


Fig.  4.— llie  Nebula  of  Orion,  reduced  from  Lord  Rosse's  Drawing. 


increase,  and  with  them  the  amount  of  light  (the  eye- 
pieces being  sufficiently  powerful  to  cause  ail  the  light  to 
enter  the  eye),  smaller  and  smaller  stars  become  visible, 


while  the  larger  stars  appear  to  g^t  br^hter  and  brighter 
without  increasing  in  size,  the  image  of  the  brightest  star 
with  the  highest  power,  if  we  neglect  rays  and  diffraction 


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[Nov.   22,   1877 


ringSy  being  really  much  smaller  than  the  apparent  size 
due  to  physiological  effects,  and  of  this  latter  size  every 
star  must  appear. 

The  accompanying  woodcuts  of  a  region  in  the  con- 
stellation of  Gemini  as  seen  with  the  naked  eye  and  with 
a  powerful  telescope  will  give  a  better  idea  than  mere 
language  can  do  of  the  effect  of  this  so-called  space- 
penetrating  power. 

With  nebulae  and  comets  matters  are  different,  for 
these,  even  with  small  telescopes  and  low  powers,  often 
occupy  an  appreciable  space  on  the  retina.  On  increasing 
the  aperture  we  must  also  increase  the  power  of  the  eye- 
piece, in  order  that  the  more  divergent  cones  of  light 
from  each  point  of  the  image  shall  enter  the  pupil,  and 
therefore  increase  the  area  on  the  retina,  over  which  the 
increased  amount  of  light,  due  to  greater  aperture,  is 
spread  ;  the  brightness,  therefore,  is  not  increased,  unless 
indeed  we  were  at  the  first  using  an  unnecessary  high 
power.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  lengthen  the  focus  of 
the  object-glass  and  increase  its  aperture  the  divergence 
of  the  cones  of  light  is  not  increased  and  the  eye-piece 
need  not  be  altered,  but  the  image  at  the  focus  of  the 
object-glass  is  increased  in  size  by  the  increase  of  focal 
length,  and  the  image  on  the  retina  also  increases  as  in 
the  last  case.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  no  comet 
or  nebula  of  appreciable  diameter,  as  seen  through  a  tele- 
scope having  an  eye-piece  of  just  such  a  focal  length  as 
to  admit  all  the  rays  to  the  eye,  can  be  made  brighter  by 
any  increase  of  power,  although  it  may  easily  be  made  to 
appear  larger. 

Very  beautiful  drawings  of  the  nebula  of  Orion  and  of 
other  nebulae,  as  seen  by  Lord  Rosse  in  his  6-foot 
reflector,  and  by  the  American  astronomers  with  their 
26-inch  refractor,  have  been  g^ven  to  the  world. 

The  magnificent  nebula  of  Orion  is  scarcely  visible  to 
the  naked  eye  ;  one  can  just  see  it  glimmering  on  a  fine 
night ;  but  when  a  powerful  telescope  is  used  it  is  by  far 
the  most  glorious  object  of  its  class  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, and  surpassed  only  by  that  surrounding  the 
variable  star  17  ArgCis  in  the  southern.  And  although,  of 
course,  the  beauty  and  vastness  of  this  stupendous  and 
remote  object  increase  with  the  increased  power  of  the 
instrument  brought  to  bear  upon  it,  a  large  aperture  is 
not  needed  to  render  it  a  most  impressive  and  awe- 
inspiring  object  to  the  beholder.  In  an  ordinary  5-foot 
achromatic  many  of  its  details  are  to  be  seen  under 
favourable  atmospheric  conditions. 

Those  who  are  desirous  of  studying  its  appearance,  as 
seen  in  the  most  powerful  telescopes,  are  referred  to  the 
plate  in  Sir  John  HericheFs  "  Results  of  Astronomical 
Observations  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,**  in  which  all  its 
features  are  admiraUy  delineated,  and  the  positions  of 
150  stars  which  surround  B  in  the  area  occupied  by  the 
nebula  laid  down.  In  Fig.  4  it  is  represented  in  great 
detail,  as  seen  with  the  included  small  stars,  all  of  which 
have  been  mapped  with  reference  to  their  positions  and 
brightness.  This,  then,  comes  from  that  power  of  the 
telescope  which  simply  makes  it  a  sort  of  large  eye.  We 
may  measure  the  illuminating  power  of  the  telescope  by  a 
reference  to  the  size  of  our  own  eye.  If  one  takes  the 
pupil  of  an  ordinary  eye  to  be  something  like  the  fifth  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  which  in  some  cases  is  an  extreme 
estimate  we  shall  find  that  its  area  would  be  roughly  about 
one-thirtieth  part  of  an  inch.  If  we  take  Lord  Rosse's 
speculum  of  six  feet  in  diameter  the  area  will  be  some- 
thing like  4,000  inches  ;  and  if  we  multiply  the  two  to- 
gether we  shall  find,  if  we  lose  no  light,  we  should  get 
120,000  times  more  light  from  Lord  Rosses  telescope 
than  we  do  from  our  unaided  eye,  everything  supposed 
perfect 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  what  this  means  ;  let  us 
take  a  case  in  point  Suppose  that  owing  to  imperfec- 
tions in  reflection  and  other  matters  two-thirds  of  the  light 
is  lost  so  that  the  eye  teceives  40,000  times  the  amount 


given  by  the  unaided  vision,  then  a  sixth  magnitude  star — 
a  star  just  visible  to  the  naked  eye — would  have  40,000 
times  more  light,  and  it  might  be  removed  to  a  distance 
200  times  as  great  as  it  at  present  is  and  still  be  visible 
in  the  field  of  the  telescope  just  as  it  at  present  is  to  the 
unaided  eye.  Can  we  judge  how  far  off  the  stars  are  that 
are  only  just  visible  with  Lord  Rosse's  instrument  ?  Light 
travels  at  the  rate  of  185,000  miles  a  second,  and  from  the 
neatest  star  it  takes  some  3^  years  for  light  to  reach  us, 
and  we'  shall  be  within  bounds  when  we  say  that  it  will 
take  light  300  years  to  reach  us  from  many  a  sixth  magni- 
tude star. 

But  we  may  remove  this  star  200  times  further  away  and 
yet  see  it  with  the  telescope,  so  that  we  can  probably  see 
stars  so  far  off  that  light  takes  60,000  years  to  reach  us, 
and  when  we  gaze  at  the  heavens  at  night  we  are  viewing 
the  stars  not  as  they  are  at  that  moment,  but  as  they  were 
years  or  even  hundreds  of  years  ago,  and  when  we  call  to 
our  assistance  the  telescope  tlfe  years  become  thousands 
and  tens  of  tkousands— expressed  in  miles  these  distances 
become  too  great  for  the  imagination  to  grasp ;  yet  we 
actually  look  into  this  vast  abyss  of  space  and  see  the 
laws  of  gravitation  holding  good  there,  and  calculate  the 
orbit  of  one  star  about  another. 

J.  Norman  Lockyer 

( To  hi  continued. ) 

ZOOLOGICAL  GARDENS^ 
T^HE  lists  and  reports  of  the  various  zoological  gardens 
^  now  before  us  show  that  much  progress  has  lately 
been  made  by  these  as  by  other  institutions  connected 
with  natural  history.  For  though  zoological  gardens  are 
looked  upon  by  many  as  a  simple  form  of  amusement 
there  can  be  no  question  that,  when  rightly  conducted, 
they  are  not  only  mstructive  in  the  highest  degree,  but 
also  tend  materially  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  higher 
branches  of  natural  science.  All  persons,  therefore,  who 
take  an  interest  in  the  progress  of  science  will  be  glad  to 
see  the  number  of  zoological  gardens  increasing  among 
the  dependencies  of  this  country  and  in  other  States. 

Of  the  first  of  the  five  works  on  our  list  we  need  say 
but  little.  The  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London,  in  the  Regent's  Park,  are  too  well  known  to 
most  of  our  readers  to  require  a  lengthened  notice.  The 
chief  additions  to  their  unrivalled  menagerie  are  recorded 
every  week  in  our  columns.  The  volume  now  before  us 
contains  a  catalogue  of  all  the  species  of  vertebrated 
animals,  of  which  examples  have  betn  exhibited  during 
the  past  fifteen  years,  arranged  in  systematic  order.  The 
various  specimens  are  distinguished  by  letters,  and  the 
date  and  mode  of  acquisition  of  each  individual  are  added. 
Thirty-five  woodcuts,  most  of  which  have  originally 
appeared  in  the  Society's  Proceedint^s^  illustrate  some  of 
the  more  remarkable  forms.  The  result  shows  that  from 
the  commencement  of  the  year  1861  to  the  close  of  1875, 
there  have  been  obtained  for  the  collection  in  the  Regent's 
Park,  examples  of  no  less  than  2,143  species  of  vertebrated 
animals.  Of  these  570  were  mammals,  1,224  birds,  227, 
reptiles,  39  batrachians,  and  83  fishes. 

The  catalogue  of  the  animals  in  the  newly-established 
Zoological  Gardens  at  Calcutta,  concerning  the  foundation 
and  progress  of  which  we  have  written  at  full  length  not 
long  since, ^  is  next  upon  our  list     It  is  drawn  up  after 

^  (t)  List  of  Vertebrated  Animals  now  or  lately  living  in  the  Gardens  of 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London,  bixth  £dition.  1877.  (London: 
Longmans). 

(a)  List  of  Vertebrated  Animals  living  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  Calcutta. 
April,  1877.     Printed  at  the  Bengal  Secretarial  Press.     1877.     8vo. 

(3)  A  Guide  to  the  People  s  Park,  Madras,  with  a  description  of  the 
Zoological  Collection  contained  therein.  (Madras :  Higgiubotham  and  Co  . 
1876) 

(4)  The  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Zoological 
Sotiety  of  Philadelphia.  Kcad  at  the  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Members  and 
Loanholders  q1  the  Society,  April  26,  1877.    8vo.     (Philadelphia,  1877  ) 

(s)  Report  of  the  Director  01  the  Cential  I'ark  Menag<>rie.  Depanment  of 
Public  Pa'ks,  City  of  New  York,  for  year  1876.  (New  York,  1877 :  a  M. 
Lees.  Priater,  a  10,  Fulton  Street. ) 

'  Natukb,  vol.  xvi.  p.  aS, 


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the  fashion  of  the  preceding,  and  has  been  prepared  by 
Dr.  John  Anderson,  the  Superintendent  of  the  Imperial 
Museum  at  Calcutta.  It  shows  that  though  so  recently 
in  actual  operation  these  gardens  have  already  made  con- 
siderable progress,  and  are  able  to  show  a  good  series  of 
the  better-known  Indian  animals  for  the  instruction  and 
amusement  of  the  Calcutta  public.  Amongst  others  we 
may  notice  the  Indian  Otter  {Lutra  Up f onyx)  and  the 
Isabelline  Bear,  as  animals  which  have  not  yet  reached 
the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London.  Alto- 
gether there  are  77  species  of  mammals  in  the  collection, 
120  of  birds,  and  17  of  reptiles. 

The  "  Guide  to  the  People's  Park  "  shows  that  Madras 
does  not  intend  to  be  left  behind  the  sister-city  of  Calcutta, 
and  that  she  too  will  have  a  zoological  garden.  As  its  name 
imports,  this  little  work  is  more  of  the  nature  of  a  "  Guide  " 
than  a  Catalogue.  It  appears  that  Madras  is  indebted  to  Sir 
Charles  Trevelyan  for  the  People's  Park.  Prior  to  1 859  the 
plot  of  ground  which  it  now  occupies  formed  ''an  im- 
mense swamp."  In  that  year  the  enlightened  governor 
of  the  day  first  suggested,  and  subsequently  put  into 
execution,  the  conversion  of  it  into  a  park  of  about  1 16 
English  acres.  (How  glad  would  be  the  Council  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London  to  have  such  an  area  at  their 
disposal !)  The  collection  of  animals  does  not  yet,  it  is 
true,  appear  to  be  very  extensive  ;  but  space,  at  any  rate, 
does  not  fail  them,  and  there  is,  at  all  events,  plenty  of 
room  for  additions,  which  cannot  be  ssud  of  some  of  the 
sister  institutions. 

We  must  now  turn  to  the  western  hem-sphere,  and  see 
what  our  Anglo-Saxon  relatives  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Atlantic  have  done  in  the  way  of  zoological  gardens.  In 
this  matter,  we  must  say,  our  usually  energetic  cousins 
seem  to  have  moved  a  little  slowly.  Such  vast  and 
wealthy  populations  as  those  of  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia might  well  have  started  zoological  gardens  for 
the  instruction  and  amusement  of  their  citizens  years  ago, 
and  they  would  by  this  have  been  in  possession  of  well- 
organised  institutions.  But  although  the  subject  has 
been  mooted  in  both  these  cities  for  many  years,  it  is 
only  within  these  last  few  years,  we  believe,  that  anything 
very  practical  has  been  effected. 

The  Zoological  Garden  of  New  York  forms  a  part  of 
the  Central  Park  of  that  city,  and  the  report  now  before 
us  is  addressed  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Conklin,  the  director,  to 
the  Board  of  Commissioners  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Parks  of  New  York.  It  gives  us  an  account  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Zoological  Garden  during  the  year  1876,  and  not 
apparently  a  very  satisfactorv  one — ^since  a  reduction  of 
the  sum  usurily  appropriated  (by  the  City  of  New  York, 
we  presume)  to  the  Park  was  made  that  year,  which 
rendered  it  impossible  to  keep  up  the  Gardens  on  their 
usual  footing.  It  was  resolved  "  not  to  receive  any  animal 
for  exhibition  in  the  menagerie  unless  the  owner  furnished 
the  necessary  food."  This  measure  and  the  diminution 
of  the  sum  expended  in  new  purchases  seem  to  have 
caused  a  sad  decrease  in  the  number  of  animals  exhibited 
in  1876.  In  spite  of  this  the  number  of  visitors  was  larger 
than  in  any  previous  year,  which,  however,  is  accounted 
for  by  the  concourse  of  visitors  passing  through  New  York 
to  and  from  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia. 

While  the  Zoological  Gardtn  of  New  York  is  kept  up 
out  of  pubiic  moneys  that  at  Philadelphia  is,  like  ours  in 
London,  the  property  of  a  private  society,  and  appears  to 
be  in  a  much  more  flourishing  condition.  Here  the  ''  Cen- 
tennial "  told  still  more  largely  on  the  number  of  visitors 
than  at  New  York,  raising  them  to  a  grand  total  of  more  than 
600,000  for  the  year  ending  April  30  last.  The  extra  receipts 
from  this  source  have  not  only  enabled  the  society  to  make 
many  important  additions  to  its  menagerie,  but  also  to 
spend  a  considerable  sum  in  improvements  and  new  build- 
ings. Amongst  the  latter  we  notice  "  a  house  for  the 
accommodation  of  warm-climated  (!)  hay-eating  animals" 
^qu.  zebras  and  antelopes  ?)  now  under  construction  at  an 


estimated  cost  of  18,000  dollars,  which  will  apparently 
exceed  in  dimensions  even  the  new  lion-house  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London.  This  is  pretty  well  for  a 
society  only  now  issuing  its  fifth  annual  report.  It  is 
evident  that  in  zoological  gardens,  as  in  other  scientific 
institutions,  Philadelphia  means  to  *'  go-ahead "  of  her 
more  populous  neighbour. 

NOTES 

We  take  the  foUovdng  from  the  Tinus  : — ^The  Royal  Society 
medals  for  the  present  year  have  been  awarded  by  the  President  snd 
the  Council  as  follows : — The  Copley  Medal  to  Prof.  James  D  wight 
Dana,  for  his  biological,  geological,  and  mineralogical  investiga- 
tions, carried  on  through  half  a  century,  and  for  the  valuable  works 
in  which  his  conclusions  and  discoveries  have  been  published.  A 
Royal  Medal  to  Mr.  Frederick  Augustus  Abel,  F.R.S.,  for  his 
physico-chemical  researches  on  gun-cotton  and  explosive  agents. 
A  Royal  Medal  to  Vsot  Oswald  Heer,  of  Zurich,  for  his  nume- 
rous researches  and  writings  on  the  tertiary  plants  of  Europe,  of 
the  North  Atlantic,  North  Asia,  and  North  America,  and  for  his 
able  generalisations  respecting  their  affinities  and  their  geological 
and  climatic  relations  ;  and  the  Davy  Medal  to  Robert  Wilhelm 
Bunsen  and  Gustav  Robert  Ktrchhoff,  for  their  researches  and 
discoveries  in  spectrum  analysis.  This  is  the  first  award  of  the 
Davy  medal,  which,  as  will  be  remembered,  was  founded  by  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  service  of  silver  plate  bequeathed  for 
the  purpose  by  Sir  Humphry  Davy.  The  medals  will  be  pre- 
sented at  the  Society's  anniversary  meeting  on  the  30th  inst 

A  FEW  days  ago  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  by 
a  decree  which  has  not  yet  been  published,  appointed  a  Com- 
mission to  deliberate  with  the  members  of  the  council  of  the 
Observatory  of  Paris,  as  to  the  improvements  which  are  pos« 
sible  in  the  organbation  of  the  establishment  without  inter- 
fering with  existing  decrees.  Among  the  commissioners  arc 
Dr.  Janssen,  Director  of  the  Meudon  Physical  Observatory,  M. 
Herv^  Mangon,  President  of  the  Meteorological  Society  of 
France,  and  M.  Marie  Davy,  the  Director  of  the  Montsouris 
Observatory.  M.  Yvon  Villarceau  and  M.  Loewy  have  been 
appointed  as  councillors.  The  first  meeting  of  the  Commission 
took  place  last  Saturday,  under  the  presidency  of  M.  Dumesnil, 
one  of  the  heads  of  the  ministry,  representing  M.  Bruntt.  M. 
Yvon  Villarceau,  the  astronomer  delegate,  read  a  long  and 
elaborate  report  on  the  impiovements  which  it  was  considered 
desirable  to  make  in  the  establishment.  The  Commission  came 
to  no  decision,  and  the  meeting  adjourned  to  Saturday,  Dec.  i. 
Some  of  the  members  are  desirous  of  separating  the  meteoro- 
logical  department  from  the  observatory,  and  either  transfer  it 
to  Montsouris  or  establish  a  Meteorological  Institute ;  to  accom- 
plish this  long  desired  change  it  would  be  necessary  to  suppress 
the  decrees  signed  by  M.  Thiers  and  approved  by  M.  Leverrier. 
The  intentions  of  the  Government  are  not  to  alter  radically  the 
existing  state  of  things,  which  works  satisractorily,  but  to  im- 
prove it  as  far  as  po&sible.  Public  opinion  is  strongly  in  favour 
of  the  organisation  consecrated  by  M.  Leverriec's  administratiotl. 

Two  volumes  of  the  French  Transit  of  Venus  Reports  are  now 
going  through  the  press,  and  will  be  distributed  in  a  very  few 
days.  The  first  is  a  compu  rendu  of  the  m'ssion  in  China,  com- 
manded by  Capt  Fieurian.  The  second  \&9^proch  vtrbal  of  the 
sittings  of  the  Transit  Commission,  which  was  presided  over  by 
M.  Dames.  It  is  known  that  M.  Leverrier  abstained  from  being 
present  at  its  deliberations,  the  illustrioui  astronomer  beinj  one 
of  the  few  opponents  of  the  transit  observation.  He  preferred 
the  opposition  of  Mars  or  direct  measurements  as  taken  by 
Cornu  in  his  experiments  on  the  velocity  of  light. 

Thb  French  Government  intends  to  send  out  an  expedition  to 
San  Francisco  in  order  to  observe  the  next  transit  of  Mercury, 
which  will  take  place  on  May  6,  1878. 


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[Nov.   2  2,     1877 


At  the  meeting  of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  Novem- 
ber 12,  M.  Faye  presented  the  volume  of  the  "  Connaissance  des 
Temps  "  for  1879.  This  publication  has  reached,  according  to 
M.  Faye,  the  hijjhest  degree  of  perfection  desirable,  and  the  new 
>o1iime  is  marked  by  two  important  improvements  both  dde  to  M. 
Loewy.  The  fir»t  consists  in  a  new  method  which  enables  longi- 
tades  to  be  calculated  according  to  occultations  of  stars  by  the 
moon,  and  that  with  such  facility  that  sailors  will  make  use  of 
them  with  great  benefit.  The  second  improvement  consists  in 
tables  which  enables  the  latitude  to  be  obtained  by  observation 
of  the  polar. 

The  death  of  von  Baer  has  made  a  foreign  associateship 
in  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  vacant,  and  MM.  Bertrand, 
Fizeau,  Bccquerel  p^re,  Claude  Bernard,  Dumas,  and  H.  St- 
Claire  Deville,  have  been  appointed  a  commission  to  prepare  a 
list  of  candidates  for  the  vacant  **  fauteuil" 

A  PRIZE  of  1,000  marks  (50/. )  is  offered  through  Dr.  Her- 
mann J.  Klein,  of  Co  ogne,  for  the  best  treatise  on  "The 
Development  of  Monistic  Philosophy  from  Spinoza  down  to  the 
Present  Time."  The  treatise  must  be  written  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, and  must  contain  a  complete  account  of  the  relation  of 
Spinoza  to  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  a  description  of  the  progress 
and  changes  in  the  monistic  theory  brought  about  by  Leibniz, 
Schopenhauer,  Lazarus  Geiger,  and  Ludwig  Noir^,  and  a  clear 
definition  of  the  differences  between  the  matenalistic  and  monistic 
theories.  All  details  can  be  obtained  fiom  Dr.  Klein.  The 
term  up  to  which  treatises  wi.l  be  received  is  fixed  for  July  30, 
1878. 

Bv  a  recent  will,  M.  Miujean  has  bequeathed  to  the  French 
Institute  the  capital  producing  a  sum  of  1,200  francs,  designed  to 
form  a  biennial  prize  of  2,000  francs,  to  be  awarded  alternately  by 
the  Academic  Fran9aise,  and  by  the  Academic  des  Sciences.  To 
obtain  it  of  the  latter,  it  is  necessary  to  have  publbhed  the  work 
which  shall  be  pronounced  the  most  useful  to  hygiene,  con- 
sidered in  all  its  branches. 

The  Berlin  Aquarium  suffered,  on  November  '13,  the  loss  of 
what  was  certainly,  from  a  scientific  and  from  a  financial  stand- 
point, the  most  valuable  zoological  specimen  in  Europe,  viz., 
the  famous  gorilla  Pongo,  whose  human-like  form  and  playful 
antics  became  so  familiar  to  Londoners  during  the  past  summer. 
The  visit  to  England,  and  stay  in  its  warm  moist  climate,  was 
regArJed  as  having  had  the  best  effect  on  Pongo*s  health,  when  he 
returned  to  Berlin  on  September  21,  and  there  was  every  pros- 
pect of  the  animal's  being  able  to  live  through  his  S4*cond  northern 
winter.  Five  meekt  later,  a  lessening  of  appetite  and  sligh 
diarrhoea  were  observed,  but  were  not  trgarded  by  the  physician 
ms  of  sufficient  importance  to  prevent  Pongo's  appearance  in  public. 
The  consternation  was  great  when  a  few  days  later,  the  gorilla  died 
•uddcnly,  without  any  apparent  increase  of  dangerous  symptoms. 
The  loss  to  the  Berlin  Aquarium  is  no  small  one,  as  it  had  lately 
refused  an  offer  of  2,500/.  for  the  animal,  and,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  late  deaths  of  their  orang-outang  and  chimpanzee, 
will  check  somewhat  the  tendency  to  invest  capital  in  anthro- 
poidal  apes.  Not  less  severe  is  the  loss  to  the  scientific  public, 
for  no  animal  of  Ute  years  has  so  attracted  the  attention  ot 
zoologisu  as  Pongo^  and  theorists  were  looking  forward  with  no 
slight  degree  of  interest  to  the  possibilities  connected  with  his 
growth  and  education.  After  a  dissection,  which  will  probably 
reveal  the  cause  of  the  sadden  death,  the  ikin  will  be  handed 
over  to  the  Berlin  Anatomical  Museum. 

We  have  received  from  Dr.  Aguilar  the  annual  volume  of  the 
Observatory  of  Madrid  for  the  last  year,  1876.  It  is  a  little 
late  in  the  day,  bat  we  may  call  attention  to  the  long  and  inter- 
esting article  on  geographical  discovery  with  which  the  book 
terminates,  seeing  that  that  commences  so  early,  '*  2400  (?)  afios 
A.  des  J.  C,    DitpenioQ  de  las  gentes  detpues  del  Deluvio. 


Del  caos  consiguiente  a  tan  immensa  catdstrofe  surgen   d  poco 
tiempo  los  tres  grandes  reinos  de  Babilonia,  Ninive  y  Egipto." 

Already  studied  by  two  geologists,  the  Crimean  penhisiik 
has  been  recently  visited  by  M.  Ernest  Favre,  of  Geneva.  M. 
Hebert  presented  to  the  Paiis  Academy  of  Sciences,  on  Not.  12, 
the  results  of  this  new  examination,  consisting  of  numercras 
sections  on  a  very  complete  map. 

Hachette  and  Ca  are  about  to  publish  an  importsnt 
work  of  reference  in  Chemistry  containing  such  important 
matter  as  the  coefficients  of  dilatation,  the  specific  weight  of 
vapours,  refrigerating  mixtures,  numerical  documents  on  quali- 
tative, quantitative,  and  spectral  analysis,  &c  We  may  state 
that  the  Smithsonian  Institution  are  about  to  publish  a  similar 
work. 

There  are  now  "  on  view "  at  the  Westminster  Aqnarfam 
four  Laplanders>-two  men  and  two  women — ^H'ho  have    with 
them  reindeer,  dogs,  an  Arctic  fox,  a  tent,  sledges,  and  nomeroos 
articles  of  dress  of  home  manufacture.     They  have  been  broaght 
to  England  by  Mr.  Carl  Bock,  through  the  enterprise  of  Mr. 
Farini,  so  well  known  as  the  **  inventor**  of  Lulu's  "upward 
bound,**  Zazel's  **  lightning  flight,**  and  Maraz's  **  eagle  swoop.** 
Any  entertainment  announced  by  one  whose  greatest  successes 
hitherto  have  been  to  puzzle  the  public  as  to  *'  how  it  is  done  " 
will  naturally  be  li  oked  upon  with  the  same  kind  of  suspicion 
that  was  bestowed   on  the  "  Egyptians  **  in  the  recent  Lord 
Mayor*s  show.     In  some  cases  the  public  enjoys  being  puzzled, 
and  this  adds  a  zest  to  the  enterprises  of  those  who  devise  how 
to  puzzle  them.     In  the  case  of  these  Laplanders  there  does  not 
appear  to  be  the  slightest  ground  for  any  suspicion  p.s  to  genuine- 
ness.    It  will   be  recollected  that   Mr.   Farini's  whale  at  the 
aquarium  was  genuine,  and  when  the  post-mortem  was  held  under 
the  direction  of  Prof.  Flower  it  was  shown  beyond  doubt  that  it 
was  not  made  of  vulcanite  and  kept  going  by  clock-woik  as  was 
popularly  supposed.     We  draw  attention  to  the  visit  of  these 
Laps  becatise  there  is  much  of  interest  to  be  learnt  from  seeing 
them,  and  we  do  so  with  all  the  greater  pleasure  because  the 
aquarium,  looked  at  from  a  scientific  point  of  view,  has  fallen 
from  its  high  estate.     We  cannot  pretend  to  make  ii  a  oom« 
plaint  that  ic  is  in  the  evening  practically  a  lai^  music  hall  with 
a  miscellaneous  entertainment  by  comic  performers  and  sword 
swallowers.     The  place  cannot  be  kept  open  without  money, 
and  if  the  public  will  not  pay  to  go  to  an  aquarium  pure  and' 
simple,  the  management  must  provide  what  the  public  will  take 
to,  or  bhut  up  the  place.     But  what  we  fear  is  that  the  manage- 
ment has  been  too  much  neglecting  that  part  of  the  public,  the 
minority  certainly,  who  do  care  for  an  aquarium.     Occasionally, 
especially  during  the  control  of  Mr.  Canington,  the  aquarium 
has  been  in  good  order  and  well-stocked.     It  is  again  getting 
very  unsatisfactory,  perhaps  because  Mr.  Carringtonis  in  Naples. 
We  gladly  mentioned  such  recent  improvements  as  throwing 
several  tanks  into  one  to  make  a  place  for  large  fUh,  and  the 
removal  of  the  seals  to  the  whale  tank,  where  their  gambols  in 
swimming  can  be  better  seen,  and  we  have  on  several  occasions 
recorded  interesting  arrivals,  and  if  we  could  honestly  do  so  we 
would  gladly  recommend  the  tanks  generally  as  affording  a  good 
oppoitunity  for  studying  the  habits  of  the  occupants.     Tho^h 
the  Laps  are  not  especially  connected  with  aquarium  objects  ttie 
building  affords  a  centrally  located  home  for  them.     The  per-      ' 
foimance,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  through  which  they  (;o,  is  an 
illustration  of  their  quiet  life,  and  happily  there  is  no  attempt  to 
make  it  sensational     They  show,  among  other  things,  how  rein* 
deer  sinew  is  worked  into  a  continuoiis  thread,  a  process  of 
interest  to  those  who  have  examined  collections  from  bone  caves 
containing  implements  w  hich  it  is  believed  wtre  used  either  with 
such  threads  or  strips  of  reindeer  hide.     The  size  of  some  of  the 
eyes  of  the  bone  needles  is  more  suggestive  of  thread  than  stript. 
Their  monotonous  singing  on  the  syllables  vta  wa  wo,  if  aot 


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beautiful,  has  an  interest  of  its  own  as  representing  their  secular 
mnsiCy  especially  when  contrasted  with  their  capability  for  singing 
Lutheran  hymns.  Schaferius  gives  the  translation  of  some  of 
their  love  songs.  Have  these  died  out  since  his  time?  Mr. 
Bock  says  they  have  no  secular  songs.  We  are  glad  to  know 
that  the  Zoological  Society  has  given  a  friendly  hand  to  Mr. 
Farini  in  offering  a  temporary  home  to  five  of  his  reindeer 
in  the  gardens.  Mr.  Bock  states  that  the  place  from  which  he 
brought  the  party  is  Kantokeino,  N.  69'f,  £.  22*56. 

A  REPORT  has  recently  been  presented  to  the  State  Board  ot 
Health  ia  Massachusetts  by  Dr.  Nichols,  regarding  the  health 
of  people  who  woik  with  sewing  machines.  From  observations 
by  the  medical  men  engaged  it  is  inferred  that  a  healthy  person  of 
average  strength  who  does  not  make  a  business  of  sewing  with  the 
machine,  may  work  from  three  to  four  hours  daily  without  much 
fatigue  or  perceptible  injury  to  health.  Among  work  people,  on 
the  other  hand,  one  frequently  meets  with  disorders  of  digestion, 
due  to  sedentary  life  and  bad  ventilation,  also  pains  in  the 
muscles  of  the  trunk  and  the  loiter  limbs,  because  these  latter 
are  always  in  motion.  There  occur  also  congestions  of  the 
ventral  organs,  weakness,  and  in  some  rare  cases  neuralgias  of  the 
legs  and  spinal  irritations.  It  is  recommended  to  the  proprietors 
of  works  in  which  the  sewing  machine  is  used,  to  have  (i)  a  good 
ventilation ;  (2)  a  shorter  time  for  woik,  with  periods  of  rest ;  (3) 
another  motor  force  than  that  of  the  feet,  e,g,^  a  steam  engine. 

An  Indo-Chinese  Society  has  just  been  formed  in  Paris  for 
promoting  the  study  of  Transgangetic  India  and  developing  the 
trade  of  France  in  that  region. 

The  Juvenile  Christmas  Lecture  at  the  Society  of  Arts  will  be 
by  Prof.  Bariff,  on  "  Coal  and  iU  Components." 

The  MoniUur  Unwersd  publbhes  an  article  on  the  manufac- 
ture of  types  for  printing  with  hardened  glass  {verrt  trempi). 
It  appears  that  the  new  types  have  worked  admirably  on  the 
improved  revolving  press  for  continuous  paper. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mdlle.  Henrietta  Cerf,  who  was 
bom  in  Jamaica  in  1810^  and  died  in  Brussels  on  the  22nd  ult. 
Mdlle.  Cer^  who  for  some  yeats  resided  near  Dinant,  communi- 
cated various  articles  on  the  botany  of  Kent  and  Bslgiuin  to  the 
PhytologisL 

Prince  Bismarck's  study  at  Varein  has  been  connected  with 
the  Foreign  Office  at  Berlm  by  a  telephonic  apparatus.  The 
demand  for  these  instruments  is  said  to  be  immense  in  Germany. 

A  MONK  of  the  monastery  of  Raigern,  between  Brann  and 
Vienna,  has  completed  a  very  curious  mechanical  work,  a 
self-moving  terrestrial  globe,  fourteen  metres  in  diameter.  A 
combination  of  wheels  effects  a  revolution  similar  to  that  of  the 
earth,  and  which  lasts  for  three  weeks.  At  the  axis  of  the  Noith 
Pole  there  are 'dials  which  indicate  the  days,  months,  &c. ;  above 
this  axis  is  another  smaller  globe  which  shows  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  around  the  sun.  The  large  globe  is  set  in  motion  by  a 
dozen  wheels.  This  ingenious  mechanism  has  cost  ten  years' 
labour,  and^has  only  been  achieved  after  many  experiments.  A 
map  drawn  upon  the  globe  shows  geographical  details,  and 
includes  the  most  recent  discoveries,  routes  of  steamers,  railways, 
telegraphs,  mountain-heights,  depths  of  the  sea,  &c. 

We  have  received  a  reduced  photo-electrotype  facsimile,  by 
Mr.  G.  E.  Emery,  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  of  the  map  which  accom- 
panied the  narrative  of  the  brothers  Zeni,  published  at  Venice  in 
1558.  The  Zeni  it  will  be  remembered  made  a  voyage  to  the 
Arctic  regions  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  one  of  the  problems 
of  geography  is  to  identify  the  places  mentioned  in  their  narrative 
and  map.  This  has  already  been  ably  attempted  by  Mr.  Major, 
and  while  Mr.  Lynn's  identifications  agree  in  the  main  with  those 


of  Mr.  Major,  there  are  some  important  differences.  "  Icaria," 
e.g^<,  which  Mr.  Major  makes  out  to  be  Kerry,  Ireland,  Mr.  Lynn 
identifies  with  the  Rockall  Islands.  The  lost  East  Greenland 
Colony,  the  latter  places  on  the  east  of  Spitzbergen,  apparently 
on  Wiche  Land,  and  most  extraordinary  of  all,  Crolandia,  he 
maintains  .is  the  recently-discovered  Franz-Josef  Land.  These 
two  last  identifications  are  very  daring,  and  geographers  will 
look  with  interest  for  Mr.  Emery's  reasons,  which  no  doubt  he 
will  publish. 

Intelligence  has  reached  the  Royal  ItaUan  Geographical 
Society  that  the^Marquis  Antinori,  heading  the  Italian  exp^tion 
of  discovery  in  Africa,  is  dead.  Chiarini,  his  fellow-traveller,  ia 
a  prisoner  in  Abyssinia. 

A  second  edition  of  Capt  Luigi  Gatta's  Italian  translation  of 
Maury's  "Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea"  has  just  been 
published  at  Rome.  It  contains  extensive  and  valuable  footnotes 
by  the  translator.  Capt  Gatta  is,  we  understand,  engaged  in  a 
translation  of  Lyeli's  "  Prmciples  of  Geology." 

Dr.  Harm  and,  who  has  been  exploring  in  Cochin  China,  has 
arrived  in  France,  bringing  with  him,  we  believe,  results  of  much 
value. 

On  October  18,  the  first  pioneers  of  the  International  African 
Exploration  Society,  consisting  of  the  two  Belgian  officers, 
Capts.  Crespel  and  Cambier,  and  the  naturalist.  Dr.  Maes,  left 
Sou^hampton/oi^Lake  Tanganyika  viA  Poit  Natal,  on  one  of  the 
vessels  of  the  Union  Mail  Steamship  Company.  This  Com- 
pany, with  praiseworthy  generosity,  conveys  the  first  party  entirely 
free,  and  will  make  a  deduction  of  twenty  per  cent,  in  the  fares  of 
all  subsequently  sent  out  by  the  sodety.  The  royal  auspices  under 
which  the  society  enters  upon  its  field  of  activity  have  ensured  to 
it  support  in  a  variety  of  directions.  The  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  has 
promised  to  render  the  utmost]  assistance  possible,  and  the  com- 
mercial house  of  Roux  de  Fraissinet  and  Co.,  has  instructed  its 
widely-spread  agencies  on  the  east-coast  to  second  the  efforts  of 
the  exploring  party.  There  seems  to  be  no  lack  of  fun  is  in  the 
treasury  of  the  society.  Among  the  late  subscriptions  are  3,000 
francs  from  the  Hungarian  African  Society,  while  the  coliections 
in  France  amount  already  to  32,000  franco.  Belgium,  small  as  it 
is,  contributed  300,000  francs  outright  in  June  last,  while  yearly 
subscriptions  to  the  amount  of  100,000  were  given  in  addi- 
tion. There  is  every  prospect  that  this  magnificent  united  effort 
will  succeed  in  solving  some,  at  least,  of  the  problems  connected 
with  the  remaining  /^rm  incognita  of  equatorial  Africa. 

We  regret  to  record  the  untimely  end  of  the  well-known  geolo- 
gist and  African  explorer,  Dr.   Erwiii  von  Bary,  whose  recent 
explorations  have  frequently  been  referred  to  in  our  columns. 
Dr.  V.   Bary  started  in  August,    1876,  from  Tripolis,    on  his 
journey  into  the  interior  of  the  Sahaia,  supported  partly  by  the 
Karl  Rittcr  Endowment  Fund,  and  partly  by  the  Berlin  Afrikan- 
ische  Gesellschaft.     The  aim  of  this  expedition  was  to  make  a 
thorough  study  of  these  almost  unknown  regions,  with  especial 
reference  to  topographical  and  geological  questions,  more  par- 
ticularly the  age  and  formation  of  the  great  desert.     The  chief 
results  of  this  first  journey  were  the  observations  leading  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Sahara  was  not  formerly  the  bed  of  an  inland 
sea  as  hitherto  supposed.     The  traveller  returned  from  this  very 
exhaustive  and  fatiguing  tour  to  the  Berber  town  of  Chat  to 
recruit  his  impaired  energies,  and  prepare  for  a  more  extended 
trip  into  the  district  of  the  Tuarej  Hoggar,  which  has  not  as  yet 
been  visited  by  Europeans.      Here  he  met  the  sad  fate  of  so 
many  African  explorers,  and  died  on  October  2,  from  the  effects 
of  excessive  exposure  and  privation.     Von  Bary's  varied  qualifi- 
cations and  complete  devotion  to  the  cause  for  which  he  perished, 
had  led  to  high  expecUtions  among  his  fellow  German  geologbts, 


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and  a  general  feeling  of  regret  is  felt  over  his  early  death,  away 
from  home  and  friends.  The  French  geologist,  M.  Largeao,  is 
at  present  endeayonring  to  penetrate  into  the  Tuarej  region  from 
the  north,  and  the  interest  previously  centred  on  von  Bary's 
investigations  will  now  gather  about  his  efforts. 

In  the  spring  of  the  present  year  we  referred  briefly  to  the 
attempt  being  made  itj  Dr.  J.  M.  Hildebrandt,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  ascend  the  snow- 
covered  summit  of  Mount  Kenia.  The  question  as  to  the  per- 
manent snow  covering  of  the  two  equatorial  mountains,  Kenia 
and  Kilimandscharo,  has  been  a  subject  of  so  much  controversy 
among  geographers,  that  the  results  of  this  expedition  have  been 
looked  for  wiUi  great  interest  It  is  with  regret  that  we  learn 
from  a  communication  of  Dr.  Hildebrandt's,  dated  Suez, 
November  2,  that  he  has  been  compelled  to  return,  leaving  the 
summit  of  Kenia  still  untrodden  by  the  foot  of  a  European.  He 
left  Morobassa  on  January  10  with  forty  attendants,  and  after 
two  months  of  exhaustive  travel  amidst  hostile  tribes,  reached 
Kitui,  in  Ukamba.  Here,  in  full  sight  of  Kenia,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  pause  and  retrace  his  footsteps,  his  followers  utterly 
refusing  to  venture  among  the  marauding  tribes  intervening 
between  him  and  his  journey's  goal,  and  he  himself  being  only 
saved  by  the  swift  application  of  an  antidote  from  death  by 
poison  given  by  the  natives.  On  reaching  Zandbar  the  physicians 
declared  his  health  impaired  to  such  an  extent  that  restoration 
could  only  be  hu(.ed  for  in  a  more  temperate  clime.  Dr.  Hilde- 
brandt has  suffered  unusually  from  the  two  invariable  concomitants 
of  the  African  explorei^-sickness  and  the  hostility  of  the  abori- 
gines, his  two  expeditions  from  Zanzibar  in  the  spring  and 
sutumn  of  1875  being  both  shortened  and  hampered  by  these 
causes. 

Herr  SchOtt,  a  civil  engineer/has  been  despatched  by  the 
German  African  Society  to* St  Paul  de  Loanda  to  undertake  an 
expedition  through  the  region  lately  traversed  so  successfully  by 
the  hunter,  Dr.  Pogge. 

One  of  the  effects  of  the  war  in  the  east  appears  ti  be  the 
discovery  in  out-of-the-way  towns  in  Russia,  of  gems  of  unsur- 
passed size  and  beauty,  which  doubtless  have  been  jealously 
hoarded  by  their  possessors,  and  only  brought  to  light  in  times, 
like  the  present,  of  national  necessity.  Some  of  these  gems  have 
naturally  found  their  way  to  this  country ;  perhaps  the  most 
remarkable  are — an  aq*«amarine,  far  superior  to  anything  before 
•een  in  England,  weighing  over  six  ounces  and  a  half,  without 
the  slightest  blemish,  and  of  a  deep  sea-green  tint ;  also  a  topaz 
rivalling  that  purchased  for  the  Grand  Mogul  at  Goa  for 
11,260/.  These  two  remarkable  gems  were  received  from 
Moscow  by  Mr.  Bryce  M.  Wright,  Mineralogist,  of  Great 
Russell  Street,  the  possessor  of  the  uniqae  suite  of  diamonds 
called  the  *'  Bryce  Wright  Diamonds,"  valued  at  21,000/. 

We  are  requested  to  state  that  in  the'abstract  of  Mr.  Perkin's 
paper  read  at  the  meeting  of  the  Chemical  Society  on  November 
I  the  word  "cumenjl"  wa%  by  a  slip,  written  "dnnenyl" 
throughout  the  report. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Common  Squirrel  {Scmrus  vulgaris^ 
European,  presented  by  Mr.  T.  Massey,  F.Z.S.  ;  a  Greater 
Sulphur-Crested  Cockatoo  {C<uatua  ga/erita),  from  Australia, 
presented  by  Mr.  F.  .Lablache  ;  a  Radiated  Tortoise  {Teshido 
radiata)  trom  Madagascar,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  Harrison  ;  two 
Red-backed  Squirrel  Monkeys  {Saimaris  ttrsttdi\  two  Black- 
handed  Spider  Monkeys  (Ateia  mtlanochir),  a  Derbian  Opossum 
{.Didelphys  derlnanus)  from  Central  America,  a  Bonnet  Monkey 
{Macaau  radiatus)  from  India,  a  Rufous- vented  Guan  {Pentlope 
cristaia)  from  Costa  Rica,  deposited  ;  a  Bay  Antelope  {Cepka^ 
lophus  darsoHs)  from  West  Africa,  received  in  exchange. 


W^ 


THE  LIBERTY  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  MODERN 
STATED 

HEN  the  honourable  request  was  addressed  to  me  by  our 
committee  to  deliver  a  lecture  to  the  meeting  upon  this 
occasion,  I  asked  myself  whether  I  should  not  treat  of  n, 
special  department  of  the  latest  development  of  science,  in 
accordance  with  that  point  of  view  to  which  I  drew  attendoii 
orijginally,  and  of  which  you  were  reminded  by  Prof.  KJebs 
onfy  the  other  day.  But  I  decided  this  time  to  give  expressioa 
to  a  more  general  want,  principally  because  it  seems  to  me  that 
the  time  Yoa  come  when  a  certain  explanation  must  take  place 
between  science  as  we  represent  it  and  work  in  it,  and  geneiml 
life  as  a  whole,  and  because  in  the  special  history  of  the  conti- 
nental nations  of  Europe  the  moment  is  rapidly  approaching 
when  the  mental  fate  of  nations  by  decisions  in  the  highest 
quarters  may  be  determined  perhaps  for  a  long  time  to  come. 

It  is  not  for  the  first  time,  gentlemen,  that  upoa  the  occanon 
of  a  meeting  of  this  Association  I  have  been  able,  as  a  warniog, 
to  point  out  almost  dramatic  events  happening  in  our  neigh- 
bouring state.  On  a  former  occasion  I  could  draw  atten- 
tion to  occurrences  which  had  just  taken  place  beyond  the 
Rhine,  and  which,  however  far  they  may  apparently  be  removed 
from  our  task,  yet  concern  the  same  contested  domain  after  all, 
that  namely  upon  which  a  decision  must  be  made  with  regard  to 
determining  what  position  modem  science  is  to  occupy  in  the 
modem  state.  Let  us  be  sincere — here  we  may  perhaps  be 
doubly  so, — it  is  the  question  of  ultramontanism  and  of  ortho- 
doxy, which  moves  us  continually.  I  may  say  that  I  lcx>k  forward 
with  real  fear  to  the  events  which  will  happen  among  our 
neighbours  in  the  course  of  the  next  years.  We  here,  at  this 
moment,  may  look  round  with  a  certain  pride  and  we  may  observe 
the  course  of  things  with  a  certain  calmness.  But  to-day,  when 
we  are  celebratini;  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  this  Association,  it 
is  certainly  becoming  to  remember  how  great  a  change  has  taken 
place  inCrermany,  and  specialty  at  Munich,  since  the  days  when 
Oken  assembled  German  naturalists  and  physicians  for  the  first 
time. 

I  would  only  refer  shortly  to  two  facts  ;  they  are  well-known 
enough,  but  then  they  are  also  important  enough  to  be  mentioned 
again.  The  one  is  that  when,  in  the  year  1S22,  the  handful  of  men 
who  constituted  the  first  meeting  of  the  German  Association  of 
Naturalists  met  at  Leipzig  they  thought  it  still  so  dangerous  to 
hold  a  meeting  of  that  description  that  it  was  really  held  in  per- 
fect secrecy.  The  names  of  the  Austrian  members  could  iiuleed 
be  published  only  thirty-nine  years  later,  viz.,  in  1861.  The 
second  fact  which  strikes  us  when  we  remember  Oken  is, 
that  he,  the  valued  and  renowned  teacher,  the  ornament  of 
the  Munich  high  school,  died  in  exile  in  the  same  canton  of 
Switzerland  in  which  Ulrich  von  Hutten  ended  his  life  full  of 
troubles  and  contests.  Gentlemen,  the  bitter  exile  which 
oppressed  the  last  years  of  Oken's  life,  which  caused  his  death 
far  away  from  those  scenes  where  he  had  sacrificed  the  bttt 
powers  of  hb  life,  this  exile  will  remain  the  signature  of  the  time 
which  we  have  gone  through.  And  as  long  as  there  is  a  German 
Association  of  Naturalists,  we  shall  thankfully  remember  that  this 
man  bore  all  the  signs  of  a  martyr  until  the  time  of  his  death,  we 
shall  point  him  out  as  one  of  those  who  with  their  blood  conquered 
and  obtained  for  us  the  liberty  of  science. 

Nowadays,  gentiemen,  it  is  easy  to  speak  of  the  liberty  of 
science  in  Germany ;  now  we  are  perfectly  f ecuce  even  here, 
where,  only  a  few  decades  back,  the  fear  was  great  that  a  new 
change  of  things  might  perhaps  produce  the  extreme  reverse, 
and  we  can  in  all  calmness  discuss  the  highest  and  most  difficult 
problems  of  life  and  the  hereafter.  The  addresses  which  were 
delivered  at  the  first  and  second  general  meetings  certainly  prove 
sufficiently  that  Munich  is  now  a  place  which  can  bear  to  hear 
the  representatives  of  science  in  the  most  perfect  liberty.  I  was 
not  able  to  listen  to  all  these  addresses,  but  I  have  since  read 
those  of  Professors  Haeckel  and  Nageli,  and  I  must  say  we 
cannot  ask  more  than  to  be  allowed  to  continue  to  discuss  with 
such  liberty. 

If  it  were  only  a  question  of  rejoicing  over  this  possession  I 
should  indeed  not  have  claimed  your  attention  for  that  object. 
But,  gentlemen,  we  have  arrived  at  a  point  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  investigate  whether  we  may  hope  to  reUin  securely 
for  the  future  the  possession  which  we  actually  enjoy.  The  fmx 
that  we  are  enabled  to  discuss,  as  we  do  to-day,  is  not  a  sufficient 

'  AddrMs  d«liT«red  at  the  Munich  neethig  of  th«  G«niiaa 
by  Prof.  Rudolf  Virchow,  of  Berlin. 


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lecnrity  that  It  will  always  remain  so  for  one  who,  like  myself, 
has  had  many  years'  experience  of  public  life.  Therefore  I  think 
that  our  cflbrts  should  not  only  tend  to  claim  the  attention  of  all 
for  the  moment,  but  I  believe  we  ought  also  to  a»k  ourselves 
what  we  are  to  do  to  maintain  the  present  state  of  things.  I  will 
tell  you  at  once,  gentlemen,  what  I  would  represent  to  you  as 
the  chief  result  of  my  observations,  what  I  would  like  to  prove 
here  principally.  I  would  like  to  show  that  for  the  present  we 
have  n<  thing  more  to  ask,  but  that  on  the  contrary  we  have 
arrived  at  the  point  when  we  most  make  ic  our  special  task  to 
render  it  possible,  through  our  moderation^  through  a  certain 
resignation  wtth  regard  to  personal  opinions  and  pr.  dUtctions  that 
the  favourable  disposition  of  the  nation  towards  us,  which  we  now 
enjoy,  does  not  change  to  the  contrary  ! 

In  my  opini>m  we  are  really  in  danger  of  doine  harm  to  the 
future,  by  making  use  too  amply  of  the  liberty  which  the  present 
Slate  of  things  offers  us,  and  I  would  warn  you  not  to  continue 
in  the  arbitrarinesis  of  pergonal  speculation,  which  now  claims 
prominence  in  many  domains  of  natural  science.  The  explana- 
tions v^hich  my  predecessors  have  given  \ou,  those  of  Prof. 
N'ageli  in  particular,  will  yield  a  stries  of  toe  most  important 
points  of  view,  with  regard  to  the  course  and  limits  of  natural 
knowledge,  to  all  who  read  them,  and  it  cannot  be  my  task  to 
repeat  them.  But  1  must  point  out  in  reference  to  them,  and  I 
would  like  to  adduce  a  few  practical  instances  from  the  experience 
of  natural  science,  how  great  a  difference  there  is  between  what 
we  give  out  as  real  science  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  and 
for  which  alone  we  may  in  my  opinion  claim  the  totality  of  all 
those  liberties  which  we  may  designate  as  liberty  of  science,  or, 
if  we  express  ourselves  still  more  exactly,  as  liberty  of  scientifi: 
teachings — and  that  larger  domain,  which  belongs  moieto  specu* 
lative  expansion,  which  sets  problems,  and  finds  the  tasks  to 
which  modem  investigation  is  to  be  applied,  and  which  antici- 
patively  formulates  a  seiies  of  doctrines,  which  are  siill  to  be 
proved,  and  the  truth  of  which  must  yet  be  found,  but  which  in 
the  mean  time  may  be  taught  with  a  certain  amount  of  proba- 
bility, in  order  to  fill  ceitain  gaps  in  knowledge.  We  must  not 
forget  that  there  is  a  limit  between  the  speculative  domain  of 
natural  science  and  that  which  is  actually  proved  and  perfectly 
determined.  The  demand  is  addressed  to  us  that  this  limit  shall 
be  not  onl>  occasionally  pointed  ouS  but  fixed  with  the  greatest 
exactness,  so  that  each  single  worker  shall  at  all  times  be  per- 
fectly  conscious  of  where  the  limit  is  drawn,  and  how  far  he  may 
be  requested  to  admit  that  what  is  taught  is  actual  truth.  That, 
gentlemen,  is  the  problem  which  we  have  to  work  out  in 
ourseh^es. 

The  practical  questions  which  are  connected  with  this,  lie 
▼ery  near.  It  is  evident  that  for  whatever  we  consider  to  be 
securtd  scientific  truth,  we  must  denand  tbe  complete  admission, 
into  the  scientific  treasure  of  the  nation.  7 his  the  ttaJon  must 
admit  as  part  of  itself— it  must  consume  and  di^^esl  it,  and 
continue  to  work  at  ii.  Just  in  this  lies  the  double  promotion 
which  natural  science  offers  to  the  nation  : — On  the  one  hand  the 
material  pi  ogress,  that  enormous  pr^igress  which  has  t>een  made 
in  modern  times.  Everything  which  the  steam  engine,  tele- 
graphy, photography,  chemical  discoveries,  the  research  into 
colours,  &C.,  have  produced,  all  this  is  essentially  based  on  this 
— that  we,  the  men  of  science,  complete  the  doctrines  entirely, 
and  when  thty  are  perfectly  comi^lcte  and  secure,  so  that  we 
know  with  cerUibty  tbat  thty  are  natural  scientific  truths, 
that  we  then  give  them  to  the  nation  at  large  ;  then  others  can 
work  with  tl  cm  as  well,  ar.d  can  create  new  things,  of  which 
formc'ly  nobody  had  any  idea,  of  which  nobody  dreamt,  which 
come  info  the  world  as  perfect  novelties  and  which  reform  the 
condiUon  of  society  and  of  ftates.  This  is  the  material  si^ifi- 
cat  ce  of  our  labours.  The  metit^l  importance,  on  the  o<  her  hand, 
U  similar.  If  I  present  the  nation  wiih  a  certain  scientific  truth 
which  is  completely  proved,  to  which  not  the  least  doubt 
attaches,  if  I  demand  that  everybody  shall  convince  himself  of 
the  correctness  of  this  truth,  that  he  shall  assimilate  it,  that  it 
shall  become  part  of  his  thoi'ght,  then  I  suppose  as  a  matter  of 
course,  that  his  conception  of  things  generally  must  be  affected 
by  it.  Each  essentially  new  truth  of  this  kind  must  necessarily 
influence  the  whole  method  of  conception  of  man,  the  method  of 
thinking. 

If,  for  instance^  to  refer  to  a  case  in  point  which  lies  near, 
we  consider  the  progress  which  has  been  made  during  recent 
>ear8  with  regard  to  the  knowledge  of  the  human  eye,  b^imiog 
at  the  time  when  the  single  component  parts  of  the  eye  were 
first  anatomically  separated,  when  these  single  and  anatomically 
feparated  parts  were  first  examined  microtoopically  and  their 


different  arrangement  shown,  down  to  the  time  when  we 
gradually  learned  to  know  the  vital  qualities  and  the  pb3rsio- 
logical  functions  of  the  different  parts,  until  at  last,  by  U.e 
discovery  of  the  retina-purple  (SehpurMir)  aid  of  its  photographic 
properties,  a  progress  was  made  of  which  but  a  year  ago  we 
nardly  ha<i  an  idea,  then  it  is  evident  that  with  each  progressive 
step  of  this  kind  a  certain  part  of  optics,  particularly  the  doctrine 
of  vision,  is  determined  and  changed.  By  this  we  learn  in  a 
perfectly  certain  manner  how  the  action  of  light  takes  place  in 
the  interior  of  the  human  body  hsclf,  and  that  it  is  quite  an 
outside  organ  of  the  human  body,  not  the  brain,  but  the  eye 
which  experiences  this  action.  We  learn  by  it  that  this  photo- 
graphic process  is  not  indeed  a  mental  operation,  but  a  chemi- 
cal phenomenon,  which  occurs  by  the  help  of  certain  vital 
processes,  and  that  in  reality  we  do  not  see  tne  external  things, 
but  their  images  in  our  eye.  We  are  thus  enabled  to  gain  a  new 
analytical  fact  for  the  knowledge  of  our  relations  to  the  world 
outside  of  us,  and  to  separate  more  distinctly  the  purely  mental 
part  of  vision  from  the  purely  material  part.  Thus  a  certain 
part  of  optics,  and  through  it  one  of  psychology,  is  entirely 
reformed.  Chemistry  now  steps  in  to  investigate  questions 
which  up  to  the  present  were  entirely  out  of  its  range,  particu- 
larly the  highly  important  questions,  VfhsX  is  retina-purple? 
What  substance  is  this?  How  is  ic  formed,  how  decomposed, 
and  how  again  formed?  The  solution  of  these  questions  will 
not  fail  to  open  an  entirely  new  field  for  investigation ;  let  us 
hope  that  also  on  the  field  of  technical  photography  we  shall 
soon  make  some  progress  that  we  shall  learn  how  to  produce 
many-coloured  photographs.  Thus  a  mixture  of  steps  of  pro- 
gress is  formed,  which  belong^  partly  to  the  material  and  partly 
to  the  mental  domain.  And  I  therefore  say,  that  with  each 
true  step  of  progress .  in  natural  knowledge  a  series  of  changes 
mukt  necessarily  take  place  in  the  internal  relations  of  the  human 
race  as  well  as  in  the  external  ones,  and  nobody  can  prevent  new 
knowledge  from  influencing  him  in  a  certain  sense.  Each  new 
part  of  real  knowledge  works  on  in  man,  it  produces  new  con- 
ceptions, new  trains  of  thought,  and  nobody  cau  avoid,  after 
all,  placing  even  the  highest  ^Toblems  of  the  mind  into  a  certain 
relation  with  natural  phenomena. 

But  there  is  still  another  side  of  practical  consideration  which 
lies  far  nearer  to  us.  Everywhere  in  the  entire  German  Father- 
land we  are  now  occu|L<ied  in  remodelling  educational  affairs,  in 
enlarging  and  developing  them,  and  in  determining  their  precise 
forma.  The  new  Prussian  educational  law  is  on  the  threshhold 
of  coming  events.  In  all  German  states  larger  school-houses  are 
being  erected,  new  institutions  are  founded,  the  universities  are 
enlarged,  high  schools  and  middle  schools  are  established.  Ac 
last  the  question  arises.  What  is  to  be  the  principal  tenor  of 
what  is  taught?  Where  shall  the  school  kad  to?  In  what 
directions  shall  it  work  ?  If  natural  science  demands,  if  we 
have  been  exerting  ourselves  for  years  to  obtain  an  influence  in 
our  schools,  if  we  demand  that  natural  knowledge  shall  be  ad- 
mitted into  education  in  a  much  larger  measute,  so  that  this 
feitile  material  be  offered  tarly  to  the  youthfiil  minds,  in  order 
to  form  the  basis  of  a  new  conception,  then  we  must  indeed  own 
that  It  is  high  time  that  we  tmde«»tOjd  one  another  with  regard 
to  what  we  can  and  will  demand.  If  Prof.  Haeckel  siys  that 
it  is  a  question  for  pedagogues  whether  the  theory  of  descent 
\i  now  to  form  the  basis  of  instruction,  whe  htr  the  plasti- 
dule  soul  is  to  be  adopted  as  the  basis  of  all  considerations 
regarding  mental  phenomena,  and  whether  the  phylogeay  of 
man  is  to  be  followed  up  into  the  lowest  classes  of  the  organic 
empire,  and  even  beyond  it  up  to  spontaneous  generation,  then 
this  is,  in  my  opinion,  a  mere  shifting  of  tasks,  if  the  theory  of 
descent  is  as  certain  as  Prof.  Haeckel  thmks  it  is,  then  we  must 
demand  its  admission  into  the  school,  and  this  demand  is  a 
necetsary  one.  How  could  we  imagine  that  a  doctrine  of 
such  importance,  which  influences  the  conscience  of  everybody 
in  so  revolutionary  a  manner,  which  creates  directly  a  sort 
of  new  religion,  should  not  be  entirely  incorporated  into  the 
educational  plan  !  How  would  it  be  possible  to  ignore  such  a 
revelation — as  I  may  indeed  call  it — in  our  schools,  and  to  kill  ic 
by  silence  as  it  were,  or  to  leave  the  transmission  of  the  greatest 
and  most  important  ktepa  of  progress,  which  our  conceptions  have 
made  in  the  whole  century,  to  the  option  of  the  pedagogue  ? 
Indeed,  gentlemtn,  that  would  be  a  resignation  of  the  most 
severe  kind,  and  in  reality  it  would  never  be  exercised.  Every 
schoolmaster  who  might  receive  this  doctrine  in  his  mind  would 
teach  it  as  well,  even  unconsciously.  How  could  he  do  otherwise? 
He  wotUd  have  to  simulate  altogether,  he  would  have  to  rob 
himself  at  times  of  his  own  knowledge  in  the  most  artificial 


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manner,  in  order  not  to  show  that  he  knew  and  recognised  the 
theory  of  descent,  and  diat  he  knew  exactly  how  man  has  origi- 
nated and  whence  he  comes.  If  indeed  he  did  not  know  where 
man  goes  to,  yet  he  would  at  least  believe  that  he  knew  for  certain 
how  in  the  course  of  aeons  the  progressive  series  shaped  itself. 
Therefore  I  say  that  if  we  really  did  not  demand  the  admission 
of  the  theory  of  descent  into  the  educational  plan,  this  would 
yet  be  accomplished  of  its  own  accord. 

We  certainly  should  not  forget,  gentlemen,  that  what  here  we 
express,  perhaps  still  with  a  certain  timid  reserve,  is  propagated 
by  those  outside  with  a  confidence  increased  a  thousand-fold. 
For  instance,  I  have  once  pronounced  the  phrase — ^in  opposition 
to  the  doctrine  then  reigning  of  the  development  of  oi^nic  life 
from  inorganic  matter— that  each  cell  had  its  origin  in  another 
cell,  indeed  at  that  time  with  special  reference  to  pathology,  and 
principally  with  regard  to  man  himself.  I  may  remark  here  that 
m  both  relations  I  still  to-dav  consider  this  phrase  a  perfectly 
correct  one.  But  when  I  had  pronounced  this  doctrine  and  had 
formulated  the  origin  of  the  cell  from  the  cell,  others  were  not 
wanting  who  extended  this  phrase  not  only  in  the  organic  world 
far  beyond  the  limits  for  which  I  had  intended  it,  but  who  put  it 
down  as  generally  valid  even  beyond  the  limits  of  organic  life. 
I  have  received  the  most  wonderful  communications  both  from 
America  and  Europe,  in  which  the  whole  of  astronomy  and 
geology  were  based  upon  the  celluLar  theory,  because  it  was 
thought  impossible  that  something  which  was  dedsive  for  the  life 
of  organic  nature  upon  this  earth  should  not  be  equally  applied 
to  the  heavenly  bodies,  which  were  said  to  be  round  bodies  after 
all,  and  which  had  shaped  themselves  into  globus  and  represented 
so  many  cells  flying  about  in  universal  space  and  playing  a 
part  there  similar  to  that  of  the  cells  in  our  body. 

I  cannot  say  that  the  authors  of  these  communications  were 
all  decided  fooli  and  simpletons ;  on  the  contrary,  from  some 
of  their  explanations  I  gained  the  idea  that  many  an  other- 
wise educated  man,  who  had  studied  much  and  fin^y  attacked 
the  problems  of  astronomy,  could  not  understand  that  the  utility 
of  heavenly  phenomena  should  be  based  upon  something  else 
than  the  utility  of  human  organisation,  so  that  he,  in  order  to 
gain  a  monistic  conception  eventually  arrived  at  the  supposition 
that  the  heaven  roust  also  be  an  organism,  that  indeed  the  whole 
world  must  be  an  organism  of  useful  arrangement,  and  that  no 
other  principle  but  that  of  the  cells  could  apply  to  it.  I  dte  this 
onlv  in  order  to  show  what  shape  things  take  outside,  how 
"  theories  "  are  enlarged,  and  how  our  own  doctrines  may  return 
to  us  in  a  form  fearful  to  ourselves.  Now  only  imagine  how 
the  theory  of  descent  may  be  shaped  to-day Jn  the  head  of  a 
socialist ! 

Indeed,  gentlemen,  this  may  seem  ridiculous  to  many,  but  it 
is  very  rerioui,  and  I  only  hope  that  the  theory  of  descent  may 
not  bring  all  those  horrors  in  our  country  which  similar  theories 
have  actually  brought  to  our  neighbours.  Anyhow  this  theory,  if 
carried  through  to  its  consequences,  has  an  extremely  dangerous 
side  and  that  the  socialists  have  a  certain  notion  of  it  already, 
you  will  doubtless  have  remarked.  We  must  make  this  quite 
dear  to  ourselves. 

Nevertheless  the  matter  might  be  as  dangerous  as  possible, 
tlie  confederates  might  be  as  t>ad  as  they  could  be,  and  yet  I 
say,  from  the  moment  when  we  are  convinced  that  the  theory 
of  descent  is  a  doctrine  perfecUy  proved,  so  certain  that  we  could 
swear  by  it,  that  we  could  say,  thus  it  is, — ^firom  that  moment  we 
must  not  hesitate  to  introduce  it  into  general  life,  transmit  it  not 
onlv  to  every  educated  person,  but  teach  it  to  every  child,  make 
it  the  buis  of  our  whole  conception  of  the  universe,  of  society, 
and  of  the  state,  and  found  our  educational  system  upon  it. 
This  I  consider  a  necessity. 

In  saying  this  I  am  not  at  all  afraid  of  the  reproach^  which  to 
my  astonishment  has  made  a  great  noise  in  my  Prussian  Father- 
land, while  I  was  absent  in  Russia,  I  mean  the  reproach  of  half* 
knuwieJ^e,  Strange  to  say,  it  was  one  of  our  so-called  libend 
journals  which  asked  the  question  whether  the  great  faults  of  our 
time,  and  socialism  in  particular,  were  not  based  upon  the  diffu- 
sion of  half-knowledge.  With  reference  to  this  I  would  like  to 
state  here,  in  the  midst  of  the  Naturalists'  meeting,  that  ail 
human  knowledge  is  only  piece-work.  All  of  us  who  call  ourselves 
naturalists,  only  possess  pieces  of  natural  sdence  ;  none  of  us 
is  able  to  come  here  and  represent  each  science  with  the  same 
right,  or  partidpate  in  thediscnsdons  of  any  scientific  section.  On 
the  contrary,  it  is  just  because  they  have  developed  themselves 
in  a  certain  one-sided  direction,  that  we  esteem  the  special  scientific 
men  so  highly.  On  the  other  fields  we  are  all  in  half-knowledge 
as  it  were.    Oh  1  that  we  could  only  taoceed  in  diffuiing  this 


half  knowledge  more  and  more,  if  we  could  succeed  in  causing  at 
least  the  majority  of  educated  persons  to  progress  far  enough  to 
be  able  to  survey  the  prindpal  directions  which  the  single  depajt- 
ments  of  natural  sdence  are  taking,  and  to  follow  their  develop- 
ment without  meeting  difficulties  too  great  to  be  overcome,   so 
that  they  would  at  least  be  aware  of  the  general  progress  of 
sdence,  if,  indeed,  they  were  not  acquainted,  at  every  moment, 
with  the  totality  of  all  single  and  special  proofs.     We  do  not 
get  much  further  ourselves.     I,  for  instance,  have  honestly  tried 
during  my  time  of  life  to  obtain  chemical  knowledge  ;  I    have 
even  worked  in  a  laboratory,  but  I  feel  thoroughly  incompetent 
to  sit  down  at  some  chemical  meeting  without  preparation,  mxid 
to  discuss  modern  chemistry  in  all  directions.     Nevertheless  I 
am  able  to  penetrate,  after  a  time,  so  far  into  any  chenucal 
novels  that  it  does  not  strike  me  as  incomprehensible.     Bat  I 
must  idways  first  acquire  this  understanding,  I  have  not  got  it  to 
start  with ;  and  when  I  want  it  again  I  must  acquire  it  again* 
That  which  honours  me  is  the  knowledge  of  my  ignorance.     The 
most  important  part  is  that  I  know  perfectly  well  what  I  do  n4fi 
know  of  chemistry.     If  I  did  not  know  that  then  of  course  I 
should  always  be  wavering  to  and  fro.  But  as  I  imagine  that  I  am 
tolerably  well  aware  what  I  do  not  know,  I  say  to  myself  every 
time  I  am  obliged  to  enter  a  domain  which  is  still  closed  to  me  : 
"  Now  I  must  begin  again  to  learn,  now  I  must  study  afresh, 
now  I  must  do  as  anybody  does  who  enters   the  domain  oif 
science."    The  great  error,  which  b  equally  shared  by  many 
educated  people,  consists  in   not  remembering  that  with  the 
enormous  extent  of  natural  sdence  and  with  the  inexhaustible 
quantity  of  detailed  material,  it  is  impossible  for  any  single  person 
alive  to  command  the  totUity  of  all  these  details.    That  we  get 
far  enough  to  know  the  foundations  of  natural  science  and   the 
gaps  which  exist  in  our  own  knowledge,  so  that  every  time  we 
find  a  gap  of  this  kind  we  say  to  ourselves, — **  Now  you  enter  a 
domain  which  is  unknown  to  you," — that  is  what  we   must 
arrive  at.     If  evervbody  was  only  suffidenUy  aware  of  this,  many 
a  one  would  beat  his  breast  and  own  that  it  is  a  dangerous  thing 
to  draw  general  condusions  with  regard  to  the  history  of  all 
things  when  one  is  not  even  entirdy  master  of  the  materud  from 
which  these  condusions  are  to  be  drawn. 
{To  be  continued.) 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge. —This  term  has  witnessed  the  dection  of  two 
new  Natural  Sdence  fdlows.  Mr.  A.  M.  Marshall,  Senior  in 
the  Tripos  of  1874,  has  been  dected  at  his  own  College,  St. 
John's.  His  able  papers  on  Embrjrology  have  been  an  im- 
portant  addition  to  the  researches  which  are  making  the  British 
school  again  famous  in  this  subject,  and  he  is  the  fint  Doctor  of 
Science  m  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  London. 
Two  of  the  newly-elected  fellows  of  St.  John's  are  taking  to 
Medicine,  viz.,  Dr.  Marshall  and  Mr.  McAlister,  the  last  Senior 
Wrangler.  At  Trinity  theopen  fellowship  has  been  adjudged  for  the 
first  time  to  a  non*member  of  the  College,  Mr.  J.  N.  Langley, 
B.  A.,  of  St  John's,  whose  services  as  Demonstrator  of  Physiology 
to  Dr.  Foster  are  most  highly  appreciated,  while  his  originality  and 
perseverance  in  research  will,  before  long,  be  much  more  widdy 
known  than  at  present.  I  understand  that  the  aid  of  Pio£  Huxley 
was  called  in,  giving  the  highest  guarantee  to  the  examination  in 
Biology,  and  that  several  candklates  showed  themselves  in  every 
way  worthy  of  a  fellowship,  especially  in  the  original  memoirs 
which  were  sent  in  before  the  examination. 

The  new  buildings  for  anatomy  and  physiology  are  advancing 
to  completion  and  are  partially  occupied,  Mr.  Bilfour's  two  prac- 
tical courses  of  Comparative  Anatomy  being  accommodated  in 
theuL  Dr.  Foster  will  transfer  much  of  his  work  here  after 
Christmas.  The  new  buildings  will  be  almost  too  small  as  soon 
as  completed,  for  Dr.  Foster  has  fifty  men  and  several  ladies 
working  in  his  elementary  dasses  this  term,  a  very  large  number 
when  it  is  considered  that  this  is  voluntary  and  not  prescribed 
work.  It  is  but  a  just  tribute  to  Dr.  Foster's  rare  value  as  a 
teacher  who  makes  his  students  think,  who  sacrifices  his  time 
most  indefatigably  for  their  interests,  and  who  cultivates  the 
powers  of  investigation  devdoping  in  his  pupils  vrith  all  the 
care  of  a  parent.  Instead  of  engrossing  authority  to  him- 
self, he  sets  his  senior  pupils  to  lecture  on  the  subjects 
they  make  a  special  study ;  thus  during  the  present  winter  the 
advanced  class  will  recdve  lectures  from  Dr.  Ga&kell,  Mr.  Langlqr, 
and  Mr.  Lea.  Mr.  Vines  has  returned  from  working  inGermaay 


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NATURE 


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witii  Sachs,  and  is  lecturiflg  to  a  large  class  on  Vegetable  Phy- 
siology. Next  year  he  will  start  the  first  practiod  coarse  of 
botany,  and,  being  unable  to  induce  his  college  to  provide  appa- 
ratus for  a  laboratory,  intends  to  furnish  It  at  hit  own  expense. 
Among  other  lectures  in  natural  science  Prof.  Dewar's  on 
Physical  Chemistry  are  taking  high  rank.  It  is  to  be  noted  that 
Mr.  Apjohn,  the  late  lamented  Pnelector  of  Chemistry  at  Caius 
College,  was  to  have  received  a  fellowship  this  term  by  special 
vote  of  the  whole  of  the  fellows.  The  prselectorship  is  to  be 
continued  mostly  in  its  old  form,  but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the 
prosecution  of  original  research  is  put  prominently  among  the 
duties  of  the  office,  as  well  as  the  instruction  of  students  from  the 
University  generally.  There  are  nearly  a  score  of  candidates, 
including  such  well-known  names  as  Mr.  W.  Noel  Hartley,  Dr. 
J.  T.  Botlomley,  and  Dr.  Dittmar. 

Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell  greatly  interested  the  Philosophical 
Society  at  its  last  meeting  by  an  account  of  Henry  Cavendish's 
unpublished  writings  and  experiments  on  electricity.  He  was 
not  generally  known  to  have  done  much  electrical  work,  and 
his  papers  were  long  in  the  hands  of  Sir  W.  Snow  Harris,  who 
is  declared  by  Prof.  Maxwell,  after  careful  examination,  to  have 
made  no  use  of  Cavendish's  work  without  full  and  adequate 
acknowledgment.  These  writings  are  left  in  a  form  quite  htted 
for  publication,  and  will  greatly  advance  the  reputation  of  the 
great  philosopher.  His  exactness,  his  candour,  his  grasp  of  the 
subject,  bis  notable  achievements  with  the  small  variety  of  instru- 
ments available  in  his  time,  were  fully  shown  bv  the  examples 
cited  to  the  Sodety.  Yet  these  were  less  than  his  remarkable 
insight  into  electrical  laws,  his  correct  conception  of  potential, 
his  ideas  of  investigating  the  total  charges  of  bodies,  and  the 
resistance  of  electrolytes.  Prof.  Maxwell  thought  that  nobody 
had  ever  possessed  so  large  and  various  a  collection  of  condensers 
of  known  capacity  as.  Cavendish,  bi|t  hi^  iamily  taciturnity  pre- 
vented his  merits  from  besng  fuUy  known.  He  trained  hmiself 
to  be  his  own  galvanpavoUrcaad  the  general,  value  of  hit  results 
is  remarkable  wl^en  aunparedi  ^th  ^se  obtained,  by  oioder^ 
instruments.      .,   ^- 

In  regard  to  imivar^y  refonn,  it  appears  that  in  some  colleges  at 
least  there  is  a.  danger  of  ^.non-resident  fellows,  who  form  the 
lai^est  proportion  of  the  governing  body  under  the  act,  endea- 
vouring to  maintain  at  a  very  high  number  the  fdlowships  to 
which  no  duties  are  attached  ;  of  course  every  such  fellowship 
diminishes  the  funds  available  for  definite  association  with  the 
progress  of  research  and  education.  Some  men  hold  very  strongly 
to  the  "  start  in  life"  theory  of  fellowships  ;  viz.,  that  they  oud^t 
to  receive  three  hundred  a  year  for  >  numtier  of  years  in  order 
that  they  nmy  gain  three  thousand  a  year  in  a  profession  the  more 
speedily. 

Glasgow. — Mr.  Gladstone  has  been  elected  Lord  Rector  of 
Glasgow  University  in  succession  to  the  Earl  of  Beaconsfield. 

Berlin. — ^The  well-known  botanist.  Prof.  Sachs,  of  Wiirz- 
burg,  has  received  a  very  flattering  call  to  Berlin.  Neither  pains 
nor  money  seem  to  be  spared  by  the  Prussian  Government  in 
attracting  to  the  capital  the  foremost  talent  of  Germany  ;  and 
certainly  in  this  choice  of  a  successor  to  Alexander  Braun  no 
change  of  policy  is  shown. 

G5TTINGEN. — ^The  sum  of  50^000  marks  has  recently  been 
appropriated  for  the  erection  of  a  phyto-physiological  institute 
in  the  Botanical  Gardens. 

GisssEN. — In  consequence  of  the  late  discussions  excited  by 
Prof.  Mrmmsen's  articles  on  the  Ph.D.  examinations  in  Ger- 
many, the  University  of  Giessen  has  issued  an  announcement 
stating  that  for  the  future  no  faculty  can  bestow  the  title  of 
Doctor,  except  on  the  basis  of  a  thefcis  and  oral  examination. 

DoRPAT. — ^The  winter  attendance  at  the  university  is  853,  of 
whom  but  seven  are  non-Russian. 

Brunswick. — On  October  16  interesting  ceremonies  took 
place  at  the  opening  of  the  magnificent  new  buildings  of  the 
Carolo-Wilhelminum  Polytechnic,  in  which  representatives  of 
the  Government,  and  delegates  from  all  the  great  German  poly- 
technics, took  part  The  new  edifices  are  of  great  extend  and 
richly  equipped  with  all  possible  adjuncts  for  modern  technical 
education,  so  that  this  well-known  institution  will  be  able  to 
maintain  its  well-earned  reputation.  The  Carolo-Wilhelminum 
is  the  oldest  polytechnic  in  Germany,  having  been  founded  in 
1745,  and  the  list  of  its  students  embraces  many  distinguished 
names,  such  as  Gauss,  the  mathematician,  Christopher  Codring- 
ton,  the  English  commander  at  the  naval  victory  of  Navarino,  &c. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

London 

Chemical  Society,  November  15.— Dr.  Gladstone  in  the 
chair. — The  following  communications  were  made :— First  report 
to  the  Chemical  Society  on  some  points  in  chemical  dynamics, 
by  Dr.  Wright  and  Mr.  Luff.  An  elaborate  series  of  experi- 
ments was  made  to  find  out  the  temperatures  at  which  the  actions 
of  carbonic  oxide,  hydrogen,  and  free  amorphous  carbon  on 
oxide  of  iron  or  oxide  of  copper  are  first  perceptible.  The 
authors  find  that  this  temperature  varies  with  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  oxide  used,  that  hydrogen  acts,  on  a  given  oxide,  at 
a  lower  temperature  than  carbon  and  carbonic  oxide,  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  hydrogen,  and  that  a  given  reducing  agent 
begins  to  act  on  copper  oxide  at  a  lower  temperature  than  on 
iron  oxide. — On  the  chemistry  of  cocoa  butter.  Part  I.  ;  two 
new  fatty  acids,  by  C.  T.  Kingzett.  The  first  acid  is  a  low  acid 
of  the  series,  CqIIj^O,,  having  the  formula  CiiH,40„  1.^., 
lauric  acid,  but  it  melts  at  57°  5.  The  second  acid  is  a  hig^ 
acid  having  the  formula  C04Hi,^O„  crystallising  in  microscopic 
needles  or  granules,  melts  at  72  *2,  and  at  a  high  temperature 
distils  apparently  unchanged.  The  author  proposes  for  it  the 
name  of  theobromic  acid.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  usiud  state- 
ment in  books,  "that  cocoa  butter  yields  almost  exclusively 
stearic  acid  "  is  entirely  incorrect — ^The  third  paper  was  on  the 
influence  exerted  by  time  and  mass  on  certain  reactions  in 
which  insoluble  salts  are  produced,  by  Mr.  M.  P.  Muir.  The 
author  has  taken  solutions  containing  known  quantities  of  calcium 
chloride  and  potassium  or  sodium  carbonate  mixed,  allowed  to 
stand  for  a  certain  number  of  minutes,  and  then  estimated  the 
quantity  of  calcium  carbonate  formed.  He  has  arrived  at  the 
following  conclusions  : — That  the  gntater  portion  of  the  chemical 
dnnge  talus  plKe^dorxng  the  fii>ib  five^minutes ;  the  reaction 
ihettKkcnases^innpidily.  The  rdativosnassai  oEthe  salts  exert 
an  important  influence.  Thus  i£ the  «na6s  flf^aUtalioe  carbonate 
be  four  times  that  required,  the  action  is  completed  in  five 
minutes,  but  if  an  equiinUent  quantify  otfly'be'piesrent  the  action 
is  not  finished  in  forty-six  hom3.  Potttssiitm-tarbonate  yields 
more  calcium  carbonate  vet  a  given  time thansodhtm  esarbodbte: 
An  increase  of  temperature  increases,"  whilst*  iMlutkrti^* especially 
with  solutions  of  potassium  or  sodium  cMoride,*diinhitshes  the 
rapidity  of  the  action.  Some  experiments  are  give«:oii  the  action 
of  solutions  of  calcium  sulphate  and  sodium  chloride. 

Entomological  Society,  November  7.— Prof.  Westwood, 
president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  McLachlan  exhibited  ten  of  the 
thirteen  species  of  Lepidoptera  collected  by  Capt.  Feilden  and 
Mr.  Hart  in  Grinnell  Land,  between  78**  and  Ss*'  N.  kt,  during 
the  recent  Arctic  Expedition,  and  made  some  remarks  upon  the 
general  insects  of  the  Arctic  Resions.— The  Rev.  A.  Eaton  also 
made  some  observations  upon  the  same  subject. — Mr.  Meldola 
exhibited  a  five- winged  specimen  of  Gonepteryxrhamni^  taken  in 
Norfolk  by  Mr.  John  Woodgate  ;  likewise  a  gynandromorphic 
specimen  of  FUris  brassicay  caught  in  Oxfordshire  by  Mr.  J.  B. 
Watson.  The  right  half  of  the  latter  insect  was  female  and  the 
left  half  male. — Mr.  H.  Goss  exhibited  a  gynandromorphic  speci- 
men of  G,  rAamni,  captured  in  Sussex ;  in  ttiis  insect  also  the 
right  side  was  female  and  the  led  side  male. — Mr.  J.  W.  Douglas 
exhibited  a  specimen  o^i  Polyphylla  fullo^  Linn.,  which  had  flown 
on  to  a  steamer  at  Antwerp,  and  been  thus  brought  to  this 
country.  Mr.  Douglas  also  ^ibited  a  specimen  of  the  rare 
Tettigometra  imprtisopunctata  and  one  of  Typhlocyba  debilis^  both 
taken  on  Sanderstead  Downs ;  and  likewise,  for  comparison,  an 
example  of  T,  tenerrima, — Mr.  W.  C.  Boyd  exhibited  a  larva 
of  PUris  rapa  attacked  by  Aficroyaster, — The  president  read 
notes  on  exotic  Coleoptera,  and  exhibited  specimens  of  Calo- 
metopus  Nyassa^  Amblyodus  Ntcarapia  and  drawings  of  other 
species. — Prof.  Westwood  also  remarked  upon  an  Indian  Mantis 
{GoMgylus gongylodes)  which  had  been  recently  described  by  Dr. 
Anderson  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  for 
August,  1877,  as  being  a  simulator  of  a  flower  to  a  remarkable 
degree  of  perfection. — Mr.  Wood- Mason  also  made  remarks  upon 
the  same  subject  and  upon  stridulating  organs  in  crustaceans 
with  reference  to  a  letter  on  this  subject  by  Mr.  Saville  Kent  in 
this  journal  (vol.  xvii.  p.  11).  Mr.  Wood-Mason  hkewise 
announced  the  discovery  of  a  stridulating  apparatus  in  a  Pkasma, 
— Sir  Sydney  Saunders  read  a  note  on  the  specific  identity  of  the 
Hampstead  Atypus,  Mr.  F.  Enoch  exhibited  and  made  re- 
marks upon  a  male  and  female  of  this  spider. — The  following 
papers  Were  read  :•— Descriptions  of  new  species  of  the  coleop- 


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76 


NATURE 


{Nov.  22,   1877 


terous  f  enus  Callirhipis  (Rkipidocerida)^  in  the  British  Moseam, 
hy  C.  O.  Waterhoase. — Descriptions  of  m  new  genus  ind  two 
new  species  of  Sphingida^  with  remarks  on  the  family  generally, 
by  A.  G.  Butler. — Descriptions  of  Halticina^  by  J,  S.  Baly.— 
Descriptions  of  new  species  of  CUrida,  with  notes  on  the  genera 
and  corrections  of  synonymy,  by  the  Rev.  H.  S.  Gorham. 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  November 9. —Dr.  Hugi^ffns, 
F.R.S.,  in  the  chair.— A  very  Urge  number  of  papers  were 
presented.— Lord  Lindtay  was  called  upon  to  read  Mr.  Gill's 
report  upon  the  expedition  to  Ascension  to  obtain  the  parallax 
of  Mars,  from  which  it  appeared  that  in  spite  of  meteorological 
difficolties  and  many  causes  of  anxiety  most  satisfactory  refults 
h\d  been  obtained,  and  Mr.  Gill  had  gone  up  a  mountain 
to  recruit  his  health. — Several  important  mathematical  papers 
were  then  read  ;  one  by  the  Astronomer- Royal  on  the  solar 
parallax,  as  deduced  from  telescopic  observations  of  the  transit 
of  Venus,  1874.— Next  a  paper  by  Prof.  Adams  on  the  motion 
of  the  moon's  node,  and  a  |>aper  by  Mr.  Neison  on  three  small 
inequalities  in  the  mean  motion  of  the  earth,  and  a  small  inequality 
in  the  mean  motion  of  Mars.  These  were  followed  by  three 
observational  papers  on  the  recent  opposition  of  Mars ;  one 
by  the  Astronomer- Royal,  read  by  Mr.  Christie,  giving  the 
summary  of  what  was  seen  at  Greenwich  both  with  the  telescope 
and  spectroscope ;  the  next  by  Mr.  N.  E,  Green,  giving  an 
account  of  his  expedition  to  Madeira  and  what  he  saw  of  Mars 
with  a  6ne  13  inch  reflector.  This  paper  was  accompanied  by  a 
series  of  beautiful  drawings  of  the  planet  by  the  author.  The 
third  paper,  on  Mars,  was  by  Mr.  John  Brett,  being  a  discussion 
of  a  series  of  telescopic  observations  made  in  Cornwall,  the 
purport  of  which  was  to  show  that  the  generally  received  hypo- 
thesis of  the  physical  condition  of  Mars  was  altogether  ftdladous, 
neither  the  snows  nor  the  seas  having  any  foundation  in  fact 
This  paper  was  also  illustrated  by  a  series  of  drawings.— Then 
followed  a  faper  by  Lord  Lindsay,  on  a  new  form  of  spectro- 
scope, and  the  meeting  adjourned. 

Anthropological  Institute,  November  13.— Dr.  John  Evans, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — ^The  Rev.  T.  A.  Bennett  and 
F.  V.  Dickins  were  elected  members.— An  interesting  series  of 
casts  of  skulls  made  of  papier-mach^  were  exhibited,  and  a 
special  vote  of  thanks  was  ordered  to  be  sent  to  Prof.  Bogdanow, 
of  Moscow,  b^  whom  they  were  presented  to  the  Institute. — 
Major-Gen.  A.  Lane  Fox,  F.R.S.,  exhibited  some  flint  flakes 
from  Egypt,  and  a  note  from  Capt  R.  F.  Burton  was  read  on 
the  fame. — The  director  then  read  a  paper  by  Mr.  H.  H. 
Howorth,  F.S.A,  on  the  spread  of  the  Slaves:  Part  I.,  the 
Croata.— This  was  followed  by  a  paper  on  the  Castilieri  d'Istria, 
bv  Capt  R.  F.  Burton,  H.M.'s  Consul  at  Trieste.— Mr.  Hyde 
CUrkc,  the  President.  Maj  »r-Gen.  A.  Lane  Fox,  and  Mr. 
Moggridge  took  part  in  the  discussions. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  November  13. — Mr.  George 
Robert  Stephenson,  president,  in  the  chair. — Ihe  paper  read 
was  a  review  of  the  progre^  of  steam  shipping  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century,  by  Mr.  Alfred  Holt,  M.  lost  C.E.,  of 
Liverpool 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  November  12.— M.  Prligot  In  the 
chair. — M.  Faye  presented  the  volume  of  the  Connaisfame  des 
Temps  for  1879. — On  •'omea.iplications  of  elliptic  functions  (on- 
tinned),  by  M.  Hcrroite.— -^/j«Wof  a  history  of  matter  (fuurth 
article)  bv  M.  ChevreuL  This  relates  to  the  views  of  Lavoisier, 
Stahl,  Schf  ele,  Cavendish,  and  Priestley.— Observations  on  the 
principle  of  maximum  work  and  on  the  spontaneous  decomposition 
of  hydrated  bioxiHe  ot  barium,  by  M.  Berthelot.— On  the  limits 
of  etherification,  by  M.  Berthelot  In  experimenting  <  n  e»heri- 
fication  sixteen  years  ago  he  put  as'de  a  number  of  mixiurt-s  to 
be  kept  a  considerable  time,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  limit  of 
the  reactions  produced  at  oidinary  temperatures.  The  matures 
consisted  of  acetic  acid  and  alcohol  (equal  equivalents),  acetic 
acid  and  glycerine,  tartaric  acid  and  alcohol,  valeric  add  and 
alcohol.  He  has  now  examined  these.  The  gent-ral  laws  of 
etherification  arc  confirmed,  and  especially  the  identity  of  the 
limits  of  combinations  between  acids  and  alcohols,  from  ordinary 
temperatures  up  to  260'.— On  the  order  of  appearance  of  the 
first  vessels  in  the  shfiots  of  some  Leguminosa  (second  part),  by 
M.  Tr^cul. — The  A ctdemy  elected  a  comm  ssion  to  present  a 
list  of  candidates  for  the  vacancy  among  the  Foreign  Associates, 
caused  by  the  death  of  M.  von  Bac.— On  the  numeration  of 
globnles  of  milk  for  the  analysis  of  woman's  milk,  by  M.  Bouchut 


A  drop  of  milk  is  mixed  with  100  drops  of  slightly  saline  water 
(distilled).  A  drop  of  the  mixture  is  placed  under  the  microscope, 
whose  eye-piece  is  divided  into  squares  ;  the  number  of  globules 
in  each  square  is  counted,  and  the  averai^  taken  ;  from  this  m  \y 
be  deduced  the  number  in  one  cubic  millimetr\  The  globules 
were  thus  counted  in  milk  of  158  nurses,  before,  during,  and 
after  suckling.  The  average  of  globules  is  about  1,026,000  per 
cubic  millimetre  ^^f  milk,  or  a  hundred  and  two  milliards  six 
hundred  millions  per  litre  ;  btit  between  800.000  and  one  million 
per  cntnc  millimetre,  the  m  Ik  is  consklered  of  good  quality. 
In  one  table  are  given  the  density  and  the  quantity  of  butter 
C'irresponding  to  given  numbers  of  globules  of  cow's  m*lk. — 
New  formulae  for  the  study  of  the  motion  of  a  plane  figure,  by 
M.  Haton  de  la  GouoiUi^re. — On  the  migration  of  the  puceron 
of  the  cornel  tree  and  its  reproduction,  by  M.  Lichtens^ein. 
This  puceron  comes  from  the  roots  of  gramineas,  and  returns 
to  them.  I»8  mode  of  reproduction  is  that  termed  by  the 
author  aHihogtnesis,^Qhten93CioTi%  on  the  >ubject  of  a  reoent 
communication  from  M.  Fabre,  by  M.  Millardet  The  secretary 
announced  a  new  biennial  priz%  founded  by  M.  Maujean.^ 
Discovery  of  a  small  planet  at  the  Observatory  <  f  Pari^,  by  M. 
Paul  Henry. — Discovery  of  a  small  planet  at  the  Observatory 
of  Pola,  by  M.  Palisa.  —Observations  of  platiets  125  and  176 
made  at  the  Paris  Observatory  (equatorial  of  the  garden),  by  MM. 
Paul  and  Prosper  Henry.— New  stellar  systenos,  by  M.  Flam- 
marion.— On  the  equation  with  partial  derivatires  of  the  third 
order  expressing  that  the  problem  of  geodesic  lines,  considered 
as  a  problem  of  mechanics,  supposes  an  algebraic  integral  of  the 
third  degree,  bv  M.  L^vy. — On  the  evolunon  of  red  oorposdes 
in  the  bT»od  of  oviparous  vertebrates,  bv  M.  Hayem.  The  red 
corpuscles  proceed  firom  a  peculiar  colourless  element,  which 
from  the  first  phases  of  devdopment  is  distinct  from  the  white 
corpuscles;  the  name  of  kematoNast  is  given  it  The  white 
corpuscles  are  foreign  to  the  formation  of  the  red,  both  in 
oviparous  vertebrates  and  in  the  higher  animals ;  but  whereas  in 
the  latter  the  red  corpuscles  of  new  formatioQ  are  c(doured,  what* 
ever  their  minuteness,  in  the  oviparoos,  the  embryonic  cor- 
puscles are  at  first  quite  without  haemoglobin.— On  the  spots 
and  crevices  of  pears,  by  Bi.  Prillienz.  These  are  due  to  the 
growth  of  a  small  parasitic  champignon. — On  the  semi-diurnal 
variations  of  the  barometer,  by  M.  De  Parville.  He  thinks  it 
improbable  that  aqueous  vapour  has  a  prepundetating  influence 
in  these  variations. — On  the  quantities  ot  heat  liberated  in  mix- 
tures of  sulphuric  add  and  water,  by  M.  Manmen*^.  Sulphnrie 
acid  recently  heated  does  not  liberate,  with  water,  the  same 
quantity  of  heat  as  the  same  add  kept  several  months.  This 
phenomenon,  denoted  as  a  tempering  of  liquids,  seems  to  him 
a  source  of  error  in  researches  on  ttomo-chemistry  not  hitherto 
considered. 


CONTENTS  Pack 

Danish  GasiirLAND 57 

Oua  t4ooK  ^MB1.P  :— 

Harrison's  '*  Sketch  of  the  Geology  of  Ldcestienhire  aad  Rutland  "  58 
Lbttbrs  to  ths  Editor  :— 

Expected  High  Tides —Edward  RoBHWTs       58 

Rain  all  in  the  lemierate  2^ne  ia  Connection  with  the  Sun-spot 

Cycle  -Dr   W  W   Hi;nt«r   ....              <q 

Contribution  to  the  Sun-spot  Theory  of  Rainfall. — Dr.  £  Bonavia  6s 
The  Radio^ter  aiid  it«  Levins  — Prof  Osborkb  Rkynoli»  ;  Dr. 

WiiX'AAi  B.  Carpbntrr,  F  R  S 6k 

Flui.1  Fdms  -  C.  loM.  1  so  ,  F.  K  S. bm 

Tuckey  and  Stanley.— The  Yallala  Rapids  on  the  Congo  —Dr.  J 

Rab 6« 

The  Future  of  our  British  Flora. ~A  Craio-Chkistib      ....  6a 

Selective  Uiscrmin.  tion  o'  Insects —HuNHY  O   Forhbs         ...  6a 
Ths  Earth- W4trm  io  ReKtion  to  the  Fertility  of  the  2*oil. — Gbo.  H. 

Phipps 6a 

Smell  and  Hearing  in  Moths  — E   HK 6a 

Carnivorous  Piaots. — Framcisco  Gimbz •  63 

OOB  iLsTROKOMICAl,  COLOMM  :— 

Minor  Planets 6j 

The  Comet  of  1673 63 

Mr.  Davwin  at  Cambridgb 64 

Intbrnational  Gbological  Congress 65 

Tub  Modbrn  Trlbscopb     By  J.  Mobman  Lockybb.  F.R.S.  {IVUk 

fHutt^attons) 66 

Zoological  Gardbns  . 63 

Notbs 69 

Tmb  Libbrty  of  SciBNCB  IK  THB  MoDBRN  Statb    By  Prof  Rudolf 

VlRCHOW 7* 

UmvaaaiTV  and  Educatiomal  Intblugbmcb 74 

SoaartBS  AKD  AcaoBuns 75 

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NATURE 


77 


THURSDAY,  NOVEMBER   29,  1877 


FLOHA  of  MAURITIUS  AND  SEYCHELLES 

Flora  of  Mauritius  and  the  Seychelles  :  a  Description  of 
the  Flowering  Plants  and  Ferns  of  those  Islands,  By  J. 
G.  Baker,  F.L.S.    (London  :  L.  Reeve  and  Co.,  1877.) 

THIS  compact  volume  of  nearly  6co  pages,  adds 
another  to  the  already  long  list  of  colonial  floras 
prepared  at  Kew  and  issued  under  the  authority  and  at 
the  expense  of  the  Colonial  Government  It  is  arranged 
on  the  same  plan  as  the  other  floras,  many  of  them  so 
well  known,  giving  first,  some  general  remarks  on  the 
physical  geography  and  botany  of  the  islands,  and  then  that 
admirable  outline  of  elementary  botany  prepared  by  Mr. 
Bentham,  and  which  contains  every  definition  necessary 
in  descriptive  botany,  thus  enabling  the  student  to  follow 
the  technical  descriptions  given  in  the  *' Flora"  itself. 
The  work  is  almost  entirely  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  J.  G. 
Baker  (the  Orchids  being  by  Mr.  Le  Marchant  Moore, 
and  the  Pahns  and  Pandani  by  Dr.  I.  B.  Balfour),  and  is 
only  another  example  of  the  indomitable  industry  so 
characteristic  of  Mr.  Baker.  The  materials  at  the  disposal 
of  the  author  have  been  ample,  and  probably  there  is  but 
little  left  to  discover  in  Mauritius,  the  Seychelles,  and 
Rodriguez,  although  many  forms  have  not  as  yet  been 
fully  determined  owing  to  the  want  of  perfect  specimens. 
Hence  it  is  desirable  that  naturalists  visiting  the  islands 
should  endeavour  to  complete  our  knowledge  of  these 
imperfectly  known  plants.  The  smaller  dependencies  of 
Mauritius  have  not  been  explored  botanically,  hence 
there  is  probably  a  rich  field  for  the  investigator  of  these 
numerous  islands.  It  is,  moreover,  all  the  more  desirable 
to  have  these  islands  explored  as  the  native  flora  of  the 
inlands  already  known  has  been  completely  altered  by  the 
introduction  of  cultivated  plants  and  weeds  as  well  as  by 
the  destruction  of  the  native  forests.  Thus  it  is  probable 
that  in  some  of  the  undisturbed  islands  a  rich  native  flora 
may  be  met  with,  or  that  some  of  the  forms  either  rare  or 
extinct  on  other  islands,  may  yet  be  comparatively 
abundant 

Mauritius  is  about  39  'miles  by  35,  and  has  an  area  of 
700  square  miles,  or  a  little  smaller  than  the  County  of 
Surrey.  It  is  situated  at  a  distance  of  about  500  miles 
from  Madagascar  and  100  miles  from  Bourbon,  and  is 
just  wiihin  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  northern  part 
of  the  island  is  a  low  plain  covered  vvith  sugar  plantations. 
In  the  centre  is  an  elevated  plateau  rising  to  about  1,500 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  the  great  mass  of  the  rocks  being 
ent'rely  volcanic.  Outside  the  central  plateau,  and  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  sea,  rise  the  three  principal  moun- 
tain ranges,  the  highest  portions  being  from  1,900  to  2,900 
feet  in  height  There  are  two  small  lakes  in  the  central 
plateau,  the  Grand  Bassin  and  the  Mare  aux  Vacoas. 
There  are  six  rivers,  about  ten  to  twelve  miles  in  length, 
and  numerous  small  rivulets.  The  climate  is  warm,  and 
at  Port  Louis  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  78°  F.  As 
a  result,  the  vegetation  has  a  decidedly  tropical  character. 
There  are  however,  a  few  south  temperate  plants  present, 
and  also  a  number  of  the  widely-spread  temperate  forms,  as 
NephrodiumfiliX'fnaSy  Cardamine  hirsuta,  J  uncus  effusus^ 
Convolvulus  arvetisis,  Plantago  major ^  and  P.  lanceolata. 
Vou  xviL^No.  423 


Sugar  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Mauritius.  The  increase 
in  Uie  cultivation  of  sugar  has  led  to  the  destruction  of 
the  forests,  which  at  [one  time  covered  the  island  to  the 
water's  edge.  As  a  result  of  the  destruction  of  the  forests, 
the  indigenous  flora  has  almost  become  destroyed.  The 
orchids,  ferns,  pandani,  and  the  shade-loving  plants,  and 
the  curious  endemic  trees  and  shrubs  have,  within  100 
years,  been  either  entirely  exterminated,  or  else  have 
become  exceedingly  rare  and  local.  The  native  vegeta- 
tion thus  partly  exterminated  has  been  replaced  by  a 
number  of  introduced  trees,  shrubs,  and  weeds,  to  an 
extent  only  exceeded  by  the  destruction  of  the  indigenous 
flora  of  St  Helena.  There  'seem  to  be  about  269  intro- 
duced plants  in  Mauritius,  and  869  undoubted  native 
species,  making  a  total  flora  of  about  1,138. 

The  Seychelles  are  situated  900  miles  north-east  of 
Mauritius,  in  3''-6*'  south  latitude,  and  consist  of  a  group 
of  about  thirty  islands,  most  of  them  of  very  small  size. 
The  islands  are  entirely  granitic.  The  largest  of  the 
group,  Mah^,  has  an  area  of  30,000  acres  ;  the  best  culti- 
tivated  and  most  populous  is  La  Digue,  with  an  area  of 
2,000  acres.  The  mountains  range  from  about  1,500  to 
3,000  feet  in  height  The  seasons  are  similar  to  those  of 
Mauritius.  Cotton  was  at  one  time  extensively  cultivated, 
and  the  aboriginal  forests  were  destroyed  to  make  room 
for  cotton  plantations.  Now  cotton  is  hardly  cultivated, 
the  chief  exports  from  the  island  being  cocoa-nut  oil  and 
fibre.  The  vegetation  is  wholly  tropical ;  the  few  tempe- 
rate species  found  in  Mauritius  being  absent  from  the 
Seychelles.  The  number  of  flowering  plants  and  ferns 
from  these  islands  is  338.  Five  genera  of  palms  and  one 
genus  of  Temstroemiacese  are  endemic.  The  endemic 
palms  are  mostly  well  known,  and  belong  to  the  genera 
Deckenia,  Nephrosperma,  Roscheria,  Verschaifeltia, 
Lodoicea,  and  Stevensonia.  The  total  number  of 
endemic  species  is  sixty.  The  rest  of  the  flora  consists 
chiefly  (250)  of  widely  distributed  tropical  plants,  and  be- 
tween  twenty  and  thirty  are  of  characteristic  Mascarene 
types.  The  flora  was  expected  to  have  been  much  richer 
in  endemic  forms  from  the  isolated  position  and  peculiar 
geological  construction  of  the  islands  thanjt  has  proved 
to  be  after  the  most  careful  examination. 

Rodriguez  is  situated  300  miles  to  the  north  and  east  of 
Mauritius,  and  is  an  island  about  eleven  miles  by  five,  with 
the  hills  in  the  interior  reaching  an  elevation  of  little  over 
1,000  feet  The  rock  is  entirely  volcanic,  and  the  climate 
similar  to  that  of  Mauritius.  The  flora  must  have 
undergone  great  changes,  as  the  earliest  records  of  the 
island  state  that  it  was  entirely  wooded.  The  plants  of 
the  island  number  about  202  wild  flowering  plants  and 
ferns,  nearly  all  collected  j,by  that  rising  young  botanist. 
Dr.  I.  B.  Balfour,  one  of  the  staff  of  the  Transit  of  Venus 
Expedition  to  Rodriguez.  Of  the  202  wild  species,  thirty- 
six  are  peculiar  to  the  island ;  and  there  are  three 
endemic  monotypic  genera,  one  Mathurina  having  been 
discovered  and  described  by  Dr.  I.  B.  Balfour. 

The  total  number  of  species  as  given  by  Baker  may  be 
thus  summarised  :— There  are  1,058  native  species  in  the 
"  Flora,"  869  natives  of  Mauritius,  338  natives  of  Sey- 
chelles, and  202  native  in  Rodriguez ;  269  are  naturalised 
in  these  islands,  thus  giving  a  total  number  of  1,327 
species  included  in  the  "Flora  of  Mauritius  and  the 
Seychelles."    The  distribution  of  the  species  in  the  flora 

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NATURE 


[Nov.  29,  1877 


is  also  interesting.  Thus  there  are  304  endemic  species, 
232  Mascarene  species,  />.,  plants  conHned  to  Bourbon, 
Mauritius,  Madagascar,  and  the  Comoros  ;  66  African 
but  not  Asian,  86  Asian  but  not  African ;  145  common  to 
Asia  and  Africa ;  and  225  common  to  the  Old  and  New 
World.  If  we  take  the  percentages  we  have  the  following 
results :— 29  per  cent  endemic,  22  per  cent.  Mascarene, 
2!  per  cent,  common  to  the  Old  and  New  World,  14  per 
cent,  common  to  Asia  and  Africa,  8  per  cent  Asian  but 
not  African,  and  6  per  cent.  African  but  not  Asian.  From 
this  it  is  evident  that  one-half  of  the  wild  plants  of  the 
flora  are  restricted  to  the  Mascarene  Archipelago. 

The  orders  containing  the  greatest  number  of  species 
are  the  following  : — Orchidaceae,  79  ;  Gramineae,  69  ; 
Cyperaceae,  62  ;  Rubiaceae,  57 ;  Euphorbiaceae,  45  ; 
Compositae,  43 ;  Leguminosae,  41 ;  Myrtaceae,  20.  There 
also  168  species  of  Filices,  but  it  is  rather  unfair  to  con- 
sider the  Filices  as  an  order  equivalent  say  to  the 
Euphorbiaceae  or  Myrtaceae  in  the  above  enumeration. 

The  descriptive  part  of  the  flora  is  elaborated  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  colonial  floras  already  published, 
and  is,  as  already  mentioned,  almost  entirely  the^work  of 
Mr.  Baker,  with  the  exception  of  the  Orchids,  Palms, 
and  Pandani.  Any  one  acquainted  with  Mr.  Baker's 
work  will  know  that  any  detailed  notice  of  the  descriptive 
part  of  the  present  volume  is  superfluous. 

W.  R.  McNab 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Die  Geologic,    Franz  Ritter  von  Hauer.     (Vienna  :  A 

Holder,  1877.) 
It  is  a  good  sign  both  of  the  progress  of  geological  study 
in  Austria  and  of  the  value  of  this  manual  by  the  director 
of  the  Austrian  Geological  Survey,  that  a  second  edition 
of  the  work  has  been  called  for  within  three  years  of  the 
date  of  its  publication.  A  sample  of  the  revised  issue 
which  has  been  sent  to  us  fully  bears  out  the  description 
on  its  title-page  that  it  is  enlarged  and  improved.  The 
original  work,  besides  its  clearly-expressed  introductory 
chapters  on  general  dynamical  and  mineralogical  geology, 
is  especially  a  valuable  repertory  of  information  regarding 
the  structure  and  palaeontology  of  the  Austro- Hungarian 
monarchy.  In  the  new  edition,  Ritter  von  Hauer  is  evi- 
dently doing  his  best  to  keep  his  manual  abreast  of  the 
time.  The  book  is  well-printed,  but  the  author  is  still  in 
the  bands  of  a  very  poor  wood-engraver.  The.new  cuts 
are  as  rude  and  feeble  as  ever. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

\Thi  Editor  doa  not  hold  himself  raponnble  for  opinions  expressed 
by  hit  eorrapondetUs,  Neither  eon  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of^  rejected  manuscripts* 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymons  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  ^eat  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com- 
munications  contctining  interesting  and  novel  facts,} 

Fritz  MuUer  on  Flowers  and  Insects 
Thi  enclosed  letter  from  that  excellent  observer,  Fritz  MiiUer, 
contains  some  mifccllancoos^  obsenratioai  on  certain  plants  and 
iniects  of  South  Brizi],  which  are  so  new  and  carious  that  they 
will  probably  interest  yonr  natonUbt  readers.  With  respect  to 
his  case  of  beet  getting  their  abdomens  dusted  with  pollen  while 
gnawing  the  glands  on  the  calyx  of  one  of  the  Malpighiaoese, 
and  thus  efiecting  the  croti-fertilisation  of  the  flowers,  I  will 
remark  that  this  case  is  closely  analogous  to  that  of  CoroniUa 


recorded  by  Mr.  Farrer  in  your  journal  some  years  ago,  in  ifvhich 
parts  of  the  flowers  have  been  greatly  modified,  so  that  bees  may 
act  as  fertilisers  while  sacking  the  secretion  on  the  outside  of  the 
calyx.  The  case  is  interesting  in  another  way.  My  son  Francis 
has  shown  that  the  food-bodies  of  the  BuU*s-hora  Acada,  wliich 
are  consumed  by  the  ants  that  protect  the  tree  from  its  enemies 
(as  desciibed  by  Mr.  Belt),  consbt  of  modified  glands ;  and  he 
suggests  that  aboriginally  the  ants  licked  a  secretion  from  the 
glands,  but  that  at  a  subsequent  period  the  glands  were  rendered 
more  nutritious  and  attractive  by  the  retention  of  the  secretion 
and  other  changes,  and  that  they  were  then  devoured  by  the 
ants.  But  my  sou  could  advance  no  case  of  glands  being  thus 
gnawed  or  devoured  by  insects,  and  here  we  have  an  example. 

With  respect  to  So/anum  palinacanthum,  which  bearsj  two 
kinds  of  flowers  on  the  same  plant,  one  with  a  long  style  and 
large  stigma,  the  other  with  a  short  style  and  small  stigma,  I 
think  more  evidence  is  requisite  before  this  species  can  be  con- 
sidered as  truly  heterostyled,  for  I  find  that  the  pollen-gratiiis 
from  the  two  forms  do  not  differ  in  diameter.     Theoretically  it 
would  be  a  great  anomaly  if  flowers  on  the  same  plant  were 
functionally  heterostyled,  for  this  structure  is  evidently  adapted 
to  insure  the  cross-fertilisation  of  distinct  plants.     Is  it  not  more 
probable  that  the  case  is  merely  one  of  the  same  plant  bearing 
male  flowers  through  partial  abortion,  together  with  the  original 
hermaphrodite  flowers  ?    Fritz  MilUer  justly  expresses  surprise 
at  Mr.  Leggett's  suspicion  that  the  difference  in  length  of  the 
pistil  in  the  flowers  of  Pontederia  cordata  of  the  United  States 
is  due  to  difference  of  age ;  but  since  the  publication  of  my 
book  Mr.  Leggett  has  fully  admitted,  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
Torrey  Botanical  Club,  that  this  species  is  truly  heterostyled  and 
trimorphic    The  last  point  on  which  I  wish  to  remark  is  the 
difference  between  the  males  and  females  of  certain  butterflies 
in  the  neuration  ^of  the  wings,  and  in  the  presence  of  tufts  of 
peculiarly-formed  scales.     An  American  naturalist  has  recently 
advanced  this  case  as  one  that  cannot  possibly  be>cconnted  for 
by  sexual  selection.     Consequently,  Fritz  MUller's  observations 
which  have  been  published  in  full  in  a  recent  number  of  Kosmos^ 
are  to  me  highly  interesting,  and  in  themselves  highly  remark- 
able. Charles  Darwin 
Down,  Beckenham,  Kent,  November  21 

You  mention  (**  Different  Forms  of  Flowers,"  page  331),  the 
deficiency  of  glands  on  the  calyx  of  the  deistogamic  flowers  ot 
several  Malpighiaceae,  suggesting,  in  accordance  with  Kemer's 
views,  that  this  deficiency  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  deisto- 
gamic flowers  not  requiring  any  protection  from  crawling  insects. 
Now  I  have  some  doubt  whether  the  glands  of  the  calyx  of  the 
Malpighiacese  serve  at  all  as  a  protection.  At  least,  in  the  one 
species,  the  fertilisation  of  which  I  have  very  often  witnessed, 
they  do  not.  This  species,  Bunchosia  gaudichaudiana,  is  regu. 
larly  visited  by  several  bees  belonging  to  the  genera  Tetrapedia 
and  Epicharis.  These  bees  sit  down  on  the  flowers  gnawing  the 
glands  on  the  outside  of  the  calyx,  and  in  doing  so  the  under  tide 
of  thdr  body  is  dusted  with  pollen,  by.which,  afterwards,  other 
flowers  are  fertilised. 

There  are  here  some  species  of  Solanum  (for  instance  S,  patina* 
canthum)  bearing  on  the  same  plant  long-styled  and  short-styled 
flowers.  The  short-styled  have  papilbe  on  the  stigma  and  appa* 
rently  normal  ovules  in  the  ovary,  but  notwithstanding  they  are 
male  in  function,  for  they  are  exdusivdy  visited  by  pollen-gather- 
ing bees  (Melipona,  Euglossa,  Augochlora,  Megacilissa,  Eophils, 
n.  g.,  and  others),  and  these  would  probably  never  insert  th^ 
proboscis  between  the  stamens. 

In  a  few  months  I  hope  to  be  able  to  send  you  seeds  o£  M 
white-fiowered  violet  with  subterranean  deistogamic  flf 
I  was  surprised  at  finding  that  on  the  S^rra  (about  i,  100 1 
above  the  sea)  this  violet  produced  abundant  normal 
well  as  subterranean  ones,  while  at  the  foot  of  the  Shm,  \ 


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it  had  flowered  profusely,  I  could  not  find  a  single  normal  fruit, 
and  subterranean  ones  were  extremely  scarce. 

Acccordtng  to  Delpino  the  changing  colours  of  certain  flowers 
would  serve  to  show  to  the  visiting  insects  the  proper  moment 
for  effecting  the  fertilisation  of  these  flowers.  *  We  have  here  a 
I^ntana  the  flowers  of  which  last  three  days,  being  yellow  on 
the  first,  orange  on  the  second,  purple  on  the  third  day.  This 
plant  is  visited  by  various  butterflies.  As  far  as  I  have  seen  the 
purple  flowers  are  never  touched.  Some  species  inserted  their 
proboscis  both  into  yellow  and  into  orange  flowers  {Danais 
erippus^  Purisaripa),  others,  as  far  as  I  have  hitherto  observed, 
exclusively  into  the  yellow  flowers  of  the  first  day  (Heliconms 
apstudes,  Colanis  Julia,  Eurema  Uuce,  This^is,  I  think,  a  rather 
interesting  case.  If  the  flowers  fell  off  at  the  end  of  the  first  day 
the  inflorescence  would  be  much  less  conspicuous ;  if  they  did 
not  change  their  colour  much  time  would  be  lost  by  the  butterflies 
inserting  their  proboscis  in  already  fertilised  flowers. 

In  another  Lantana  the  flowers  have  the  colour  of  lilac,  the 
entrance  of  the  tube  is  yellow  surrounded  by  a  white  circle ; 
these  yellow  and  white  markings  disappear  on  the  second  day. 

Mr.  Lcggett's  statements  about  Pontederia  cordata  appear  to  me 
rather  strange,  and  I  fear  that  there  is>ome  mistake.  In  all  the 
five  species  of  the  family  which  I  know  the  flowers  are  so  short- 
lived, lasting  only  one  day,  that  a  change  in  the  length  of  the 
style  is  not  very  probable.  In  the  long-styled  form  of  our  high- 
and  Pontederia  the  style  has  its  full  length  long  before  the  flowers 
open.  In  my  garden  this  Pontedaria  is  visited  by  some  species 
of  Augochlora  collecting  the  pollen  of  the  longest  and  mid-length 
stamens ;  they  are  too  large  to  enter  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  and 
have  too  short  a  proboscis  to  reach  the  honey  f  they  can  only  fer- 
tilise the  long-styled  and  mid-styled  forms,  but  not  the  short- 
styled. 

Among  the  secondary  sexual  characters  of  insects  the  meaning 
of  which  is  not  understood,  you  mention  (^'Descent  of  Man," 
vol.  i.,  p.  345)  the  different  neuration  in  the  wings  of  the  two  sexes 
of  some  butterflies.  In  all  the  cases  which  I  know  this  difference 
in  neuration  is  connected  with,  and  probably  caused  by,  the  deve- 
lopment in  the  males  of  f  spots  of  pecoliarly-formed  scales, 
pencils,  or  other  contrivances  which  exhale  odours,  agreeable 
no  doubt  to  their  females.  This  is  the  case  in  the  genera 
Mechanitis,  Dircenna,  in  some  species  of  Thecla,  &c. 

Fritz  MOller 
Blumenau,  St.  Catharina,  Brazil,  October  19 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's'  letter  in  Nature  (vol.  xvii. 
p.  26)  has  directed  attention  prominently  to  the  circumstance 
that  two  hypotheses  have  been  submitted  to  the  scientific  world 
as  explanations  of  the  force  and  motions  which  Mr.  Crookes  had 
shown  to  exist— one  by  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds,  the  other  by 
myself. 

Prof:  Osborne  Reynolds's  explanation  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
when  a  disc  with  vertical  sides  is  heated  on  one  side  and  exposed 
to  a  pas,  a  convection  current  sets  in,  which  draws  a  continuous 
supply  of  cold  gas  into  contact  with  the  hot  surface  of  the  disc 
As  this  cold  gas  reaches  the  disc  it  is  expanded,  and  thus  its 
centre  of  gravity  is  thrownUurther  from  the  disc.  Accordingly, 
the  disc,  u  freely  suspended,  will  move  in  the  opposite  direction 
so  as  to  keep  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  gas  and  disc  in  the 
same  vertical  line  as  before,  and,  if  not  freely  suspended,  will 
suffer  a  pressure  tending  to  make  it  move  in  that  direction.  If  I 
have  understood  Prof.  Reynolds  aright,  this  is  both  a  correct  and 
full  description  of  his  explanation  as  last  presented. 

My  explanation,  on  the  other  hand,  is  based  on  molecular 
motions  which  go  on  in  the  gas  without  causing  any  molar 
motion,  and  is  independent  of  convection  currents.  Prof.  Rey- 
nolds is  therefore,  I  conceive,  fully  justified  in  denying  that  my 
theory  has  supplied  any  deficiency  in  his  explanation.  As  he 
points  out,  the  two  explanations  are  incompatible  ;  if  either  b 
correct,  the  other  is  wholly  wrong. 

It  is  easy  to  apply  comparative  tests  to  the  lival  hypotheses  by 


making  a  selection  firom  Mr.  Crookes's  incomparable  experi- 
ments, firom  the  experiments  by  Mr.  Most  and  myself,  and  from 
instances  of  compressed  Crookes's  layers  in  the  open  atmosphere ; 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  make  the  choice  so  as  to  bring  the  abundant 
evidence  within  the  compass  of  a  letter. 

These  tests  might  take  various  forms,  of  which  perhaps  the 
most  direct  is  to  ascertain  whether  the  force  is  affected  by  varia- 
tions in  the  convection  current,  as  required  by  Prof.  Reynolds's 
hypothesis,  or  is  independent  of  convection,  but  increased  when 
the  heater  and  cooler  are  brought  nearer  together,  as  required 
by  mine. 

To  test  this  Mr.  Crookes  mounted  a  radiometer  in  a  receiver 
consisting  of  two  unequal  bulbs  connected  by  a  large  tube.  The 
movable  portion  could  be  transferred  from  one  bulb  to  the  other 
through  the  tube.  In  the  small  bulb  the  convection  current  is 
most  impeded,  and  at  the  same  time  the  heater  and  cooler  are' 
closest  together.  Mr.  Crookes  found  that  the  motion  of  the 
radiometer  was  more  rapid  in  the  small  bulb  than  in  the  large 
one,  in  conformity  with  my  theory,  and  in  opposition  to  Prof. 
Reynolds's.  The  same  is  the  uniform  drift  of  a  vast  number  of 
other  experiments  by  Mr.  Crookes,  and  of  those  by  Mr.  Moss 
and  myself,  from  which  it  appears  that  whenever  the  heater  and 
cooler  are  made  to  approach  there  is  an  increase  in  the  force, 
and  that  the  force  is  not  appreciably  affected  by  variations  of  the 
convection  current,  or  by  its  suppression. 

This  may  also  be  proved,  and  quite  conclusively,  by  observa- 
tions not  requiring  apparatus.  Drops  in  the  spheroidal  state 
and  the  drops  which  are  often  seen  floating  on  the  surface  of 
volatile  liquids,  as,  for  example,  the  drops  which  run  about  on 
the  surface  of  the  sea  in  certain  states  of  the  weather  when  water 
drips  from  an  oar,  are  supported  by  Crookes's  layers  of  air  inter- 
vening between  them  and  the  liquid  beneath.  Similarly  a  red- 
hot  copper  plate  will  float  on  water,  supported  on  a  Crookes's 
layer,  and  many  other  instances  of  a  like  kind  might  be  adduced. 
In  such  cases,  where  the  film  of  air  is  thin  and  for  the  most  part 
horizontal,  it  is  manifest  that  .there  is  no  opportunity  for  those 
convection  currents  to  arise  which  are  required  by  Prof. 
Reynolds's  hypothesis,  while  in  all  of  them  there  are  the  peculiar 
molecular  motions  of  my  theory. 

The  absence  of  convection  currents  which  could  produce  an 
api)reciable  effect  may  also  be  proved  in  those  radiometers  of 
which  the  arms  whisk  round  at  a  very  rapid  speed,  and  in  many 
other  cases  that  would  take  too  much  space  to  describe  here. 

Again,  a  tangen'ial  force  which  may  be  rendered  considerable 
is  an  immediate  consequence  of  my  theory,  but  has  no  place  as 
a  consequence  of  Prof.  Reynolds's.  Now  its  presence  has  been 
verified  by  Mr.  Moss  and  myself,  and  by  Mr.  Crookes  in  an 
exquisitely  beautiful  apparatus  suggested  for  this  purpose  by 
Prof.  Stokes,  as  well  as,  in  a  less  oe^ree,  in  all  Mr.  Crookes's 
apparatus  with  curved  or  crumpled  discs. 

Hence  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  hypothesis  is  not  the  ex- 
planation of  Crookes's  stress.  It  alleges  a  cause  which  is  in 
certain  cases  a  vera  causa,  but  not  the  cause  of  what  is  to  be 
explained.  So  far  as  I  can  form  a  judgment,  its  merit  was  col- 
lateral, and  not  intrinsic.  It  was  the  first  attempt  at  a  reduction 
of  the  observed  phenomena  to  known  physical  laws.  Though 
not  accounting  for  them,  it  was  sufficiently  plausible  to  attract 
the  attention  of  Prof.  Reynolds  and  other  physicists.  It  thereby 
had  the  important  effect  of  suggesting  Dr.  Schuster's  most  valu- 
able experiment,  which  was  the  first  that  established  the  cardinal 
fact  that  the  forces  within  a  radiometer  case  are  balanced. 

The  conclusion  to  which  we  are  thus  led  by  a  purely  expert^ 
nuntal  inquiry  is  supported  by  an  examination  of  the  chief 
theoretic  assertions  of  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  letter,  via., 
I.  That  an  essential  part  of  my  explanation  "is  contrary  to  the 
law  of  the  diffusion  of  heat  in  gases ; "  and  2.  "  Tliat  the  force 
arising  from  the  communication  of  heat  from  a  surface  to  adjacent 
gas  of  any  particular  kind  depends  only  on  one  thing,  the  rate  at 
which  heat  is  communicated,  and  to  this  it  is  proportional." 

Both  of  these  statements  have  been  set  down  by  Pro^  Osborne 
Reynolds  in  error  ;  the  first  from  not  observing  that  the  ordinary 
laws  for  the  propagation  of  heat  through  a  gas  do  not  apply  to 
compressed  Crookes's  layers;  and  the  second  from  a  misap- 
prehension of  the  actual  agency  at  work  in  radiometers  and 
other  similar  apparatus.  I  will  proceed  to  establtsii  these  two 
positions. 

I.  So  long  as  a  gas  is  in  its  ordinary  state  the  distribution  of 
the  velocities  of  the  molecules  is  the  same  in  all  directions,  and 
when  heat  is  imparted  to  the  gas  it  does  not  disturb  this  uni- 
formity of  structure.  The  heat  simply  increases  ih:  metn 
velocity,  and  the  actual  velocities  continue  to  be  distributed  about 


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their  mean  ralue  according  to  the  well-known  exponential  law, 
and  are  alike  in  all  directions.  But  the  gas  of  a  compressed 
Crookes's  layer  is  not  in  the  ordinary  state  ;  it  is  nnder  con- 
straint, as  I  have  elsewhere  shown,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  the 
heater  and  cooler  between  which  it  is  confined.  In  consequence 
of  this  constraint  there  are  what  I  have  described  as  processions 
going  on  in  the  layer  of  gas  :  in  other  words,  the  vdocUia  of  ihi 
molmtUs  at  any  situation  within  the  layer  are  not  alike  tn  all 
directions t  but  are  greatest  in  the  directi4m  of  t/ie  cooler ^  least  tn  the 
direction  of  the  heater^  and  of  intermediate  values  in  lateral  difo 
tions.  The  heat  in  crossing  the  layer  from  the  heater  to  the 
cooler  maintains  this  polarised  molecular  structure,  and  if  the 
flow  of  heat  is  increased  it  does  not  simply  increase  the  mean 
velocity  of  the  molecules,  but  also  augments  the  disparity  of  the 
velocities  in  different  directions. 

Now  the  ordinary  laws  of  the  communication  of  heat  to  and 
through  gas  are  based  on  the  opposite  supposition  that  when  heat 
reaches  anj  portion  of  the  gas  aJl  the  molecules  of  that  portion  are 
equally  afiected,  that  though  their  mean  velocity  is  increased  the 
laws  of  the  distribution  of  the  velocities  about  that  mean,  and  in 
different  directions,  are  not  changed.  Hence  Prof.  Osborne 
Reynolds  has  fallen  into  an  error  in  applying  the  ordinary  *'  law 
of  the  diffusion  of  heat  in  gases  "  to  the  case  of  compressed 
Crookes's  layers.  The  law  employed  by  Prof.  Reynolds  does 
not  prevail  unless  there  is  sufficient  room  in  front  of  the  heater  for 
the  development  of  a  complete  unrestricted  Crookes's  layer ; 
Crookes's  force  only  presents  itself  when  the  thickness  of  that 
layer  is  restricted  by  a  cooler. 

The  transmission  of  heat  across  Crookes's  layers  is  made  the 
subject  of  investigation  in  a  memoir  which  I  laid  before  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society  last  May,  which  has  recently  been  printed  in  the 
Transactions  of  that  body,  and  of  which  a  copy  will  shortly 
appear  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine,  The  law  proves  to  be 
entirely  different  from  any  of  the  laws  for  the  propagation  of  heat 
hitherto  known,  and  I  have  therefore  called  this  mode  of  trans> 
ferring  heat  by  a  new  name — the  penetration  of  heat.  Moreover, 
the  results  of  theory  had  been  verified  by  anticipation  more  than 
thirty  years  before  by  MM.  De  la  Provostaye  and  Desains,  in 
two  elaborate  experimental  investigations  into  what  we  now 
know  to  have  been  the  penetration  of  heat ;  so  that  our  know- 
ledge of  its  laws,  which  are  entirely  different  from  the  laws  of  the 
diffusion  of  heat,  quoted  by  Prof.  Reynolds,  already  stands  on 
both  a  deductive  and  experimental  basis. 

2.  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  further  states  that  with  each  gas 
the  force  depends  only  on  one  variable,  viz.,  the  rate  at  which 
heat  is  communicated  by  the  heater  to  the  adjacent  gas,  and  that 
it  is  proportional  to  this  rate.  Probably  owing  to  a  mere  slip 
on  Prof.  Reynolds's  part,  he  has  here  omitted  a  second  variable, 
viz.,  the  temperature  of  the  gas,  which  is  implicitly  contained 
in  the  equation  of  his  first  paper  to  which  he  refers.  With  this, 
however,  I  have  no  concern ;  what  I  have  to  point  out  is  that 
in  making  the  statement,  whether  in  an  amended  or  in  its  actual 
form,  Profl  Osborne  Reynolds  has  overlooked  the  fact  that  the 
machinery  of  Crookes's  stress  consists  of  a  cooler  as  well  as  of  the 
heater  and  intermediate  gas,  and  that  a  sufficient  proximity  0/ the 
cooler  is  essential.  Accordingly,  the  true  expression  for  the  force 
(of  which  I  hope  to  publish  an  investigation  made  some  time 
ago,  as  soon  as  my  health  will  allow)  is  not  so  simple  as  Prof. 
Reynolds  supposes,  but  is  a  function  of  the  temperatures  of  the 
heater  and  cooler,  and  of  the  rate  at  which  heat  reaches  the 
•  ooler  by  penetration,  in  addition  to  the  single  variable  which 

one  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  admits.  The  vice  of  the  mathe- 
matical reasoning,  on  which  Prof.  Reynolds  bases  his  statement, 
is  that  it  starts  from  a  kinetic  expression  for  the  pressure  of  gas, 
which  is  only  true  when  the  mean  of  the  squares  of  the  velocities 
of  the  molecules  is  the  same  in  all  directions.  Accordingly,  his 
discussion  does  not  reach  the  phenomenon  it  professes  to 
explain ;  it  is  irrelevant  to  the  case  of  compressed  Crookes's 
layers,  in  whidi  the  gas  is  polarised,  and  where  the  degree  of 
polarisation  is  itself  a  function  of  Prof.  Reynolds's  variable  along 
with  other  thermal  variables. 

Thus,  in  all  parts  of  his  inquiry.  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  has 
been  led  into  error  by  having  regarded  the  gas  of  compressed 
Crookes's  layers  as  gas  in  its  ordinary  state ;  in  other  words, 
because  he  has  not  had  a  glimpse  of  that  peculiar  molecular 
structure  in  the  gas,  which  is  the  real  source  of  Crookes's  stress. 
From  a  review  of  the  whole  subject  I  think  myself  justified  in 
submitting  that  the  only  discovery  which  brought  with  it  any 
knowledge  of  the  cause  of  Crookes's  stress  and  of  penetration, 
was  the  discovery  that  gas  could  assume  this  polarised  con- 
dition ;  and  I  must  say  that  it  does  not  appear  to  m*  that 


to   this  discovery  Prof^  Osborne  Reynolds  has  in  any  degree 
contributed. 
Dublin,  November  15  G.  Johnstone  Stoney 

Postscript,  November  23  — Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  has 
written  a  further  letter  to  Nature  (vol.  xviL  p.  61).  in  which  he 
says  :— •*  The  fact  that  Mr.  Stoney  has  in  no  way  referred  to  my 
work,  although  I  preceded  him  by  same  two  years,  his  relieved 
me  from  all  obligation  to  discuss  Mr.  Stoney's  theory."  I  am 
sorry  Prof.  0*bome  Reynolds  should  have  thought  me  capable 
of  discourtesy  or  inattention  to  the  claims  of  a  fellow-worker,  and 
fortunately  I  am  not  conscious  of  being  liable  to  the  imputation. 
I  became  acquainted  with  Profl  Reynolds's  paper  in  the  interval 
between  the  publication  of  my  first  and  second  papers,  but  did 
not  refer  to  it  in  my  second  paper  because  X  found  on  reading  it 
that  Prof.  Reynolds's  expluiations  of  Crookes's  force  were  all 
erroneous  (viz.,  the  evaporation  of  mercury  or  other  vapour, 
and  heat  communicated  to  diffused  particles  of  gas,  or  to  gas 
brought  by  convection  currents) ;  because  the  mathematical 
analysis  with  which  he  supports  his  [hypotheses  is  irrelevant 
to  the  problem  with  which  he  is  dealing  ;  and  finally,  because  for 
the  purposes  of  my  inves  igation  I  had  no  occasion  to  point  out 
these  mistakes,  inasmuch  as  Profl  Rcjmolds  had  not  approached 
the  subject  of  polarised  layers  of  gas  and  their  mechanical  pro- 
perties, which  was  the  subject  matter  of  my  papen. 

I  ought  to  add  a  word  in  reference  to  the  criticijm  of  my 
memoir  on  penetration,  which  is  contained  in  Prof  Osborne 
Reynolds's  last  letter.  He  seems  to  overlook  a  condition  laid 
down  in  the  second  paragraph  of  my  memoir,  which  disposes  of 
the  criticism,  viz.  :  *'  Let  us  further  regard  this  gas  as  a  perfect 
nonconductor  of  heat.**  Your  mathematical  readers  will  at  once 
perceive  that  this  condition  is  a  legitimate  simplification  of  the 
problem,  because  the  diffusion  or  conduction  of  heat  in  gases  is 
very  sluggish  compared  with  penetration,  the  phenomenon  with 
which  I  was  dealing. 

It  appears  from  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  last  letter  that  my 
wish  to  make  my  note  to  Nature  (vol  xvii.  p.  43)  a  fortnight 
ago  short,  led  me  to  make  it  obscure;  I  will  therefore,  with 
your  permission,  try  to  state  the  matter  more  clearly. 

As  I  understand  the  scientific  question  in  discussion  before  us, 
it  is  this  :— Assuming  (i)  that,  wnen  heat  is  communicited  from 
a  solid  surface  to  a  gas  in  contact  with  it,  a  force  arises  (equiva- 
lent to  a  pressure  against  the  surface)  which  is  proportional  to 
the  rate  of  communication  of  heat,  and  (2)  that  the  conducting 
power  of  a  gas  for  heat  is  independent  of  its  density,  Prof. 
Reynolds  concludes  thvt  the  driving- force  on  the  vanes  of  & 
radiometer  does  not  increase  with  the  rarefaction  of  the  air,  but 
that  rarefaction  favours  the  motion  only  in  so  far  as  it  lessens  the 
opposing  force  due  to  convection- currents.  I,  on  the  other 
hand,  while  admitting  Prof.  Reynolds's  premisses,  do  not  admit 
his  conclusion.  On  the  contrary,  I  believe  that,  in  the  radio- 
meter, rarefaction  must  increase  the  rate  of  communication  of 
heat,  and  hence  also  the  force.  To  see  how  this  may  be,  let  A  B 
represent  the  thickness  of  a  stratum  of  gas  contained  between 
two  parallel  solid  surfaces,  whose  temperatures,  measured  from 
any  zero,  are  represented  respectively  by  A  c  and  B  D.  Then, 
I  imagine,  the  flow  of  heat  through  the  gas  will  take  place  as 
though  there  were,  in  contact  with  each  solid  surface,  a  layer  of 
gas  whose  temperature  is  throughout  the  same  as  that  of  the 
contiguous  solid,  and  whose  thickoe.s  is  equal  (or  at  Icist  pro- 
portional) to  the  mean  length  of  path  of  the  molecules.  1  he 
virtual  thickness  of  the  stratum  of  gas,  whose  conductivity  comes 
into  account  in  determining  the  rate  of  transmission  of  heat,  is 
then  the  actual  thickness  diminished  by  the  aggregate  thicknesses 
of  these  two  liyeis.  For  example,  if  A  a  and  B^  represent  the 
thicknesses  of  the  hot  and  cold  layers  respectively,  the  virtual 


I  hB 


thickness  of  the  stratum  across  which  conduction  takes  place  is 
a  Iff  and  the  distribution  of  temperature  from  side  to  side  of 
the  whole  quantity  of  gas  is  given  by  the  ordinate^  of  [the 


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81 


broken  line  QcdD.  If  now! the  gas  is  rarefied,  the  mean 
length  of  path  of  the  molecules,  and  consequently  the  thickness 
of  each  of .  the  layers  of  uniform  temperature,  is  increased, 
and  the  thidcness  of  the  stratum  across  which  true  conduction 
takes  place  is  dimioished.  If,  for  example,  the  thicknesses 
of  the  layers  become  A  a'  and  b  ^,  the  thickness  of  the  con- 
ducting stratum  is  reduced  to  (!fb\  and  the  distribution  of  tem- 
pf  ratitre  is  represented  by  the  ordinates  of  the  broken  line  c^^d. 
The  rate  of  flow  of  heat  in  the  two  cases  will  be  proportional 
conjointly  to  the  inclination  of  the  line  cd  or  dd^  to  ab,  and  to 
the  conductivity  of  the  gas ;  but  as  the  latter  factor  does  not 
vary  with  density,  the  result  is  proportional  to  the  former  only. 
It  is  evident  that  if  this  view  of  the  matter  b  approximately 
correct  rarefaction  must  increase  the  rate  of  transmit  sion  of  heat 
across  a  stratum  of  gas  whenever  the  increased  length  of  path  of 
the  molecules,  resulting  from  rarefaction,  bears  an  appreciable 
proportion  to  the  thickness  of  the  stratum,  but  that  it  will  have 
no  sensible  effect  of  the  kind  when  the  stratum  of  gas  is  very 
thick  or  the  rarefaction  itself  very  small.  * 

'  I  ought  to  acknowledge  that  preciselyHhis  mode  of  representing 
the  effect  of  rarefaction  occurred  to  me  only  as  I  was  thinking 
how  I  could  comply  with  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  wish  that  I 
should  be  "more  explicit."  When  I  wrote  my  last  note  I  had 
in  mind  a  somewhat  different  mode  of  action  whereby  it  seemed 
that  an  equivalent  result  to  that  here  pointed  out  would  be 
brought  about  The  further  cons'deration  which  Prof.  Rey- 
nolds's letter  in  this  week's  Nature  has  caused  me  to  give  to  the 
subject  his,  however,  led  me  to  think  that  the  view  given  above 
is  not  only  clearer,  but  also  a  nearer  approach  to  a  correct  repre- 
sentation of  the  facts  than  the  one  I  had  previously  adopted. 
But  apart  from  the  accuracy  of  any  particular  explanation  of  hmo 
such  a  result'can  occur,  the  experimental  evidence  seems  to  me 
to  prove  conclusively  Uiat  the  force  in  the  radiometer  does  in- 
crease (up  to  a  certain  point)  with  rarefaction.  The  action  of 
convection  currents  depends  to  so  great  an  extent 'on  such  con- 
ditions as  the  size  and  shape  of  the  envelope  and  the  position  of 
the  fly,  and  they  must  be  so  much  disturbea  as  soon  as  the  vanes 
begin  to  move,  that  if  they  played  the  essential  part  which  I 
understood  Prof.  Reynolds  to  attribute  to  them,  I  cannot  think 
that  the  effect  of  rarefaction  would  present  anything  like  the 
degree  of  regularity  that  has  been  actually  observed. 
November  24  G.  Carey  Foster 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Pay 

The  precise  nature  and  grounds  of  the  attestation  given  by 
Mr.;  Crookei  to  Eva  Fay's  "  mediumship "  appear  in  an 
article  entitled  "Science  and  Spiritualism"  in  the  Daily  Tde^ 
graph  for  March  13, 1875,  embodying  a  communication  made  by 
Mr.  Crookes  himself  to  the  Spiritualist  of  the  preceding  day. 

The  readers  of  Nature  will  be  able  to  judge  for  themselves  by 
the  following  extracts  from  this  article,  whether  Eva  Fay  was  not 
fully  justified  in  announcing  her  "  mediumship  "  to  the  American 
public  as  having  received  Mr.  Crookes's  "endorsement" 

•*In  the  Spiritualist  of  yesterday,  Mr.  William  Crookes, 
F.R.S.,  prints  an  account  of  a  sSanct  at  his  house  in  which  Mrs. 
Fay  exhibited  some  remarkable  phenomena  while  under  severe 
scientific  conditions.  The  sitting  took  place  on  Friday  evening, 
February  19,  in  the  presence  of  several  well-known  men  of 
science  ;  and,  on  Mr.  Crookes's  suggestion,  the  medium  was  so 
placed  as  to  foim  part  of  an  electrical  current  connected  with  a 
galvanometer,  indicating  on  a  graduated  circle  the  exact  deflection 
produced  by  the  current.  In  each  hand  Mrs.  Fav  held  the  ter- 
minal of  a  wire,  and  the  fact  that  she  kept  contmuous  hold  of 
the  terminals  was  guaranteed  by  the  amount  of  deflection  of  the 
galvanometer  needle,  and  by  the  flashes  of  light  which  accompany 
each  change  of  position  or  break  of  contact.  This  method  was 
agreed  to  by  the  savants  present,  as  affording  absolute  certainty 
t£at  the  medium  could  not  remove  her  hand  or  body  ftom  the 
wires,  whether  in  a  trance  or  otherwise,  without  the  fact  being 
made  known  by  the  galvanometer.  The  sitting  was  held  in  a 
well-lighted  drawing-room,  the  medium  thus  'tied  down  by 
electricity'  being  screened  by  a  curtain.  What  followed  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Crookes  : — 

«  We  conunenced  the  tests  at  8. 55  p.m.  ;  the  deflection  by  the 
galvanometer  was  211  deg.,  and  the  resistance  of  Mrs.  Fay's 
body  6,600  British  Association  units.  At  8.56  the  deflection  was 
2x4  d^.,  and  at  this  moment  a  handbell  began  to  ring  in  the 
library.  At  8.57  the  deflection  was  215  deg.  A  hand  came  out 
of  the  cabinet  on  the  side  of  the  door  farthest  from  Mrs.  Fay." 

A  number  of  other  occurrences  of  the  like  kind  are  then 
recorded  ;  the  hand  reappearing  from  time  to  time,  and  presenting 


different  members  of  the  party  with  books  and  other  articles 
severally  appropriate  to  each,  of  which  Mr.  Crookes  considered 
it  impossible  that  Mrs.  Fay  could  herself  have  gained  pottesston. 

He  a^ds  : — '*  Before  Mrs.  Fay  came  to  the  house  that  evening, 
she  only  knew  the  names  of  two  of  the  guests  who  would  be 
present ;  but  during  the  evening  the  intdligence  at  work  dis- 
played an  unusual  amount  of  knowledge  about  the  sitters  and  the 
labours  of  their  lives.' ' 

The  entire  extract  (which  I  should  have  reproduced  in  full  if 
the  space  of  Nature  had  permitted)  would  show  that — i.  It  is 
true  that  Mr.  Crookes  gave  his  public  attestation  to  the  gennme- 
ness  of  the  so-called  spiritualistic  manifestations  which  occurred 
in  his  house  through  the  **  mediumship  "  of  Eva  Fay. 

2.  It  is  true  that  Eva  Fay  went  back  to  the  United  States 
armed  with  Mr.  Crookes's  public  attestation  of  the  genuineness  of 
the  performances  which  took  place  at  his  house. 

3.  It  is  trae  that  Mr.  Crookes  wrote  a  letter  to  a  gentleman  in 
the  United  States,  giving  a  similar  attestation,  which  letter  was 
published  in  facsimile  in  an  American  newspaper. — ^The  only 
thing  that  was  not  true  in  my  statement,  was  that  (through  having 
mislaid  the  slip  containmg  it)  I  spoke  of  this  letter  as  having  been 
addressed  to  Eva  Fay  herself,  and  having  been  written  before 
her  departure. 

4.  It  is  true  that  Eva  Fay's  public  performances  in  London 
were  imitated  at  the  time  by  Messrs.  Maskelyne  and  Cooke; 
and  further,  that  her  business  agent  spontaneously  offered  Mr. 
Maskelyne  to  expose  (for  a  sum  of  money)  the  tricks  by 
which  she  cheated  "the  F.R.S.  people."— If  Nature  thinks  it 
worth  while  to  admit  into  its  columns  the  full  particulars  of  that 
offer,  Mr.  Maskelyne  is  quite  ready  to  furnish  them.  His  general 
assertion  of  the  fact  has  been  long  before  the  public  ("  Modem 
Spiritualism,"  p.  122),  and  has  remained  unchsdlenged,  so  far  as 
I  am  aware,  until  now. 

5.  It  is  true  that  the  whole  modus  operandi  of  Eva  Fay's  public 
'*  manifestations  "  in  the  United  States  has  been  publicly  exposed 
in  New  York  and  Boston  by  Mr.  Washington  Irving  Bishop,  as 
stated  in  Fraser's  Magazine  for  the  present  month. 

It  was  not  only  in  entire  ignorance  of  these  proceedings,  but 
under  the  influence  of  a  report  in  circulation  among  the  Fellows 
of  the  Royal  Society — that "  Mr.  Crookes  had  given  up  Spiri- 
tualism," that  I  expressed  to  Mr.  Crookes,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
receiving  the  Royal  Medal,  my  desire  to  "bury  the  hatdiet" 
But  I  most  assuredly  did  not  consider  myself  thereby  pledged  to 
keep  silence  in  regard  to  any  further  proceedings  of  the  like  kind ; 
and  only  learned  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  year  that  Eva 
Fay  had  been  trading  on  the  "  endorsement "  given  her  by  '*  Mr. 
Crookes  and  other  Fellowi  of  the  Royal  Society,"  which  she  natu- 
rally "  improved  "  into  that  of  "  the  Royal  Society  of  England." 

November  19  William  B.  Carpenter 


Potential  Energy 

Will  you  permit  me  to  express  a  certain  amount  of  scep- 
tldsm  as  to  the  reality  of  Mr.  OToole's  troubles  on  this  subject? 
That  some  statements  made  in  the  text-books  ouoted  are  not 
clear— that  by  an  ingenious  collocation  of  isolated  passages  from 
different  authors  some  absurd  conclusions  may  be  drawn — we 
admit,  but  it  ma^  be  doubted  whether  a  Publius  with  the  keen 
critical  power  of  Mr.  O'Toole  would  not  be  able  to  eliminate 
these  eirors  or  ambiguities  by  a  reference  to  the  context  In 
support  of  this  position  let  us  take  the  points  raised  by  Mr. 
O'Toole  in  the  order  adopted  by  him. 

A. — Potential  £,,  as  meaning  Energy  in  poise. 

The  "doctors"  quoted,  with  one  exception,  represent  poten- 
tial E. — not  as  energy  in  posse,  but  as  kinetic  energy  inposse~-9i 
very  different  thing.  Just  as  gold  coin— though  certainly  not 
money  in  po:se--mxf  correctly  be  called  silver  coin  (another 
form  of  money)  in  posse. 

But  it  is  said  this  name — and  certain  phrases  employed  by  the 
doctors — imply  that  potential  E.  is  "energy  of  about-to-su- 
pervene  motion,  or  that  it  does  not  perform  work  except 
through  the  resulting  E.  of  motion."  Mr.  O'Toole  is  so  dis- 
tressed because  poor  Publios  is  susceptible  to  this  impression, 
that  I  feel  some  hesitation  in  asking  what  is  wrong  in  it  ?  How 
can  work  be  done  without  motion?  How  can  the  poten- 
tial E.  of  a  system  change  without  a  change  in  the  con« 
figuration — iL/.,  motion  of  £e  system?  Where  b  the  mistake 
in  the  conception  of  potential  E.  continuously  changing 
into  kinetic  energy,  and  this  into  work,  as  suggested  by  poor 
'*  P.  M.,"  who^was  so  sununarily  treated  by  this  terrible  0"IXK>Ie 
that  I  quake  in  my  shoes  as  I  think  of  my  fate. 


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NATURE 


\JNov,  39,  1877 


Tbf  exception  mentioned  above  if  an  extract  from  Ckrk 
Maxwell,  which  is  certainly  enoneoos,  and  from  which  Mr. 
OToole  gets  a  good  deal  of  fun.  We  will  not  suggest  that  the 
addition  of  a  single  word  would  make  the  passs^  correct,  for 
we  should  be  told  that  text-books  ought  to  be  per^t  But  it  is 
only  just  to  mention  that  the  error  occurs  in  an  explanation  of  the 
name  ;  in  the  definition  of  the  thing  the  error  does  not  occur ; 
nay,  it  is  expressly  contradicted. 

After  this  is  it  not  unkind  to  condemn  those  doctors  who  drop 
the  name  "  potential  £."  and  replace  it  with  such  phrases  as 
*'  £.  of  repose,'*  &c.,  implying  that  the  energy  in  question  is  not 
due  to  motion  ?  By-the-by  where  is  the  bull  in  '*  passive 
energy''?  and  what  is  the  ''action"  that  may  be  confounded 
with  kinetic  energy? 

[B. — Potential  E.  as  meaning  **  Energy  related  to  PotenHal 
Functions** 

The  word  Potential  may  be  used  in  a  second  sense.  This  of 
itself  is  a  trouble  to  Mr.  O'Toole  ;  but — remembering  that  your 
readers  may  not  sympathise  with  his  undisguised  antipathy  to 
verbal  skylarking — ^he  hastens  to  add  that  the  two  meanings  are 
not  only  heterogeneous  but  incompatible.  "  Surely  there  is  no 
occasion  to  stop  to  prove  this."  Please  do,  Mr.  O'Toole ;  we 
should  like  to  hear  you  prove  something. 

It  may  be  noted  that  in  this  opinion  and  in  paragraph  9  he 
appears  to  differ  from  Thomson  and  Tait  (See  their  definition 
of  Potential,  Nat.  Phil.,  voL  i.,  §  485). 

C— Potential  E,  as  nieaning  *«  Energy  of  Potency  " 
'  It  appears  from  a  foot-note  that  "  potency  "  may  mean  a  force. 
If  so,  it  is  strange  that  the  O'Toole — wha  throwing  off  his  thin 
disguise,  at  the  end  of  his  letter  undertakes  the  "duty"  of  a 
doctor,  and  tells  us  .that  potential  E.  should  be  the  "  energy  of 
a  force  "—it  is  strange  that  Dr.  O'Toole  should  object  to  the 
name  on  this  ground. 

But  the  remarks  under  this  head  are  chiefly  interesting,  as 
indicating  the  nwdus  operandi  of  our  pseudo-Publius.  He  does 
not  trouble  to  examine  the  definitions  of  *' potential  ene^r^v." 
He  only  looks  for  explanations  of  the  word  "  potentiaL"  Find- 
ing scant  material  in  the  doctor's  utterances,  he  resorts  to  his 
dictionary,  hunts  up  the  difTerent  meanings  of  *'  potential,"  adds 
to  these  Uieir  antitheses,  and  rends  his  phantoms  to  pieces.  It 
is  scarcely  a  parody  upon  his  letter  to  say — we  won't  trouble 
about  what  a  civil  engineer  is,  but  let  us  examine  the  meaning 

of  civil.    Now  civil  has" ^.meanings  :  (  A.)  polite,  (B.),  &c. 

Therefore  "civil  E."  means  "polite  E.,"  and  "civil  E.''used 
as  a  distinguishifiF  title  cannot  mean  anything]  else  than  this, 
that  the  other  E.  u  unpolite  E. 

As  to  the  whireabouts  of  Potential  Energy. 

"  We  shall  now  pass  from  the  perplexities  'connected  with  this 
unlucky  name,  '  potential  E.,'  to  consider  the  behaviour  of  our 
teachers  towards  the  thing  itself."  At  last  Mr.  O'Toole  will 
deign  to  discuss  the  definitions  given  by  the  doctom  Nay,  he 
wanders  away  into  an  examination  of  such  rash — but  perhaps  not 
inexcusable—phrases  as  "  the  potential  £.  of  a  raised  weight," 
&c.  The  proper  remedy  for  the  troubles  arising  on  this  pomt 
is  "  to  use  words  discreetly  and  consistently."  But  this  is  not 
sufficiently  heroic  A  local  habitation  must  be  found  for  this 
"potential  £.,"  although  it  would  seem  as  vain  to  inquire  into 
the  whereabouts  of  potential  E.  as  into  tht  whereabouts  of  Mr. 
OToole's  scientific  erudition.  It  is  propoied  to  lodge  this  £. 
in  the  forces,  and  perhaps  it  won't  do  much  harm,  as  we  don't 
know  where  the  foroea  are.  It  b  proposed,  moreover,  to  sub- 
stitute "  energy  of  tension  "  for  "  potential  £."  This  done,  the 
doctor's  millennium  wiU  have  come.  Never  mind  about  altering 
your  conception  of  this  kind  of  energy ;  call  it  by  another  name ; 
give  it  a  weisnkhfwo  k>d^g.  There  will  be  no  more  "  confusion 
abont  fundamental  principles  ;"  there  will  be  no  more  slips  of 
the  pen  or  tongue ;  there  will  be  no  more  pnxzled  Puhlii ;  and 
last,  b«t  not  Ittst,  there  will  be  »o  more  O'Teoles  to  bother  the 
doctors.  WeU  »ay  "verbal  skylarking"  be  despised.  What 
is.it  beside  sadi  gigantic  fim  as  this? 

And  yet  I  am  sceptical.  We  started  fay  hearing  that  it  wai 
"  princnMdly— thoogh  not  «n|irely—the  doctors  who  were  to 
blame  km  this  ooofnsion  about  fendamental  principles."  Is 
this  proved?  U  not  another  canM  indicated  in  the  letter  of 
of  "£.  G."(vq1.  avU.  p.  9)?  And  shall  the  doctors  enpect  lo 
be  rightly  wdeittood  when  Dr.  O'TooIe's  tmanmnsis  admits 
(vol.  xvt.  p.  5aa)  that  Dr.  OToole  hinnelf  has  been  misappet- 
hendcd  upon  almost  eveiy  point  by  one  reader  at  least  ? 

Cirencttter,  November  13  H.  W.  Lloyd  Tannea 


8meU  and  Hearing  in  Moths 

In  Nature  (voL  zvii.  p.  72)  your  correspondent  "  £.  H.  K.' 
observes  :  "  '  J.  C  seems  to  draw  inferences  Uiat  moths  have 
not  the  power  of  smell,  but  bave  that  of  hearing.  I  feel  quite 
certain  they  possess  the  former,  but  am  in  doubt  abont  the 
latter.  .... 

"  With  reference  to  the  sound  of  the  glass,  is  it  not  the  quidc 
motion  of  the  hand  which  disturbs  the  moth  ?  " 

May  I  draw  the  attention  of  both  your  correspondents  to  some 
experiments  of  mine  on  this  subject  which  were  published  in 
Naturk  about  a  year  ago  ?  These  experiments,  I  remember, 
were  quite  sufficient  to  prove  to  me  that  moths  have  the 
power  of  hearing  shrill  notes ;  and,  until  I  read  the  query  of 
'*  £.  H.  K."  above  quoted,  I  thought  that  my  account  of  these 
experiments  must  have  been  equally  conclusive  to  any  one  who 
read  them.  On  now  referring  to  that  account,  however,  I  hnd 
that  I  there  omitted  to  state  one  of  the  experiments  which  was 
resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  possible  objection 
which  "  E.  H.  K."  now  advances.  This  experiment  was  a  Tery 
simple  one,  consisting  merely  in  making  a  sudden  shrill  whistle 
with  my  mouth  by  drawing  the  breath  inwsrds,  so  as  not  to 
disturb  the  air  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  insect.  The  latter, 
however,  always  responded  to  this  as  to  other  sounds  in  the  way 
described,  although  throughout  the  experiment  I  took  care  not 
to  move  any  part  of  my  body. 

George  J,  Romanes 

It  was  because  of  my  knowledge  of  facts  like  those  named 
by  "  E.  H.  K."  that  I  was  surprised  at  the  apparent  inability  of 
moths  to  smell  ammonia.  Being  no  physiologist,  I  ventured  to 
draw  no  inferences  ;  but  it  occurred  to  me  to  wonder  whether 
the  sense  of  smell  differs  in  kind  with  different  organisations  ; 
whether,  for  instance,  some  substances  strongly  odorous  to  ns 
mav  be  quite  inodorous  to  insects,  and  vice  vcrsd. 

As  to  the  experiment  on  hearing,  I  do  not  think  it  was  the 
movement  of  the  hand  which  startled  the  moths.  It  may  con- 
conceivably  have  been  the  vibration  of  their  wings  set  up  by  the 
sound  ;  but  the  eiperiment  can  easily  be  repealed  with  vartationa 
by  any  one  interested  in  th^  subject.  J.  C 

Loughton 

Meteorological  Phenomenon 

This  morning  at  about  a  quarter  before  ten  the  sky  here  pre- 
sented a  most  unusual  appearance.  The  air  was  calm  and  the 
sun  shining,  but  not  bfightly,  through  a  slight  veil  of  cirro- 
stratus.  The  sky  was  mostly  covered  with  fibrous  clouds  of 
cirrus  or  cirro-stratas  (I  am  not  quite  sure  which  I  ought  to  cidi 
it),  the  fibres  being  quite  parallel  to  each  other,  rat  in  two 
different  strata ;  those  of  one  stratum  were  approximately  firom 
north-east  to  south-west,  thoae  of  the  other  from  north-west  to 
south- etst — so  that  they  seemed  to  cioit  each  other  like  the 
threads  of  a  woven  fabric  I  think  the  fibres  from  noith-east  to 
south-west  were  the  highest,  but  am  not  quite  sure,  though  it 
teemed  the  same  to  another  who  was  looking  on  with  me. 

Joseph  Tohn  Murphy 

Old  Forge,  Dnnmurry,  Co.  Antrim,  November  25 


Ol/I^  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Stellar  Systems. — M.  Flamnuurion,  in  various  notes 
communicated  recently  to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences, 
has  been  drawing  attention  to  stars  which  appear  to  be 
affected  with  a  common  proper  motion,  or  a  motion  similar 
in  amount  and  in  its  direction.  Several  of  his  cases, 
howevety  ftre  by  no  means  to  be  styled  **  Nouveaux 
syst^mes  SteUaires,"  Thus  the  large  and  uniform  pro^r 
motions  of  tlie  aouthem  stars  0  and  C  Reticuli,  to  which 
he  refers  in  the  Cosnptes  Rendus  of  November  s*  were  the 
subject  of  reoftark  in  ^Natdrb,  vol  li.  p.  32^  That 
there  was  a  probability  of  a  common  proper  motioa  in 
Uiese  stars  would  be  evident  to  any  one  who  inspected  the 
columns  in  the  British  Associarion  Catalogue^  published 
in  1845,  but  as  Taylor  had  not  observed  them,  and  the 
comparison  was  consequently  dependent  upon  LacaiHe 
and  Brisbane  only,  there  was  a  possibiUty  of  mistake. 
The  first  confirmation  of  the  large  proper  motion  of  the 
B.A.C.  in  f '  was  aflforded  in  Jacob's  "mean  places  of 
1440  stars  "—  from  the  Madras  observations  1849-53,  and 


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the  earliest  proof  of  a  common  translation  in  space  was 
given  by  the  same  observer  from  the  Madras  observations 
1853-58,  which  formed  a  part  of  vol.  xxviii.  of  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.  Not  having  seen  any 
distinct  reference  to  tbe  very  large  and  uniform  motions 
of  these  stars  in  astronomical  treatises,  we  adverted  to 
them  in  Nature  as  above. 

Again,  the  common  proper  motions  of  Regulus  and 
Lalande  19749,  mentioned  by  M.  Flammarion  in  the  same 
communication  have  been  long  remarked.  The  same 
may  be  said  in  the  case  of  9  and  10  Ursae  Majoris,  one  of 
the  systems  to  which  he  refers  in  a  paper  presented  to  the 
Academy  on  November  12.  Any  one  who  has  carefully 
utilised  the  very  valuable  fourteenth  volume  of  the  Dorpat 
observations  must  have  been  familiar  with  this  case,  and, 
we  may  add  many  similar  ones,  though  the  proper 
motions  involved  may  be  to  smaller  amount.  This  volume 
contains  Madler*s  laborious  work  upon  3222  61  Bradley's 
stars,  of  which  he  gives  positions  reduced  to  1850,  and 
where  all  the  catalogues  available  at  the  time  and  con- 
sidered deserving  of  confidence  were  brought  to  bear. 
Not  the  least  important  feature  in  this  work  is  the  addition 
of  two  columns,  not  usually  found  in  catalogues,  contain- 
ing the  amount  of  secular  proper  motion  in  arc  of  great 
circle  (r)  and  the  angular  direction  of  this  motion  ((/>) 
counted  from  north  round  by  east  to  360*^.  On  p.  155  v/e 
have — 

For   9  I  Ursae  Majoris     ...    r-  52"*5     ...     0  «  238'*9 
„    10  „  ...     r  =  52"  6     ...     1^  =  238'-5 

But,  as  we  have  stated,  other  similar  cases  are  readily 
detected  by  an  inspection  of  these  columns.  For  in- 
stance :  in  y  and  58  Tauri,  distant  35',  where  r  =  13", 
0  =  97®  ;  in  66  and  68  Draconis,  distant  43',  r  =»  13" '5, 
^  about  69°  and  for  wider  stars,  in  26  and  34  Pegasi,  dis- 
tant 4**  25',  where  r  =  30'*',  </>  =  84°  ;  in  rj  and  10  Arietis, 
distant  5°  n',  r=  i5"'5,</>  =  86°,  with  other  neighbouring 
stars,  moving  in  nearly  the  same  direction,  and  again  in 
fi  and  54  Aquilae,  distant  5"  13',  r  =»  27",  </>  =  12 1^  The 
list  might  be  largely  increased. 

It  is  nevertheless  to  be  expected  that  the  researches 
which  M.  Flammarion  is  so  industriously  following  up 
with  respect  to  stellar  systems  may  lead  to  a  considerable 
addition  to  our  knowledge  of  them,  in  cases  which  are 
not  thus  easily  discovered  from  existing  catalogues,  par- 
ticularly by  determining  the  proper  motions  of  stars,  not 
yet  submitted  to  such  investigation. 

The  Minor  Planets.— A  letter  from  Prof.  Watson, 
of  Ann  Arbor,  U.S.,  to  M.  Yvon  Villarceau,  dated 
November  5,  deranges  the  ordinal  numbers  of  the  small' 
planets  given  in  this  column  last  week,  from  No.  175 
onwards.  It  appears  that  on  October  i  he  discovered  a 
planet  lom.,  which  he  duly  notified  by  telegraph  to  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  but  by  some  unexplained  cir- 
cumstance the  information  was  not  transmitted  by  cable 
to  the  Observatory  of  Paris,  as  usual  with  such  dis- 
coveries. Supposing  this  object  to  be  really  a  new 
planet,  it  will  be  No.  175,  and  the  subsequent  discoveries 
mentioned  last  week  will  be  on  the  same  supposition, 
advanced  a  unit.  Elements  of  No.  172  appear  inAstron, 
Nach,y  Na  2,176,  and  of  No.  176  in  the  Paris  Bulletin 
International  of  November  25. 

The  Cordoba  Observatory.— Within  the  last  few 
days,  Mr.  John  M,  Thome,  the  zealous  co-operator  with 
Dr.  B.  A.  Gould  in  the  important  astronomical  work 
carried  on  for  several  years  past  at  the  Observatory  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  has  visited  this  country  on  his  return 
to  Cordoba  from  the  United  States.  We  have  seen  in  his 
hands  proofs  of  the  charts  of  the  Argentine  "  Urano- 
metria,"  which  are  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  those  of 
Argelander,  Heis,  and  Behrmann.  They  have  been 
engraved  in  New  York.  This  work  is  expected  to  be 
soon  published ;  also  large  lunar  photographs  taken  at 
Cordoba.  All  the  stars  in  the  "  Uranometria  "  have  been 
meridionally  observed. 


CARL  VON  LITTROW 

CARL  LUDWIG  VON  LITTROW,  whose  death  has 
been  announced  during  the  past  week,  was  bom  at 
Kasanon  July  18, 181  r.  His  father,  Joseph  Johann  von  Lit- 
tro^,  the  eminent  astronomer,  afterwards  Director  of  the 
Imperial  Observatory  at  Vienna,  was  at  that  time  Professor 
of  Astronomy  in  the  University  of  Kasan,  where  he  founded 
an  observatory.  The  son  was  educated  under  the  father's 
direction,  and  in  1831  was  appointed  assistant  at  the 
Observatory  at  Vienna,  of  which  institution  the  elder 
Littrow  had  taken  the  superintendence  in  18 19,  removing 
thence  from  Ofen.  In  1835  he  first  appeared  as  an 
astronomical  writer,  having  in  that  year  published  an 
account  of  Heirs  Journey  to  Wardoe  and  of  his  Obser- 
vations of  the  Transit  of  Venus  in  1769  at  that  place, 
from  the  original  day-books  ;  also  a  History  of  the  Dis- 
covery of  General  Gravitation,  by  Newton,  and  Treatises 
upon  Comets,  more  especially  on  Halley's,  which  was 
then  appearing.  In  1839  he  published  at  Stutgard  a 
Celestial  Atlas,  and  a  work  which  in  the  Catalogue  of  the 
Pulkova  Library  is  called  a  Translation  of  Airy's  **  Popu- 
lare  physische  Astronomie,"  by  which  is  most  probably 
intended  the  well-known  Treatise  on  Gravitation  pub- 
lished by  the  Astronomer- Royal  in  1834,  though  elsewhere 
Liltrow's  work  is  stated  to  refer  to  the  history  of  Astro- 
nomy during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
presented  to  the  British  Association  in  1832. 

In  1842  Carl  von  Littrow  succeeded  his  father  as 
Director  of  the  Observatory  of  Vienna,  and  the  establish- 
ment has  continued  in  vigorous  activity  under  his  chargr. 
He  has  principally  devoted  the  energies  of  the  Obser- 
vatory to  equatorial  astronomy,  following  up  with  dili- 
gence the  observations  of  comets  and  planets,  and  with 
the  aid  of  able  assistants  determining  their  orbits. 
Some  of  the  most  complete  cometary  discussions  have 
emanated  from  the  Observatory  of  Vienna  while  under 
his  charge.  The  Annalen  der  Sternwarte  in  IViet:, 
have  been  continued,  and  valuable  astronomical  woric 
is  contained  in  them,  as  for  instance  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  third  series,  which  appeared  in  185 1,  where  we  have 
the  positions  of  the  stars  in  Ar^elandtVs  Northern  Zon  •> 
reduced  by  Oeltzen  to  1842,  the  epoch  for  which  » lejn?*nis 
of  reduction  were  given  in  the  Bonn  volume.  Littrow  whs 
a  frequent  contributor  to  the  publications  of  the  Vienna 
Academy.  In  one  of  his  mem  urs — "  Bahnahen  zwischen 
den  periodischen  gestirnen  des  S')nnensystem>,"  printed 
in  the  Sitzungsberichte  of  the  Academy  f  »r  J.umary,  1854, 
he  applied  an  ori>;inal  procrss  of  mvesti^at  O'.  of  ^he 
points  of  nearest  approach  amongst  the  orhits  of  the 
small  planets  discovered  up  to  that  time,  and  the  orbits  of 
the  periodical  comets — a  troublesome  work  in  which 
mechanical  aid  was  introduced  ;  the  result  was  the  dis- 
covery of  many  close  approximations  of  planets  with 
planets,  planets  with  comets,  and  of  comets  with  comets  ; 
amongst  the  latter  near  approaches  of  Biela's  comet  to 
the  orbit  of  Halley's  in  35°  and  198"  heliocentric  longitude. 
When  interest  was  exciced  relative  to  the  expected  return 
of  the  comet  of  1556,  which  at  that  period  was  supposed 
to  have  been  previously  observed  in  1264,  Littrow  was 
the  means  of  bringing  to  light  an  unknown  treatise  by 
Heller,  which,  with  the  chart  of  Fabricius,  has  allowed  of 
a  much  improved  determination  of  the  orbit,  and  similarly 
he  made  known  interesting  particulars  with  reference  to 
the  remarkable  observation  by  Steinheibel  and  Stark  of 
a  rapidly-moving  black  spot  upon  the  sun's  disc  on 
February  12,  1820.  Littrow  was  a  constant  contributor  to 
the  columns  of  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten,  The 
names  of  Homstem,  Oeltzen,  Weiss,  Schulhof,  and  others 
are  well  known  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the 
Vienna  Observatory  during  Littrow's  direction.  His  death 
occurred  on  the  i6th  inst. 

Von  Littrow's  wife,  Auguste  Littrow-Bischoflf,  is  one  of 
the  best  known  Austrian  authoresses  of  the  present  t'me. 
The  geniil  qua'i  ies  of  the  astr-momer  and  his  wife  made 


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NATURE 


{Nov.  29,  1877 


them  the  centre  of  a  large  and  admiring  circle,  and  their 
residence  was  one  of  the  most  favourite  gathering-places 
of  the  literary  and  scienti6c  celebrities  of  Vienna. 


BACTERIA  ^ 

IN  a  short  paper  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  at 
the  close  of  last  session,  Prof.  Tyndall  did  me  the  honour 
to  criticise  certain  words  reported  to  have  been  used  by 
me  at  a  meeting  of  the  Association  of  Medical  Officers 
of  Health  in  January  last.  Although  I  am  much  indebted 
to  him  for  the  opportunity  he  has  thus  afforded  me  of 
discussing  an  important  subject  before  this  Society,  I 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  my  regret  that  he  should 
have  thought  it  desirable  to  quote  at  length,  and  thus  to 
place  on  permanent  record  in  the  Society's  Proceedings^ 
the  expressions  used  on  the  occasion  above  mentioned. 
I  regret  this  because  these  expressions  occur  in  an  abbre- 
viated and  incomplete  abstract  of  a  hastily  prepared 
discourse  not  intended  for  publication. 

As,  however,  I  am  well  aware  that  Prof.  T3rndall's 
purpose  in  his  communication  was  not  to  criticise  the 
language,  but  the  erroneous  views  which  the  language 
appeared  to  him  to  contain,  I  shall  make  no  further 
reference  to  the  quotation ;  but  shall  regard  it  as  the 
purpose  of  the  present  paper,  first  to  reply  to  the  reason- 
mg  embodied  in  his  last  communication,  and  secondly 
to  corroborate  certain  statements  previously  made  by  me. 
to  which  he  has  taken  exception  in  the  more  extended 
memoir  published  in  the  i66th  volume  of  the  Philosophical 
Transactions. 

It  will  be  my  first  object  to  enable  the  Fellows  of  the 
Royal  Society  to  judge  how  far  the  views  I  entertain 
differ  from  those  which  have  been  enunciated  here  and 
elsewhere  by  Prof.  TyndalL  Biologists  are  much  indebted 
to  him  for  the  new  and  accurately  observed  facts  with 
which  he  has  enlarged  the  basis  of  our  knowledge,  as  well 
as  for  the  admirable  methods  of  research  with  which  he 
has  made  us  acquainted.  As  regards  the  general  bearing 
of  these  facts  on  the  doctrine  of  Abiogenesis,  I  imagine 
that  we  are  entirely  agreed.  So  far  as  I  can  make  out, 
the  difference  between  us  relates  chiefly  to  two  subjects, 
namely,  the  sense  in  which  I  have  employed  the  words 
"  germ  "  and  "  structure,"  and  the  extent  of  the  knowledge 
at  present  possessed  by  physiologists  as  to  the  structure 
and  attributes  of  the  germinal  particles  of  Bacteria. 

Although  Dr.  Tyndall,  in  the  title  of  his  paper,  refers 
to  my  ^  views  of  ferment,"  yet  as  he  makes  no  further 
allusion  to  them,  I  will  content  myself  with  stating  that 
in  the  passage  quoted,  the  first  sentence  (from  the  words 
"  In  defining  **  to  the  word  "  living  ")  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  following  sentences,  having  been  placed  in  the 
position  which  it  occupies  in  the  quotation  by  the 
abstractor.  The  paragraph  ought  to  begin  with  the 
words  *'  Ten  years  ago.* 

Of  the  meaning  which  attached  itself  to  the  word 
"  germ  *  in  the  days  of  Panspermism  a  correct  idea  may 
be  formed  from  the  following  passage  from  M.  Pasteur's 
well-known  memoir  ''  Sur  les  Corps  oi^nis^s  qui  existent 
dans  PAtmosph^e."  "  There  exist,"  says  he,  "  in  the  air 
a  variable  number  of  corpuscles,  of  which  the  form  and 
structure  indicate  that  they  are  organised.  Their  dimen- 
sions increase  from  extremely  small  diameters  to  one- 
hundredth  of  a  millim.,  1*5  hundredth  of  a  millim.,  or  even 
more.  Some  are  spherical,  others  ovoid.  They  have 
more  or  less  marked  contours.  Many  are  translucent, 
but  others  are  opaque,  with  granulations  in^their  interior. 
.  .  .  .  I  do  not  think  it  possible  to  affirm  of  one  of  these 
corpuscles  that  it  is  a  spore,  still  less  that  it  is  the  spore 
of  a  particular  species  of  microphyte,  or  of  another,  that 
it  is  an  egg  or  the  t%'g  of  a  particular  microzoon.  I 
confine  myself  to  the  declaration  that  the  corpuscles  are 

I  "  Remarks  on  the  Atti!butes  of  the  Germinal  Particles  ol  Bacteria,  in 
reply  to  Prof.  Tyndall."  by  J.  Burdon- Sanderson,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 
Paper  read  at  the  Royal  Society,  November  23, 


evidently  or^mised  ;  that  the3r  resemble  in  every  respect 
the  germs  of  the  lower  organisms,  and  differ  from  each 
other  so  much  in  volume  and  structure  that  they  unques- 
tionably belong  to  very  numerous  species.''  Such  are  the 
"  germs  "  of  M.  Pasteur,  and  such  is  the  conception  of  a 
germ  which  was  entertained  by  informed  persons  up  to 
1870,  and  is  very  generally  entertained  up  to  the  present 
moment.'  It  is  obvious  that  these  "  corpuscules  organises  " 
were,  if  they  had  any  relation  to  Bacteria^  not  bacterium 
germs  in  Dr.  Tyndall's  sense,  but  "  finished  organisms," 
and  yet  it  was  of  these  that  M.  Pasteur  said  that  it  was 
"  mathematically  proved  "  that  they  were  the  originators 
of  the  organisms  which  are  developed  in  albuminous 
liquids  containing  sugar,  when  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 

With  reference  to  the  word  "  structure  ^  I  would  point 
out  that  in  the  passage  quoted  from  my  lecture  it  is  dis- 
tinctly stated  that  the  bacterial  germ  is  endowed  with 
structure  in  the  molecular  sense,  but  not  in  the  anatomical 
sense.  The  meaning  of  the  expression  "anatomical 
structure "  was,  natundly,  not  defined,  considering  that 
the  persons  whom  I  was  addressing  mig:ht  be  suppled  to 
be  familiar  with  it  As,  however,  my  failing  to  do  so  has 
apparently  led  to  some  uncertainty  as  to  my  meaning,  I 
must,  to  avoid  future  misunderstandings,  define  more  com- 
pletely the  difference  between  the  two  senses  in  which  the 
word  was  used  by  me. 

The  anatomical  sense  of  the  word  structure  may  be 
illustrated  by  referring  to  its  synonyms,  to  the  English 
words  texture  and  tissue,  to  the  Greek  word  Icrr/oy,  and  to 
the  German  word  Gewebe^  from  which  two  last  the  words 
in  common  use  to  designate  the  science  of  structure,  viz., 
histology  and  Gewebelehre  are  made  up.  What  I  have 
asserted  of  the  germinal  particles  of  Bacteria  is,  that  no 
evidence  exists  of  their  oeing  endowed  with  that  par- 
ticular texture  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  science  of 
histology.  In  biological  language  there  is  a  close  relation 
between  the  words  structure  and  organization^  the  one 
being  an  anatomical,  the  other  a  physiological  term  ; 
either  of  these  words  signifies  that  an  object  to  which 
it  is  applied  consists  of  parts  or  structural  elements, 
each  of  which  is,  or  may  be,  an  object  of  obser- 
vation. As  Uie  observation  is  unaided  or  aided,  the 
structure  is  said  to  be  macroscopical  [or  microscopical 
The  biologist  cannot  recognise  ultra-microscopical 
structure  or  organisation  except  as  matter  of  inference 
from  observation,  />.,  from  observing  either  that  other 
organisms,  which  there  is  reason  to  regard  as  similar  to 
the  object  in  respect  of  which  structure  is  inferred,  actually 
possess  visible  structure,  or  that  the  object  can  be  seen  to 
possess  structure  at  a  later  period  of  its  existence.  As 
mstances  in  which  the  existence  of  structure  is  inlierred 
the  following  may  be  mentioned :— The  protoplasm  of  a 
Rhizopod  is  admitted  to  have  structure  because,  althoush 
none  can  be  seen  in  the  protoplasm  itself,  tlM  comiw- 
cated  form  of  the  calcareous  shell  which  the  proto- 
plasm makes  or  models  can  be  seen.  By  analogy 
therefore  other  organisms  which  are  allied  to  the  Rhizo- 
pod are  inferred  to  have  structure,  and  from  these,  or 
from  similar  cases,  the  inference  is  extended  to  all  khids 
of  cells,  with  respect  to  which  it  is  taught  by  physiologists 
that  although,  in  certain  cases,  no  parts  can  be  distin- 
guished, the  living  material  of  which  they  consist  is 
nevertheless  endowed  with  structure  or  organisation. 
Similarly,  we  assume,  that  a  Bacterium  possesses  a  more 
complicated  structure  than  we  can  actually  observe, 
because  in  other  organisms  which  are  allied  with  it  by 
form  and  life  history,  such  complications  can  be  seoi. 
Again,  in  all  embryonal  organs  we  admit  the  existence  of 
structure  before  it  can  be  seen,  because  in  the  course  of 

I  Before  I  became  aware  that  the  contaminating  particles  of  water  arc 
u]tra«microscopical  I  myself  was  engaj^d  earnestly  in  huntmg  for  germs 
both  in  water  and  air.  The  search  hat  been  coatinued  by  otnen  np  to  a 
much  later  period.  Those  who  desire  information  on  the  organised  particles 
of  the  atmosphere  will  find  the  subject  exhau^tiveIy  treated  by  Dr.  Douglas 
Cunningham  in  a  report  entitled  **  MicroscopiciU  Examinations  of  Air,** 
latdy  issued  by  H.M.  Indian  Government. 


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development  we  observe  its  gradual  emergence.  So  far. 
inference  of  the  existence  of  structure  from  historical 
evidence  is  justifiable  ;  but  if  we  were  to  carry  this 
inference  back  to  the  ovum  itself,  and  say  that  the  cha- 
racteristic structures  of  nerve,  of  muscle,  or  of  gland, 
exist  in  the  ovum  at  the  moment  after  impregnation, 
every  physiologist  would  feel  the  assertion  to  be  absurd. 

In  the  familiar  comparison  of  the  origin  of  the  elephant 
with  that  of  the  mouse,  in  which  the  perfect  anatomical 
similarity  of  the  ova  in  the  two  species  is  contrasted  with 
the  enormous  difference  of  the  result,  we  should  be  justi- 
fied in  saying  that  the  difi^ence  of  development  is  the 
expression  of  structural  difference  between  the  primordium 
of  the  one  and  the  primordium  of  the  other ;  but  inasmuch 
as  it  is  not  possible  to  indicate  any  anatomical  distinction, 
it  is  understood  that  structural  diflerence  of  another  kind 
Is  meant,  namely,  difference  of  molecular  constitution.  In 
other  words,  we  assume  that  the  potential  difference 
between  the  one  and  the  other  is  dependent  on  an  actual 
difference  of  molecular  structure.  WTiether  this  is  accom- 
panied with  an  anatomical  difference,  such  as  we  might 
expect  to  be  able  to  see  if  wc  had  more  perfect  instru- 
ments, we  do  not  know. 

From  the  moment  that  it  is  understood  that  the  word 
structure  means  anatomical  structure,  the  argument  used 
by  Dr.  Tyndall  loses  its  relevance.  After  referring  to  the 
•*ecrm  Kmit,*  he  says,  "some  of  those  particles"  (by 
which,  I  presume,  is  meant  atmospheric  particles)  "de- 
velop into  globular  Bacteria^  some  into  rod-shaped 
Bacteria,  some  into  long  flexile  filaments,  some  into 
impetuously  moving  organisms,  and  some  into  organisms 
without  motion.  One  particle  will  emerge  as  a  Bacillus 
anthracis,  which  produces  deadly  splenic  fever  ;  another 
will  develop  into  a  BacUrium,  the  spores  of  which  are 
not  to  be  microscopically  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
former  organism  ;  and  yet  these  undistinguishable  spores 
are  absolutely  powerless  to  produce  the  disorder  which 
Bacillus  anthracis  ntytt  fails  to  produce.  It  is  not  to  be 
imagined  that  particles  which,  on  development,  emerge  in 
organisms  so  different  firom  each  other,  possess  no  struc- 
ttLxal  differences.  But  if  they  possess  structural  differences 
they  must  possess  the  thing  differentiated,  viz.,  structure 
itscdf  Throughout  this  passage  it  is  evident  that  it  is 
not  anatomical  but  molecular  structure  that  is  referred  ta 

In  the  other  passages  relating  to  the  subject,  I  venture 
to  think  that  Dr.  Tyndall  has  overlooked  the  distinction 
made  by  me  bet^K^en  anatomical  organisation  and  mole- 
cular structure.  When,  for  example,  he  speaks  of  "  germ 
structure"  in  the  passage  quoted  from  his  Liverpool 
Address,  he  evidently  refers  to  molecular  structure  exclu- 
sively, for  he  gives  ice  as  his  first  example,  and  argues 
that  as  ice  possesses  structure  so  do  atmospheric  germs — 
a  proposition  which  I  should  not  have  thought  of  ques- 
tioning. 

The  experimental  evidence  which  wc  have  before  us 
goes  to  prove  that  in  all  the  known  cases  in  which  Bac- 
teria appear  to  originate  de  noifo—ihzx  is  to  say  in  liquids 
nHiich  are  at  the  moment  of  their  origin  absolutely  free 
from  living  Bacteria — they  really  originate  from  "  par- 
ticles great  or  small,"  which  particles  are  therefore  germs 
in  the  sense  in  which  that  word  is  used  by  Prof.  TyndalL 
To  illustrate  the  views  I  myself  entertain,  and  always  have 
entertained  on  this  question,  I  need  only  refer  to  my 
paper  on  the  origin  oi  Bacteria^  published  in  1871.  The 
experiments  made  by  me  at  that  time  brought  to  light 
the  then  new  fact,  now  become  old  by  familiarity,  that  all 
exposed  aqueous  liauids,  even  when  absolutely  free  from 
visible  particles,  and  all  moist  surfaces,  are  contaminated 
and  exhibit  a  power  of  communicating  their  contami- 
nation to  other  liquids.  As  regards  water  and  aqueous 
liquids  in  general,  I  insisted  on  the  "  particulate  "  nature 
of  the  contaminating  agent,  and  coined  for  the  purpose 
the  adjective  I  have  just  emploved  (which  has  been  since 
adopted  by  other  writers;,  at  the  same  time  pointing  out 


that  the  particles  in  question  were  ultra-microscopical, 
and  consequently  that  their  existence  was  matter  of  in- 
ference as  distinguished  from  direct  observation.  Dr. 
Tyndall  has  demonstrated  by  the  experiments  to  which  I 
have  already  alluded,  that  the  ordinary  air  also  contains 
germinal  particles  of  ultra-microscopical  minuteness.  Of 
the  completeness  and  conclusiveness  of  those  experiments 
I  have  only  to  express  the  admiration  which  I,  in  common 
with  all  others  whose  studies  have  brought  them  into 
relation  with  the  subject,  entertain.  That  such  particles 
exist  there  can  be  no  question ;  but  of  their  size,  struc- 
tural attributes,  or  mode  of  development,  we  kaow 
nothing. 

Prof.  Tjrndall,  I  am  sure  by  inadvertence^  has  accused 
me  of  assuming  that  there  is  some  relation  between  the 
limit  of  microscopical  visibility  and  what  he  calls  the 
molecular  limit,  by  which  I  presume  to  be  meant  the  size 
of  the  largest  molecule.  Nothing  that  I  have  -said  or 
written  could  justify  such  a  supposition.  My  contention 
is  not  that  the  particles  in  question  are  of  any  size  which 
can  be  specified,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  we  are  not  in 
a  position  to  form  any  conclusion  as  to  their  size,  except- 
ing that  they  are  so  small  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of 
observation.  Dr.  Tyndall  has  taught  us,  first,  that  the 
optical  effects  observed  when  a  beam  of  light  passes 
through  a  particulate  atmosphere  are  such  as  could  only 
be  produced  by  light-scattering  particles  of  extreme 
minuteness ;  and,  secondly,  that  by  subsidence  these  par- 
ticles disappear,  and  that  the  contaminating  property  of 
the  atmosphere  disappears  with  them.  He  has  thus 
approximately  determined  for  us  the  upper  limit  of  mag- 
nitude, but  leaves  us  uncertain  as  to  the  lower ;  for  we 
have  no  evidence  that  the  particles  which  render  the 
atmosphere  opalescent  to  the  beam  of  the  electric  lamp 
may  not  be  many  times  larger  than  those  which  render  it 
germinative.  Consequently,  the  fiict  that  the  air  may  be 
rendered  sterile  by  subsidence,  while  affording  the  most 
conclusive  proof  that  germinal  matter  is  not  gaseous, 
leaves  us  without  information  as  to  tiie  size  of  the  par- 
ticles of  which  it  consists. 

Of  each  germinal  particle,  whether  inhabiting  an 
aqueous  liquid  or  suspended  an  the  atmosphere,  it  can 
be  asserted  that  under  conditions  which  occur  so  fre- 
quently that  they  may  be  spoken  of  as  general  (viz., 
moisture,  a  suitable  temperature,  and  the  presence  of 
dead  proteid  matter,  otherwise  called  organic  impurity), 
it  produces  an  organisnL  If,  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
we  call  the  particle  a  and  the  organism  to  which  it  gives 
rise  A,  then  what  is  known  about  the  matter  amounts  to 
no  more  than  this,  that  the  existence  of  A  was  preceded 
by  the  existence  of  a.  With  respect  to  A  we  know,  by 
direct  observation,  that  it  is  an  organic  structure ;  but 
inasmuch  as  we  know  absolutely  nothing  as  to  the  size 
and  form  of /i,  we  cannot  even  state  that  it  is  transformed 
into  A,  much  less  can  we  say  anything  as  to  the  process 
of  transformation. 

Considering  that  it  is  admitted  on  all  hands  that  there 
exist  in  ordinary  air  particles  which  are  potentially  germs, 
it  might  at  first  sight  appear  needless  to  inquire  whether 
or  not  this  fact  is  to  be  regarded  as  carrying  with  it  the 
admission  that  they  must  necessarily  possess  the  other 
attributes  of  organised  structure.  Very  little  considera- 
tion, however,  is  requisite  in  order  to  become  convinced 
that  this  question  stands  in  relation  with  another  of 
fundamental  importance  in  biology— that,  namely,  of  the 
molecular  structure  of  living  material^  It  is  not  neces- 
sary for  my  present  purpose  to  do  mare  than  to  indicate 
the  nature  of  this  relation.  As  regards  every  form  of 
living  matter,  it  may  be  stated  that,  quite  irrespectively  of 
its  morphological  characteristics,  which,  as  we  have  seen, 

*  The  reader  who  U  interested  in  thi«  tubject  will  find  it  discussed  with 
great  ingenuity  by  Prof.  Pttflger,  in  his  paper  **  Ueber  die  phystologische 
Verbreoaung  in  den  lebendigen  Organismen,**  Pftiget^s  ArcAiv,  vol  «. 
p-joa 


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must  be  learnt  by  the  application  of  the  various  methods 
of  visual  observation  at  our  disposal,  it  possesses  mole- 
cular structure  peculiar  to  itsel£  We  are  certain  of  this, 
because  the  chemical  processes  of  which  life  is  made  up 
are  peculiar,  that  is,  such  as  occur  only  in  connection 
with  living  material.  Even  the  simplest  instance  that  we 
can  mention,  that  of  the  elevation  of  dead  albumin  into 
living  (a  process  which  in  the  case  now  before  us  must 
represent  the  very  earliest  step  in  the  climax  of  develop- 
ment) is  at  the  present  moment  beyond  the  reach  of 
investigation  ;  for  as  yet  we  are  only  beginning  to  know 
something  about  the  constitution  of  non-living  proteids. 
But  this  want  of  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  difference 
between  living  and  non-living  material  in  no  wise  impairs 
the  conviction  which  exists  in  our  minds  that  the 
difference  is  one  of  molecular  structure. 

The  sum  of  the  preceding  paragraphs  may  be  stated  in 
few  words.  Wherever  those  chemical  processes  go  on, 
which  we  collectively  designate  as  life,  we  are  in  the  habit 
of  assuming  the  existence  of  anatomical  structure.  The 
two  things,  however,  although  concomitant,  are  not  the 
same  ;  for  while  anatomical  structure  cannot  come  into 
existence  without  the  simultaneous  or  antecedent  existence 
of  the  kind  of  molecular  structure  which  is  peculiar  to 
living  material,  the  proof  is  at  present  wanting  that  the 
vital  molecular  structure  may  not  precede  the  anatomical. 
At  die  same  time  it  must  be  carefully  borne  in  mind  that 
there  is  no  evidence  of  the  contrary.  It  is  sufficient  for 
my  purpose  to  have  shown  that  the  existence  of  organised 
particles  endowed  with  anatomical  structure  in  the 
** atmospheric  dust"  has  not  been  proved.  I  do  not 
dispute  its  probability. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  I  may  be  permitted  to  add  a 
word  as  to  the  bearing  of  this  discussion  on  a  question 
which,  to  myself,  is  ofspecial  interest — that  of  contagium 
vivum.  According  to  the  view  which  these  words  are 
understood  to  express,  the  morbific  material  by  which  a 
contagious  disease  is  communicated  from  a  diseased  to  a 
healthy  person  consists  of  minute  organisms,  called 
'Misease-germs.''  In  order  that  any  particle  may  be 
rightly  termed  a  disease- germ  two  things  must  be  proved 
concerning  it,  viz.,  first^  that  it  is  a  living  organism ; 
secondly,  that  if  it  finds  its  way  into  the  body  of  a  healthy 
human  bein^,  or  of  an  animal  it  will  produce  the  disease 
of  which  it  IS  the  germ.  Now  there  is  only  one  disease 
affecting  the  higher  animals  in  respect  of  which  anything 
of  this  kind  has  been  proved,  and  that  is  splenic  fever  of 
catde.  In  other  words,  there  is  but  one  case  in  which  the 
existence  of  a  disease-germ  has  been  established. 

Comparing  such  a  germ  with  the  germinal  particles  we 
have  been  discussing,  we  see  that  there  is  but  little 
analogy  between  them,  for,  first,  the  latter  are  not  known 
to  be  organised ;  secondly,  they  have  no  power  of  pro- 
ducing disease ;  for  it  has  been  found  by  experiment  that 
ordinary  Bactetia  may  be  introduced  into  the  circulating 
blood  of  healthy  animals  in  considerable  quantities  with- 
out producing  anv  disturbance  of  health.  So  long  as  we 
ourselves  are  healthy,  we  have  no  reason  to  apprehend 
any  danger  from  the  morbific  action  of  atmospheric  dust, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  shown  to  have  derived 
infectiveness  from  some  particular  source  of  miasma  or 
contagium. 

I  now  proceed  to  the  second  part  of  my  communica- 
tion, which  relates  to  Prof.  Tyndall's  serious,  but  most 
courteously-expressed,  criticisms  of  my  experiments  on 
spontaneous  generation.^ 


infusions  ofprcciscly  the  same  specific  gravity  as  those  employed  by  Dr. 
Bastian.     This  I  was  especially  careful  to  do  in  relation  to  the  experiments 


<  The  expressions  referred  to  are  the  following : — "  I  have  worked  inth 
of  I  \ 

apeci 
described  ainl  vouched  for,  I  fear  incautiously,  by  Dr.  Burdon-Sanderson, 
in  vol  vii.  p.  x8o  of  Nature.  It  will  there  be  seen  that  though  failure 
attended  some  of  his  efforts.  Dr.  Bastian  did  satisfy  Dr.  Sandenon  that  in 
boiled  and  hermetically  sealed  flasks  BacUria  sometimes  appear  in  swarms. 
With  purely  liquid  infusions  I  have  vainly  sought  to  reproduce  the  evidence 
which  convinced  Dr.  Sanderson I  am  therefore  compelled  to  con- 
clude that  Dr.  Sanderson  has  lent  the  authoritv  of  his  name  to  results  whose 
antecedenU  he  bad  not  sufficiently  examined.' 


The  fact  that  Dr.  Tyndall  blames  me  for  incautiously 
vouching  for  is,  ^  that  in  boiled  and  hermeticaliy-sealed 
flasks  Sactiria  sometimes  appear  in  swarms."  From 
multiplied  experiments  he  coivcludes  that  this  is  not  true, 
and  infers  that  I  who  vouched  for  it  was  incautious.  The 
paper  referred  to  was  one  in  which  I,  as  a  bystander,  gave 
an  account  of  certain  experiments  which  Dr.  Bastian 
performed  in  my  presence.  So  far  as  relates  to  the  fact 
above  quoted,  these  experiments  were,  to  my  mind,  abso- 
lutely conclusive ;  but  masmuch  as  I  was  unable  to  admit 
with  Dr.  Bastian  that  they  afforded  any  proof  of  sponta- 
neous generation,  I  followed  them  as  soon  as  practicable 
by  a  series  of  experiments  (Nature,  vol.  viii.  p.  141) 
(the  only  ones  which  I  myself  ever  made  on  this  subject), 
in  which  I  tested  the  influence  of  two  new  conditions, 
viz.,  of  prolonged  exposure  to  the  temperature  of  ebul- 
lition, and  of  exposure  for  short  periods  to  temperatures 
above  that  of  ebullition  at  ordinary  pressure.  The  ex- 
periments accordingly  consisted  of  two  series,  in  the  first 
of  which  a  number  of  retorts  or  flasks  charged  with  the 
turnip-cheese  Hquid,  ue.  with  neutralised  infusion  of  turnip 
of  the  specific  gravity  1017,  to  which  a  pinch  of  pounded 
cheese  had  been  added,  and  sealed  hermetically  whfle 
boiling,  were,  after  they  had  been  so  prepared,  subjected 
to  the  temperature  of  ebullition  for  longer  or  shorter 
periods.  In  the  second  series  the  period  of  ebullition 
was  the  same  in  all  cases,  but  the  temperature  was  varied 
by  varying  the  pressure  at  which  ebullition  took  place. 

The  conclusion  arrived  at,  as  expressed  in  the  final 
paragraph  of  the  paper,  was,  that  in  the  case  of  the 
turnip-cheese  liquid,  the  proneness  of  the  hquid  to  produce 
Bacteria  can  be  diminished  either  \yf  increasing  the  tem- 
perature employed  to  sterilise  it,  or  if  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  ebullition  be  used,  by  prolonging  its  duration. 

I  did  not  think  it  necessary  after  1873  to  occupy  myself 
further  with  the  subject  for  two  reasons,  first,  that  I  had 
accomplished  my  object,  which  was  to  show  that  as  a 
ground  for  believing  m  spontaneous  generation  the  turnip- 
cheese  experiment  was  a  failure;  but  secondly,  and 
principally,  because  in  the  meantime  the  subject  had  been 
taken  up  by  the  most  competent  living  observra^,  who 
had  in  every  particular  confirmed  the  accuracy  of  my 
results.  I  conclude  this  paper  by  referring  shortly  to 
some  of  these  researches. 

The  first  was  made  by  P.  Samuelson  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Prof.  Pfliiger  ^  in  1873.  Its  purpose  was  to  ascer- 
tain whether  it  is  true  that  certain  liquids  can  be  boiled 
for  ten  minutes  without  being  sterilized,  and  secondly,  to 
determine  the  influence  of  prolonged  periods  of  exposure. 
The  flasks  employed  were  charged  with  the  neutral 
turnip-cheese  liquid,  and  sealed  while  boiling  in  the  way 
already  described.  Some  were  subjected  to  the  tem- 
perature of  ebullition  for  ten  minutes,  the  rest  for 
an  hour,  the  result  being  that  whereas  those  heated 
for  the  longer  periods  remained  without  exception  barren, 
an  exposure  of  only  ten  nunutes  was  followed,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  by  an  abundant  development  of 
Bacterial  At  about  the  same  period  a  similar  series  of 
experiments  was  made  under  the  direction  of  Profl  Hoppe- 
Seyler  at  Strasburg.  The  results  were  essentially  the 
same  .3 

5.  57.  In  the  abttnkct  of  a  lecture  ddiyered  at  the  Royal  Institntioa. 
anuary  21,  1876,  similar  words  occur,  as  also  in  a  letter  to  Naturb,  dated 
ebtuary  27,  1876,  in  which  Dr.  Tyndall,  afker  remarking  that  the  experi- 
ments ol  Dr.  Bastian,  witnessed  by  me,  were  too  scanty  and  too  little  in 
harmony  with  each  other  to  bear  an  inf<nenoe,  suRgesU  that  1  should  repeat 
them. 

«  ••  Ueber  Abiojenests,"  von  Paul  Samuelson  aus  KOniKsberg.  P/lilgerU 
Archiv,  vol.  viii.  p.  277.  The  paper  is  designated  as  a  report  of  experiments 
made  "  im  Auftrag  und  untcr  der  Leitung  des  Geh.-Rath  Prof.  Pflu^cr."  1 
refer  in  the  text  only  to  those  experiments  which  were  virtually  repetitions  of 
my  own.     The  research  actually  extended  over  a  wider  field. 

a  "  Als  Re^ultat  dieser  Versuchsreihe,  ergab  sich  eine  massenhafVe  Enl- 
wickelurg  von  Bacterien  in  den  meisten  nur  lo  Minuten  lang  gekochten 
Flussikeitsmengen  nach  3-4  Tagen  "  Uoc.  cit.  p.  2^3).  , 

3  "I'ebcrdie  Abiogenesis  Huizbga's."  von  Felix  Putieys.  aus  LQttich 
(aus  dem  chemisch-physiologischcn  Laboratorium  de»  Herm  Prof.  Hoppe- 

Seylcr).  PJliigers  Archiv^  vol.  ix.  p.  391.     In  a  note  appended  by  Prof. 

PhiL  Trans.^  voU  cLxvi.  I  fioppe-Seyler  to  this  paper  he  states  that  he  has  recommended  its  publica- 


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During  the  next  year  the  second  question  which  I  had 
attempted  to  solve,  viz.,  the  influence  of  temperatures 
above  100°  C,  was  taken  up  with  much  greater  complete- 
ness by  Prof.  Gscheidlen,  of  Breslau.  ^  After  a  risumi  of 
the  proofs  alread)r  given  by  his  predecessors,  that  certain 
fluids  are  not  sterilised  by  boiling ;  and,  secondly,  that  as 
means  of  sterilising  such  liquids  the  action  of  prolonged 
exposure  and  that  of  increased  temperature  may  be  re- 
garded as  complementary  to  each  other,  he  proceeds  to 
relate  his  own  researches,  the  purpose  of  which  was 
rather  to  fill  up  defects  in  the  evidence  than  to  establish 
new  conclusions. 

The  flasks  employed  were  capable  of  containing  100 
cub.  centims.  (three  and  a  half  oz.) ;  they  were  charged 
in  the  usual  way  with  the  turnip-cheese  liquid,  and  exposed 
for  short  periods  in  chloride  of  calcium  baths,  of  which 
the  strengths  were  .carefully  adjusted  so  as  to  obtain 
the  requisite  temperatures.  It  was  thereby  definitely 
proved  that  whereas  the  germinzd  matter  of  Bacteria  can 
stand  a  temperature  of  100''  for  Ave  or  ten  minutes  it  is 
destroyed  by  temperatures  varying  from  105°  to  i  lo^^ 

In  an  appendix  to  my  first  paper,  published  in  Nature 
in  the  autumn  of  1873,  I  showed  that  the  solution  of  dif- 
fusible proteids  and  carbo-hydrates  employed  by  Prof. 
Huizinga,  of  Groningen,  in  the  first  of  the  valuable  series 
of  experiments  ^  published  by  him,  relating  to  the  subject 
of  spontaneous  generation,  require  a  temperature  above 
that  of  ebullition  under  ordinary  pressure  to  sterilise 
them.  This  observation  has  since  oeen  established  by 
Prof.  Huizinga  himself  on  the  basis  of  very  carefully  made 
experiments,^  by  which  he  has  proved  at  the  same  time 
that  the  liquids  in  question  are  rendered  completely 
incapable  of  producing  Bacteria  without  extrinsic  con- 
tamination by  exposing  them  to  higher  temperature.  The 
only  points  of  difference  between  us,  either  as  regards 
method  or  result,  are,  first,  that  the  sterilisation  limit 
(Grenze  zur  Bacterienerzeugung)  fixed  by  me  was  too 
low— the  true  limit  being  iiof^  C.—and  secondly,  that  the 
experiments  from  which  I  had  inferred  that  the  liquids  in 
question  had  been  sterilised  at  lower  temperatures  than 
this  were,  in  Prof.  Huizinga's  opinion,  rendered  incon- 
clusive by  the  fact  that  my  flasks  were  sealed  hermeti- 

tton  ootwithstanding  that  the  results  obtained  were  mere  confinnatioos  of 
those  of  former  observers  ;  adding  **far  den  wissenschaftlichen  Fortscbritt 
bat  nicht  die  PrioritAt  des  eioen  oder  des  anderen  Beobachters,  wohl  aber 
die  Zahl,  Mannigfaltigkeit,  und  ZuverULssiekeit  der  Beobaduuneen  eine 
hohe  Wichtigkeit.^ 

I  '*  Ucber  die  Abtogesesis  Huiiinga's,"  Ton  Richard  Gscheidkn,  PflUgef't 
ArcMiVf  vol  ix.  p.  163 

3  *'  Es  folgt  aus  den  eben  angegebenen  Versuchen,  nach  meiner  Meinung. 
dass  in  Huizinga's  Gemeogen  die  Bacterien  einer  Temperatur  von  xto**  5  10 
Minuten  lang  zu  widcrstchen  vermOgen,  nicht  aber  emer  von  105°- x  10^  in 
eitfgeschmolzeoem  l>laiirohre  wihrend  der  niUnlichen  Zeit"  (loc.  at.  p.  167). 
Here  the  author  clearly  fiuls  to  make  the  nece«sary  distinction  between 
BacUrim.  (which,  as  is  well  known,  lose  their  vitality  at  a  much  lower  tern- 
peraiure)  and  the  material  out  of  which  they  spring.  The  mixtures  referred 
to  were  either  the  cheese  and  turnip  liquid  or  solutions  containing  peptones 
and  grape  sugar,  to  be  immediately  referred  to.  As  affording  an  elegant 
demonstration  that  in  the  turnip-cheese  liquid  it  is  the  cheese  and  not  any 
other  constituent  which  contains  the  resistant  element,  the  following  form  of 
experiment  is  worthy  of  notice  >— A  tube  a  drawn  out  and  closed  at  both 
enOs  is  fused  into  the  open  mouth  of  a  second  tube  b,  of  which  the  opposite 
end  is  drawn  out  and  closed  in  a  similar  manner.  In  this  way  a  compound 
tube  is  formed  which  is  divided  by  a  conical  septum  into  two  chambers  a 
and  B  A  small  knob  of  glass  having  been  previously  introduced  into  tlM 
chamber  b,  the  septum  can  be  easily  broken  by  shalung  the  tube.  With 
tubes  so  prepared  two  experiments  are  made.  In  Experiment  x,  compart- 
ment A  is  charged  with  infusion  of  cheese,  sealed,  and  then  exposed  to  a 
temperature  of  xxo°  before  it  is  united  to  the  compartment  B.  In  like 
manner  b  is  charged  with  neutral  decoction  of  turnip,  so  that  when  the  com- 
pound tube  is  complete  it  contains  cheese  in  one  compartment,  turnip  in  the 
other.  If.  after  boiling  for  ten  minutes,  it  is  placed  in  the  warm  chamber  its 
contents  remain  barren.  In  Experiment  a  the  experiment  is  varied  by  simply 
omitting  the  prelimioary  heatmg  of  a.  The  compound  tube  is  boiled  as 
before,  but  now  its  contents  promptly  give  evidence  that  the  conditions  are 
present  for  an  abundant  development  of  Bacteria. 

3  Prof.  Huizinga's  papers  on  the  Qufstion  of  Abiogenesis  are  four  in 
number.  The  references  are  as  follows  >—PJliigers  AnAiv,  vol.  viL  p.  225, 
voL  viil  pp   180,  551 :  voL  X.  p.  6a. 

4  1  he  solution  employed  in  these  experiments  was  neutral,  and  contained, 
in  addition  to  the  requisite  inorganic  salts,  a  per  cent  of  grape  su ^ar,  o  3 
per  cent,  of  soluble  starch,  03  per  cent,  of  peptones,  and  t  per  cent,  of 
amnionic  tartrate.  As  in  my  experiments,  the  Hanks  were  heated  in  a  Papin's 
pot,  of  which  the  temperature  was  roa*^  C.  Even  after  half  an  hour's  ex- 
posure to  this  temperature  all  the  flasks  became  in  two  or  three  days  "  stark 
trObe  und  voll  Bacterien,"  third  ps4)er,  p.  555,  January,  1874. 


cally,  whereas  in  his  exchange  of  air  was  allowed  to  take 
place  during  the  period  of  incubation,  through  a  septum 
of  porous  porcelain.  To  this  last  objection  I  might  per- 
haps have  thought  it  my  duty  to  answer,  had  it  not  been 
shown  by  the[subsequent  researches  of  Gscheidlen  to  have 
no  bearing  on  the  question  at  issue.  As  regards  the  limit 
of  sterilisation  I  can  entertain  no  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy 
of  Huizinga's  measurements,  and  am  quite  willing  to 
accept  108°  C  as  the  lowest  temperature  which  could  be 
safely  employed  under  the  conditions  laid  down  by  him. 

It  will  be  understood  that  in  bringing  these  facts  before 
the  Societv  my  only  purpose  is- to  show,  as  I  trust  I  have 
done  conclusively,  that  the  statements  which  Dr.  Tyndall 
in  1876  characterised  as  incautious,  and  which  he  virtually 
invited  me  to  retract,  had  been  two  years  before  confirmed 
in  every  particular  by  expeiimenters  of  acknowledged 
competence. 


DIFFUSION  FIGURES  IN  LIQUIDS^ 

T  N  making  some  experiments  on  the  mixture  of  liquids 
-^  entering  into  another  liquid  at  the  extremity  of  a  tube 
of  'small  diameter,  a  phenomenon  presented  itself  which 
attracted  my  attention  as  both  new  and  singular.  A 
certain  quantity  of  coloured  alcohol,  remaining  in  sus- 
pension in  the  centre  of  a  body  of  water,  assumed,  by 
spreading  gradusdly  out,  a  form  resembling  that  of  a 
shrub  having  its  trunk  and  its  branches  terminated  by 
leaf-like  expansions.    I  sought  to  reproduce  the  pheno- 


Fic.  X.— Apparatus  of  Prof.  MartinL 

menon,  believing  at  first  that  this  mode  of  diffusion  was 
purely  accidental ;  but  the  phenomenon  always  recurring 
very  nearly  in  the  same  manner,  I  devised  a  mode  of 
experimenting  which  enabled  me  to  study  it  more 
advantageously. 

C  (Fig.  i)  is  a  sort  of  cylindrical  funnel  of  glass,  to  the 
neck  of  which  is  fitted  a  small  capillary  thermometrical 
tube  T,  about  eight  centimetres  long.  The  capillary  tube 
communicates  by  means  of  a  caoutchouc  tube  a  ^,  with  a 

'  From  an  article  in  La  Nature  by  PtoH  Ttto  Bfartini,  of  Venice. 


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\Nov.  29.  1877 


small  funnel  i,  which  maybe  raised  or  lowered  at  pleasure 
by  means  of  its  support  Pour  into  I  a  certain  quantity 
of  alcohol  coloured  say  with  a  red  solution  of  aniline. 
The  liquid  will  traverse  the  capillary  tube,  from  which  it 
will  flow  unless  prevented  by  compressing  the  india-rubber 
tube  with  a  small  pincers.  This  being  done,  fill  widi 
water  the  vessel  c  about  three-fourths  full;  then  by  means 
of  a  (unnel  whose  lower  extremity  reaches  a  little  below 
the  middle  of  the  water,  introduce  a  liquid  denser  than 
water,  a  concentrated  solution  of  sea-salt  or  a  thick  syrup, 
until  the  vessel  is  filled  up.  Sulphuric  acid  may  also  be 
used,  and  in  that  case  a  less  volume  of  liquid  will  suffice. 


Fio.  a.^Ezperiments  of  Prof.  Martini  on  the  diflFuaion  of  coloured  liquids  b  a 
sirupy  liquid. 

The  liquid  more  dense  than  water  will  collect  at  the  bottom 
of  C ;  and  there  will  thus  be  two  layers  of  liquid  superposed, 
the  exact  separation  of  which  may  be  observed  aher  being 
allowed  to  stand  for  an  hour.  If  at  the  end  of  that  time 
we  raise  the  funnel  i  to  a  suitable  height  and  rdieve  the 
pincers  which  compress  the  tube  ab^  the  coloured  alcohol 
which  flows  from  the  extremity  of  the  capillary  tube  will 
enter  the  liquid  in  the  vessel  c,  forming'^  ascending  vein 
which  usually  has  a  spiral  form.  The  alcoholic  vein 
traverses  the  thickest  layers  of  the  liquid  and  is  stopped 
at  the  boundary  which  separates  the  denser  from  the  less 


dense  part  which  floats  above.  At  the  point  where  the 
column  of  coloured  alcohol  is  arrested,  it  will  be  seen  to 
agglomerate  into  a  mass  at  first  formless  ;  but,  gradually, 
that  mass  elongates  and  extends,  then  is  seen  to  throw 
out  fluid  threads  in  the  form  of  foliage,  sometimes  similar 
to  the  petals  of  a  flower,  sometimes  analogous  to  the 
leaves  of  a  tree.  After  an  hour  the  coloured  alcohol  has 
assumed  a  stable  and  regular  figure.  That  figure  varies 
in  form  with  the  Hquids  employed  ;  it  sometimes  resembles 
a  flower,  sometimes  a  shrub,  and  sometimes  it  takes  the 
form  of  a  parasol  of  bright  and  vaporous  colours,  which 
add  to  its  beauty. 

The  figure,  so  far  as  its  form  is  concerned, 
attains  its  maximum  of  development  three  hours 
or  more  after  the  fluid  vein  begins  to  flow  ;  but 
after  that  time  the  leafy  expansions  dilate  more 
and  more,  and  approach  each  other  so  as  to 
form  a  mass  of  continuous  layers,  which  remain 
suspended  in  the  midst  of  the  liquid.  This  hap- 
pens even  when  the  inflow  has  been  arrested, 
either  by  applying  the  pincers  to  the  india-rubber 
tube,  or  even  by  lowering  suitably  the  funnel,  i. 
It  should  also  be  remarked  that  around  the  vein 
of  ascending  liquid  there  very  often  forms  a  very 
fine  tube,  which  assumes  the  aspect  of  the  stalk 
of  the  flower,  or  rather  the  trunk  of  the  liquid 
shrub  ;  from  different  points  of  that  stalk  ex- 
pansions in  the  form  of  leaves  will  be  seen  to 
proceed. 

In  order  that  the  experiments  I  have  devised 
may  be  successful,  the  tube  through  which  the 
coloured  liquid  enters  the  vessel  ought  to  be 
capillary,  the  flow  ought  to  be  gentle,  and  the 
apiMuratus  maintained  m  a  state  of  complete  rest. 
It  is  necessary,  moreover,  to  be  careful  first  to 
expel  the  air  from  the  india-rubber  tube,  since 
air-bubbles  disturb  the  formation  of  the  pheno- 
menon. The  following  is  a  succinct  risumS  of 
some  of  the  results  I  have  obtained  with  different 
liquids : — 

Colours  of  Aniline  Solution, — I  made  use  of 
aniline  red^  brown,  green,  and  violet,  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  bemg  careful  that  the  solution  was  not 
too  concentrated.  The  forms  obtained  in  sugared, 
salted,  and  acidulated  water,  are  those  represented 
in  Fie.  2,  Nos.  i  and  2.  The  figures  obtained 
resemble,  as  will  be  seen,  leaf-like  expansions ; 
the  ramifications  are  turned  downwards  in  sugared 
water  (No.  i);  in  salt  water,  on  the  contrary, 
they  are  always  raised,  and  at  the  commencentent 
even  more  so  than  is  shown  in  the  figure.  When 
acidulated  water  is  used,  the  aniline  colours  are 
modified  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid;  the 
green  becomes  jpale  yellow,  tne  red  becomes 
Drown,  and  the  violet  acquires  a  beautiful  green 
colour ;  but  in  all  cases  the  shrub-like  figure  No.  2 
is  formed  with  perfect  regularity. 

Litmus.    Aqueous  Solution, — ^With  this  solu- 
tion we   obtain  in  acidulated  water  the  figure 
represented  in  No.  3  (Fig.  2),  which  resembles  a 
small  parasoL     Looked  at  from  above,  it  has 
the  aspect  of  a  disc  from  the  periphery  of  whidi 
proceed  many  equidistant   rays  very  close   to 
each  other.    In  the  salt  water  the  same  aqueous  solution 
gives  a  different  figure.     In  general,  when  aqueous  solu- 
tions are  employed  to  form  the  figures  a  space  of  time  is 
required  longer  than  that  which  is  necessary  in  the  case 
of  alcoholic  solutions. 

Alcoholic  Solution,—With  this  solution  there  are  formed 
in  salt  or  sugared  water,  figures  analogous  to  Nos.  i  and 
2 ;  in  acidulated  water  there  is  produced  a  shrubby 
appearance  similar  to  Na  2. 

La/^.^Tht  a(j[ueous  solution  of  lake  forms  in  salt 
water  a  figure  smiilar  to  that  of  No.  4 ;  in  acidulated 


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water  Fig.  3  is  produced,  but  more  delicate  and  more 
regular  t£ELn  that  obtained  with  litmus. 

Azure  Blue. — The  aqueous  and  alcoholic  solutions  of 
azure-blue  or  pearl  form  figures  similar  to  those  already 
described.  In  acidulated  water  we  obtain  a  very  regular 
spheroidal  nucleus  of  a  very  dark  blue,  surrounded  by  a 
spheroidal  layer  with  an  interior  stem  (No.  6). 

Cochineal, — The  aqueous  solution  forms  in  acidulated 
water  the  figure  No.  3,  regular,  Uke  that  of  litmus  and 
of  lake.  In  salt  water,  cochineal,  not  being  soluble,  is 
precipitated  and  the  phenomenon  is  not  produced. 

Iodine,— Tht  alcoholic  tincture  of  iodine  forms,  in 
sugared,  salt,  or  acidulated  water,  beautiful  figures  almost 
identical  with  those  of  the  colours  of  the  aniUne  solution. 

Bichromate  of  Potash,— -To  make  the  experiments  with 
bichromate  of  potash  succeed  I  changed  the  arrangement 
of  the  experiment  on  account  of  the  very  great  density  of 
the  solution  in  comparison  with  the  density  of  water.  I 
fill  the  vessel  in  the  usual  manner,  then  I  place  above  the 
vessel  a  small  funnel,  fitted  with  a  capillary  tube  which 
partly  enters  the  liquid.  The  aqueous  solution  of  bichro- 
mate of  potash  being  poured  into  the  small  funnel,  flows 
out,  forming  a  smaU  descending  spiral,  which  usually  is 
arrested  in  the  division  between  the  more  and  less  dense 
parts  of  Uie  liquid.  In  acidulated  or  salt  water  two  very 
beautifol  figures  arelformed  resembling  those  of  Nos.  2 
and  5,  but  reversed.  ^ 

The  various  experiments  described  above  have  been 
repeated  several  times  for  each  colour,  and  I  have  always 
obtained  the  same  results.  This  persistence  of  form 
shows  that  the  phenomenon  is  regulated  by  a  law  which 
I  shall  seek  to  discover.  I  believe  I  may  conclude  from 
these  first  attempts  that  the  form  of  the  figure  depends  on 
the  liquid  in  which  the  colour  is  dissolved,  more  than  on 
the  colour  itsdf.  By  employing  other  acids  and  other 
salts,  not  such,  however,  as  precipitate  the  colour,  it  is 
probable  that  other  figures  would  be  obtained. 


TRACES  OF  EARLY  MAN  IN  JAP  Ah 

SO  much  interest  is  felt  in  the  origin  of  the  Japanese, 
that  any  information  regarding  earlier  races  in  Japan 
will  interest  the  readers  of  Nature. 

The  discovery  and  examination  of  a  genuine  kjockken- 
moedding,  or  shell  heap,  enables  me  to  give  positive 
evidences  regarding  a  prehistoric  race  who  occupied  this 
island.  Whether  autocthonous  or  not  it  would  of  course 
be  impossible  to  say.  On  my  first  ride  to  Tokio,  in  June 
of  this  year,  I  observed,  from  the  car  window,  near  a 
station  called  Omori,  a  fine  section  of  a  shell  heap,  which 
was  recognised  as  such  at  once,  from  its  resemblance  to 
those  I  had  often  studied  along  the  coast  of  New  England. 
On  September  16,  accompamed  by  Messrs.  Matsumura, 
Matsura,  and  SasaJd,  three  intelligi^t  Japanese  students, 
I  made  an  examination-  of  it,  and  a  few  days  afterwards, 
in  company  with  Dr.  David  Murray,  Superintendent  of 
Public  Instruction,  and  Mr.  Vukuyo,  with  two  coolies  to 
do  the  heavy  digging,  made  an  exhaustive  exploration 
of  it 

The  deposit  is  composed  of  shells  of  various  genera, 
such  as  Vusus,  Ebuma,  Turbo,  Pyrula,  Area,  Pecten. 
Cardium,  two  strongly  marked  species  of  Ostrea,  and 
curiously  enough,  Mya  arenaria^  not  to  be  distingtushed 
from  the  New  England  form,  as  well  as  other  genera. 
These  ^dls.  so  far  as  I  know,  still  live  in  the  Bay  of 
Yedo.  The  neap  is  about  200  feet  wide,  and  varies  from 
a  foot  to  five  or  six  feet  in  thickness,  with  a  deposit  of  earth 
above,  at  least  three  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  now  nearly 
half  a  mile  from  the  shore  of  the  Bay,  thoujg;h  in  accord- 
ance with  the  usual  position  of  these  neaps  m  other  parts 
of  the  world)  it  must  have  been  formed  near  the  shore, 
and  this  fact  indicates  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  land 
^ce  the  deposits  were  made.    I  may  add  that  other 


evidences  of  a  geological  nature  indicate  a  wide-spread 
upheaval  in  past  times. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  typical  shell-heap,  such  as 
fragments  of  bones,  rough  implements  worked  out  of 
horn,  and  pieces  of  pottery,  are  all  here.  The  heap, 
however,  is  marked  by  certain  features  which  render  it 
peculiar. 

Furst,  the  immense  quantity  of  pottery  and  its  diversity 
of  ornamentation,  some  of  it  extremely  ornate,  but  very 
rude. 

Second,  the  absence  of  bone-implements,  the  few 
found — eight  or  ten  in  number — being  of  horn,  with  the 
exception  of  an  arrow-head  of  diminutive  proportions, 
made  of  the  tusk  of  a  wild  boar.  All  the  implements  are 
very  simple ;  two  of  them  are  like  blunt  bone  awls,  with 
the  end  very  obtuse,  and  a  constriction  worked  around 
the  end.  Another  one  is  made  from  the  natural  termina- 
tion of  a  deer's  antler.  A  few  fragments  of  horn  were 
found  which  had  been  cut  off  at  the  ends. 

Third,  the  entire  absence  of  fiint  flakes,  or  stone  imple- 
ments of  any  kind,  if  we  except  a  small  stone  adze  found 
near  the  top  of  the  heap,  and  made  out  of  a  soft  sand- 
stone. The  frequent  occurrence  of  isolated  tusks  of  the 
wild  boar  would  seem  to  indicate  that  these  teeth  were 
used  for  implements,  and  one  piece  of  antler,  having  a 
hole  in  the  end,  is  worked  in^the  form  of  a  rude  hanme. 
By  far  the  most  common  bones  found  were  those  of  the 
deer  and  wild  boar,  and  curiously  enough  Steenstrup 
shows  the  same  proportion  in  the  Danish  shell  heaps. 
No  human  bones  have  yet  been  found. 

An  analysis  of  the  red  pigment  found  on  some  of  the 
pottery  shows  it  to  be  cinnaS>ar.  With  its  removal  from 
the  shore,  its  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the 
absence  of  stone  implements,  and  the  great  thickness  of 
the  earth  deposits  above,  we  have  reasons  for  believing 
that  the  deposit  is  of  high  antiquity. 

Through  the  intelligent  interest  manifested  by  Mr. 
Kato  and  Mr.  Hamao,  Director  and  Vice-Director  of  the 
Imperial  University  of  Tokio,  every  facility  for  a  thorough 
investigation  of  these  deposits  will  be  given  me. 

Tokio,  Japan,  September  21        Edward  S.  Morse 


NOTES 

It  is  proposed  to  hold  the  next  annotl  meeting  of  the  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Improvement  of  Geometrical  Temchiog  (mider  the 
presidency  of  Dr.  Hirst)  at  University  College^  Gower  Street, 
on  January  11,  1878,  at  10.30  A.M.  Four  resolutions  are  to 
be  submitted  to  the  Association  : — x.  That  in  the  opinion  of 
this  Association  it  is  both  reasonable  and  expedient  that  candi- 
dates at  all  examinations  in  elementary  geometry  should  be 
required  to  give  evidence  of  snch  abiUty  as  is  necessary  for  the 
solving'of  easy  geometrical  exercises  ;  and  that  the  secretaries 
of  the  Association  be  instructed  to  send  a  copy  of  this  resolution 
to  the  leading  examining  bodies  of  the  country.  The  other 
resolutions  relate  to  the  proposed  formation  of  sub-committees 
for  drawing  up  a  syllabus  of  (i)  Solid  Geometry,  (2)  Higher 
Plane  Geometry  (Transversals,  Projecdon,  &c.),  (3)  Geometrical 
Conies.  It  may  be  in  the  recollection  of  our  readers  that  the 
report  of  the  British  Association  Committee  (in  1876^  published 
at  the  time  in  Nature)  .was  highly  favourable  to  the  work  of 
this  Association. 

The  dissection  of  the  Berlin  gorilla  was  performed  last  week  by 
ProC  Virchow  and  Prof.  Hartmann  in  the  presence  of  several  pro- 
minent Berlin  physicians,  and  it  was  ascertained  that  the  sudden 
death  of  the  animal  was  caused  by  acute  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  the  same  disease  which  carries  off  young  children  so 
rapidly.  The  dissection  explains  the  cause  of  his  previous  illnesses 
and  supplies  valuable  information  with  regard  to  the  treatment  of 
anthropoidal  apes.  The  button  of  a  glove,  iron  wire,  and  pins 
were  found  in  Pongo's  stomach. 


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NATURE 


\Nov.  29.  1877 


During  the  past  week  the  Emperor  of  Germiny  received  a 
deputation  of  the  members  of  the  German  Expedition  for 
observing  the  transit  of  Venus,  who  preaented  him  with  a 
handsomely-mounted  album  containing  copies  of  all  the  photo- 
graphs taken  during  the  transit 

Bern  celebrates  on  December  12  the  looth  anniversary  of  the 
death  of  its  famous  citizen,  Albert  Haller,  who  was  equally 
renowned  as  physiologist,  botanist,  and  poet. 

The  New  York  Nation  informs  us  that  news  has  been  received 
of  the  death  of  the  Rev.  James  Orton,  professor  of  natural 
history  at  Vassar  College,  and]  well  known  as  the  author  of 
** Comparative  Zoology"  and  "The  Andes  and  the  Amazons.** 
Prof.  Orton  made  his  first  expedition  to  South  America  in  1S67, 
crossing  the  Andes  eastward  from  Peru,  and  descending  the 
Napo  to  the  Mararion.  His  second  expedition  in  1873  was  the 
reverse  of  the  former  one,  beginning  with  the  ascent  of  the 
Amazon.  He  was  on  his  way  home  from  a  third  expedition 
when  he  died,  September  25,  on  board  a  small  schooner  on 
Lake  Titicaca.     He  was  greatly  esteemed  by  all  who  knew  him. 

The  New  York  Tribune  states  that  Mr.  Edison,  the  inventor 
of  many  improvements  in  telegraphy,  is  hard  at  work  in  the 
endeavour  to  make  the  telephone  record  the  sounds  it  transmits. 
His  apparatus  at  present  consists  chiefly  of  a  steel  point  attached 
to  the  disk  of  a  telephone  and  pressing  lightly  on  a  strip  of  paper 
passed  beneath  the  point  at  a  uniform  rate.  The  vibrations  of 
the  disk  are  thus  recorded,  and  can  be  translated.  Mr.  Edison 
has  already  achieved  some  success  in  this  attempt,  but  as  yet 
finds  difBculty  with  the  more  delicate  vibrations.  The  invention 
suggests  an  ultimate  possibility  of  recording  a  speech  at  a 
distance,  verbatim,  without  the  need  of  shorthand. 

Not  one  of  the  designs  sent  in  in  competition  for  the  monu- 
ment to  Spinoza  at  the  Hague  has  satisfied  the  judges.  A  new 
term  for  receiving  designs  will  therefore  be  fixed. 

Another  letter  from  Mr.  Stanley  appears  in  the  Telegraph 
of  Thursday  last,  in  which  he  gives  many  interesting  details  of 
his  journey  down  the  Lualaba-Congo,  but  does  not  add 
essentially  to  what  we  already  know  from  previous  letters.  It 
will  be  well  at  present  to  rest  satisfied  with  the  fact  that  he  has 
solved  a  great  geographical  problem ;  discussion  will  be  appro- 
priate and  to  some  purpose  when  we  are  in  possession  of  the 
full  details.  In  the  December  number  of  Petermann*s  Mittheil- 
ungen  that  keen  geographer  discusses  the  bearings  of  Stanley's 
discovery,  and  on  the  basis  of  the  earlier  letters  identifies  the 
Lualaba-Congo  with  the  discoveries  of  Browne,  Barth,  Nachti- 
gal,  and  Schweinfurth  ;  but  on  the  map  which  accompanies  the 
paper  he  carries  the  great  river  north  to  about  4°  N.  lat  In  a 
postscript  on  Stanley's  own  map  Dr.  Petermann  seems  to  think 
that  his  identifications  may  require  modification.  Dr.  Petermann 
cannot  find  terms  strong  enough  in  which  to  speak  of  the  merit 
of  Stanle/s  work.  He  calls  him  ''the  Bismarck  of  African 
exploration,"  who  has  united  the  disjecta  membra  of  previous 
explorations  as  Bismarck  has  made  one  great  empire  out  of  a 
number  of  isolated  states.  He  is  e?idently  inclined  to  place 
Stanley  alongside  of  Columbus. 

The  December  number  of  Petermann's  Mittheilungen  contains 
a  long  paper  on  the  Iquiqne  earthquake  of  May  9  last,  in  which 
much  valuable  data  are  given  on  the  earthquake  and  on  the  wave 
which  was  simultaneous  with  it  over  so  wide  a  stretch  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Daily  News  correspondent  at  Rome  writes  that  no  news 
has  arrived  there  as  to  the  death  of  the  African  explorer,  the 
Marquess  Antinori,  the  inference  being  that  he  is  still  alive.  A 
long  letter  has  been  received  by  the  Italian  Geographical  So- 
ciety from  Signor  Matteucci  who,  with  Signor  Gessi,  is  bound 
for  Inner  Africa ;  the  two  expect  to  be  in  Kbartorm  in  the 


beginning  of  December.    They  were  splendidly  equipped  before 
leaving  Italy. 

Dr.  Schweinfurth,  the  celebrated  African  traveller,  who 
has  been  staying  at  Berlin  since  the  beginning  of  August,  will 
shortly  return  to  [Africa,  as  he  finds  that  the  European  climate 
no  longer  agrees  with  his  health.  At  present  he  has  left  Berlin 
for  Weimar, 

At  the  Geographical  Society,  on  Monday  night.  Commander 
Musters,  R.N.,  read  a  paper  on  Bolivia,  in  which  he  gave  much 
valuable  information  about  a  country,  its  products  and  its  people, 
about  which  we  are  extremely  ignorant.  Commander  Musters 
lived  in  the  country  for  a  considerable  time.  Mr.  Clements  R. 
Markham  read  a  paper  on  the  still  unexplored  parts  of  South 
America.  The  facts  is  we  are  almost  as  ignorant  of  Central 
South  America  as,  until  recently,  we  were  of  Central  Africa,  and 
there  is  here  a  practically  virgin  field  for  a  second  Stanley,  if  not 
indeed  for  Stanley  himself. 

In  a  recent  number  we  referred  to  the  preparations  which  are 
being  made  for  Prof.  Nordenskjold's  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
regions  next  summer.  TYit  Handels  och  Sjbfarts  Tidning  of  Gothen- 
burg publishes  further  details,  giving  the  plan  of  the  expedition  as 
presented  to  the  King  of  Sweden  by  Prof.  Nordenskjold.  We 
now  learn  that  the  steamer  Vega  is  being  fitted  up  at  the  royal 
wharves  of.Carlskrona,  and  will  take  provisions  for  two  years. 
The  Professor  intends  to  leave  at  the  beginning  of  July  next,  and 
his  staff  will  consist  of  four  scientific  men  besides  himself,  four 
Norwegian  sailors  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  Arctic  See, 
a  ship's  officer,  eighteen  marines,  and  a  ship's  doctor.  The 
first  halt  will  be  made  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yenisei  River ;  then 
the  expedition  will  proceed  to  Cape  Tscheljuskin,  and  try  to 
penetrate  as  far  as  possible  in  a  north-casteriy  direction. 

Mr.  G.  J.  Hinds,  of  Toronto,  Canada,  writes  us  that 
a  shock  of  earthquake,  unusually  severe  for  that  part  of  the 
world,  occurred  along  the  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Ottawa  Rivers,  Lakes  Champlain  and  St  George,  and  through 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  Western  Massachusetts,  at  or 
near  2  A  M.  of  Sunday,  the  4th  instant.  The  limits  along  which 
it  has  been  noticed  are  Pembroke  on  the  Upper  Ottawa  to  the 
north-west,  Montreal  on  the  east,  Boston  and  Providence  to  the 
south-east,  and  Toronto  to  the  west  The  shock  appears  to  have 
been  most  severe  on  the  line  of  the  Ottowa  valley  between  Pem- 
broke and  Montreal,  and  between  Ottawa  city  and  Cape  Vincent 
on  the  St.  Lawrence,  following  in  a  general  direction  the  oat- 
crops  of  the  Laurentian  range.  It  was  but  very  slightly  felt  at 
Toronto,  but  at  Montreal  the  shocks  are  stated  to  have  lasted 
twenty  seconds,  and  to  have  shaken  movable  articles  about  the 
rooms. 

The  following  grants  in  aid  of  researches  have  been  made  this 
year  by  the  Committee  of  Council  on  the  report  of  the  Scientific 
Grant^  Committee  of  the  British  Medical  Association :— Mr. 
Gaskell,  in  aid  of  a  research  on  the  reflex  action  of  the  vascular 
system  and  muscles  and  reflex  vasomotor  action  generally,  30/.  ; 
Mr.  Langley,  in  aid  of  a  research  on  the  changes  produced  in 
the  salivary  glands  by  nerve  influence,*  25/.  ;  Dr.  Rutherford, 
F.R.S.,  for  a  continued  research  on  the  action  of  Cholagogues, 
50/.  ;  Drs.  Bnddwood  and  Vacher,  for  engravings  for  illustrating 
the  third  report  on  the  life  history  of  contagium,  40/. ;  Mr.  Pye 
in  aid  of  a  continued  research  for  the  investigation  of  the  rela- 
tion that  the  retinal  circulation  bears  to  that  of  the  brain,  8/. 
1 51.  ;  Mr.  Bruce  Clarke,  in  aid  of  a  continued  research  on  syn- 
cope and  shock,  10/.  ;  Mr.  A.  S.  Lee,  Heidelberg,  in  aid  of  a 
research  on  the  quantitative  determination  of  digestive  products 
obtained  by  the  acdon  of  pancreatic  ferment  upon  'the  various 
albumens,  25/.  j  Dr.  McKendrick,  Glasgow,  in  aid  of  a  con- 
tinued research  into  the  antagonism  of  drugs,  30/.  ;  Dr.  McKen- 
drick, Glasgow,  in  aid  of  an  investigation  into  the  dialysis   of 


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91 


blood  (renewed),  10/. ;  Dr.  John  Barlow,  Muirhead  Demonstra- 
tor of  Physiology,  Glasgow,  in  aid  of  an  experimental  investiga' 
tion  into  the  changes  produced  in  the  blood-yessels  by  alcohol, 
10/.  ;  Dr.  Joseph  Coats,  Dr.  McKendrick,  and  Mr.  Ramsay, 
the  committee  upon  the  investigation  of  anaesthetics,  50/.  ;  Dr. 
McKenzie,  a  research  on  pyaemia,  25/.  ;  Mr.  Callender,  F.R.S., 
Dr.  J.  Burdon  Sanderson,  F.R.S.,  Dr.  T.  Lauder  Brunton, 
F.R.S.,  and  Mr.  Ernest  Hart,  the  committee  appointed  for  the 
investigation  of  the  pathology  and  treatment  of  hjrdrophobia, 
100/.     Total,  413/.  15/. 

TXLEGRAPH  warnings  are  to  be  employed  all  over  Paris  for 
givhig  alarms  of  fires  to  all  the  fire-engine  stations.  The 
alarm  is  given  by  breaking  a  small  jpane  of  glass  facing  the 
streets,  being  a  variation  of  the  system  employed  on  railways 
for  signalling  the  engine-driver  or  guard. 

In  the  November  session  of  the  Berlm  Geographical  Society, 
Baron  v.  Richthofen  was  re-elected  president.  The  evening 
was  chiefly  occupied  by  an  address  from  Dr.  Nachtigal,  on 
the  results  of  Stanle/s  lately  accomplished  expedition,  which 
he  regarded  as  the  most  prominent  event  among  ater  African 
explorations.  Prof.  Orth  gave  a  short  description  of  a  new 
met  hod  of  cartography. 

Lieut,  de  SemellA  has  intimated  to  the  Paris  Geographical 
Society  that  he  intends  to  cross  Africajfrom  west  to  east,  ascending 
the  Niger  ^nd.Binu^,  making  for  Lakes  Albert  and  Victoria,  and 
reaching  the  east  coast  at  Mombasa  or  Malmda.  He  states  that 
he  has  already  obtained  sufficient  resources. 

The  chemists  of  Berlin  have  been  occupied  lately  in  analysing 
the  wares  of  the  wine  merchants,  and  no  little  excitement  has  been 
caused  by  the  discovery  that  the  entire  stock  of  one  of  the  largest 
houses  dealing  in  wines  for  medicinal  purposes,  consisted  entirely 
of  artificially  prepared  mixtures  of  spirit  and  sugar  solutionsi 
flavoured  with  various  herbs. 

At  Leipzig  a  "  General  German  A  nti- Adulteration  Society  '* 
has  been  formed,  which  has  for  its  main  object  the  prevention  of 
the  adulteration  of  food.  A  periodical  is  to  appear,  or  has  already 
appeared,  as  the  organ  of  ^is  society.  At  some  fifty  other 
German  towns  branch  societies  are  bemg  established.  All 
political  or  religious  matters  are  excluded  firom  the  programme 
of  the  society,  while  one  of  its  statutes  prescribes  the  special 
prosecution  of  the  makers  and  sellers  of  so-called  secret  remedies 
and  medicines. 

In  evidence  of  the  interest]  now  being  [taken  .by  Spain  in 
scientific  subjects  we  may  draw  attention  to  the  Boletin  de  la 
InsHtucwn  libre  d$  EnsHkiuMa  (Madrid,  1 87 7),  the  first  five 
numbers  of  which,  from  March  7  to  June  17,  now  \\t  before  us. 
We  notice  Geometria  y  morfologia  natural,  Prof.  De  Linares  ; 
Investigacion  de  los  propiedades  opticas,  Prot  Calderon  ;  La 
religion  de  los  Celtas  espanoles,  Prof.  Costa;  Principlos  y 
I>efinici<mes  de  la  Geometria,  Prot  Jimenez ;  Precipitacion  de  los 
metales  puros  por  los  suHoros  natuiales,  Prof.  Quiroga.  There 
sure  accounts  of  pcipers  read  at  meetings  under  the  headings 
• '  Resumencs  de  Ensefianzas, "  and  "  Conferencias. "  The  Boletin 
ift  in  shape  not  quite  so  large  as  Nature,  and  each  number 
contains  four  pages. 

The  Minister  of  Instruction  in  the  cabinet  chosen  by  Marshal 
MacMahon  last  week  is  M.  A.  £.  A.  Faye,  the  well-known 
astronomer,  who  is  spoken  of  as  Leverrier's  probable  successor. 
M.  Faye  is  at  present  in  his  sixty-tkiydyear,  and  is  chiefly  known 
through  hia  discovery  of  the  comet  named  after  him,  in  1843. 
Since  that  time  he  has  devoted  his  attention  principally  to  the 
consideration  of  the  problems  of  physical  astronomy,  the  solar 
oonstitutioa,  &c.  His  most  important  works  are  "  I^e9ons  de 
Cosmograpl.ie,"  1S52 ;  and  a  translation  of  Humboldt's 
•'Cosmos.'*    M.  Faye  is  probably  the  best  known  in  wli^t  h 


ironically  termed  the  cabimt  da  inconnm,  French  politics 
allure  an  unusually  large  number  of  scientific  men.  Naquet, 
the  chemist,  is  now  a  leader  of  the  radical  wing  of  the 
Republican  party,  Dumas  and  Soheurer-Kestner  are  life 
members  of  the  senate,  and  Wurts  was  proposed  as  a  candidate 
for  the  senate  a  few  weeks  since. 

The  communication  of  the  city  of  Moscow  with  the  river 
Volga,  leaving  the  railway  out  of  account,  was,  up  to  the  present, 
only  possible  in  the  spring  of  each  year,  on  account  of  the 
shallowness  of  the  Moskwa  River.  The  boats  were  drawn  by 
horses  from  Moscow  to  Kolomna  on  the  river  Oka,  which  falls 
into  the  Volga  at  Nishni-Novgorod,  and  this  means  of  commu- 
nication, on  account  of  the  great  time  it  occupied,  not  to 
mention  its  cost,  was  a  very  imperfect  one.  A  series  of  locks  has 
recently  been  constructed  on  the  Moskwa  River,  and  tug  steamers 
are  now  running  between  the  capital  and  the  Oka. 

Ws  have  already  refened  to  the  proposed  introduction  of  the 
telephone  into  the  German  telegraphic  service.  Dr.  Stephan, 
the  enterprising  Postmaster-General  of  the  German  empire,  who 
has  brought  the  German  postal  service  to  such  efficiency,  and 
fairly  created  the  present  international  telegraphic  system,  ap- 
pears to  have  definitely  settled  the  question  of  the  practicability 
of  the  general  introduction  of  the  new  method.  For  the  past  few 
weeks  the  telephone  has  been  in  constant  use  between  the  General 
Post  Office  and  the  General  Telegraph  Office  in  Berlin,  and  has 
superseded  the  telegraphic  communication  between  Berlin  and 
some  of  the  neighbouring  vilUges.  The  results  have  been  so 
satisfactory  that  a  few  days  since  a  consultation  of  leading  tele- 
graphic officials  was  held  to  make  arrangements  for  the  establish, 
ment  of  a  large  number  of  telephonic  stations.  Since  the  equip- 
ment of  these  stations  is  so  inexpensive,  and  the  long  and  costly 
preliminary  training  of  a  telegrapher  is  avoided.  It  can  easily  be 
understood  with  what  readiness  the  new  invention  is  put  into 
practical  use.  Interesting  in  this  connection  is  the  recent  adoption 
of  the  telephone  by  Prince  Bismarck.  He  has  caused,  as  we 
stated  last  week,  the  establishment  of  a  telephonic  means  of 
communication  between  the  Chancellor's  office  in  Berlin  and  his 
country  residence  at  Varzin,  in  Pomerania,  230  miles  distant ; 
and  finds  that  he  is  perfectly  able  to  give  instructions  and  receive 
reports  without  leaving  his  favourite  castle.  No  subterranean 
wires,  but  the  ordinary  telegraphic  wires  on  poles,  are  used  for 
this  purpose. 

A  SERIES  of  researches  on  the  compressibility  of  liquids  has 
recently  been  described  by  M.  Amagat  in  the  Annala  dt  Chimu 
d  de  Physique.  Among  other  results,  the  compressibility  is 
found  to  be  far  from  depending  on  the  volatility  of  liquids,  as 
might  be  supposed.  The  presence  of  sulphur,  chlorine,  bromine, 
and  probably  also  iodine,  tends  to  diminish  the  compressibility 
(a  fact  sufficiently  explained  by  the  corresponding  increase  of 
density).  With  regard  to  alcohols,  the  compressibility  diminishes 
from  Uie  first  member  of  the  series,  methylic  alcohol,  at  least  at 
100^.  At  14^  common  and  methylic  alcohol  have  nearly  the 
same  compresslbiHty  ;  and  at  zero  the  common  alcohol  is  perhsps 
more  compressible  than  methylic  alcohol  Of  the  ethers,  ethyl- 
acetic  ether  is  more  compressible  at  \i^  and  at  100*  than  methyl- 
acetic  ether  (an  inverse  order  to  that  of  the  densities,  which 
decrease  as  you  rise  in  the  series.  ;  Wkh  regard  to  hydrocarbons, 
the  compresuUUty  decreases  regularly  both  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture and  at  lOo*'  as  you  descend  in  the  series. 

A  MICROSCOPICAL  study  has  recently  ^een  made  by  M.  Pril. 
lieux,  of  a  diaeaae  of  fruits,  and  especially  of  pear?,  which 
consists  in  the  appearance  of  spots,  then  of  crevices,  issuinif  in 
complete  disorganisation.  From  the  &cts  described,  it  appears 
that  the  cause  of  this  evil  is  a  fiugus,  the  spores  of  which  are 
developed  on  the  skin  of  the  fruit  with  the  appearance  of  a  thin 
filamcn\     At  a  certain  tiaic  this  fiUment  penetrates  the  epider- 


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mis  and  produces  a  mycelium,  which  develops  in  the  very  mass 
of  the  fleshy  tissue.  Later  there  appear,  in  addition,  fructiferous 
filaments,  which  bear  about  twenty-five  spores  each.  The  cells 
of  the  fruit,  on  passage  of  the  parasite,  are  destroyed,  and  it  is 
thus  that  the  crevices  are  formed. 

Thb  diffusion  which  takes  place  between  two  gases  separated 
from  each  other  by  an  absorbent  film  (<'.f.,  a  soap  film)  was 
studied  a  short  time  ago  by  Prof.  Exner,  of  the  Vienra  Aca- 
demy. He  has  recently  extended  his  inquiry  to  the  case  of 
vapours  from  easily  volatile  liquids,  usmg  the  same  apparatus  as 
for  permanent  gases.  The  experiments  were  made  with  sulphide 
of  carbon,  chloroform,  sulphuric  ether,  benzine,  alcohol,  and  oil 
of  turpentine,  and  they  show  that  the  diffusion  from  sndi  vapours 
follows  the  same  laws  as  those  of  gases,  i>.,  that  it  depends  both 
on  the  coefficient  of  absorption  of  the  film  and  on  the  density  of 
the  gas  being  directly  proportional  to  the  former,  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  sqnare  root  of  the  latter.  Thus  it  appears 
that  the  greater  or  less  distance  of  a  gas  from  its  liquefaction 
point  has  at  least  no  influence  on  this  kind  of  diffusion. 

It  is  reported  that  Herr  Josef  Albert,  the  eminent  Munich 
photographer,  has  made  the  highly  important  invention  of  pho- 
tographing the  natural  colours  of  objects  by  means  of  a  combina- 
tion of  the  ordinary  photographic  process  with  a  photographic 
printing  press  constructed  by  the  same  gentleman  some  time  ago. 
The  images  are  stated  to  be  so  perfect  that  not  the  least  improve- 
ment with  the  brush  is  required,  as  the  finest  shades  of  colours 
are  faithfully  reproduced.  The  secret  of  the  invention  is  said  to 
be  based  on  the  separation  of  white  light  into  yellow,  blue,  and 
red  rays,  and  in  the  artificial  application  of  the  same  colours  in 
the  printing  press.  The  first  negative  is  taken  upon  a  plate 
whidi  is  chemically  prepared  in  such  a  manner  that  it  only 
receives  the  yellow  tints  or  shades  of  the  object ;  this  is  then 
passed  through  the  printing  press,  the  roller  of  which  is  impreg- 
nated with  a  yellow  colouring  matter.  On  the  print  only  the 
yellow  tints  reappear  more  or  less  distinctly ;  the  object  is  then 
again  photographed,  and  this  time  a  negative  is  prepared'which 
only  receives  the  blue  shades  and  tints  ;  a  second  printing  press 
has  its  roller  impregnated  with  some  blue  colour,  and  the  plate 
of  course  gives  a  print  with  only  the  blue  tints  reproduced.  In 
the  same  manner  a  third  print  is  obtained  which  only  shows  the 
red  shades  and  tints.  The  final  manipulation  now  consists  in 
printing  the  three  images  upon  the  same  plate,  when  th2  three 
colours  intermingle  and  the  natural  colours  and  shades  of  the 
objects  are  obtained.  We  need  hardly  point  out  the  enormous 
importance  of  this  invention. 

A  PAMPHLET  just  published  by  the  Director  of  the  Paris 
National  Library  contains  some  interesting  statistical  data  re- 
specting one  of  the  finest  libraries  in  the  world.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  library  contain)  86,774  volumes  on  catholic 
theology,  44,692  volumes  on  the  science  of  languages,  289,402 
volumes  on  law,  68,483  volumes  on  medicine,  441,836  volumes 
on  French  history,  and  1SS1672  volumes  of  poetry.  The  works 
on  natural  science  are  not  yet  catalogued.  During  1876  the 
library  received  no  less  than  45,300  French  additions  and 
purchased  4,565  foreign  books. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  two  Black-eared  Marmosets  (Hapale penicUlata) 
from  South  America,  presented  by  Miss  Quain  ;  a  Black-backed 
Jackal  (Cams  maomdes)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Capt. 
Fulton,  S.S.  Tay mouth  CastU ;  a  Common  Boa  {Boa  constrictor) 
from  South  America,  presented  by  Miss  Alice  Leith  ;  a  Brown 
Tree  Kangaroo  {Dendrolagus  inustus)  from  New  Guinea,  a  Slow 
Loris  {Nycticebus  tardip-adus)  from  Malacca,  a  River  Jack  Viper 
(Vipera  rhinoceros)  from  West  Africa,  purchased;  a  Green 
liioiiVty  (CiTco/'i'hccus  calli/richtis)  from  West  Afiica,  deposited. 


THE  LIBERTY  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  MODERN 
STATED 

IL 

T T  is  easy  to  say :  ''A  cell  consists  of  small  particles, 
'*'  and  these  we  call  plastidules  ;  plaslidules,  however,  are 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  and  are 
endowed  with  a  special  soul ;  this  soul  is  the  product  or  the  sum 
of  the  forces  which  the  chemical  atoms  possess."  Indeed  this 
is  possible ;  I  cannot  judge  of  it  exactly.  Thb  is  one  of  those 
pomts  which  are  yet  unapproachable  for  me  ;  I  feel  there  like  a 
navigator  who  gets  upon  a  shallow,  the  extent  of  which  he  cannot 
guess.  But  yet  I  must  say  that  before  the  properties  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen  are  defined  to  me  in  such  a 
manner  that  I  can  understand  how,  through  their  combination  a 
soul  results,  I  cannot  admit  that  we  are  justified  in  introducing  the 
plistidule  soul  into  the  educational  pro;^amme  or  to  ask  gene- 
rally of  every  educated  mm  that  he  should  recognise  it  as  a 
scientific  truth  to  such  a  degree  as  to  operate  with  it  logically, 
and  to  base  his  conception  of  the  universe  upon  it.  This  we 
may  really  not  ask.  On  the  contrary,  I  think  that  before  we 
designate  such  theses  as  the  expression  of  science,  before  we  say 
this  is  modem  science,  we  ought  first  of  all  to  complete  a  whole 
series  'of  lengthy  investigation?.  We  must  therefore  say  to  the 
schoolmasters^  do  not  teach  this.  This,  gentlemen,  is  the  re- 
signation which  in  my  opinion,  tho?c  ought  to  exercise  who 
deem  such  a  solution  in  itself  to  be  the  probable  end  of  scientific 
investigation.  We  can  certainly  not  diflfer  on  that  point  for  a 
moment,  that  if  this  doctrine  of  the  soul  were  really  true  it  could 
only  be  confirmed  by  a  long  series  of  scientific  investigations. 

There  is  a  series  of  events  in  the  field  of  the  natural  sciences, 
by  which  we  can  show,  for  how  long  certain  problems  are  in 
suspense,  before  it  is  possible  to  find  their  true  solution.  If 
this  solution  is  found  at  last,  and  foimd  in  a  direction  of  which 
there  was  a  presentiment  perhaps  centuries  ago,  it  does  not 
follow  that  during  those  times  which  were  occupied  only  by 
speculation  or  presentiment  the  problem  might  have  been  taugbi 
as  a  scientific  fact. 

Prof.  Klebs  spoke  of  contagium  animatum  the  other  day,  i,e, 
the  idea  that  in  diseases  the  transmission  takes  place  by  means 
of  living  organisms,  and  that  these  organisms  are  the  causes  of 
contagious  diseases.  The  doctrine  of  contagium  animitum  loses 
itself  in  the  obscurity  of  the  middle  ages.  We  have  had  this 
name  handed  down  to  us  by  our  forefathers,  and  it  is  very 
prominent  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Certain  works  of  that 
period  exist,  which  put  down  conftigium  animatum  as  a  scientific 
dogma  with  the  same  confidence,  with  the  same  kind  of  justi- 
cation,  as  nowadays  the  plastidule  soul  is  set  up.  Nevertheless 
the  living  causes  of  diseases  could  not  be  found  for  a  long  time. 
The  sixteenth  century  could  not  find  them,  nor  could  the  seven- 
teenth and  the  eighteenth.  In  the  nineteenth  century  we  have 
begun  to  find  some  contagia  animata  bit  by  bit.  Zoology 
and  botany  have  both  contributed  to  them :  we  have  found 
animals  and  plants  which  represent  contagia,  and  a  special 
part  of  the  knowledge  of  contagia  has  l^n  absorbed  into 
zoology  and  botany,  quite  [in  the  sense  of  the  theories  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  But  you  will  already  have  seen  from  the 
address  of  Prof.  Klebs  thai  the  end  of  proofs  has  not  yet 
ended.  However  much  we  may  be  disposed  to  admit 
the  general  validity  of  the  old  doctrine,  now  that  a  series  of 
new  living  contagia  have  been  found,  now  that  we  know 
cattle  disease  and  diphtheria  to  be  diseases  which  are  caused 
by  special  organisms,  still  we  may  not  yet  say  that  now  all 
conta^  or  even  all  infectious  diseases  are  caused  by  living 
organisms.  After  it  has  appeared  that  a  doctrine,  which 
was  formulated  already  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  which  has 
since  obstinately  emerged  a^ain  and  again  in  the  ideas  of  men, 
has  at  last,  since  the  second  decade  of  the  present  century, 
obtained  more  and  more  positive  proofs  for  its  correctness,  we 
might  really  think  that  no^  it  was  our  duty  to  infer,  in  the 
sense  of  an  inductive  extension  of  our  knowledge,  that  all  con- 
tagia and  miasmata  are  living  organisms.  Indeed,  gentlemen, 
I  will  admit  that  this  conception  is  an  extremely  probable  one. 
Even  those  investigators,  who  have  not  yet  gone  so  far 
OS  to  regard  the  contagia  and  miasmata  as  living  beings 
have  yet  always  said  that  they  resemble  living  beings  very  closely, 
that  they  have  properties  which  we  otherwise  luiow  in  living 
beings  only,  that  they  propsgate  their  kind,  that  they  increase 

'  Address  delivered  at  the  Munich  meeting  of  the  Gennan  Assooation, 

by  Prof.  Rudolf  Virchow,  cf  Deri  n.     Cuatinued  from  p,  74. 


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and  are  regenerated  under  special  circtiinstances,  that,  indeed, 
they  appear  like  real  organic  bodies, — these  men,  nevertheless, 
have  waited,  and  rightly,  until  the  proof  of  their  being  living 
organisms  was  furnished.  And  thus  caution  commands  reserve 
even  now. 

We  must  not  forget  that  the  history  of  science  presents  a  number 
of  facts  which  teach  us  that  very  similar  phenomena  may  happen 
in  a  very  different  manner.  When  fermentation  was  reduced  to 
the  presence  of  certain  fungi,  when  it  was  known  that  its  begin- 
ning wa^  closely  connected  with  the  development  of  certain 
species  of  fungi,  then  it  was  really  very  obvious  to  imagine  that 
all  processes  relattd  to  fermentation  happen  in  the  same  way  ;  1 
mean  all  those  processes  which  are  comprised  under  the  name  of 
"catalytic,"  and  which  occur  so  frequently  in  the  human  and 
animal  body  as  well  as  in  plants.  There  were,  indeed,  some 
scientific  men  who  imagined  that  digestion,  which  is  one  of  the 
processes  which  closely  resemble  the  fermentative  ones,  was 
brought  about  by  certain  fungi  which  occur  frequently  (in  the 
special  case  of  caitle  the  question  has  been  practically  discussed), 
and  which  were  supposed  to  cause  digestion  in  the  stomach  in 
the  same  way  as  the  fermentation  fungi  cause  fermentation 
elsewhere.  We  now  know  that  the  digestive  juices  have 
absolutely  nothing  to  do  with  fungi.  Much  as  they  may  possess 
catalytic  properties  wc  are  yet  certain  that  their  active  substances 
are  chemical  bodies  which  we  can  extract  from  them,  which  we 
can  Isolate  from  their  other  component  parts,  and.which  we  can 
cause  to  act  in  the  isolated  state  free  from  any  admixture  of  living 
organisms.  If  the  human  saliva  has  the  property  of  being  able 
to  change  starch  and  c  extrine  into  sugar  in  the  shortest  time,  and 
if  every  time  we  eat  bread  this  new  formation  of  "sweet" 
bread  takes  place  in  our  mouth,  then  no  fungus  takes  pirt  in 
this  nor  any  fermentation  organism,  but  there  are  chemical 
substances  which,  much  in  the  same  way  as  it  happens  in 
the  interior  of  the  fungus,  bring  about  chemical  change  in 
matter.  We  see,  therefore,  that  two  processes  which  are 
extremely  similar,  the  one  in  the  interior  of  the  fermentation 
fungus  and  the  other  in  the  process  of  human  digestion,  are 
brought  about  in  different  ways ;  the  same  process  in  the  one 
instance  is  connected  with  a  certain  vegetable  organism,  while  in 
the  other  it  takes  place  without  any  such  organism  and  simply 
through  a  liquid. 

I  should  consider  it  a  great  misfortune  if  we  were  not  to  con- 
tinue in  the  same  wajr  as  I  have  done  now,  to  examine  in  each 
single  case  whether  the  supposition  which  we  make,  the  idea 
which  we  have  formed  and  which  may  be  highly  probable,  is 
really  true,  whether  it  is  justified  by  facts.  With  r^ard  to  this 
I  would  remind  you  that  there  are  cases  also  amongst  the 
infectious  diseases  where  most  undoubtedly  a  similar  contrast 
exists.  My  friend.  Prof.  Klebs,  will  no  doubt  pardon  me  if  I, 
even  now,  in  spite  of  the  recent  progress  which  the  doctrine  of 
infecting  fungi  has  made,  still  remain  in  my  reserve,  and  that  I 
only  admit  that  fungus  which  has  been  proved  by  demonstration, 
whUe  I  deny  all  the  other  fungi  as  long  as  I  do  not  hear  of  facti 
which  attest  them.  Amongst  infectious  diseases  there  is  a 
certain  group  which  are  caused  by  organic  poisons — I  will  only 
mention  one  of  them,  which, .  according  to  my  opinion,  is  very 
instructive — I  mean  the  poisoning  by  a  snake-bite,  a  very  cele- 
brated and  most  remarkable  form.  If  this  kind  of  poisoning  is 
compared  with  those  kinds  of  poisoning  which  are  generally 
called  infectious  diseases  (infection  does  not  signify  much  else 
than  poisoning),  then  we  must  admit  that  in  the  courses  both 
cases  generally  take  the  greatest  analogies  exist  With  regard  to 
the  course  of  the  illness  nothing  would  oppose  the  supposition 
that  the  total  sum  of  phenomena  which  occur  in  a  human  body 
after  a  snake-bite,  were  caused  by  fungi  which  entered  the  body 
and  which  produced  certain  changes  in  diflerent  organs.  Indeed 
we  know  certain  processes,  septical  ones,  for  instance,  where 
phenomena  of  a  completely  similar  nature  occur,  and  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  certain  forms  of  poisoning  by  snake-bite 
resemble  certain  forms  of  septical  infection  ai  much  as  one  egg 
resembles  another.  And  yet  we  have  not  the  least  cause  to 
suspect  an  importation  of  fungi  into  the  body  in  the  case  of 
snake  bite,  while  in  the  case  of  septic  processes  we,  on  the 
contrary,  acknowledge  and  recognise  this  importation. 

The  history  of  our  natural  science  has  numerous  examples, 
which  ought  always  to  cause  us  more  and  more  to  confine  the 
validity  of  our  doctrines  in  the  most  stringent  manner  to  that 
domain  only  in  which  we  can  actually  prove  Uiem,  and  that  we  do 
not  by  way  of  induction,  proceed  so  far  as  to  extend  doctrines 
immeasurably  which  have  only  been  proved  for  one  or  several 
casef.     Nowhere  the  necessity  of  such  a  restriction  has  become 


more  apparent  than  on  the  field  of  the  theory  of  evolution.  The 
question  of  the  first  origin  of  organic  beings,  this  question  which 
sdso  forms  the  basis  of  progressive  Darwinism,  is  an  extremely 
old  one.  It  is  not  known  at  all  who  first  tried  to  find  the 
different  solutions  for  it.  Bat  if  we  remember  the  old  poptJar 
doctrine,  according  to  which  all  possible  beings  alive,  animals 
and  plants,  could  originate  from  a  clod  of  clay — from  a  little 
clod  ur.der  circumstances — then  we  ought  to  remember  at  the 
same  time  that  the  celebrated  doctrine  of  geruratio  aquivocat 
of  epigencsis,  is  closely  connected  with  it,  and  that  it  has 
been  a  common  idea  for  thousands  of  years.  Now  with 
Darwinism  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation  has  been 
taken  up  again,  and  I  cannot  deny  that  there  is  something  very 
seductive  in  the  idea  of  closing  the  theory  of  descent  in  this  way, 
and,  after  the  whole  series  of  living  forms  has  been  constructed, 
from  the  lowest  protozoa  upwards  to  the  highest  human  organism, 
to  connect  this  long  series  with  the  inorganic  world  as  well 
This  corresponds  with  that  direction  to  generalise,  which  is  so 
entirely  human,  that  it  has  found  a  place  in  the  speculation  of  man- 
kind at  all  times,  backwards  to  the  most  obscure  periods.  We  have 
the  undeniable  desire  not  to  separate  the  organic  world  from 
the  universe,  as  a  something  which  is  divided  from  it,  but 
rather  to  insure  its  connection  with  the  imiverse.  In  this  sense  it 
is  pacifying  if  one  can  say,  the  atom-group  carbon  and  company 
—-this  is  perhaps  speaking  too  collectively,  but  yet  it  is  correct, 
since  carbon  is  to  be  the  essential  element — therefore,  this  asso- 
ciation, carbon  and  company,  has  at  some  special  time  separated 
itself  from  the  ordinary  carbon  and  founded  the  first  plastidule 
under  special  circumstances,  and  continues  to  found  it  in  the  pre- 
sent But  in  the  face  of  this  we  must  mention  that  all  real  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  phenomena  of  life  has  proceeded  in  an  opposite 
direction.  We  date  the  beginning  of  our  real  knowledge  of  the 
development  of  higher  organisms  from  the  day  when  Harvey 
pronounced  the  celebrated  phrase,  **  Omne  vivum  ex  ovo,"  every 
living  being  comes  from  an  egg.  This  phrase  as  we  now  know, 
is  incorrect  in  its  generality.  To-day  we  can  no  longer  recognise 
it  as  a  fully  justified  one ;  we  know  that,  on  the  contrary,  a 
whole  number  of  generations  and  propagations  exist  without  ova. 
From  Harvey  down  to  our  celebrated  friend  Prof,  von  Siebold, 
who  obtained  the  general  recognition  of  parthenogenesis,  there 
lies  a  whole  series  of  increasing  restrictions,  all  of  which  prove 
that  the  phrase,  **  Omne  vivum  ex  ovo  "  was  incorrect  spealung  in 
a  general  sense.  Nevertheless,  it  would  be  the  highest  ingratitude 
if  we  were  not  to  acknowledge  that  in  the  opposition,  which 
Harvey  assumed  against  the  old  ^emraiio  aquivoca,  the  greatest 
progress  was  made  which  has  been  made  by  science  in  this 
domain.  Later  on  a  great  number  of  new  forms  were  known,  in 
which  the  propagation  of  the  different  kinds  of  living  beings  is 
going  on,  in  which  new  individuals  originate— direct  separation, 
pemmation,  metagenesis.  AU  the^e  forms,  parthenogenesis 
included,  are  data  which  have  caused  us  to  give  up  every  single 
{einheitliche)  system  fur  the  generation  of  organic  individuals. 
In  place  of  a  single  scheme  we  now  have  a  variety  of  data  ;  we 
have  no  uniform  system  left  by  which  we  could  explain  once  for 
all  how  a  new  animal  being  begins. 

Geruratio  aquvvoca^  which  has  been  disputed  and  refuted 
as  many  times,  nevertheless  faces  us  again  and  again.  It  is 
true  that  not  a  single  positive  fact  is  known  which  proves  that 
genercUio  aquwoca  has  ever  occurred,  that  spontaneous  genera- 
tion has  ever  taken  place  in  such  a  way  that  inorganic  masses, 
let  us  say  the  association  carbon  and  company,  have  ever  spon- 
taneously developed  into  an  organic  substance.  Nevertheless,  I 
admit  that  if  we  indeed  want  to  form  an  idea  how  die  first 
organic  being  could  have  originated  by  itself,  nothing  remains  but 
to  go  back  to  spontaneous  generation.  This  b  clear.  If  I  do 
not  want  to  suppose  a  creation-theory,  if  I  do  not  want  to  believe 
that  a  special  creator  existed,  who  took  the  clod  of  clay  and  blew 
his  liviiig  breath  into  it,  if  I  want  to  form  some  conception  in  my 
own  way,  then  I  must  form  it  in  the  sense  of  gencratio  tequivoca, 
Tertium  non  datur.  Nothing  else  remains  if  once  we  say  **  I  do 
not  admit  creation,  but  I  do  want  an  explanation."  If  this  is  the 
first  thesis,  then  we  must  proceed  to  the  second  and  say  "  Ergo, 
I  admit  generatio  aquivoca"  But  we  have  no  actual  proof  for 
it.  Nobody  has  ever  seen  generatio  aquivoca  occurring  in 
reality,  and  everyone  who  maintained  that  he  had  seen  it,  has 
been  refuted,  not  by  theologians  indeed,  but  by  naturalists.  I 
mention  this,  gentlemen,  in  order  to  let  our  impartiality  appear 
in  the  right  ught,  and  this  is  very  necessary  at  times.  We 
always  have  our  weapons  in  ourselves  and  about  us,  to  fight 
against  that  which  is  not  justified. 

I  therefore  say  that  I  must  admit  the  theoretical  justification 


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\Nov.  29,  1877 


of  Buch  a  formala.  Whoever  will  have  a  formula,  whoever  says 
*<  I  abs(^utely  want  a  formula,  I  wish  to  be  perfectly  at  one  with 
myself,  I  must  have  a  coherent  conception  of  the  universe,"  must 
eiUier  admit  generatio  aquivoca  or  creation ;  there  is  no  other 
alternative.  If  we  want  to  be  outspoken  we  may  indeed  own 
that  naturalists  may  have  a  slight  predilection  for  generatio 
aquivocn.     It  would  be  very  beautiful  if  it  could  be  proved. 

But  we  must  admit  that  it  is  not  yet  proved.  Proofs  are  still 
wanting.  I  f  any  kind  of  proof  were  to  be  successfully  given  we  would 
acquiesce.  But  even  then  it  would  have  to  be  determined  first,  to 
what  extent  we  could  admit  generatio  aquivoca.  We  should 
quietly  have  to  continue  our  investigations,  because  nobody  will 
tnink  that  spontaneous  generation  is  valid  for  the  totality  of 
organic  beings.  Possibly  it  would  only  apply  to  a  single  series 
of  beings.  But  I  believe  we  have  time  to  wait  for  the  proof. 
Whoever  remembers  in  what  a  regrettable  manner,  quite  recently, 
all  attempts;  to'  find  a  certain  basis  for  generatio  cequvvoca  in  the 
lowest  forms  of  the  transition  from  the  inorganic  to  the  organic 
world,  have  failed,  should  c  ns'der  it  doubly  dangerous  to 
demand  that  this  ill-reputed  doctrine  should  be  adopted  as  a 
basis  for  all  human  conceptions  of  life.  I  may,  doubtless, 
suppose  that  the  story  of  the  Bathybius  has  become  known  to 
nearly  all  educated  persons.  With  this  Bathybius  the  hope  has 
again  vanished  that  generatio  cequivoca  can  l>e  proved. 

I  think,  therefore,  .that  with  regard  to  this  first  point,  the 
point  of  ti^e  connection  between  the  organic  'and  the  inorganic, 
we  must  simply  own  that  in  reality  we  know  nothing  about  it. 
We  may  not  set  down  our  supposition  as  a  certaint)r,  our 
problem  as  a  dogma ;  that  cannot  be  permitted.  Just  as  in  the 
progress  of  the  doctrines  of  evolution  it  has  been  far  more 
certain,  more  fertile,  and  more  in  accordance  with  the  progress 
of  accredited  natural  science,  to  anafyse  the  original  single  doc- 
trine part  by  part,  we  shall  also  have  first  to  keep  apart  the 
organic  and  inorganic  things  in  the  old  well-known,  analysing 
way,  and  not  to  throw  theni,togciher  prematurely. 

Nothing,  gentlemen,  has  been  more  dangerous  to  natural 
science,  nothing  has  done  more  harm  to  its  progress  and  to  its 
position  in  the  opinion  of  nations  than  premature  syntheses. 
WhUe  laying  stress  upon  this,  I  would  point  out  specially  how 
our  Father  Oken  was  damaged  in  the  opinion  not  only  of  his 
contemporaries,  but  also  in  that  of  the  following  generation, 
because  he  was  one  of  those  who  admitted  syntheses  into  their 
conceptions  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  a  stricter  method  would 
have  allowed.  Do  not  let  us  lose  the  example  of  the  natural 
philosophers ;  do  not  let  us  forget  that  every  time  that  a  doctrine 
which  has  assumed  the  air  of  a  certain,  well-founded,  and  reliable 
one,  of  one  which  claims  general  validity,  turns  out  to  be  faulty 
in  its  outlines,  or  is  found  to  be  an  arbitrary  and  despotic  one  in 
essential  and  great  points,  then  a  great  number  of  men  lose 
their  faith  in  science  entirely.  Then  the  reproaches  b^n— 
**You  are  not  sure  even  yourielves;  your  doctrine,  which  is 
called  truth  to-day,  is  a  falsehood  to-morrow ;  how  can  you 
demand  that  your  doctrine  shall  become  the  object  of  instruction 
and  of  the  general  consciousness  ?  "  From  such  experiences  I  take 
the  warning  that  if  we  wish  to  continue  to  claim  the  attention  of 
all  we  must  resist  the  temptation  of  pushing  our  supposition', 
our  merely  theoretical  and  speculative  structures  into  prominence 
to  such  a  degree  that  from  them  we  would  construct  the  concep« 
tion  of  the  whole  remaining  universe. 

{To  b€  continued.) 


THE  METEOR 

A  METEOR  of  unusual  brilliancy  was  seen  on  the  evening  of 
Friday,  the  23rd  inst.,  from  various  parts  of  the  kingdom. 
Mr.  F.  A.  Buxton  writing  to  us  from  Hertford  states  that  he  saw 
it  two  miles  north  of  that  town  at  8.26  p.m.  He  says  :— **  I 
was  attracted  \y  its  glare  notwithstanding  the  moonlight,  and 
saw  it  moving  vertically  downwards.  I  could  not  accurately 
observe  its  paUi,  but  it  passed,  nearly  or  exactly,  over  a  small 
star,  iust  visible  in  the  moonlight,  which  I  think  is  v  Herculis, 
and  ai« appeared  suddenly  before  it  reached  the  horizon,  in  about 
N.P.D.  60  and  R.  A.  i6'4a  By  comparing  notes  with  another 
observer  (half  a  mile  north  of  Hertford)  it  appears  to  have  been 
visible  much  nearer  the  zenith  than  I  had  seen  it ;  probably  I  saw 
^e  last  I  J*"  of  its  path.  From  the  apparent  slowness  of  its  motion 
and  complete  absence  of  sound  I  gather  that  it  was  far  off.     My 

fuess  at  the  moment  was  fifty  miles.      In  consequence  of  its 
rightness  its  apparent  diameter   was   probably  illusory.     It 
attained   two  maxima  of  splendour,   one  about  over  the  star 


named,  the  other  at  its  disappearance.    Scarcely  anv  <  trail '  was 
left  ;  what  there  was  almost  immediately  vanished." 

Mr.  T.  MeUard  Reade  writes  that  he  saw  it  from  Blundell- 
sands,  Liverpool,  at  8.20  p.m.  Looking  up  he  saw  a  splendid 
broad  streak  of  blue  light  terminating  in  a  ball  of  red  fire  rushing 
across  the  skv  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  The  first  flash 
seemed  directly  overhead ;  if  so,  Mr.  Reade  states,  the  meteor 
must  have  travelled  through  at  least  45°.  Shortly  afterwards  the 
moon  being  intensely  bright  and  a  shower  coming  on  from  the 
west,  across  the  sea  a  most  splendid  "  moon  "  rainbow  made  its 
appearance,  finishing  as  a  perfect  arch  of  vivid  colours  with  a 
second  and  a  perfect  bow  above  it. 

Mr.  W.  B.  Ferguson  writes  from  Edinburgh  that  while 
walking  down  Princes  Street  about  8*25  p.m.  he  saw  a 
most  brilliant  meteor  which  appeared  to  fall  almost  vertically 
and  burst  with  great  brilliance  apparently  just  behind  the  castle. 
Its  direction  from  where  he  observed  it  was  lo'^  west  of  south. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Dance,  writing  from  Manor  House,  Ardwick,  Man- 
chester, gives  the  time  ss  8h.  25m.  p.m.  Greenwich  mean  time. 
The  meteor,  he  states,  appeared  to  come  from  the  constellation 
Cassiopeia,  and  after  travelling  in  a  direction  a  little  to  the  west 
of  north,  finallf  burst  behind  a  cloud  about  thirty  degrees  above 
the  horizon.  The  apparent  size  of  the  meteor  was  considerably 
greater  than  that  of  Mars  during  the  late  opposition,  and  the 
light  which  it  emitted  was  intensely  bright  and  of  a  bluish-green 
colour,  leaving  a  decidedly  red  impression  on  the  retina.  The 
period  of  visibility  would  be  about  five  seconds,  and  the  sparks 
in  the  train  were  also  visible  for  some  seconds. 

Mr.  Plant,  the  Curator  of  the  Salford  Museum,  observed  the 
meteor  at  the  same  time,  visible  to  the  north  of  Manchester. 

Dr.  S.  Drew,  of  Sheffield,  saw  it  at  about  8.30  p.m.  He  gives 
the  apparent  diameter  as  two  minutes ;  path,  from  the  square  of 
Pegasus  to  near  Altair  ;  motion,  slow ;  shape,  at  first  globular, 
afterwards  elongatei,  with  tail.  It  then  appeared  to  break  up. 
Colour,  at  first  blue-green,  afterwards  ruddy ;  light,  brilliant. 
He  heard  no  sound  accompanying  the  meteor,  and  from  the 
absence  of  sound  and  slow  apparent  motion,  he  infers  the  real 
distance  and  size  of  the  bolide  to  have  been  great  Dr.  Drew 
was,  at  the  time  of  observation,  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  town 
of  Rotherham. 

Several  correspondents  write  to  the  Times  describing  what 
they  saw  of  this  remarkable  meteor,  for  it  is  evidently  the  same 
body  which  has  been  seen  by  the  various  observers.  The  Liver- 
pool correspondent  of  the  Times  saw  it  about  8*30.  **  Alaiige 
ball  of  fire  shot  from  the  sky,  exploding  and  throwing  off  in- 
numerable variegated  sparks  as  it  descended  in  a  northerly 
direction.  The  track  of  sparks  gave  the  meteor  the  appearance 
of  a  brilliant  comet  with  a  long  tail.  Some  spectators  state  that 
they  heard  the  hissing  noise  made  in  its  course,  and  others  allege 
that  it  descended  into  the  water  near  the  bar  of  the  Mersey  with 
a  great  noise,  sending  up  a  column  of  steam  and  spray." 

Mr.  Donald  Macicay  saw  it  from  Victoria  Street,  London, 
shortly  before  8-30  p.m.  **It  travelled  with  great  rapidity  for 
about  20*^  from  the  zenith  to  the  horizon,  bursting  in  a  white 
ball  as  large  as  twelve  of  the  planet  Mars  in  one,  lighting  up  all 
the  houses  surrounding  Victoria  Street,  the  point  of  observation, 
and  leaving  a  large  tail  behind  of  the  shape  of  a  spear-head,  with 
all  the  colours  of  the  rainbow  in  it." 

The  Rev.  J.  Hoskyns-Abrahall  writes  from  Combe  Vicarage, 
near  Woodstock,  that  about  8.20  the  northern  sky  was 
suddenly  lighted  up  with  a  glow  that  outshone  that  spread 
over  the  south-eastern  skv  by  a  moon  nearly  fulL  '*  Looking 
northwards  I  saw  a  elobular  meteor  of  a  pale  orange  colour 
descending  perpendicularly.  Its  apparent  size  was  scarcely  less 
than  that  of  the  moon.  Just  above  the  slope  on  which  I  was, 
and  seemingly  not  half  a  mile  off,  it  burst  into  huge  fragments, 
whidi  flared  forth  with  a  fierce,  lightning-like,  reddish  glare, 
and  scattered  sparks  of  surpassing  splendour." 

Mr.  D.  Aldred  writes  from  Milford,  Derby,  to  the  same  effect. 
He  saw  the  meteor  about  six  miles  north  of  Derby,  about  8.25. 
'*  It  was  almost  due  north,  and  travelling  from  the  zenith  to  the 
horizon,  the  point  of  dispersion  being  about  45°  above  the  north 
point  of  the  horizon.  In  shape  it  was  conical,  the  greatest 
nreadth  about  one  and  a  half  times  the  diameter  of  the  moon.  It 
left  a  tnul  of  considerable  length,  and  the  colours  detached  were 
of  most  remarkable  brilliancy." 

"R.  M.  C."  .writes  from  Cathedine,  Brecknockshire,  ^ving 
the  report  of  two  reliable  witnesses  who  were  walking  in  an 
easterly  direction  at  8.25  p.m.  Looking  back,  the  moon  betn^ 
at  the  time  obscured  by  a  cloud,  they  j^aw  a  ball  of  the  mo»t 
intense  white  li^ht,  *•  about  the  size  of  a  cannon-ball,"  travers- 


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ing  a  space  between  two  clouds,  leaving  behind  it  a  fiery  track 
of  red. 

A  Worcester  correspondent  gives  the  time  as  8.20.  He 
describes  the  colour  as  brilliant  blue  and  orange,  and  behind 
ivas  a  streaming  trail  of  brilliant  sparks,  which  remained  visible 
for  a  few  seconds  after  the  brighter  light  had  disappeared. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge.— At  a  Congregation  on  November  22,  the 
University  seal  was  ordered  to  be  affixed  to  a  letter  of  thanks  to 
his  Grace  the  Chancellor  of  the  University  for  his  munificent 
gift  of  a  complete  apparatus  of  scientific  instruments  for  the 
Cavendbh  Laboratory. 

A  meeting  of  the  members  of  the  University  to  consider  the 
propriety  of  securing  a  personal  memorial  of  Dr.  Darwin,  was 
neld  on  Monday  in  the  combination  room  of  Christ's  College, 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Cartmell,  Master  of  the  College,  presiding.  It  was 
proposed  by  Prof.  Humphry  and  seconded  by  Prof.  Fawcctt, 
•*  That  it  is  desirable  that;the  University  should!possess  a  personal 
memorial  of  Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  LL.D."  Proposed  by  Prof. 
Newton  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Piele,  of  Christ's,  "That  the 
members  of  the  University  now  present  form  themselves  into  a 
committee,  with  power  to  add  to  their  number,  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  subscriptions  from  members  of  the  University  to 
carry  out  the  forgoing  resolution."  Proposed  by  Prof.  Liveing, 
seconded  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Clark,  "  That  Mr.  A.  G.  Dew-Smith, 
of  Trinity  College,  be  treasurer  and  secretary  to  the  committee, 
and  be  authorise  to  receive  subscriptions."  It  was  understood 
that  the  memorial  should  assume  the  form  of  a  portrait,  and 
about  75/.  was  subscribed  in  the  room. 

Edinburgh. — ^The  subscriptions  to  the  Edinburgh  University 
Extension  Fund  now  amount  to  82,000/.,  and  Government  has 
now  promised  ^to  add  80^000/.  to  the  amount  on  condition  that 
25,000/.  is  raised  by  public  subscription,  of  which  the  sum  of 
10,000/.  must  be  subscribed  by  December  31st  next  The 
University  Professors  at  Edinburgh  have  already  contributed 
among  themselves  5,360/.  towards  the  additional  25,000/. 
required. 

St.  Andrews.— Lord  Selborne  has  been  elected  Lord  Rector 
of  this  University.  The  students  had  much  difficulty  in  getting 
any  eminent  man  to  allow  himself  to  be  nominated,  and  it  was 
only  on  the  day  previous  to  the  election  that  it  was  resolved  to  pit 
Lord  Selborne  against  the  Right  Hon.  Gathome  Hardy. 

Prof.  AUevne  Nicholson  has  been  appointed  Swiney  Lecturer 
on  Geology  by  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum. 

Leipzig.— Prof.  Leuckhart,  the  newly-elected  Rector  of  the 
University,  was  installed  into  the  duties  of  the  office  on  October 
31,  and  delivered  on  the  occasion  an  able  address  ''  On  the  Deve- 
lopment of  Zoology  up  to  the  Present  Time,  and  its  Importance." 
The  students  already  number  nearly  3,200,  an  attendance,  as 
usual,  far  above  that  of  any  other  Girmin  university. 

Amsterdam. — The  new  University  of  Amsterdam  has  lately 
made  a  most  flattering  offer  to  Prof.  Gegenbaur,  of  Heidelberg, 
which  has,  however,  been  declined. 

Bergen.— It  b  intended  to  establish  a  new  university  in  the 
Norwegian  town  of  Bergen.  Eighty  thousand  crowns  have 
already  been  subscribed  towaids  this  object. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

London 

Mathematical  Society,  November  8.— Lord  Rayleigh, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — The  following  were  elected  to 
form  the  Council  during  thessssion : — President :  Lord  Rayleigh, 
F.R.S.  Vice-Presidents:  Prof.  T.  Clerk  MaxweU,  F.R.S., 
Mr.  C.  W.  Merrifield,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  H.  J.  S.  Smith,  F.R.S. 
Treasurer,  Mr.  S.  Roberts.  Hon.  Secretaries:  Messrs.  M. 
Jenkms  and  R.  Tucker.  Other  members,  Prot  Cayley,  F.R.S., 
Mr.  T.  Cotterill,  Mr.  J.  W.  L.  GUisher,  F.R.S.,  Mr.  H.  Hart, 
Dr.  Henrici,  F.R.S.,  Dr.  Hirst,  F.R.S.,  Mr.  Kempe,  Dr. 
Spottiswoode,   F.R.S.,  Mr.  J.  J.  Walker.— Prof.  Cayley  made 

two  communications,  on  the  function  ip  {x)  =  ^^  "^       (a  sin- 

ex  +  d 
gularly    neat   expression   was  got  for  ^n  {x),  the   late   Mr. 


Babbage  had  considered  the  matter  in  18(3),  and  on  the  theta 
functions. — Mr.  Tucker  read  a  portion  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  Hugh 
MacCoU  (communicated  by  Prof.  Crofton,  F.R.S.)  entitled  the 
calculus  of  equivalent  statements.  A  short  account  of  this 
analytical  method  has  been  given  in  the  July  and  November 
numbers  (1877)  of  the  Edticaiional  Times,  under  the  name  of 
Symbolical  Language.  The  chief  use  at  present  made  of  it  is 
to  determine  the  new  limits  of  integration  when  we  change  the 
order  of  integration  or  the  variables  in  a  multiple  integral,  and 
also  to  determine  the  limits  of  integration  in  questions  relating  to 
probability.  This  object,  the  writer  asserts,  it  will  accomplish 
with  perfect  certainty,  and  by  a  process  almost  as  simple  and 
mechanical  as  the  ordinary  operations  of  elementary  algebra. — 
The  president  read  a  paper  on  progressive  waves.  It  has  often 
been  remarked  that  when  a  group  of  waves  advance  into  still 
water  the  velocity  of  the  group  is  less  than  that  of  the  individual 
waves  of  which  it  is  composed  ;  the  waves  appear  to  advance 
through  the  group,  dyhig  away  as  they  approach  its  anterior 
limit.  This  phenomenon  seems  to  have  been  first  explained  by 
Prof.  Stokes,  who  regarded  the  group  as  formed  by  the  super- 
position of  two  infinite  trains  of  waves  of  equal  amplitudes  and 
of  nearly  equal  wave-lengths  advancing  in  the  same  direction. 
The  writer's  attention  was  called  to  the  subject  about  two  years 
since  by  Mr.  Froude,  and  the  same  explanation  then  occurred  to 
him  independently.  In  his  work  on  **  The  Theory  of  Sound  " 
(§  191),  he  has  considered  the  question  more  generally.  In  a 
paper  read  at  the  Plymouth  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
(afterwards  printed  in  Nature),  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  gave 
a  dynamical  explanation  of  the  fact  that  a  group  of  deep-water 
waves  advances  with  only  half  the  rapidity  of  the  individual 
waves.  Another  phenomenon  (also'mentioned  to  the  author  by 
Mr.  Froude)  was  also  discussed  as  admitting  of  a  similar  expU- 
nation  to  that  eiven  in  the  present  paper.  A  steam  launch 
moving  quickly  through  the  water  is  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
^stem  of  diverging  waves,  of  which  the  most  striking  feature  is 
the  obliquity  of  the  line  containing  the  greatest  devation  of 
successive  waves  to  the  wave-fronts.  This  wave-pattern  may  be 
explained  by  the  superposition  of  two  (or  more)  infinite  trains  of 
waves,  of  slightly  differing  wave-lengths,  whose  direction  and 
velocity  of  propagation  are  so  related  in  each  case  that  there  b 
no  change  of  iK>sidon  relatively  to  the  boat  The  mode  of  com- 
position will  be  best  understood  by  drawing  on  paper  two  sets  of 
parallel  and  equidistant  lines,  subject  to  the  above  conditions,  to 
represent  the  crests  of  the  component  trains.  In  the  case  of  twj 
trains  of  slightly  different  wave-lengths,  it  may  be  proved  that  the 
tangent  of  the  angle  between  the  line  of  maxima  and  the  wave- 
fronts  is  half  the  tangent  of  the  angle  between  the  wave-fronts 
and  the  boat's  course. — Prof.  Clif&rd,  F.R.S.,  communicated 
three  notes,  (i)  On  the  triple  generation  of  three-bar  curves.  1/ 
one  of  eke  three-bar  systems  is  a  crossed  rhomboid,  the  other  two  are 
kites.  This  follows  from  the  known  fact  that  the  path  of  the 
moving  point  in  both  these  cases  is  the  inverse  of  a  conic.  Bat 
it  is  also  intuitively  obvious  as  soon  as  the  figure  is  drawn,  and 
thus  supplies  an  elementary  proof  that  the  path  is  the  inverse  of 
a  conic  in  the  case  of  a  kite,  which  is  not  otherwise  easy  to  get. 
(2)  On  the  mass-centre  of  an  octahedron.  The  construction  was 
suggested  by  Dr.  Sylvester's  construction  for  the  mass  centre  of 
a  tetrahedral  frustum.  (3)  On  vortex-motion.  The  problem 
solved  bv  Stokes  as  a  general  question  of  analysis,  and  subse- 
quently by  Helmholtz  for  the  special  case  of  fluid  motion  may  be 
stated  as  follows :  given  the  expansion  and  the  rotation  at  every 
point  of  a  moving  substance,  it  is  required  to  find  the  velocity  at 
every  point    The  solution  was  exhibited  in  a  very  simple  form. 

Zoological  Society,  November  6.— Mr.  A.  Grote,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair.- A  letter -was  read  from  Mr.  R.  Trimen, 
contaming  remarks  on  the  African  species  of  Sarcidiornis,  —A 
letter  was  read  from  Mr.  A.  O.  Hume,  containing  some  remarks 
on  Mr.  Howard  Saunders*  recent  paper  on  the  Steminae. — The 
secretary  exhibited,  on  ,the  part  of  Mr.  Geo.  Dawson  Rowley, 
an  egg  of  Pauxis  ^aleata,  laid  by  a  black  female. — Prof.  W.  H. 
Flower,  F.R,S.,  read  a  paper  entitled  ''A  Further  Contribution 
to  the  Knowledge  of  the  existing  Ziphioid  Whales  of  tJhe  Genus 
Mesotlodon,  containing  a  Description  of  a  Skeleton  and  several 
Skulls  of  Cetaceans  of  that  Genus  from  the  Seas  of  New  Zea- 
land."— A  communication  was  read  from  Lieut -Col.  R.  H.  Bed- 
dome,  containing  the  descriptions  of  three  new  species  of  reptiles 
from  the  Madras  Presidency.  These  were  proposed  to  be  called 
Oligodon  travancoricum,  Gymnodactylusjeyporensis,  and  Bufo  tra- 
vancori£us» — A  communication  was  r^id  from  the  Marquis  of 
Tweeddale,  F.R.S.,  containing  an  account  of  a  collection  of 


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96 


NATURE 


\Iiov.  29,  1877 


birds  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  in  the  Island  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines. Three  new  species  were  named  Megalurus  ruficeps^ 
Dicmim  xanihcpygium^  and  Oxycerca  everetti, — Mr.  D.  G.  Elliott 
read  some  remarks  on  Felts  tigrina^YsXx.y  and  its  sjmonomy,  show- 
ing that  F,  mitts,  F.  Cuv.,  smd/'.  macrura,  Pr.  Max.,  are  iden- 
tical with  that  species. — Prof.  Garrod,  F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on 
some  points  in  the  visceral  anatomy  of  the  rhinoceros  of  the 
Sunderbunds  [^Rh.  sonJiacus), — A  second  communication  from 
Prof.  Garrod  contained  a  note  on  an  anatomical  peculiarity 
in  certain  storks. — Mr.  Edgar  A.  Smith  read  a  paper  in  which 
he  described  some  shells  from  Lake  Nyassa,  and  a  few  marine 
species  from  the  mouth  of  the  Macusi  River,  near  QuUlimane, 
on  the  East  Coast  of  Africa.— A  communication  from  Dr.  O. 
Finsch  contained  the  description  of  a  new  species  of  petrel  from 
the  Feejee  Islands,  which  it  was  proposed  to  name  Frocdlaria 
albigularis. — A  second  communication  from  Dr.  Finsch  con- 
tained a  report  on  the  collections  of  birds  made  daring  the 
voyage  of  H.M.S.  Challms^er  at  Tongatabu,  the  Fiji  Isfimdf, 
Api,  New  Hebrides,  and  Tahiti — Mr.  Edward  R.  Alston  read 
a  supplementary  note  on  rodents  and  marsupials  from  Duke  of 
York  Island  and  New  Ireland.  Macropus  lugens,  Alst.,  was 
shown  to  be  a  synonym  of  Helmaturus  brownii,  Ramsay,  while 
Mr.  Ramsay's  Mas,  echimyoides  and  M,  musavora  were  respec- 
tively identical  with  Mus,  brownii  and  Uromys  rufescens  of 
Alston. — A  communication  from  Mr.  L.  Taczanowski  contained 
a  supplementary  list  of  birds  collected  in  North- Western  Peru 
by  Messrs.  Jelski  and  Stolztnann.  Two  species  were  new,  and 
proposed  to  be  called  Rallus  cyperdi  and  Penelope  albipennis, 

Cambridge 

Philosophical  Society,  October  22.— A  communication  was 
read  by  Mr.  Balfour,  on  the  development  of  the  vertebrate 
ovum.  The  points  dealt  with  in  this  paper  were  ( I  j  the  nature 
of  the  stroma  of  the  ovary,  and  (2)  the  relation  of  the  perma- 
nent ova  to  the  large  cells  of  the  germinal  epithelium,  named 
primitive  ova  by  Waldeyer. 

October  29. — Mr.  Bonney  read  a  paper  on  the  rocks  of  the 
Lizard  District  (Cornwall).  The  author  brought  forward  evi- 
dence to  prove  that  the  serpentine  of  this  district  was  dearly 
intrusive  among  the  hornblende  schists. 

November  5. — Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell  communicated  to  the 
society  an  account  of  the  unpublished  papers  of  the  Hon.  Henry 
Cavendish,  which  contain  his  experiments  in  electricity. 

Manchester 

Literary  aud  Philosophical  Society,  October  2.— Rev. 
William  Gaskell,  M.A.,  in  the  chair. — A  case  of  flowering  of 
Chamerops  foriunei  (Hook)  at  Alderley,  by  Arthur  W.  Waters, 
F.G.S.  The  fact  of  Chamerops  firtunei  {Hook)  flowering  so 
far  north  as  near  Manchester  seemed  to  the  author  to  b«  of 
suflicient  interest  to  be  worth  mentioning  to  the  Society. — Table 
of  eflect  of  movement  of  the  surface  of  the  globe  on  the  shifting 
of  the  axis  of  the  carth,by  Arthur  W.  Waters,  F.G.S. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  November  19. — M.  Peligot  in  the 
chair  : — The  following  papers  were  read  : — Meridian  obser- 
vations of  small  planets  at  the  Greenwich  and  Paris  Observatories 
during  the  third  quarter  of  1877,  communicated  by  M.  Villarceau. 
— New  remarks  on  the  quantities  of  heat  liberated  by  mixture  of 
water  with  sulphuric  add,  by  M.  Berthelot.  He  afiirms  that 
sulphuric  add  always  liberates  the  same  quantities  of  heat 
whether  it  have  been  recently  heated  or  kept  a  considerable 
X\mt.—Rhum^  of  a  history  of  matter  (fifth  artide),  by  (M. 
Chevreul. — On  the  theory  and  the  various  manceuvres  of  the 
economising  apparatus  constructed  at  the  dam  of  Aubois, 
by  M.  de  Caligny. — On  the  use  of  refined  neutral  oils 
for  lubrication  of  pbtons  in  engines  with  surface  con- 
densers, by  M.  Allaire.  Lime  causes  decomposition  of  neutral 
fatty  matters  and  unites  with  their  adds,  the  result  being 
a  greater  deposit  than  if  lime  had  not  been  used.  Doubt- 
less the  deposit  is  oleate  of  lime  instead  of  oleate  of  iron,  and  the 
boiler  is  preserved  from  attack  ;  but  the  inconveniences  in  con- 
densing engines  are  aggravated,  for  the  condenser  ceases  to  act 
as  the  tubes  get  covered.  M.  Allaire  commends  the  use  of 
refined  neutral  fatty  matters  which  are  uudecomposable  under 
the  ordinary  pressure  of  boilers. — Various  observations  on  phyl- 
loxera, by  M.  Boiteau.  The  winter  tgg  is  deposited  exdusivdy 
on  the  exterior  of  the  stock. — Discovery  of  a  small  planet  at 


Ann  Arbor,  by  Mr.  Watson. — General  map  of  the  proper 
motions  of  stars,  by  M.  Flammarion.  One  result  of  this  com- 
parison is  contradictory  of  tome  common  views  as  to  the  distance 
of  stars  relatively  to  their  order  of  brightness ;  for  the  greatest 
proper  motions  do  not  bdong  to  the  most  brilliant  stars,  but 
mdiflferently  to  all  sizes.  Again,  the  author  cannot  support  Bessd's 
and  Struve's  view  that  double  stars  are  carried  through  tpice 
more  rapidly  than  simple  stars. — On  the  equation  with  ptrtid 
derivatives  of  the  fourth  order,  expressing  that  the  problem 
of  geodesic  lines,  considered  as  a  problem  of  mechanics, 
supposes  an  algebraic  integral  of  the  fourth  degree,  by 
M.  Levy. — New  applications  of  a  mode  of  plane  represen- 
tation of  dasses  of  ruled  surfaces,  by  M.  Mannhdm. — On 
the  laws  which  rule  the  order  (or  dass)  of  plane  algebraic 
curves,  of  which  each  point  (or  each  tangent)  depends  at  once  on 
a  variable  point  and  tangent  in  a  given  curve,  by  M.  Fouret. — 
Extract  from  a  letter  (mathematical)  to  M.  Hetmite,  by  M. 
Fuchs. — On  the  decomposition  into  first  factors  of  the  numbers 
2"  ±  I,  by  M.  de  Longchamps. — Reproduction  of  orthose,  by  M, 
Hautefeuille.  Orthose  can  be  obtained  by  raising  to  from  900 
to  1,000  deg.  a  mixture  of  tungstic  acid  and  a  very  alkaline 
silico-aluminate  of  potash  containing  one  equivalent  of  alumina 
to  six  of  silica.  The  tungstic  acid  forms  tungstate  of  potash,  and 
the  silico-aluminate  is  thus  brought  to  the  composition  of  orthose. — 
On  the  composition  and  industrial  use  of  gases  from  metallurgical 
furnaces,  by  M.  Cailletet.  These  gases,  if  suddenly  cooled,  are  found 
to  contain  an  important  quantity  of  combustible  principles  which 
can  ea<(ily  be  lit  again  and  burnt  by  passing,  ^.^.,  through  a  grate 
with  burning  fad,  and  having  their  velodty  dtminishecL — Forma- 
tion of  iodous  acid  by  the  action  of  ozone  on  iodine,  by  M.  Ogier. 
— On  the  solubility  of  sugar  in  water,  by  M.  Courtonne.  A 
saturated  solution  of  sugar  at  12*5'^  contains  665  gr.  per  cent 
of  sugar ;  one  at  45*  contains  71  gr.  per  cent.— On  the  products 
of  oxidation  of  camphor,  by  M.  Montgolfier. — Note  on  the 
accessory  discs  of  the  thin  discs  in  striated  muscles,  by  M. 
Renant  Muscular  striation  is  formed  of  a  succession  of  thick 
discs  alone  contractile,  and  of  clear  bands  traversed  each  by  a 
thin  disc  and  two  accessory  discs  similar  to  each  other  as  regards 
form,  and  probably  having  similar  functions. — An  algesia  ob- 
tained by  tne  combined  action  of  morphine  and  chloroform,  by 
M.  Guibert  A  subcutaneous  injection  of  chlorhydrate  of 
morphine  is  made  at  least  fifteen  minutes  before  inhalation  of 
chloroform. — On  the  causes  of  violet  colour  in  oysters  of  the 
basin  of  Arcachon,  by  M.  Descoust.  The  colour  is  found  to  be 
due  to  the  presence  of  a  small  algae  of  the  family  of  Rhodo- 
spermeae  and  Florideae.  This  becomes  more  abundant  in  time 
of  drought,  and  probably  acts  by  absorbing  moisture. — On  the 
migrations  and  metamorphoses  of  the  taenias  of  shrew  mice,  by 
M.  Villot. — On  certain  monstrosities  of  Asterocanthion  rubens, 
by  M.  Giard. — On  the  embryogeny  on  the  cestoides,  by  M. 
Moniez. — On  the  bismuth  ores  of  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Chili,  by 
M.  Domeyko. 


CONTENTS  Page 

Flora  op  Mauritius  and  Skychellks.    By  W.  R.  M cNab  ...  77 
Oua  Book  Shblf  :— 

Von  Hauer's  *'  Die  Geologic  " , 78 

Lbttbks  to  THa  Editor  :— 

Fritx  Mailer  on  Flowers  and  Insects. —Charles  Darwin,  F.R.S.  .  78 
The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons.^G.  Johnstome  Stomey  ;  Prof. 

G.  Carey  Foster,  F.R.S 79 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay.— Dr.  William  B.  Carpenter,  F.R.S.  8« 

Potential  Energy.— Prof.  H.  W.  Lloyd  Tanner 8t 

Smell  and  Hearing  in  Moths  —George  J.  Romanes  ;  J.  C  .    .    .  8a 

Meteorological  Phenomenon.— Joseph  John  Murphy       ....  89 
Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Stellar  Systems 8t 

The  Minor  Planets 83 

The  Cordoba  Observatory 83 

Carl  von  Littrow 83 

Bacteria.    By  J.  Burdon>Sanderson,  M.D.,  LL  D..  F.R.S. .    .    . 
D1FFU510N  Figures  in  Liquids.  By  Prof^  Tito  Martini  {With  /ffttr- 

traticfu) 87 

Traces  OP  Early  Man  IM  Japan.     By  Edward  S.  Morse  .    .    .    .  8q 

Notes 89 

The  Liberty  op  Science   in  the  Modern  State,  II.     By  Prof. 

RUDOLP  ViRCHOW 9a 

The  Meteor 94 

Uhivbssitv  AMD  Editcational  Intelligence 95 

SoasTus  AMD  Academies       95 

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NA  TURE 


97 


THURSDAY,   DECEMBER   6,   1877 


TECHNICAL   EDUCATION 

PROF.  HUXLEY  has  seized  the  occasion  afforded 
him  by  his  promise  to  aid  the  Working  Man's  Club 
and  Institute  Union  by  contributing  to  their  present  series 
of  fortnightly  lectures,  to  state  his  opinion  on  a  question 
which,  as  we  have  already  informed  our  readers,  has 
lately  been  exercising  the  minds  of  some  of  the  most 
influential  members  of  various  city  companies. 

For  some  time  past  a  joint  committee,  representing  the 
J  most  important  among  these  bodies,  has  been  endeavour- 
ing to  obtain  information  as  to  the  best  means  of  applying 
certain  of  their  surplus  funds  to  the  assistance  of  what  is 
called  technical  education,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  a 
proposal  for  a  huge  technical  university,  made  some  time 
ago,  and  the  discussion  which  took  place  in  connection 
with  that  proposal,  has  had  somewhat  to  do  in  leading  to 
the  present  condition  of  affairs. 

Prof.  Huxley  and  some  four  or  five  other  gentlemen 
have  been  appealed  to  by  this  joint  committee  to  send  in 
reports  on  what  they  consider  the  best  way  to  set  about 
the  work,  and  it  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  Prof. 
Huxley's  lecture  is  so  important.  It  was  not  merely  fresh 
and  brilliant  and  full  of  good  things,  as  all  his  lectures 
are,  but  is  doubtless  an  embodiment  of  his  report  to  the 
joint  committee. 

We  are  rejoiced,  therefore,  to  see  that  Prof.  Huxley  is 
at  one  with  the  views  which  we  have  all  along  expressed 
in  Nature,  namely,  that,  after  all,  the  mind  is  the  most 
important  instrument  which  the  handicraftsman,  whether 
he  be  a  tinker  or  a  physicist,  will  ever  be  called  upon  to 
use,  and  that  therefore  a  technical  education  which 
teaches  him  to  use  a  lathe,  or  a  tool,  or  a  loom,  before  he 
has  learned  how  to  use  his  mind,  is  no  education  at  all. 

Prof.  Huxley  not  only  defined  technical  education  as 
the  best  training  to  qualify  the  pupil  for  learning  techni- 
calities for  himself,  but  he  stated  what  be  considered  such 
an  education  might  be,  and  how  the  city  funds  can  be 
best  spent  in  helping  it  on. 

Besides  being  able  to  read,  write,  and  cipher,  the 
student  should  have  had  such  training  as  should  have 
awakened  his  understanding  and  given  him  a  real  in- 
terest in  his  pursuit.  The  next  requirement  referred  to 
was  some  acquaintance  with  the  elements  of  physical 
science— a  knowledge  rudimentary,  it  might  be,  but  good 
and  sound,  so  far  as  it  went,  of  the  properties  and  cha- 
racter of  natural  objects.  The  professor  is  also  of  opinion 
that  it  is  eminently  desirable  that  he  should  be  able,  more 
or  less,  to  draw.  The  faculty  of  drawing,  in  the  highest 
artistic  sense,  was,  it  was  conceded,  like  the  gift  of  poetr>*, 
^  inborn  and  not  acquired  ;  but  as  everybody  almost  could 
^  write  in  some  fashion  or  other,  so,  for  the  present  purpose, 
as  writing  was  but  a  kind  of  drawing,  everybody  could 
more  or  less  be  supposed  to  draw.  A  further  desideratum 
was  some  ability  to  read  one  or  two  languages  besides 
the  student's  own,  that  he  might  know  what  neighbouring 
nations,  and  those  with  which  we  were  most  mixed  up, 
were  doing,  and  have  access  to  valuable  sources  of  infor- 
mation which  would  otherwise  be  sealed  to  him.  But 
above  all— and  this  the  speaker  thought  was  the  most 
Vou  XVII.— Na  423 


essential  condition— the  pupil  should  have  kept  in  all  its 
bloom  the  freshness  and  youthfulness  of  his  mind,  all  the 
vigour  and  elasticity  proper  to  that  age.  Prof.  Huxley 
then  went  on  to  explain  that  this  freshness  and  vigour 
should  not  have  been  washed  out  of  the  student  by  the 
incessant  labour  and  intellectual  debauchery  often  in- 
volved in  grinding  for  examinations. 

We  gather  from  this  part  of  the  address— we  shall  refer 
to  the  others  by  and  by— that  so  far  as  Prof.  Huxley's 
advice  goes  we  are  not  likely  to  see  any  great  expenditure 
of  the  money  of  the  ancient  city  corporations  either  in  the 
erection  of  a  huge  "practical"  university  or  in  the 
creation  of  still  another  **  Examining  Board."  How  then 
does  he  propose  to  spend  it  ? 

Here  we  come  to  a  substantial  proposal,  which  Prof. 
Huxley  may  consider  to  be  the  most  important  part  of  his 
address.  What  is  wanted,  he  considers,  is  some  ma* 
chinery  for  utilising  in  the  public  interest  special  talent 
and  genius  brought  to  light  in  our  schools.  "  If  any 
Government  could  find  a  Watt,  a  Davy,  or  a  Faraday  in 
the  market,  the  bargain  would  be  dirt  cheap  at  100,000/." 
Referring  to  his  saying  when  he  was  a  member  of  the 
London  School  Board  that  he  should  like  to  see  a  ladder 
by  which  a  child  could  climb  from  the  gutter  to  the  highest 
position  in  the  State,  he  dwelt  upon  the  importance  of 
some  system  by  which  any  boy  of  special  aptitude  should 
be  encouraged  to  prolong  his  studies,  to  join  art  and 
science  classes,  and  be  apprenticed,  with  a  premium  if 
necessary.  In  the  case  of  those  who  showed  great  fitness 
for  intellectual  pursuits  they  might  be  trained  as  pupil- 
teachers,  brought  to  London,  and  placed  in  some  col- 
legiate institution  or  training  school  In  this  way  the 
money  of  the  guilds  would  be  spent  in  aiding  existing 
teaching  systems,  in  which,  on  the  whole,  an  enormous 
progress  was  acknowledged.  - 

It  is  true  the  architects  of  London  would  not  have  the 
opportunity  of  immortalising  themselves  by  erecting  an 
imposing  edifice,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  influence  of 
the  Guilds  might  be  felt  whenever  there  was  a  handicraft 
to  foster,  or  a  potential  Watt  to  be  sought  out. 

We  do  not  imagine  that  it  is  Prof.  Huxley's  idea  that 
there  shall  be  no  local  representation  of  the  city's  new 
activity  and  influence ;  the  reference  to  the  training 
of  teachers,  we  fancy,  and  other  remarks  here  and  there, 
seem  to  point  to  some  such  institution  as  the  ]£cole 
Normale  of  Paris,  where  the  best  and  most  practica 
scientific  teaching  could  be  carried  on.  Every  one  knows 
how  much  room  there  is  for  such  an  institution  as 
this,  but  on  this  little  money  need  be  spent,  'so  far  as 
bricks  and  mortar  are  concerned,  as  little  money  is 
needed  to  equip  such  laboratories  as  are  really  meant 
for  work. 

There  is  an  advantage  in  such  lectures  as  these  by  no 
means  limited  to  the  expression  of  opinion  on  the  part  of 
the  speaker.  The  slow  and  sure  way  in  which  science  is 
taking  a  hold  upon  our  national  progress  is  well  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  the  daily  press  can  now  no  longer  ignore 
such  outcomes  as  these,  and  hence  it  is  that  they  do 
good  beyond  the  mere  boundary  of  the  question  under 
discussion.  They  show  the  importance  of,  and  foster 
interest  in,  the  general  question  of  intellectual  and  scien- 
tific progress. 

The  Timis  agrees  in  the  main  with  xhe  kind  of  educa- 
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tion  to  be  given,  and  holds  that  "  What  is  needed  is  to 
give  a  man  the  intelligence,  the  knowledge  of  general 
principles,  <:ombined  with  the  habits  of  correct  observation 
and  quick  perception,  which  will  enable  him  afterwards  to 
master  the  technicalities  of  his  art,  instead  of  becoming  a 
slave  to  them.  No  objection  can  be  taken  to  the  advice 
that,  for  this  purpose,  a  lad,  after  learning  to  read,  write, 
and  cipher,  should  acquire  some  facility  in  drawing,  and 
should  be  familiarised  with  the  elements  of  physical 
science.  The  importance  of  the  latter  study  for  this 
particular  purpose  is,  indeed,  unquestionable,  and  even 
paramount,  for  a  handicraftsman  is  dealing  exclusively 
with  physical  objects  in  his  work,  and  his  skill  in  applying 
the  processes  of  his  crafc  will  vary  in  great  measure  with 
his  knowledge  of  the  scientific  principles  on  which  they 
depend." 

But  we  fancy  that  the  Ti/n^s  writer  does  not  look 
upon  this  scientific  part  of  education  quite  as  the  lecturer 
does,  for  he  proceeds  to  add  :  "  There  can  be  little  doubt, 
for  instance,  that  many  of  the  perils  of  mining  might  be 
averted  if  the  miners  were  alive  to  the  scientific  reasons 
of  the  precautions  they  are  urged  to  adopt.  Many  an 
improvement,  probably,  which  now  escapes  the  eye  of  a 
man  who  adheres  slavishly  to  the  rules  of  his  craft  would 
occur  to  him  if  he  were  applying  them  with  conscious 
intelligence." 

The  TimeSy  however,  considers  that  the  school-time  is 
too  short  for  the  languages,  and  curiously  enough  drives 
its  point  home  by  saying  a  harder  thing  about  the  Greek 
and  Latin  of  our  public  schools  than  Prof.  Huxley  has 
ever  done  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Daily  News 
points  out  that  Prof.  Huxley  this  time  may  have  raised  a 
hornet's  nest  about  his  ears  by  the  unduly  reasonable 
tone  of  his  demands. 

The  Daily  News  then  adds  : — "  A  man  of  science  who 
does  not  demand  that  from  the  earliest  age  an  hour  a  day 
shall  be  devoted  to  each  of  the  ologics  may  be  regarded 
as  a  traitor  to  his  cause."  For  our  part  we  know  of  no 
man  of  science  who  has  ever  made  such  a  demand  ;  and 
a  careful  examination  of  what  men  of  science  have  said 
on  this  point  for  the  last  ten  years  Will  show  that  these 
extreme  views  to  which  reference  is  here  made  are  not 
those  of  men  of  science  at  all. 

It  will  be  well  also  if  the  strong  language  used 
in  connection  with  the  multiple  examinations  of  the 
present  day  brings  that  question  well  before  the  bar  of 
public  opinion.  The  Times  is  "  sorry  to  see  another  flout 
thus  inflicted,  in  passing,  on  that  system  of  examinationi 
which,  like  most  good  institutions,  may  do  harm  to  the 
few,  but  is  indispensable  as  a  motive  for  work  to  the  great 
majority."  Prof.  Huxley  has  expressed  the  views  of  most 
of  the  leading  teachers  in  this  country  with  regard  to  the 
effect  of  these  examinations  upon  the  students,  and  he 
might  have  referred  to  their  reflex  action  on  the  examiner. 
Go  into  a  company  of  scientific  men,  and  observe  the 
most  dogmatic,  the  most  unfruitful,  and  the  least  modest 
among  them,  you  will  find  that  this  man  is,  as  we  may  say, 
an  examiner  by,  profession.  Speak  to  him  of  reseaich  or 
other  kindred  topics,  he  will  smile  at  you — his  time  is  far 
too  precious  to  be  wasted  in  discussing  such  trivialities  ; 
like  his  examinees,  he  finds  they  do  not  pay.  The  example 
set  by  Germany  in  this  respect,  both  as  regards  students 
and  professors,  cannot  be  too  often  referred  to,  and  there  is 


little  doubt  that  the  love  of  science  for  its  own  sake  which 
has  made  Germany  what  she  now  is  intellectually,  has 
sprung  to  a  large  extent  from  the  fact  that  each  young 
student  sees  those  around  him  spurred  from  within  and 
not  from  without.    Noblesse  oblige. 

In  point  of  fact  so  far  as  our  future  scientific  progress 
is  concerned  the  examination  question  is  as  important  as 
that  connected  with  the  kind  of  education  to  be  subsidised 
by  the  city  guilds,  and  it  is  important,  seeing  that  our 
legislators  will,  in  the  coming  time,  have  to  give  their 
opinion  on  these  subjects  as  well  as  on  beer,  vivisection, 
and  contagious  diseases,  that  in  Prof.  Huxley's  language 
"by  the  process  called  distillatio per ascetisum — distillation 
upwards — there  should  in  time  be  no  member  of  Parliament 
who  does  not  know  as  much  of  science  as  a  scholar  in  one 
of  our  elementary  schools." 

NORTH  AMERICAN  STARFISHES 

Memoirs  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at 
Hanfard  College,  Vol.  v.  No.  i.  North  American 
Starfishes.  By  Alexander  Agassiz.  With  Twenty 
Plates.     (Cambridge,  U.S.,  1877.) 

THIS  memoir  consists  of  two  parts.  The  first  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  Embryology  of  the  Starfish, 
which  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  published  in  1864 
as  Part  I.,  Vol.  v.,  of  Prof.  Agassiz'Sj"  Natural  History  of 
the  United  States."  The  author  has,  however,  added  notes 
on  the  points  where  additions  have  been  made  by  subse- 
quent investigations.  The  second  part  treats  of  the  solid 
parts  of  some  Norih  American  starfishes. 

The  plates  accompanying  the  second  part  were  intended 
to  form  part  of  one  of  Prof.  L.  Agassiz's  volumes  of  "  Con- 
tiibutions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States," 
and  have  been  drawn  for  more  than  twelve  yeais.  The 
late  Prof.  Agassiz  intended  to  add  them  as  illustrating 
the  anatomy  of  several  of  the  more  common  American 
species. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  memoir  is  wanting  in 
the  completeness  that  distinguishes  some  of  the  other 
Memoirs  of  this  series,  such  as  that  *'  On  the  Ophiurida?," 
by  Lyman,  and  that  "  On  the  Echini,"  by  Alexander 
Agassiz  ;  but  though  the  subject  of  the  Starfishes  as  thus 
presented  is  incomplete,  it  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  we 
have  here  a  work  of  great  value  that  will  serve  not  only  as 
ilUistrating  a  number  of  American  species,  and  showing 
the  systematic  value  of  characters  often  almost  com- 
pletely overlooked,  bat  as  determining  the  honi3logy  of 
several  genera  not  previously  figured,  and  of  which  the 
details  of  the  solid  parts  are  fully  given. 

The  arrangement  of  the  star-fishes  into  families  adopted 
dois  not  materially  differ  from  that  given  by  Perrier  in 
his  revision  of  the  group.  No  general  list,  much  less  a 
synonymic  cata!oi,^ue,  as  in  the  case  of  Echini,  is  given  ; 
and  this  because  the  number  of  species  in  the  hands  of 
Prof.  Perrier,  from  the  Florida  dredgings,  as  well  as 
those  found  by  the  Ciiallengcr  expedition,  have  added  a 
number  of  remarkable  forms  not  yet  wholly  determined 
to  the  American  starfish  fauna. 

The  author  reminds  us  that  the  transformations  peculiar 
to  the  Echinoderms  constitute  neither  a  metamorphosis 
nor  a  case  of  alternate  generation.  The  egg  becomes  the 
embryo  larva.      Nothing  essential  is  lost    during    the 


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process.  No  intermediate  form  comes  into  the  cycle  ; 
the  yolk  becomes  the  larva,  and  this  latter  becomes  the 
young  Echinoderm  ;  and  this  larva  is,  according  to  A, 
Agassiz,  an  Acalephian  larva,  reminding  one  somewhat  of 
the  twin  individuals  of  free  H  ydroids  as  Diphyes,  though 
adapted  to  the  mode  of  development  of  the  Echinoderm?. 
The  Echinoderm  plutean  form,  with  its  mouth-stomach 
intestine,  and  with  its  water  system  originally  forming  a 
part  of  the  digestive  cavity,  bearing  as  it  would  seem, 
about  the  same  relation  to  the  Ctenophorae,  which  the 
Hydroid  Polyps  hold  to  the  true  Polyps.  Therefore  Agassiz 
cannot  admit  that  the  views  so  frequently  urged  and  so 
generally  admitted  as  to  the  separation  of  the  Acalephs 
and  Polyps  as  a  distinct  type  (Coelenterata)  from  the 
Echinoderms  have  any  foundation  in  nature.  He  would 
therefore  still  retain  the  Radiate  sub- kingdom  with  its 
three  equivalent  classes— Echinoderms,  Acalephs,  and 
Polyps. 

Agassiz  thinks  G.  O.  Sars'  idea  that  Brisinga  is  the 
living  representative  of  the  paheozoic  starfishes  rather 
too  far-fetched,  and  he  sees  no  very  radical  difference 
between  Brisinga  and  such  ordinary  starfishes  as  Solaster 
and  Crossaster,  and  he  considers  that  if  there  has  been 
a  single  ancestral  Echinoderm,  his  primordial  descend- 
ants early  assumed  different  lines  of  development  diverg- 
ing to  a  great  degree,  and  retaining  their  characteristics 
from  the  earliest-known  geological  period.       E.  P.  W. 

VOGELS  ''SPECTRUM  ANALYSIS'' 
Practische  Spcctralanalyse  irdischer  Stoffe,      Von    Dr. 
Hermann  W,  Vogel  (Nordlingen  :  C.  H.  Beck.) 

TH  E  aim  of  the  author  in  writing  this  book  may  best 
be  described  in  his  own  words.     He  says  in  the 
introduction  :  — 

"  The  many  excellent  popular  books  on  spectrum 
analysis  confine  themselves  chiefly  to  descriptions  of  the 
great  discoveries  made  by  means  of  it ;  the  chemical 
books  only  give  short  descriptions  of  fiame  reactions  of 
alkalies  and  alkaline  earths ;  they  contain  seldom  a  detailed 
account  of  the  methods  of  observation,  and  still  less  a 
description  of  absorption  spectra.  The  present  work  is 
intended  to  fill  up  this  want,  and  to  be  a  textbook  to  the 
student,  and  a  reference  book  to  the  initiated.' 

Prof.  Vogel  is  an  authority  on  the  absorption  spectra  of 
liquids  and  solids.  Nearly  half  the  book  is  given  up  to 
them,  and  we  must  add  the  better  half.  Here  we  find  for 
the  first  time  a  connected  account  of  all  that  has  been 
done  on  the  subject.  Such  an  account  is  exceedingly 
valuable,  and  it  brings  prominently  forward  the  gaps 
which  have  yet  to  be  filled  up.  Prof.  Vogel  treats  the 
subject  chiefiy  from  the  chemical  point  of  view,  but  those 
who  take  greater  interest  in  the  theoretical  part  will  also 
find  excellent  information.  So,  for  instance,  the  effect  of 
the  solvent  on  the  absorption  spectra  of  solutions  is  dis- 
cussed. The  spectra  of  colouring  matters  are  given  in 
detail,  and  the  account  of  the  effect  of  chemical  reagents 
on  them  will  be  found  exceedingly  interesting.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  this  part  of  the  book  will  be  of  great  use  to 
every  worker  on  the  subject. 

We  wish  we  could  say  as  much  of  the  chapter  on 
emission  spectra.  As  long  as  the  author  treats  of  the 
spectra  of  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  he  is  on  safe 
ground,  but  when  he  comes  to  discuss  the  question  of 


double  spectra  and  the  spectra  of  gases,  he 

and  unintelligible.  Led  away  apparently  by 
do  justice  to  every  writer,  he  quotes  approvingly  1 
divergent  opinions,  as  if  they  could  be  consistently  held  at 
the  same  time.  He  is  very  fond  of  saying  that  a  body 
has  been  proved  to  have  two  spectra  but  that  one  of  them 
belongs  to  the  oxide  or  to  an  impurity,  which  is  the  same 
as  saying  that  he  possesses  two  watches  but  that  one  of 
them  belongs  to  his  brother. 

The  author  is  throughout  the  book  careless  in  his 
expressions,  and  this  comes  prominently  forward  in  this 
chapter.  What,  for  instance,  can  the  student  make  of  the 
following  paragraph  (p.  170)  ?— 

"  A  strong  electric  spark  passittQ  ihron^Ji  air  gives  the 
spt'ctntm  0/  oxygen  together  with  that  of  nitrogen.  Both 
together  form  the  so- called  spectrum  of  air.  Only  one 
spectrum  of  oxygen  is  known.  In  dry  pure  air  the 
spark  only  generates  the  spectrum  of  nitrogen'' 

The  two  statements  in  italics  contradict  each  other  as 
they  stand.  One  of  them  is  true  for  higher  pressures,  the 
other  for  lower  pressures,  but  this  the  author  has  forgotten 
to  add. 

It  must  be  said  that  the  subject  is  a  complicated  one, 
and  even  those  who  are  practically  acquainted  with  all 
the  experimental  details  would  find  it  difficult  to  give  a 
connected  and  clear  account  of  it. 

The  first  part  of  the  book  which  treats  of  the  optical 
principles  involved  in  the  spectroscope  is  apparently  well 
written,  and  the  student  will  find  in  it  elementary  proofs 
of  some  important  theorems.  ^       Arthur  Schuster 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Nyassa ;  a  Journal  of  Adventures  whilst  Exploring 
Lake  Nyassa^  Central  Africa,  and  Establishimr  the 
Settlement  of  ''  Ltvingstoniay  By  E.  D.  Young,'  R.N. 
Revised  by  Rev.  Horace  Waller.  With  Maps. 
(London  :  John  Murray,  1877.) 
This  is  a  thoroughly  interesting  narrative,  brisk,  fre>h, 
and  instructive.  Mr.  Young  tells  the  story  of  the  planting 
of  a  missionary  station  under  tlie  united  auspices  of  the 
Presbyterian  churches  of  Scotland,  at  Cape  Maclear,  on 
the  south-west  corner  of  Lake  Nyassa.  Mr.  Young  for  the 
most  part  takes  us  over  classic  ground,  by  the  Zambesi 
and  Shird,  over  ground  familiar  to  readers  of  Livingstone's 
earlier  and  his  latest  travel*.  Mr.  Young  in  his  hardy 
little  steamer  the  Ilala,  surveyed  the  north  end  of  Lake 
Nyassa  for  the  first  time,  discovering  on  its  north-east 
shore  a  magnificent  range  of  mountains,  rising  to  from 
8,000  to  12.000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  lake,  and  which 
he  named  after  bis  old  friend  Livingstone.  On  the 
opposite  shore  is  a  range  of  less  elevation.  The  lake  is 
marshy  at  the  north  end,  subject  to  quite  oceanic  storms, 
its  shores  being  marked  by  varied  and  most  attractive 
scenery.  The  steamer  caused  tremendous  consternation 
among  the  slave-trading  Arabs,  who  seemed  to  feel  that 
with  the  advent  of  a  British  steamer  on  the  lake  their 
occupation  was  gone.  The  settlement  was  successfully 
planted  and  is  likely  to  be  of  service  both  as  a  centre  of 
civilisation  and  of  more  minute  exploration. 

Britannia:  A  Collection  of  the  Principal  Passae[es  in 
Latin  Authors  that  Refer  to  this  Island.  With  Vocabu- 
lary and  Notes.  By  Thos.  S.  Cayzer,  Head-Master  of 
Queen  Elizabeth's  Hospital,  Bristol.  Illustrated  with 
a  Map  and  twenty-nine  Woodcuts.  (London  :  Griffith 
and  Farran,  1878.) 

The  title-page  sufficiently  describes  the  contents  of  this 

I  As  a  personal  quesiion  I  may  add  that  Che  remark  attributed  to  me  on 
page  198  was  made  by  Mr.  Stoney  and  only  quoted  by  me. — A.  S. 


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little  volume. ,  We  think  the  idea  of  making  such  a  col- 
lection a  happy  one,  not  only  for  scholastic  purposes,  but 
^so  for  the  use  of  those  who  wish  to  be  able  at  any  time 
easily  to  refer  to  any  of  the  passages  in  Latin  authors  in 
which  our  island  is  referred  to.  Mr.  Cayzer  gives  also 
translations  of  some  of  the  chief  references  in  Greek 
writers.  We  should  think,  if  teachers  and  examiners 
could  be  persuaded  to  break  through  custom,  the  intro- 
duction of  such  a  book  into  schools  would  add  interest  to 
the  reading  of  Latin,  and  furnish,  besides,  the  little  fellows 
with  4  stock  of  valuable  information.  Most  of  the  cuts 
are  appropriate,  several  being  old  friends. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[Tki  Editor  does  noi  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents,  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible,  ihe  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com- 
munications containing  interesting  and  novel  facts, 1 

The  Colour-Sense  of  the  Greeks 

Mr.  Gladstone  has  shown  that  the  language  of  Homer  is  an 
inadequate  vehicle  for  conveying  precise  and  nicely  distinguished 
ideas  of  colour.  Whether  the  nation  that  was  content  to  describe 
colours  so  imperfectly  was  also  incapable  of  subtle  perception  of 
tones  of  colour  is  clearly  another  question.  Language  does  not 
keep  pace  with  perception  unless  a  practical  or  sestheiic  necessity 
arises  for  expressing  what  is  perceived  in  words  to  other  people. 

Practical  necessity  gives  names  to  pigments  and  bright  objects, 
such  as  flowers  and  precious  stones,  rather  than  to  tones  of 
colour ;  the  aesthetic  necessity  that  lies  upon  the  artist  to  utter 
what  he  has  felt  will  naturally  lead  to  imitative  expression  sooner 
than  to  an  expression  that  is  merely  symbolical.  In  other  words 
an  early  race  will  learn  to  use  colour  with  nicety  for  decorative 
and  pictorial  purposes  before  it  develops  the  distinctions  of 
language  requbite  for  accurate  woid-paintin<^. 

That  this  was  actually  the  case  among  the  Greeks  appears,  I 
think,  very  clearly  m  a  passage  of  Ion  which  is  preserved  to  us 
in  Athenseus  Deipnos.,  Lib.  xiii.  cap.  81  (p.  603  seq,).  Ion,  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Sophocles,  describes  an  evening  which 
he  spent  with  the  great  tragedian  in  Chios.  Sophocles,  admiring 
the  blushing  face  of  a  litUe  boy  who  served  the  wine,  quoted, 
with  high  approval,  a  line  of  Phrynicus  :— 

"  ITie  light  of  love  gleams  on  the  purple  check." 
On  this  a  certain  pedantic  grammarian  breaks  in~*'In  sooth, 
Sophocles,  thou  art  skilled  in  poetry ;  but  yet  Phrynicus  spoke 
not  well  when  he  called  the  cheeks  of  a  beautiful  person  purple. 
For  if  a  portrait-painter  were  to  colour  the  cheeks  of  this  boy 
with  purple  pigment  he  would  n'^  longer  appear  beautiful.  It  is 
not  fitting  to  compare  what  is  beautiful  with  what  is  not  so.'* 
Sophocles  laughs  at  the  objection,  and  replies — **  Neither,  then, 
my  fiiend,  wilt  thou  be  pleased  with  that  line  of  Simonides 
which,  to  the  Greeks,  has  appeared  very  well  said  : — 

'  The  maiden  seodiog  forth  her  voice  from  her  purple  mouth  ;  * 
nor  with  the  poet,  when  he  sajrs,  '  golden-haired  Apollo  ;  * 
for  if  the  painter  made  the  hair  of  the  god  golden  and  not 
black,  his  picture  would  be  less  excellent  Nor  wilt  thou  be  pleased 
with  him  [Homer]  who  said  'rosy-fingered,'  for  if  one  were  to 
dip  the  fingers  in  rose-colour,  one  would  produce  the  hands,  not 
of  a  fair  woman,  but  of  a  dyer  of  purple."  This  retort  produced 
a  general  laugh,  and  confounded  the  pedant  not  a  little. 

The  Grecla,  then,  were  perfecdy  aware  of  the  insufficiency  of 
the  poetic  vocabolaiy  of  colour  ;  and  accordingly  they  did  not 
expect  descriptive  rendering  of  colour  from  the  poet.  This,  it 
is  plain,  is  a  circumstance  that  must  constantly  be  kept  in 
view  in  any  attempt  to  find  in  the  poetry  of  the  Gieeks  a 
measure  of  uie  development  of  their  colour-sense. 

Aberdeen,  December  3  W.  Robertson  Smith 


The  Comparative  Richness  of  Faunas  and  Floras 
Tested  Numerically 

In  his  letter  in  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  9,  Prof.  Newton  has 
strongly  brought  out  the  abatudity  of  comparing  districts  of  very 


different  areas  by  the  proportionate  number  of  species  to  area  in 
each.  On  this  principle  he  shows  that  to  be  equally  rich  with  the 
small  island  of  Rodriguez,  Madagascar  ought  to  possess  four  times 
as  many  species  of  birds  as  exist  throughout  the  whole  world  ! 
It  does  not,  however,  by  any  means  follow  that  the  method  thiu 
exposed  may  not  be  of  value  in  comparing  r^ons  of  approxi- 
mitely  equal  area,  as  is  the  case  with  sevend  of  the  primary 
regions,  to  determine  the  comparative  richness  of  which  Mr. 
Sclater  first  applied  it.  I  have  not  Mr.  Sclater's  paper  at  hand, 
but  it  is  my  impression  that  he  made  no  attempt  to  show— '*  that 
the  proper  mode  of  comparing  the  wealth  or  poverty  of  one 
fduna  with  another  was  to  state  the  proportion  which  the  number 
of  species  composing  it  bears  to  the  area  over  which  they  range  " — 
as  Prof.  Newton  implies  that  he  did,  but  that  he  merely  adopted 
this  method  as  the  only  one  readily  available  for  the  comparison 
of  his  regions.  Although  I  took  the  opportunity  of  making 
some  corrections  in  the  figures,  I  never  committed  myself  to  the 
principle ;  and  I  very  soon  afterwards  found  that  it  was  not  to  be 
trusted.  As,  however,  several  later  writers  have  made  u«e  of  it 
without  remark,  it  will  be  interesting  to  consider  where  the  exact 
point  of  the  fallacy  lies,  and  vrith  what  modifications  the  method 
can  be  trusted  to  give  useful  and  consistent  results. 

If  we  compare  two  islands  of  almost  exactly  equal  areas,  such 
a«  Ceylon  and  Tasmania,  and  find  that  the  one  has  twice  or 
three  times  as  many  species  of  mammals  or  birds  as  the  other, 
it  will  be  generally  admitted  that  we  express  the  fact  correctly 
when  we  say  that,  as  regards  such  a  group  of  animals,  the  one  it 
twice  or  thrice  as  rich  as  the  other  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  two  countries  or  two  continents  of  identical  areas.  For  on  the 
supposition  that  there  is  a  general  correspondence  between  the 
numbers  of  rare  and  common,  of  local  and  of  wide-spread 
species  in  the  two  areas  compared  (and  this  seems  probable), 
then  the  average  number  of  distinct  species  to  be  met  with  on 
one  spot,  or  to  be  seen  during  a  journey  of  equal  length,  will 
be  proportionate  to  the  total  number  of  species  in  the  two 
areas.  But  now  let  us  divide  one  of  the  two  continents 
or  blands  which  we  are  comparing  into  two  or  more  pares.  We 
know,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  one-half  the  area  will  always 
contain  much  more  than  half  the  total  number  of  species,  whUe 
one-tenth  of  the  area  will  contain  immensely  more  than  one-toith 
of  the  species.  To  take  an  example :  the  count?  of  Sussex  is 
about  one-eightieth  part  the  area  of  the  British  Isles,  yet  it  ac- 
tually contains  full  two-thirds  of  the  total  number  of  flowering 
plants,  both  being  estimated  by  the  same  flora  (Babington*s 
"Manual,"  fifth  edition,  British  Isles  1,536  species,  Sussex 
1,059  species).  If  we  now  compare  either  Britain  or  Sussex  with 
an  equal  area  on  the  continent  of  Europe  or  North  America,  we 
may  obtain  an  instructive  estimate  of  the  comparative  richness  ol 
their  respevitive  floras ;  but  if  we  compare  unequal  areas,  and 
then  endeavour  to  equiltse  them  by  getting  the  proportions  of 
species  to  area,  we  shall  obtain  erroneous  results,  which  will 
become  literally  absurd  when  the  areas  compared  are  very 
unequal. 

The  problem  remains,  how  to  compare  unequal  areas  of  which 
we  possess  the  zoological  or  botanical  statistics.  We  can  only 
do  so  by  equalising  them,  and  this  may  not  be  so  difficult  as  ac 
first  sight  appears.  For  example,  let  us  take  the  Palaearctic  and 
North  Amencan  regions,  in  which  the  species  of  birds  are  nearly 
equal  in  nuoiber,  bat  the  areas  are  as  about  seven  to  three.  The 
number  of  the  Palsearctic  species  have,  however,  been  propor- 
tionately increased  of  late  ycar«,  and  if  we  take  the  western  half 
of  the  Palaearctic  region  so  as  to  include  North  Africa  and  Persia 
we  shall  have  an  area  about  equal  to  the  Nearctic  region,  and  a 
number  of  species  perhaps  one-sixth  or  one-eighth  less,  which 
will  thus  represent  the  comparative  richness  of  these  two  areas. 
The  eastern  half  of  the  region,  including  Japan  and  North  China, 
is  probably  as  rich  as  the  western ;  while  the  iLtsrmediate  portion 
is  poorer  in  species.  Combining  these  three  portions,  and  taking 
the  average,  we  should  perhaps  find  the  Palsearctic  region  about 
four-fifths  or  five-sixths  as  rich  as  the  Nearctic,  in»tead  of  less 
than  one-half,  as  shown  by  the  method  of  proportionate  areas. 

Whenever  we  know  how  many  peculiar  species  any  district 
contains,  we  can  deduct  its  area  from  the  total  area  of  the  region 
to  be  compared,  and  this  number  of  peculiar  species,  from  the 
fauna  of  the  region ;  and  by  this  means  we  may  reduce  two 
unequal  regions  to  comparative  equality.  Again,  all  detached 
portions  or  islands  should  be  omitted  in  estimatmg  the  compara- 
tive richness  of  regions,  because  they  affect  these  regions  very 
unequally.  By  adding  Britain  to  Europe  you  increase  the  area 
without  adding  to  the  fauna,  and  thus  make  the  region  seem 
poorer  ;  while  by  adding  Madagascar  to  Africa,  or  New  Zealand 


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to  Australia,  you  add  to  the  fauna  in  a  greater  proportion  than 
you  increase  the  area,  and  thus  make  the  region  seem  richer. 
For  a  fair  comparison  continents  should  be  compared  with 
continents,  and  islands  with  islands,  and  these  should  in  every 
case  be  brought  to  an  approximate  equality  of  area  by  lopping 
off  outlying  portions  with  their  peculiar  species.  We  shall  then 
get  results  which  will  be  ins'ructive,  and  which  will  afford  us  a 
true  estimate  of  the  comparative  richness  of  differrnt  countries  in 
the  several  classes  of  animals  and  plants. 

Alfred  R.  Wallace 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay 

In  Dr.  Carpenter's  eagerness  to  show  that  his  statements  about 
Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay  had  some  bisis  of  fict,  he  seems 
entirely  to  have  forgotten  the  real  issue  which  he  has  himself 
raised,  and  which  is  of  great  importance  to  all  engaged  in  the 
study  of  these  tabooed  subjects.  The  question  simply  is, 
whether  any  investigation  of  the  alleged  abnormal  powers  of 
individual,  however  painstaking  and  complete  it  may  b^,  and 
however  decisive  its  results,  is  to  be  branded  with  opprobrious 
epithets,  without  any  proof  of  error  or  fallacy,  but  merely  on  the 
dicta  of  newspaper  writers  and  alleged  **  exposers." 

In  the  case  before  us  Mr.  Crookes  made  certain  experimen's 
in  his* own  laboratory,  in  which  the  greatest  refinements  of 
modern  electrical  science  were  employed  ;  and  of  these  he  pub- 
lished a  detailed  account.  Tliat  is  the  sum  total  of  his  acts  and 
deeds  in  regard  to  Eva  Fay.  Yet  because  these  expeiiments 
have  been  referred  to  in  America  as  indorsing  Eva  P'ay's  remark- 
able powers,  and  because  some  persons  charge  her  with  being  an 
impostor,  and  go  through  an  alleged  imitation  of  her  perform* 
ances.  Dr.  Carpenter  accuses  Mr.  Crookes  of  encouraging  ••dis- 
graceful frauds  "  and  indorsing  a  "notorious  impostor."  Now 
it  is  clear  that,  to  support  this  accusation,  Dr.  Carpenter  must 
prcrve  that  Eva  Fay  was  an  impostor  in  respect  to  what  happened 
in  Mr,  Crookes' s  house^  and  that,  to  use  Dr.  Carpenter  s  own 
words,  she  evaded  his  *' scientific  tests'*  by  a  **  simple  dodge." 
He  must  prove  that  Mr.  Crookes  exhibited  culpable  careless- 
ness or  incapacity  in  accepting,  as  conclusive,  tests  which  were 
really  fallacious  j  for,  otherwise,  how  can  Mr.  Crookes  be  held 
responsible  for  anything  which  happened  afterwards  in  America  ? 
Dr.  Carpenter  has  promised  to  do  this  in  the  forthcoming  new 
edition  of  his  lectures  ;  but  as  the  accusation  against  Mr.  Crookes 
has  been  made  in  the  pages  of  Nature,  and  the  question  is  a 
purely  scientific  one — that  of  the  absolute  completeness  of  the 
test  of  ** electrical  resistance"— I  call  upon  Dr.  Carpenter  to 
explain  fully  to  the  readers  of  Nature  the  exact  particulars  of 
that  ** simple  dodge"  which  is  to  destroy  Mr.  Crookes*s  reputa- 
tion as  a  physical  experimenter,  and  to  sustain  the  reputation  of 
his  accuser.  Unless  the  explanation  is  so  clear  and  conclusive 
as  to  satisfy  all  the  witnesses  of  the  experiments  that  Eva  Fay 
did  evade  the  scientific  tests,  and  that  what  they  saw  was  simple 
conjuring,  then  Dr.  Carpenter  is  bound  to  find  a  conjuror  who 
will  submit  to  the  same  tests  as  Eva  Fay  did,  and  produce  the 
same  phenomena  before  the  eyes  of  the  witnesses,  so  as  to  show 
"how  it  ij  done."  Mr.  Maskelyne,  who  professes  to  have 
expoied  Eva  Fay,  will  of  course  be  ready  to  do  this  tor  an  ade- 
quate remuneration,  which  I  feel  sure  will  be  forthcoming  if  Dr. 
Carpenter  is  proved  to  be  ri^ht  and  Eva  Fay's  **  simple  dodge  ** 
is  clearly  explained. 

I  have  already  shown  (in  this  month's  Fraser)  that  the  sup- 
posed exposure  of  Eva  Fay  in  America  was  no  exposure  at  all, 
but  a  clumsy  imitation,  as  will  be  manifest  when  it  is  stated  that 
the  exposer,  Mr.  Bishop,  performed  all  his  tricks  by  streUhing 
the  cord  with  which  bis  hands  were  secured  to  the  iron  ring 
behind  his  back  !  There  is  hardly  a  greater  exhibition  of 
credulity  on  record  than  l}f.  Carpenter's  believinu  that  such  a 
pirfonncr  pro/ed  Eva  Fay  to  be  an  impostor  and  Mr.  Crookes's 
experiments  valueless.  But  what  can  w^e  expect  when  we  find  a 
Daily  7\'.'e^ra/>/i  leport  quoted  as  an  authority  ^in  a  matter  of 
scientific  inquiry  ? 

I  venture  to  think  that,  whatever  may  be  their  opinions  as  to 
the  amount  oifact  in  the  phenomeni  called  **  spiritualistic  "  (by 
Dr.  Carpenter,  but  never  by  Mr.  Crookes),  all  men  of  science 
will  a^rte  with  me  that  Dr.  Carpenter  is  bound  io  prove  by 
direct  experiifient  WiiX  Mr.  Crookes  and  his  coadjutors  were  the 
victims  of  imposture  on  the  particular  occasion  referred  to  ;  or  if 
he  fails  to  do  this,  that  he  should  in  common  fairness  publicly 
withdraw  the  injurious  accusations  he  has  made  against  Mr. 
Crookes  and  all  who  are  engaged  in  similar  investigations.  If 
this  is  not  done  it  b  equivalent  to  deciding  that  no  possible  proof 


of  such  phenomena  is  admissible — a  position  which  is  not  that  ot 
Dr.  Carpenter,  or,  as  far  as  I  am  aware,  of  the  scientl6c  world 
generally. 

I  beg  to  take  this  opportunity  of  apologising  for  my  involun- 
tary appearance  under  false  colours  in  this  month's  Fraser,  The 
letters  ''F-R-S."  were  added  to  my  name  after  the  corrected 
proofs  left  my  hands  and  wholly  without  my  knowledge.  I  have 
desired  the  editor  to  make  a  statement  to  this  effect  in  h's  next 
issue,  but  in  the  meantime  wish  to  set  myself  right  with  the 
readers  of  Natu  re.  Alfred  R.  Wallace 

Nocturnal  Increase  of  Temperature  with  Elevation 

With  reference  to  the  article  in  Nature,  vol  xvl  p.  450,  on 
the  above  subject,  allow  me  to  place  on  record  the  following 
facts.  On  the  night  of  January  7,  1S74,  in  Lucknow,  the  tem- 
perature fell  considerably  below  the  usual  The  minimum 
thermometer  on  the  grass  at  the  observatory  registered  5'*  below 
freezing  point  The  destruction  of  plants  in  the  Horticultural 
Gardens  was  great  Plantains,  pine  apples,  sugar-cane,  mango 
treec,  casuarinas,  pomsetdas,  colvilleas,  bugainvilleas,  &c.,  &&, 
were  all  injured  ;  some  killed  outright  The  remarkable  fact 
which  I  observed  on  that  occasion  was,  that  the  destruction  of 
vegetation  was  only  up  to  a  certain  height,  viz.,  up  to  between 
seven  and  eight  feet  from  the  ground.  Above  that,  not  a  leaf 
was  touched  by  the  frost.  On  the  mango  trees  especially,  which 
were  planted  close  to  each  other,  it  was  very  remarkable  to  see  a 
distinct  line  of  destruction  along  the  trees,  of  seven  or  eight  foet 
from  the  ground.  This,  I  think,  distinctly  showed  that  the 
temperature  on  that  night,  above  eight  feet  from  the  ground, 
was  decidoily  warmer,  and  thus  protected  all  vegetation, 
while  all  below  it  was  more  or  less  injured,  or  killed  by  frost. 
Other  observations,  I  made  lately,  corroborate  the  result  of 
the  direct  observations  made  by  Mr.  Glaisher.  During 
the  commencement  of  October  there  were  several  rainy  days, 
with  an  easterly  wind  ;  the  total  rainfall  was  under  2^  inches. 
When  it  cea<:ed,  and  the  clouds  cleared  away,  I  observed  the 
following  : — Before  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  there  were  only 
a  few  loAT-Iying  clouds  to  be  seen.  As  the  sun  rose,  the  wind 
still  in  the  east  and  almost  a  calm,  clouds  begai  to  form 
in  all  directions;  about  noon,  and  till  about  3  P.M.,  the 
sky  was  thickly  studded  with  cumuli  of  'various  sizes.  After 
that  hour,  wider  and  wider  gaps  t>egan  to  form  betweea  the 
clouds,  and  the  dissolving  of  the  cloud-masses  continued  as  the 
sun  approached  settmg.  About  two  hour*  after  sun>et  there 
was  scarcely  a  cloud  to  be  seen,  and  the  twinkling  stars  came 
out  in  their  full  brilliancy.  This  melting  of  the  clouds  after  a 
certain  hour,  and  completely  so  after  sunset,  would,  I  tbinkf 
indicate  that  the  cloud  region  after  sunset  became  decidedly 
warmer  than  it  had  been  during  the  day.  £.  Bona  VIA 

Lucknow,  Octjber  22 

Expected  High  Tides 

Mr.  Edward  Roberts  in  his  letter  has,  I  think,  missed  the 
chief  object  I  bad  in  addressing  you.  I  did  not  complain  that 
the  authorities  had  not  taken  pains  to  calculate  the  heights  of  the 
tides,  but  that  while  one  could  take  up  almost  any  paper  on  the 
coast  and  find  the  heights  of  the  tides  of  the  place  for  the  coming 
week,  not  one  of  the  London  papers,  so  far  as  I  could  find, 
supplied  this  information  for  its  readers.  What  I  felt  to  be  a 
desirable  thing  was  that  the  Meteorological  Office,  or  some  other 
constituted  authority,  should  send  to  Uie  daily  papers  warnings, 
when  necessary,  that  on  such  a  day  a  dangerous  tide  might  be 
expected  with  a  wind  from  such  a  quarter  and  with  such  a 
barometer,  as  the  tide  would  be  unusually  high  under  even  favour- 
able weather — in  fact,  give  a  forecast  of  the  tide. 

It  is  almost  useless  to  ask  the  public  or  vestries  to  put  two  or 
three  facts  together  and  think  out  the  matter  for  themselves  ;  they 
require  some  authoritative  announcement  to  prepare  for  danger. 
And  this  is  the  more  necessary  as  an  overflow  of  the  Thames  at 
above-average  spring  tides  is,  as  Mr.  Roberts  says,  now  a  matter 
of  meteorological  circumstances  only,  and  on  account  of  the 
increased  range  of  the  tide  in  the  river. 

I  was  not  aware  that  Captain  Saxby  had  predicted  high  tides  so 
far  back  as  1869.  If,  as  Mr.  Roberts  says,  the  Astronomer- Roj^ 
wrote  re-assuring  the  public  that  there  was  nothing  extraordinary 
in  the  Novemt>er  3  tide,  and  as,  on  the  contrary,  that  tide  rose 
3  feet  3  inches  above  Trinity  high- water  mark,  this  incident  may 
possibly  have  had  something  to  do  with  the  establishing  oif 
Captain  Saxby's  reputation  with  the  public  as  a  predictor  of  tides. 


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especially  if  be  had  previously  predicted  the  great  tide  of  March  i 
of  the  same  year,  which  rose  to  3  feet  7  inches  above  the  mark. 

'  With  respect  to  the  actions  of  the  planets,  I  did  not  refer  to  the 
ordinary  tide -producing  power,  for  on  working  that  out  some 
years  ago  for  one  of  the  planets  I  was  somewhat  surprised  to  find 
that  the  height  was,  I  believe,  a  fraction  of  an  inch.  I  referred 
rather  to  the  action  of  that  storm -producing  power  which  appa- 
rently gives  rise  to  the  great  atmospheric  disturbances  at  certain 
times  (and,  indeed,  more  or  less  at  all  time>)  in  the  sun,  smd 
by  sympathy,* or  even  directly,  in  our  a'mosphere. 

B.  G.  Jenkins 


Diffusion  Figures  in  Liquids 

Pjiof.  Martini  describes  his  diffasion  figures  as  being  "both 
new  and  singular."  In  the  P/ii/.  Ma^:  for  June  and  November, 
1864,  I  have  described  and  figured  various  examples  of  what  I 
call  "the  submersion  figures  of  liquids"  in  continuation  of  a 
series  of  papers  commenced  in  1861  on  "The  Cohesion  Figures 
of  Liquids,"  or  those  assumed  by  liquid  drops  when  delivered  to 
various  surfaces.  Some  of  these  figures  are  identical  with  those 
given  by  Mr.  Worthington  in  the  Procctdin^sot  the  Royal  Society 
<or  1876,  and  recently  in  your  pages.  C.  Tomlinson 

■  Highgate,  N.,  December  3 

Bees  and  Flowers 

In  last  Thursday's  impression  (p.  62)  is  a  letter  from  Mr.  H. 
O.  Forbes,  referring  to  bees  confining  t^eir  visits  to  plants  of 
one  kind  during  each  excursion,  and  thus  in  a  measure  prevent- 
ing hybridisation  of  plants,  &c. 

This  may  be  the  general  habit  of  bees,  but  it  is  not  invariable ; 
some  becF,  more  especially  their  females,  are  to  l>e  found  at 
certain  plants  only,  as  Andrena  hattorfiana^  at  the  scabious 
CoVetes  succincia,  at  the  heath,  and  many  otheri  in  like  manner. 

I  have  collected  bees  for  several  years,  and  have  ofcen  taken 
them  with  the  pollen-grains  varying  from  orange- red  to  almost 
white,  and  this  mixture  on  the  same  leg.  I  have  inclosed  a 
slide  of  pollen-grains  which  I  washed  from  the  leg  of  an  Andrena 
nigro-tettea^  and  mounted  in  balsam  ;  this  shows  several  very 
distinct  kinds  of  pollen  ;  this  was  mounted  in  1875,  and  at  the 
time  I  gathered  such  of  the  wild  flowers  as  were  then  in  bloom, 
and  compared  the  pollen.  I  was  able  to  identify  several  of 
them,  but  as  I  made  no  notes  I  cannot  say  which.  I  would 
advise  such  observers  as  intend  investigating  this  very  interesting 
subject,  to  capture  the  insects  and  examine  the  pollen  which  may 
be  found  on  them ;  this  will  be  difficult  in  the  case  of  the  Bombi 
and  Apis,  as  they  knead  it  into  pellets,  but  with  those  which 
collect  on  the  belly  or  whole  leg  it  will  be  easy  enouf>h. 

Norwich  John  B.  Bridgman 

Hearing  in  Insects 

My  daughter  bred  this  summer  a  number  of  the  larvoe  of 
Sphinx  ligustri  and  MetopsUus  elefenor^  and  I  was  much  struck 
with  the  extreme  sensitiveness  to  the  sound  of  the  voice— 
especially  of  the  former.  The  child's  treble  1  observed  did  not 
affect  them  so  sharply;  but  at  the  first  word  I  uttered  they 
invariably  started,  and  remained  some  time  motionless,  with 
head  drawn  back,  after  their  manner.  I  was  disposed  to  attribute 
it  to  the  vibration  set  up  in  objects  around  by  sounds  toward  the 
deeper  end  of  the  scale,  as  I  have  felt  a  form  tremble  under  me 
at  the  deep  bass  notes  of  a  strong  singer ;  but  it  had  all  the 
appearance  and  effects  of  hearing.  Henry  Cecil 

Bregner,  Bournemouth,  December  i 


A  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION  FOR  THE  CHANNEL 
ISLANDS 

SOME'definite  prospect  at  length  presents  itself  of  the 
establishment  within  British  waters  of  an  institution 
long  recognised  as  a  leading  desideratum  among  our 
Biologists,  Museum- Conservators,  and  Natural  History 
Students,  namelv,  a  building  with  the  necessary  appur- 
tenances suitably  situated,  and  founded  on  a  somewhat 
similar  basis  to  that  of  Dr.  Anton  Dohrn's  noted  Zoological 
Station  at  Naples,  or  the  Anderson  School  of  Natural 
History  at  Penikese  Island,  Buzzard's  Bay,  U.S.    This 


long-felt  need  will  be  met  by  the  proposed  "Channel 
Islands*  Zoological  Station  and  Museum,  and  Institute  of 
Pisciculture  "  described  at  some  length  in  the  advertising 
columns  of  this  journal,  and  the  establishment  of  which, 
or  a  similar  institution,  has  been  the  guiding  star  and 
main  object  of  the  writer's  ambition  during  the  several 
years' " apprenticeship  "  spent  by  him  as  Naturalist  and 
Curator  to  the  various  leading  public  aquaria  of  England. 
Successfully  carried  out,  the  more  prominent  features  of 
this  undertaking  will  comprise,  as  at  Naples,  in  addition 
to  an  attractive  public  exhibition  of  the  living  inhabitants 
of  the  surrounding  waters,  laboratories  fitted  with  tanks, 
tables,  and  all  the  necessary  instruments  and  apparatus 
requisite  for  the  satisfactory  prosecution  of  marine 
biological  research,  supplemented  by  a  library  replete 
with  the  standard  scientific  works  and  serials  mostly  in 
demand  by  those  occupied  in  such  investigation.  Under 
the  same  roof  it  is  likewise  intended  to  establish  a  natural 
history  museum  accessible  to  the  public,  and  more  essen- 
tially illustrative  of  the  notably  rich  marine  fauna  and 
flora  of  the  Channel  Islands.  In  connection  with  the 
library  and  museum  departments  popular  lectures  upon 
natural  history  subjects  will  from  time  to  time  be  given. 
Following  the  system  productive  of  such  gratifying  results 
at  the  Penikese  Island  Station,  it  is  further  proposed  foi 
the  full  development  of  the  scientific  advantages  of  this 
institution  to  institute  summer  classes  for  the  attend- 
ance ot  students,  and  to  hold  out  sufficient  inducements 
for  the  most  eminent  authorities  on  various  biological 
subjects  to  deliver  lectures  and  a  course  of  instruction  to 
these  classes  upon  that  branch  of  natural  history  with 
which  their  reputation  is  more  especially  associated. 

An  entirely  novel  feature  to  be  incorporated  with  the 
Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Station  will  be  a  department 
relegated  to  the  conduct  of  experiments  associated  with 
the— in  this  country— little  developed  science  of  economic 
pisciculture,  and  in  which  department  it  is  proposed  to 
award  a  prominent  place  to  the  artificial  rearing  of 
lobsters.  Experiments  made  in  this  direction  by  the 
writer  some  years  since  at  the  Manchester  Aquarium 
have  decisively  shown  that  the  artificial  culture  of  these 
Crustacea  on  an  extended  and  systematic  scale  might  b2 
developed  into  a  highly  important  and  remunerative 
industry.  In  the  experiments  here  referred  to  it  was 
found  that  the  little  lobsters  occupied  from  six  to  eight 
weeks  in  passing  through  those  singular  free  swimming 
larval  conditions,  known  respectively  as  the  "Zoea"  and 
"  Megalops  "  stages,  antecedent  to  their  assumption  of 
the  adult  and  ambulatory  form,  and  during  which  short 
interval  they  exuviated  or  cast  their  shells  many  times. 
These  initial  metamorphoses  safely  past,  their  further 
development  to  a  marketable  size,  is  a  comparatively  easy 
task.  The  scientific  culture  of  the  oyster  and  other  edible 
species  will  likewise  receive  attention  in  association  with 
this  undertaking. 

The  appropriateness  of  Jersey  as  a  site  for  this 
intended  Museum  of  Pisciculture  and  Zoological  Station 
is  at  once  apparent,  the  variety  and  exuberance  of  the 
marine  fauna  of  the  Channel  Islands  bein^  such  as  to 
assimilate  it  more  closely  to  that  of  the  Mediterranean 
than  any  other  one  within  British  waters.  The  occur- 
rence on  the  Channel  Islands'  coast  of  the  Sea  Horse 
{Htppocampns)y  Urchin-fish  (Z7/W(?/i),  Remora  {Ech^Neis)^ 
Electric  Ray  (Torpedo),  and  Lancelet  {Amphioxus)^ 
among  the  vertebrate  group ;  and  of  the  Haliotis,  Scylla- 
rus,  Comntula,  Physalia,  Veiella,  Lucernaria^  and  many 
others  among  the  invertebrate  section,  are  a  few  from 
among  many  that  might  be  named  in  demonstration  of 
this  fact  The  sponge-tribe  and  the  division  of  the  tuni- 
cate might  be  lil:ewise  specially  singled  out  as  attaining 
upon  the  shores  of  these  islands  a  development  in  both 
numbers  and  variety  rarely  if  anywhere  else  excelled. 
Unprecedented  facilities  for  the  collection  of  all  such  ma- 
rine productions  are  also  afforded  by  the  extraordinary 


Digitized  by 


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Dec.  6.  1877] 


NATURE 


103 


lo«^  limit  to  which  the  water  recedes  during  the  monttily 
spring-tides.  In  no  case  less  than  thirty,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  mo  e  than  forty  feet  represents  the  vertical  height 
of  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  on  these  occasions,  the 
waves  on^their  retreat  exposing  to  view  and  rendering 
accessible  an  extent  of  rocks  and  life-teeming  pools  that 
constitute  a  veritable  clysium  to  the  marine  zoologist  or 
botanist  The  situation  of  Jersey,  again,  is  such  as  to 
render  it  not  only  readily  accessible  to  English  naturalists 
and  students,  accompanied  with  just  that  amount  of  sea- 
passage  requisite  to  satisfy  the  marine  predilections  of  our 
countr>'men,  but  it  is  also  most  conveniently  reached  from 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  other  Northern  European 
countries,  and  which  will  thus  invest  the  institution  with 
international  utility.  Paris,  indeed,  already  supplies  a 
considerable  number  of  the  numerous  summer  visitors  to 
the  island,  and  from  these  no  doubt  might  be  enticed  a 
strong  contingent  of  students  for  the  laboratories. 

As  will  be  found  in  the  advertisement  already  referred 
to,  a  special  appeal  is  addressed  to  the  scientific  section 
of  the  conmiunity  rather  than  to  the  general  public 
for  the  funds  required  for  the  Successful  establish- 
ment of  this  institution,  and  it  is  certainly  most  desirable 
that  an  enterprise  calculated  hereafter  to  confer  so  great 
advantages  upon  this  more  limited  class  should  receive  a 
fair  quota  of  support  through  its  ranks.  The  sum  total 
required,  in  fact— -5,000/. — for  the  founding  of  this  zoo- 
logical station,  and  all  accessory  departments,  is  so 
comparatively  small  as  to  place  it  not  quite  beyond 
the  pale  of  hope  that  sufficient  enthusiasm  to  effect 
the  purpose  may  be  yet  forthcoming  from  among  the 
more  weaJthv  devotees  to  the  shrine  of  science,  and  in 
emulation  of  the  praisewonhv  example  set  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlantic  by  Mr.  John  Anderson,  the  munificent 
founder  and  endower  of  the  Penikese  Island  Station.  At 
all  events,  it  is  scarcely  to  be  anticipated  that  so  desirable 
an  undertaking,  replete  with  such  promise  of  future 
advantage  to  the  scientific  world,  will  long  lack  the 
essential  "  sinews  of  war,"  considering  that  a  contribution 
by  each  member  of  one  only  of  our  leading  metropolitan 
scientific  societies  of  less  than  one-half  of  his  annual  sub- 
scription to  that  society,  would  more  than  suffice  to  de- 
fray the  whole  expenditure  contemplated.  Through  the 
kind  liberality  of  a  few,  moreover,  and  the  financial 
confidence  of  others,  a  small  but  substantial  nucleus 
has  been  already  formed,  and  it  is  confidently  hoped 
that  the  full  sum  needed  may  yet  be  raised  in  time  for 
naturalists  and  the  public  generally  to  participate  in 
the  advantages  the  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Station 
and  Museum  of  Pisciculture  will  place  at  their  disposal, 
so  early  as  the  summer  of  the  year  1878. 

In  conclusion  it  is  perhaps  desirable  to  note  that  in 
drawing  up  the  legal  foundation  of  this  Channel  Islands' 
institution  the  strictest  care  has  been  taken  to  permanently 
exclude  all  possible  chance  of  the  society's  premises  being 
used  for  any  of  those  attractions  of  an  entirely  irrelevant 
and  unscientific  nature  more  usually  associated  with  exhibi- 
tions of  the  living  inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  and  the 
existence  of  which  must  ever  constitute  an  insuperable 
barrier  to  that  good  service  to  science  which  these  last- 
named  establishments  might  otherwise  contribute.  It  is 
only  under  such  restrictions  as  arc  above  set  forth  that 
patronage  and  support  are  solicited.  In  recognition  of  the 
purely  scientific  status  of  this  enterprise,  the  members  of 
the  Executive  Committee,  or  Directors  of  the  Society, 
have  also  unanimously  resolved  to  accord  their  services 
as  such  members  gratuitously ;  and  it  is  furtherj  pro 
posed,  so  as  to  divest  the  undertaking  of  any  merely 
speculative  aspect,  that  all  profits  arising  from  the  busi- 
ness of  the  Society,  beyond  what  would  yield  to  the 
shareholders  a  return  of  five  per  cent,  shall  be  devoted  to 
the  further  development  of  the  institution,  or  otherwise 
towards  the  aid  and  promotion  of  scientific  research. 

St.  Helier's,  Jersey  W.  Saville  Kent 


GERMAN  UNIVERSITIES 


T^HERE  have  been  comparisons  made  recently  both  in 
-■•  this  and  in  other  journals  between  the  Universities 
of  Germany  and  those  of  this  country,  and  as  Uic 
university  cjuestion  is  at  present  giving  rise  to  much 
discussion,  it  may  be  useful  to  give  some  statistics  with 
reference  to  the  former.  Such  statistics  are  much  more 
easily  attainable  for  Germany  than  for  England,  as  there 
are  two  German  publications  in  which  all  the  important 
information  concerning  the  various  universities  of  the 
empire  is  systematically  arranged,  viz.,  the  Deutsche 
UniversUdts  Kalendar  and  the  Deutsche  akademtschea 
Jahrbuch,  To  obtain  similar  information  concerning 
the  universities  of  the  United  Kingdom  it  would  be 
necessary  to  obtain  a  copy  of  the  calendar  of  each  uni- 
versity. Our  statistics  are  obtained  from  the  Jahrbuch, 
which  contains  information  not  only  relating  to  the  uni- 
versities, but  also  to  the  technical  and  high  schools,  learned 
societies,  and  libraries  of  the  country.  Some  such  pub- 
lication is  wanted  here,  and  might  bs  made  to  include 
not  only  our  various  universities  and  colleges,  but  als) 
our  principal  public  schools.  The  Jahrbiich  includes, 
moreover,  the  Russo-German  University  of  Dorpat,  the 
Universities  of  Vienna,  Graz,  Innsbruck,  Prague,  Czer- 
nowiu,  Basel,  but  these  we  shall  not  take  into  account 

Germanyhas  in  all  twenty-one  universities , each  complete 
in  all  departments.  The  number  of  students  matricuUted 
and  non-matriculated  attending  each,  mostly  in  the 
1876-77  semester  was  as  follows  :-- 


Matriculaled  Students. 


I      TJ 


"8 


Total. 


Berlin 

Bonn    

Brcilau 
Erlangen 
Freiburg 
Giessen* 
Go  tngen    ... 
Greifswald  ... 

Halle    

Heidelberg  ... 

Jena      

Kiel      

Konigsbcrg  ... 
Leipzig 
Marburg 
Munch 
MUn^tcr 
Rostock 
S'rassburg   ... 
Til  binge  n     ... 
WiirilMirg    ... 


I 


139 
163 
X07 

136 
41 

71 

32 

190 

9 
66 

47 
44 

32t» 

49 

208 

24 

49 

295 

ISO 


2223 


IC03 
200  I 

377  [ 

324  ! 
89  I 
150  I 
410  , 
lOI    I 

14 

186 

1 102 

^5 
357 

35 

211 
251 

93 


281 
118  ! 

165, 

102  ' 

128  I 

122 

235  I 

103  j 

lOI    { 

7t  ! 
73 
127 

364 
104 
440' 

31 
178 
138 

547 


X067 

3" 
458 

147 
60 

474 
142 

439 

215 

201 
78 
264 
1182 
164 
408*' 
223 

335  • 
328 


2107  i  4597 
36  ,  829 
15  '  1122 

—  I  422 


36 1 

329 

10  1 

331 

— 

991 

.1 

^ 

60 

795 

20 

459 

II 

223 

10 

631 

113 

3089 

4 

386 

1280 

— 

431 

— 

144 

26 

700 

6 

1025 

22 

1040 

5069  '  3428  I  6787  I  2501  20229 


Thus,  then,  there  are  about  18,000  matriculated  stu- 
dents attending  the  twenty-ooe  universities  of  Germaay, 
under  a  teaching  staff  of  about  1,300  paid  prof  s^rs, 
besides  about  450  privat-doccnten.  Of  the  students, 
about  one-third  belong  to  the  philosophical  faculty,  the 
faculty  in  which  the  sciences  are   included.     Unfortu- 

'  In  "Philosophy"  are  included  the  physic «1  ai|d  natural  sciences. 
•  The  Giessen  students  are  divided  into  Hessian  and  non-Hessian,  not 
according  to  faculties. 

3  Including  xoo  students  of  pliarmacy. 

4  Including  9  students  ot  lorcstry. 

5  Including  97  mathematical  and  natural  science  students,  these  being  a 
separate  faculty  at  Strassbu^g.    The  figures  are  for  1875  6. 

6  Including  ^3  studeau  in  political  economy  and  141  m  natuial  ftci«nc« 
these  subj«rct»  forming  separatr  faculties  at  Tflbingeti  ..  ; 


Digitized  by 


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104 


NA  TURE 


[Dr.  6,  r877 


ratcly,  in  very  few  cases  is  the  number  of  students 
attending  the  scientific  as  distinct  from  the  literary  classes 
given,  and  only  in  one  or  two  universities  has  science  as 
yet  been  erected  into  a  separate  faculty.  If  we  may  take 
the  two  universities,  Strassburg and  Tubingen,  in  which 
natural  science  forms  a  separate  faculty  as  a  criterion 
from  which  to  judge  of  the  number  of  students  of  science 
in  the  other  universities,  the  proportion  must  be  very  large. 
In  Strassburg,  of  the  236  students  whom  we  have  placed 
in  the  philosophical  faculty,  ninety- seven  are  students  of 
science,  and  in  Tiibingcn  100,  or  something  like  one-third 
of  the  whole  philosophical  faculty.  Or  again,  if  the 
number  of  science  students  is  at  all  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  science  teachers,  the  position  held  by  science 
in  German  universities  is  in  striking  contrast  to  its 
JOS  tion  in  our  universities  and  colleges.  Of  the  profes- 
sors, among  whom  we  do  not  count  the  privat-docentcn, 
about  one- half  belong  to  the  philosophical  faculty,  and 
of  these  again,  nearly  one-half  are  teachers  of  science, 
that  is,  in  the  philosophical  faculty  of  the  German  univer- 
sities there  is  one  teacher  on  an  average  to  every  ten  stu- 
dents,andin  science  the  proportion  is  considerably  greater. 
In  these  estimates  we  do  not  take  account  of  the  medical 
faculty,  in  which,  in  most  of  the  universities,  there  are 
several  chairs  which  might  well  be  classed  as  belonging 
to  science  generally. 

For  example,  the  well-known  anthropologist,  Dr. 
Virchow,  the  conclusion  of  whose  address  at  the  German 
Association  we  give  this  week,  is  Professor  of  Pathology 
at  Berlin,  and  has  been  able  to  bring  the  results  of  his 
special  medical  line  of  investigation  to  bear,  in  an  im- 
portant way,  upon  his  anthropological  researches.  Both  in 
Berlin  and  elsewhere,  other  names  of  eminent  medical 
professors  might  be  mentioned  who  have  not  only  them- 
selves made  important  contributions  to  science,  but  under 
whom  students  are  encouraged  to  do  so  likewise. 

Of  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  scientific  teaching  in 
German  universities  some  idea  may  be  formed  from  the 
subjects  represented  by  the  teaching  staff  at  Berlin,  which 
may  fairly  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  whole.  In  Berlin 
then  we  find  that  there  are  (excluding  the  privat-docem  en) 
five  professors  of  mathematics,  two  of  astronomy,  seven 
of  chemistry,  five  of  physics,  three  of  geology,  four  of 
botany,  two  of  zoology,  one  of  meteorology,  two  of 
geography,  one  of  anthropology,  and  one  of  agriculture — 
physiology  and  comparative  anatomy  being  well  repre- 
sented in  the  medical  faculty,  and  we  might  well  have 
included  among  teachers  of  science  those  who  devote 
themselves  to  the  scientific  investigation  of  languages. 
But  a  mere  statement  of  the  number  of  teachers  gives 
no  adequate  idea  of  the  means  at  the  command  of  a 
German  University  for  training  its  students  in  science. 
The  number  of  teachers  in  each  subject  secures  that 
its  various  departments  will  be  thoroughly  worked 
out,  and  gives  a  student  a  chance  of  following  out  any 
specialty  he  may  take  up ;  this  is  made  still  further 
possible  by  the  number  and  variety  of  institutions, 
museums,  laboratories,  collections,  &c.,  attached  to  each 
university,  not  to  speak  of  its  large  and  comprehensive 
library.  In  connection  with  Berlin  alone  there  are  twenty- 
three  scientific  "  Anstalten,"  as  they  are  called,  for  practi- 
cal investigation  in  connection  with  the  various  faculties. 
Had  we  taken  the  numerous  Realschule  and  the  high  and 
polytechnic  schools  into  account,  where  an  education  can 
be  obtained  quite  equal  to  that  obtainable  at  most  of  our 
universities  and  colleges,  it  would  have  been  seen  that 
higher  education  in  Germany  leaves  little  to  be  desired. 

And  in  reference  to  the  subject  of  our  leader  this  week, 
we  would  point  to  these  Realschulen  as  embodying  the 
German  idea  of  what  practical  training  should  be.  The 
carefully  drawn  up  time-tables  of  these  schools  are  an 
instructive  study,  showing,  as  they  do^  that  general  mental 
culture  is  regarded  as  of  the  first  importance  in  train- 
ing a  youlh  for  the  work  of  the  world. 


The  Jahrbuch  gives  a  statement  of  income  and  expendi- 
ture in  connection  with  only  one  or  two  of  the  universities. 
Some  interesting  details,  however,  on  the  contributions  of 
the  State  to  the  universities,  as  well  as  on  other  points, 
were  given  in  a  recent  number  of  the  Academy  by  Prof. 
Ray  Lankester : — 

"  The  sum  expended  by  the  North  German  States  on 
the  twenty  universities  belonging  to  them  is  annually 
more  than  500,000/.  The  Imperial  Government  has  ex- 
pended upon  the  new  University  of  Strassburg  alone 
70,000/.  in  one  year.  The  University  of  Leipzig  alone  re- 
ceives annually  from  the  Saxon  Government  over  50,000/. 
There  are  eight  universities  in  North  Germany  which 
are  little,  if  at  all,  less  costly,  and  there  are  eleven  of 
smaler  size  which  receive  each  from  8,000/.  to  20,000/. 
annually. 

**  In  North  Germany  there  is  one  university  to  every 
two  million  inhabitants  ;  in  Austria  there  is  one  to  every 
fi>re  millions  ;  in  Switzerland  one  for  each  million  ;  in 
England  one  to  every  seven  millions.  In  the  twenty 
North  German  universities  there  are  1,250  professors.^ 
In  the  British  Islands  we  ought  to  have  sixteen  uni- 
versities and  1,000  professorships  in  order  to  come 
up  to  the  sime  level  in  this  respect  as  North  Ger- 
many. The  stipend  (apart  from  fees)  of  a  professor  in  a 
Germ  in  university  ranges  from  100/.  to  600/.  a  year.  As 
a  rule,  at  the  age  of  five  and- thirty,  a  man  in  this  career 
may  (in  Germany)  count  on  an  assured  income  of  400/. 
a  year  (with  retiring  pension).  The  expenditure  on  atten- 
dants, libraries,  laboratories,  and  officials  may  be  calcu- 
lated as  being  (in  a  well-conducted  university)  more  than 
equal  in  amount  to  the  total  of  the  professors'  stipends. 
Taking  the  averai2;e  German  professorial  stipend  at  only 
200/.  a  year,  we  find  that  250,000/.  must  be  spent  annually 
on  this  item  alone  in  the  North  German  States. 

"In  order  to  equip  and  carry  on  sixteen  universities  in 
this  country  which  should  bear  comparison  with  the  Ger- 
man universities,  we  require  not  less  than  an  immediate 
expenditure  of  1,000,000/.  sterling  in  building  and  appa- 
ratus, and  an  annual  expenditure  of  from  500,000/.  to 
800,000/." 

When  we  add  to  the  Government  subsidy  the  income  of 
the  universities  from  other  sources,  the  sum  is  enormously 
increased.  The  half-million,  moreover,  does  not  include  the 
occasional  grants  of  the  Government  for  special  purposes. 
Some  idea  of  the  magnificence  of  these  was  shown  m  our 
recent  '*  University  Intelligence,"  where  it  was  stated  that 
in  the  budget  submitted  to  the  present  Prussian  House  of 
Deputies  are  the  following  items  :— Erection  of  the  Ger- 
man Industrial  Museum,  998,000  mlc  ;  erection  of  a 
Polytechnic  in  Berlin,  8,393,370  mk.  ;  erection  of  an 
Ethnological  Museum  in  Berlin,  1,800,000  mk. ;  and  for 
the  Berlm  University,  erection  of  an  Herbarium,  422,000 
mk. ;  of  a  Clinic,  1,955,000  mk.  ;  of  a  new  building  for  a 
second  Chemical  Laboratory,  as  well  as  of  a  Tecnnical 
and  Pharmaceutical  Institute,  967,000  mk. 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Meteorite  of  July  20,  i860.— The  occurrence 
of  the  splendid  meteor  of  November  23,  which  has 
probably  been  observed  with  sufficient  completeness  to 
allow  of  the  determination  of  its  path,  while  it  remained 
visible,  recalls  a  similar  object  which  passed  over  the 
northern  parts  of  the  United  States  and  adjacent  parts  of 
Canada,  on  the  evening  of  July  20,  i860,  which  was  made 
the  subject  of  investigation  by  the  late  Prof.  J.  H.  Coffin, 
of  Lafayette  College,  N.Y.  Probably  no  one  of  these 
remarkable  bodies  has  been  more  extensively  observed, 
and  we  do  not  remember  any  case  where  the  calculations 
have  been  more  laboriously  conducted,  and  with  greater 
hope  of  reliable  results. 

«  i.€.  we  presume  professors  strictly  so-callod,  exclusive  of  "privat 
docenten." 


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Tbe  "  meteoric  fire-ball,''  as  Pro£  Coffin  calls  it,  was 
first  seen  moving  in  an  easterly  direction  from  a  point 
nearly  over  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  though 
it  may  have  become  luminous  somewhat  further  to  the 
west  as  the  sky  was  clouded  over  that  region.  From 
thence  it  was  watched  until  it  disappeared  out  at  sea  in  a 
south-easterly  direction  from  the  island  of  Nantucket. 
Its  course  vras  therefore  about  1,300  miles,  and  it  was 
seen  for  several  hundred  miles  on  either  side  of  this 
track.  Upwards  of  230  descriptions  of  the  meteor  were 
collected,  and  upon  the  best  of  these  Prof.  Coffin  under- 
took the  determination  of  the  orbit,  by  an  elaborate  pro- 
cess detailed  in  his  memoir,  which  formed  No.  22  c  of  the 
"  Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,"  entitled  **  On 
the  Orbit  and  Phenomena  of  a  Meteoric  Fire-ball,  seen 
July  20,  i860."  The  various  accounts  of  the  meteor  are 
printed  in  the  memoir,  and  reveal  some  peculiar  points  of 
interest  in  its  path.  There  were  two  "  remarkable  ruptures 
of  the  main  body  of  the  meteor,"  particularly  near  the 
meridian  of  'J^'^  west  of  Greenwich,  when  it  separated  into 
two  parts  nearly  equal  in  size  which  disappeared  belo«ir 
the  horizon,  as  one  observer  describes  it,  like  a  chain- 
shot 

Considering  that  whatever  might  have  been  the  orbit 
of  the  meteor  before  it  became  visible,  its  course  while  it 
was  under  observation,  from  being  so  near  the  earth,  must 
have  been  controlled  almost  wholly  by  her  attraction. 
Prof.  Coffin  mentions  that  the  orbit  he  has  investigated  is 
not  the  path  of  the  meteor  in  space,  but  the  orbit  relative 
to  the  earth,  having  tbe  centre  of  our  globe  in  one  of  its  foci. 
Approximate  elements  having  been  obtained,  azimuths  and 
altitudes  deduced  from  them  were  compared  with  those 
given  by  the  various  observations  to  ascertain  what  modi- 
tications  of  the  elements  were  required  in  order  to  satisfy 
them.  It  was  found  that  with  certain  corrections  thus 
indicated  the  first  orbit  represented  tolerably  well  most 
of  the  reliable  observations  to  the  west  of  76®  or  77®,  near 
which  the  most  easterly  of  the  two  points  from  which  it 
was  determined,  was  situated  ;  but  further  to  the  east  the 
discrepancies  between  calculation  and  observation  were 
"  so  great  that  they  could  be  reconciled  only  by  introducing 
changes  in  the  elements  of  the  orbit,  one  on  the  meridian 
of  77^  and  another  near  the  meridian  of  74®,  and  as  Prof. 
Coffin  remarks,  it  is  worth/  of  note  that  it  was  in  the 
vicinity  of  these  points  that  observers  report  the  violent 
ruptures  of  the  body  of  the  meteor,  which  seems  to  afford 
a  rational  explanation  of  th^  changes  of  elements  found 
to  be  required.  It  was  apparent  that  while  the  meteor 
descended  rapidly  towards  the  earth  till  it  reached  the 
meridian  of  aoout  74°,  it  afterwards  rose,  and  the  change 
was  too  great  to  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that 
the  meteor  at  that  point  attained  the  perigee  of  its  hyper- 
bolic orbit  After  the  introduction  of  other  considera- 
tions, it  resulted  that  the  path  divided  itself  into  three 
sections,  ^  the  first  and  third  of  indefinite  length,  over 
only  a  small  portion  of  which  the  meteor  was  visible,  and 
the  second  an  intermediate  one,  160  miles  long,  where  it 
was  most  brilliant"  The  elements  for  the  three  sections,  as 
finally  adopted,  are : — 

Skc.I.       Sec  II.     Sec.  III. 


Long,  of  perigee 

„        descending  node.. 

Inclination  to  ecliptic 

Eccentricity    

Major  semi-axis     

!  Perigeal  distance 


294  57  ...  275  37  ...  2S1     2 

332  56    -  325  "  -  329  24 

66  12  ...    67  10  ...    66  26 

29984  ...  2*9817  ...   2-9921 

20053  ...  20053  ...  20053 

4007     ...     3974  ...    3993 


The  major  semi-axis  and  the  perigeal  distances  are  ex- 
pressed in  miles.  According  to  these  elements.  Prof. 
Coffin  concludes  that  tbe  meteor  entered  the  sphere  of 
the  earth's  attraction  from  the  direction  of  the  constella- 
tion Sextans,  in  about  R.A.  148%  N.P.D.  87°,  and  left  it 
toward  a  point  in  R.A.  355^,  N.P.D.  I2i«. 

The  Planet  Mars  and  B.A.C.  8129.— The  near  ap- 
proach of  Mars  to  the  seventh-magnitude-star,  B.A.C. 


8129,  appears  to  have  been  observed  pretty  generally. 
Taking  the  mean  place  of  the  star  from  the  Washington 
Catalogue  of  i860,  its  apparent  position  on  the  evening 
of  November  12  is  found  to  be  R.A.  23h.  14m.  24*375., 
N.P.D.  96*^  34'  22'''5.  By  Leverrier*s  tables  the  place  of 
Mars  at  6h.  Greenwich  time  and  the  hourly  motions 
were  : — 


R.A,     ... 
N.P.D.... 


23h.  14m.  24<-9i  4-  3''473'- 
96"    34'     25"i    ^  3o"*49^- 


Taking  account  of  parallax,  the  star  at  6h.  would  be  on 
an  angle  of  3i9'"4,  distant  from  planet's  centre,  17"  8,  b/ 
calculation,  as  seen  at  Greenwich.  Probably  the  actual 
approach  was  not  quite  so  close. 

The  Binary-star  Castor.— Dr.  Doberck,  of  Col. 
Cooper's  Observatory,  Markree,  whose  investigations 
relating  to  the  orbits  of  the  revolving  double-stars  have 
been  on  several  occasions  referred  to  in  this  co'umn,  has 
corrected  the  elements  of  the  fine  binary  a  Geminorum, 
given  by  Thiele  in  1859,  by  measures  to  1877  inclusive. 
Thiele's  period  of  revolution  was  997  years,  Dr.  Doberck's 
calculation  gives  1,001  years,  and  the  comparison  with 
observations,  from  those  of  Bradley  and  Pound  in  1719  to 
the  present  year,  exhibits  no  larger  differences  than  are 
to  be  attributed  to  unavoidable  errors,  or  iii  one  or  two 
cases,  bias  on  the  part  of  the  observer.  The  new  elements 
are  as  follow  : — 


Passage  of  the  peri-istre  ... 


1 749  75 


Node 

Node  to  peri-astre  on  orbit 

Indinatton 

Eccentricity       

Semi-axis  major 

Rcvolation 


27  46  (meridian  of  1850). 
297  13 

44  33 
03292 

.7;'*43^ 
iooi.*2i  years. 

This  orbit  gives,  for  1878  o,  position  234'''9,  distance 
5"76. 

Transits  of  the  Shadow  of  Titan  across  the 
Disc  of  Saturn. — Mr.  Manh  has  drawn  attention  to 
the  following  dates  of  transit  of  the  great  satellite's 
shadow,  as  the  only  opportunities  for  observation  until 
the  year  1891  : — December  9,  about  6ih.  Greeawich  time, 
December  ^5,  about  5}h.,  and  January  10,  about  5h. 

The  "Nauticai.  Almanac,"  1881.— As  usual  the 
Nautical  Almanac  was  published  in  November,  the  last 
volume  being  for  the  year  1881,  which  does  not  appear  to 
be  one  distinguished  by  any  particular  astronomical 
phenomena.  The  two  solar  eclipses  on  May  27  and 
November  21,  the  first  partial,  the  second  annular,  are 
both  invisible  in  this  country,  and  the  line  of  aanularity 
in  the  November  eclipse  runs  at  great  south  latitude. 
The  total  eclipse  of  the  moon  on  June  11  will  also  be 
invisible  here,  while  in  the  partial  eclipse  on  December  3 
(magnitude  0*97)  the  moon  will  rise  at  Greenwich  about 
twenty  minutes  after  first  contact  with  the  shadow.  A 
transit  of  Mercury  on  November  7,  will  be  wholly  in- 
visible in  this  country,  the  first  external  contact  (geo- 
centric) taking  place  at  loh.  i6m.  13s.,  and  the  last  at 
I5h.  37m.  41s.  mean  times  at  Greenwich.  The  list  of 
visible  occultations  does  not  contain  any  planet,  nor  any 
star  over  the  third  magnitude.  The  Ust  of  standard  stars 
is  on  the  same  scale  as  for  the  year  1880,  and  numbers 
close  upon  200.  The  Nautical  Almanac  circulates  to  the 
extent  of  more  than  20,000  copies,  inclusive  of  the  number 
appropriated  for  the  use  ot  the  Royal  Navy. 


OLE  KOAfER 

WHEN  Newton's  "Prin^ipia"  raised  the  theory  of 
astronomy  to  a  height  not  previously  dreamt  of, 
practical  astronomy  was  still  where  Tycho  Brahe  left  it 
almost  a  century  before.    Such  was  the  respect  paid  to 


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{Dec.  6,  1877 


the  memory  of  that  great  man  that  Hevel  in  Danzig 
carried  out  Tycho's  ideas  about    his   observatory,  and 
rejected  all  the  improvements  that  had  since  originated, 
amongst  which  was  the  application  of  the  telescope  to  astro- 
nomical observations.    The  obstinacy  with  which  Hevel 
refused  to  adopt  this  invention  appears  strange  to  us  now, 
but  we  must  remember  the  great  accuracy  which  was  then 
obtained  by  pinnules  alone.     Tycho  had   reduced   the 
probable   error   of  astronomical   observations  from  ten 
minutes  to  one,  and  some  of  HevePs  observations  have 
been  found  to  be  affected  by  errors  of  less  than  half  a 
minute  of  arc,  results  which  show  that  the  old  astro- 
nomers were  in  possession  of  a  skill  in  handling  their 
apparatus  which  has  since  been  lost.    It  should  also 
be  taken  into  account  that  the  telescopes  of  Hevel's 
day  were  generally  of   Dutch   construction,  and 
Keller's  tube,  with  wires  in  the  field  to  mark  the 
centre,  was  first  brought  into  general  use  by  Auzout 
and  Picard  about  the  end  of  the  century.    Of  hardly 
less  importance  was  the  application  of  the  pendulum 
to  clocks,  which  from  that  time  have  been  used  as 
astronomical  instruments.     They  had  in  Tycho's 
observatories  been  used  merely  to  show  what  o'clock 
it  was  when  observations  were  made,  but  never  to 
determine  difierences  of  right  ascension. 

With  sufficiently  good  clocks  4t  was  possible  to 
determine  the  positions  of  the  stars  by  observa- 
tions in  the  meridian  alone,  and  it  was  no  doubt 
Picard  who  first  became  aware  of  the  immense 
advantage  of  this.  Conseouently  he  solicited  Go- 
vernment for  a  laige  mural  quadrant,  but  Cassini 
was  then  called  in  from  Italy,  and  no  notice  was 
taken  of  the  request  made  by  Picard,  who,  unfor- 
tunately for  the  practical  astronomy  of  France,  was 
not  thought  much' of  by  the  court  of  Louis  XIV., 
his  important,  but  .modestly-conducted  researches 
being  eclipsed  by  Cassini's  brilliant  discoveries. 
Had  Picard  got  the  direction  of  the  Royal  Obser- 
vatory in  Paris  he  would  have  been  able  to  make 
further  improvements  in  the  construction  of  instru- 
ments ;  but  with  no  sofiicient  means  at  hand,  he 
ascribed  the  partial  failure  of  his  attempts  to  the 
small  size  of  his  instruments.  A  mural  quadrant 
like  Tycho  Brahe's,  but  furnished  with  a  telescope, 
was  first  fixed  at  the  observatory  when  Picard 
died.*  Flamsteed  and  Sharp  adopted  the  methods 
just  as  Picard  left  them  and  with  all  their  draw- 
backs. They  used  the  quadrant  both  for  right 
ascensions  and  declinations.  Their  observations 
may  perhaps  be  said  to  be  twice  as  accurate  as 
Hevei's  naked-eye  observations. 

This  was  the  state  of  practical  astronomy  when 
Rdmer  raised  it  to  a  height  which  was  not  sur- 
passed before  Bessel.  Ole  Rdmer  was  bom  in 
Aarhus  on  September  25,  1644,  Thence  he  came, 
1662,  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  studied  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  under  Erasmus  Bartholin, 

'  Thia  intertsting  ioatrameiit  it  represeated  hi  Fig.  i.  It  was  cast 
wholly  in  biasa  and  fixed  with  >tronf  iron  scrrwt  as  exactly  as  possible 
in  the  meiidian  in  the  iouth-westcni  room  of  the  ground- floor  of  Uraniburg. 
lU  ladius  »a«  about  gix  feet,  and  it  could  by  means  of  tramver»als  be  re^d 
off  to  ten  iecords  of  arc  It  had  in  a  hole  in  the  south-western  wall  in  the 
ccntie  a  git  cylinder  and  two  pinnules  movable  along  the  cdee,  which  were 
M)  constructed  that  the  slit  could  be  opened  or  clo*ed  more  or  less  according 
to  the  fainlness  or  brightmss  of  the  objects  to  be  observed.  Tycho  brahe, 
who,  in  contradistinction  to  Ole  Rfimer,  was  not  only  anxious  about  ihe 
qualiiy  but  also  about  the  appearance  of  his  instruments,  had  ornamented 
the  large  empty  space  of  the  quadrant  with  the  splendid  picture  shown  in 
the  plate.  He  is  here  depicted  in  his  tuual  attire.  At  his  feet  is  lying  one 
of  his  favourite  hunting.dogs,  more  as  a  symbol  of  ingenuity  tnan  as  a 
firmbol  of  nobility.  Behind  him  are  »mall  pottraiu  of  King  Fiederick  and 
Queen  Sofie.  This  was  painted  by  John  of  Antwerp  and  is  more  like  him 
than  any  other  image,  but  the  space  contained  also  an  architectonic  piaure 
by  Stecnvinkel,  somewhat  reduced  as  if  at  a  distance.  In  the  upper  story 
are  represented  some  of  his  most  celebrated  instruments,  in  the  middle  story 
the  library  io»ide  with  the  large  celestial  globe  and  his  pupils  occupied  with 
their  studies,  and  in  the  cellar  the  chemical  laboratory.  Un  the  plate  is  seen 
a  young  man  observing  through  one  of  the  pini.uleft.  another  is  watching  the 
clocks,  while  a  third  is  noting  down  their  remaiks  at  a  tab^e.  Tycho  Brahe's 
image  seems  m  if  admonishing  and  instructing  them  in  their  work. 


whom  he  subsequently  assisted.  As  has  already  been 
pointed  out,  Tycho's  observations  continued  to  be 
consulted  by  astronomers,  and  in  167 1  Picard  went 
to  Denmark  to  determine  the  difference  between  the 
longitude  of  Uraniburg  and  Paris. ^  There  he  found 
Rdmer  occupied  in  revising  Tycho's  manuscripts,  and  he 
secured  his  assistance  in  the  observations  on  Hveen,  and 
when  Picard  returned  to  France  he  procuted  R6mer  a 
place  as  assistant  at  the  observatory  of  Paris.  There  his 
talents  did  not  fail  to  be  appreciated,  and  he  was  soon 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy.  It  was  in  Paris  that 
Rdmer  discovered  the  gradual  propagation  of  light  from 

aVADRANS    MVRALIS 

SIVE  TICHONICUS. 


Fig.  z. 

observations  of  Uie  eclipses  of  the  first  satellite  of  Jupiter. 
His  results,  which  were  not  very  exact,  were,  however, 
contested  by  Cassini  and  most  other  authorities  for  a  long 
time  after.  Indeed,  the  theory  of  the  motion  of  the 
satellites  was  at  that  time  so  little  elaborated,  that  similar 
conclusions  might  be  questioned  all  the  more  as  they  had 
been  deduced  from  observations  of  the  first  satellite 
alone.  Rdmer  shortlv  afterwards  discovered  the  epi- 
cycloid, and  publishea  a  paper  on  the  proper  form  of 
toothed  wheels,  and  descriptions  of  a  Jovilabium  and 
Satumilabium  ;  he  afterwards  invented  different  kinds  of 

'  On  this  occasion  fre-sigQals  were  for  the  first  time  made  use  of  for  the 
determination  of  longitude.  A  fire  was  lit  on  the  top  of  the  astronoouca 
tower  in  Copenhacen.  ^  There  Picard  eclipsed  it  at  regular  in  erva^s,  a od 
the  moment  the  light  dirappearei  was  noted  by  the  observtn  oa  Hvei.n. 


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planispheres.  He  was,  in  1679,  sent  by  the  Academy  to 
London,  to  examine  the  English  determination  of  the 
length  of  the  second  pendulum.  He  took  part  in  the 
levellings  necessary  for  conducting  water  to  Versailles, 


Fig.  a.— Mun!  Circle,  U.S.  Naval  Ob  ervatory. 

which  gave  him  occasion  to  write  several  interesting 
papers.  He  made  many  observations  in  Paris.  Already 
in  1 67 1  he  had  taken  part  in  the  observatons  of  the 
altitude  of  Mars,  which  was  simukaneously 
observed  by  Richer  in  Cayenne,  for  the  deter- 
mination  of  the  parallax  of  the  sun.  His  fame 
increased  so  much  that  he  was  made  tutor  to 
the  Dauphin,  and  in  16S1  Christian  V.  called 
him  to  Denmark  as  Astronomer- Royal.  His 
great  technical  knowledge  made  him  useful  to 
that  country  in  many  ways,  and  we  see  him  in 
succession  as  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Mayor 
of  Copenhagen,  Master  of  the  Mint,  Prefect  of 
the  Police,  Privy- Councillor,  and  one  of  the 
Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  in  all  of  which 
capacities  he  left  behind  a  lasting  fame.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  who  recommended  Pro- 
testants to  adopt  the  calendar  as  reformed  by 
Gregory  X 1 1 1 .  He  had  also  to  make  a  journey 
in  1687  to  acquaint  himself  with  the  latest 
progress  in  naval  architecture  and  pyro- 
technics. We  cannot  fail  to  respect  his  per- 
severance when  we  hear  that,  notwithstanding 
so  many  different  occupations,  he  left  behind 
about  as  many  observations  as  Tycho  Brahe 
himself.  But  these  were  mostly  all  lost  by  the 
great  fire  which  devastated  the  town  in  1728. 

Romer  found  in  Copenhagen  the  old  obser- 
vatory of  Longomontanus  on  ''  the  round 
tower"  almost  devoid  of  instruments,  and  it 
was  first  in  1690  that  two  were  placed  there. 
One  of  these  was  not  unlike  a  modern  equa- 
torial, and  intended  for  extra-meridian  obser- 
vations ;  but  it  was  generally  clamped  in  the 
meridian,  and  used  as  a  transit  circle.  The 
other  was  a  vertical  circle  for  taking  corre- 
sponding altitudes,  a  method  much  used  by  Picard.  The 
position  of  these  instruments  on  the  top  of  the  tower  (over 
100  feet  high),  where  the  observations  had  to  be  made 


under  the  open  air,  rendered  their  use,  however,  so  in- 
convenient to  the  observer,  that  Romer  about  the  same 
time  arranged  an  observatory  in  one  of  the  windows  of 
his  dwelling  house.  Here  was  placed  the  transit  instru- 
ment which  Romer  invented,  but  it  was  greatly  inferior  to 
the  instrument  he  aftertirards  constructed.  The  telescope 
was  not  fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  horizontal  aicis  as  in 
modern  instruments,  but  near  one  end.  The  axis,  which 
rested  on  iron  supports  in  the  wall,  was  a  long  and  thin 
iron  bar,  furnished  with  a  counterpoise  acting  in  the 
middle,  to  prevent  flexure.  The  tube  itself  was  cone- 
shaped  for  the  same  reason.  In  the  focus  were  drawn  a 
horizontal  and  a  number  of  vertical  wires.  The  interval 
between  the  three  he  generally  used  was  thirty-four 
seconds  in  the  equator,  and  the  time  was  noted  to  half 
seconds.  The  field  was  illuminated  by  means  of  a 
polished  ring  placed  outside  of  the  object-glass.  The 
circle  was  not  movable  with  the  telescope  but  fixed  to  the 
wall,  and  the  telescope  carried  with  it  a  microscope  fixed 
upon  an  arm  for  reading  the  declinations.  The  arc  was 
divided  to  ten  minutes  and  in  the  microscope  were  eleven 
wires,  each  one  minute  distant  from  its  neighbour. 
The  minutes  were  read  thus  and  could  be  sub- 
divided by  estimates  to  about  four  seconds.  The 
instrument  being  placed  in  a  window  Romer  could  only 
observe  the  stars  of  between  twenty-eight  south  and  forty 
degrees  north  declination,  and  the  arc  was  therefore  noc  a 
whole  circle  but  merely  about  seventy  degrees.  The  error 
of  collimation  was  corrected  by  reversion.  The  azimu  h 
was  ascertained  by  comparing  the  observed  error  of  the 
clock  with  that  determined  by  corresponding  altitudes. 
It  was  at  this  observatory  that  Romer  tried  Irom  obser- 
vations of  the  right  ascensions  of  two  bright  stars  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  sky,  to  determine  the  sum  of  thek 
parallaxes. 

But  these  arrangements  did  not  long  satisfy  R(5mer,and 
in  1704  he  b>iilt,  at  his  own  cost,  the  *' Observatorium 
Tusculaneum,"  seventeen  feet  long  and  broad,  near  the 
village  Vrididsemagle,  between  Copenhagen  and  Roes- 


Fig.  3.~Meiidian  Circle,  U.S    Naval  Obsenratrry. 

kilde.  The  principal  instrument  of  this  observatory  was 
a  meridian  circle,  and  the  stars  were  observed  through  a 
very  narrow  opening  in  the  ceiling  and-^he  walls  running 

jigitized  by  VrrOG 


io8 


NATURE 


[Dec.  6,  1877 


from  north  to  south,  which  was  closed  with  shutters  when 
not  in  use.  The  axis  was  made  of  conical  iron  plates 
lighter  and  more  inflexible  than  in  the  old  transit.  The 
pivots  were  conical  and  fitted  into  brass  holes  on  the 
sides  of  the  pillars,  into  which  the  axis  was  tightly  pressed 
with  screws.  The  axis  could  be  shifted  a  litde  both  in 
altitude  af\d  azimuth.  Romer  had  afterwards  occasion  to 
reuret  that  the  instrument  was  supported  on  wooden 
pillars  and  not  on  stone.  The  tube  was  not  fixed  imme- 
diately to  the  axis  but  to  the  circle.  It  was  five  feet  lonj;, 
and  allowed  stars  of  the  second  magnitude  to  be  observed 
during  the  day.  It  had  three  horizontal  wires  in  the 
focus  and  seven  vertical ;  the  intervals  between  these 
were  twenty-four  seconds  in  the  equator,  and  the  time 
was  noted  to  a  fraction  of  a  second.  There  were  three 
jjjood  clocks  in  the  observatory.  The  circle  which  was 
fastened  to  one  end  of  the  axis  was  about  five  feet  in 
diameter.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  R6mer  afterwards  con- 
sidered a  smaller  size  preferable.  He  disapproved  alto- 
gether of  the  use  of  the  quadrant  and  sextant,  and  said 
that  a  circle  of  four  feet  was  superior  to  a  quadrant  of 
ten.  This  circle  had  been  divided  to  ten  minutes  with 
Romer's  own  hands,  and  in  the  microscopes  three  seconds 
were  easily  discerned.  It  was  read  by  two  microscopes 
fixed  side  by  side  to  one  of  the  supports  of  the  axis. 
Before  the  observations  were  made  the  circle  was  ascer- 
tained, by  means  of  a  plumb-line,  to  be  vertical.  The 
errors  of  collimation  and  azimuth  were  determined  in 
the  same  way  as  with  the  old  instrument,  and  Romer 
had  fixed  two  meridian-marks,  which  were  besides  used 
to  discover  whether  the  microscopes  had  changed  their 
position.  Romer  was  the  6rst  who  determined  the 
azimuth  from  culminations  of  circumpolar  stars  above 
and  below  the  pole. 

Besides  this  instrument  Romer  had  also  a  transit 
instrument  placed  in  the  first  vertical,  but  that  was  not 
used  much  because  it  had  been  so  badly  made  by  the 
woikmen  that  it  disturbed  the  meridian  circle  with  which 
it  had  one  of  the  supports  fn  common.  Romer  intended 
to  observe  declinations  of  fixed  stars  with  it  and  compare 
them  with  those  observed  in  the  meridian,  and  thereby 
determine  the  refractions.  He  would  also  have  observed 
the  sun  with  it 

After  Romer's  death,  on  September  19,  17 10,  his  obser- 
vatory was  neglected  and  the  instruments  were  spoiled, 
when  at  last  they  were  sent  to  Copenhagen.  Romer  was 
to  have  published  a  description  of  the  observatory  and 
his  methods,  but  was  prevented  by  the  illness  which  ter- 
minated his  active  career,  and  the  descriptions  were  after- 
wards given  from  memory  by  his  little  gifted  pupil  and 
successor,  Horrebow,  who  did  not  fully  understand  all 
'the  precepts  of  his  great  master.  All  his  observations 
and  instruments  were  ultimately  destroyed  by  the  con- 
'flagration  of  the  observatory  in  1728,  except  three  days' 
observations,  which  Romer  had  intended  to  use  for  his 
description  of  the  instruments.  Thus  it  came  to  pass 
that  this  great  genius  passed  away  without  any  adequate 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  the  science.  These  three 
days'  observations  have  been  carefully  reduced  by  Dr. 
Galle ;  their  accuracy  is  shown  to  be  almost  equal  to 
that  attained  at  the  present  day. 

In  England  the  methods  adopted  by  Flamsteed  were 
followed  until  Bradley  permanently  introduced  RQmer's 
transit  at  Greenwich.  He  continued,  however,  to  use  the 
quadrant  for  declinations,  and  in  most  other  observatories 
of  this  country  the  right  ascensions  and  declinations  con- 
tinued to  be  observed  with  di^erent  instruments.  We 
may  also  trace  to  this  circumstance  the  immovable  heavy 
mural  instruments  so  common  in  this  country.^  The 
French  astronomers  adheied  to  Picard's  methods  until 
lately,  and  used  quadrants  even  for  the  right  ascensions  ; 
the  transit  in  the  first  vertical  was  not  used  before  it  was 

'  On  the  accoiQpanTingpiatfs  are  represented  one  of  the  formerly  mor 
common  mural  circles  (Ktg.  a),  and  also  a  meridian  circle  (Kig.  3^ ;  both 
tnstrumeotf  of  the  U.S.  Naval  Observatory,  Washiogteo. 


rediscovered  by  BesseL  On  the  whole  we  may  say  tha 
no  observatory  fully  expressed  Romer's  ideas  before 
Bessel's  and  Struve's  practical  talents  had  altogether 
changed  the  face  of  the  science.  W.  Doberck 

NOTES 

Prof.  Kirchhop  bas  been  created  a  Kntght  of  the  Order 
of  Maximilian  for  Science  and  Art,  by  King  Louis  of  Bavaria. 

M.  Brunkt,  the  late  French  Minister  of  Public  In&tmctton, 
nominated  M.  Gramme,  the  inventor  of  the  well>known  machine 
for  generating  electric  light,  a  Chevalier  of  the  Order  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour. 

Nearly  200/.  htve  already  been  promised  for  the  Darwin 
Memorial  Fund  tt  Cambridge. 

A  MONUMENT  was  inaugurated  on  November  23  at  Rouen 
in  honour  of  M.  Pouchet,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  who 
organised  the  Rouen  Ma;eum  in  1828,  and  died  director  in  1872. 
M.  Pouchet  was  a  correspondent  of  the  French  Institute.  He 
was  a  supporter  of  tbe  theory  of  spontaneous  generation. 

The  Rhine  Provincial  Museum  in  Bonn  hat  succeeded  in 
purchasing  the  famous  collection  of  prehistoric  remains  from  tbe 
Neander  VaJley,  hitherto  in  the  possession  of  the  late  Prof. 
Fuhlrott,  of  Elberfeld,  although  a  high  price  had  been  offered 
from  England. 

Preparations  are  bemg  made  at  the  Champ  de  Mars,  Pari*, 
for  executing  Foocault's  pendulum  experiments  on  an  enlarged 
scale.  His  appuatus  was  suspended  in  185 1  under  the  dome  of 
the  Pantheon.  It  was  in  operation  for  a  long  while  and  removed 
only  when  the  building  was  transformed  into  a  church  after  the 
coup  (TStat  in  1852.  The  weight  of  the  pendulum  will  be  300 
kilogrammes,  and  it  will  oscillate  at  the  end  of  an  Iron  wire  from 
65  to  70  metres  long.  Thus  a  special  construction  will  be  re- 
quired for  its  suspension.  The  pendulum  will  be  suspended  above 
a  grooved  pipe  which  wiU  move  freely  on  an  axis  in  its  centre. 
The  pendulum  in  oscillating  will  displace  this  pipe,  which  will 
remain,  like  the  pendulum  itself,  fixed  in  space,  in  reference  to 
the  constellations.  Underneath  the  pendulum  will  be  arranged 
a  large  terrestrial  globe,  from  25  to  30  metres  in  diameter.  This 
globe,  resting  on  the  ground,  will  necessarily  follow  with  the 
spectators  the  movement  of  the  earth.  The  pipe,  on  the  con 
trary,  supported  by  a  pivot  at  the  extremity  of  the  axis,  will 
carry  large  indexes,  which  will  appear  to  be  displaced  with  it. 
The  globe,  which  will  represent  the  earth,  having;  a  consider- 
able volume,  the  movement  of  these  indexes  will  be  visible ; 
it  will  render  tangible  in  some  degree  to  the  least  attendve,  tbe 
rotation  of  the  planet  on  i^s  axis. 

In  the  Times  of  Monday  is  a  pleasant  leader  on  the  Royal 
Society  hpropos  of  the  anniversary  hst  Friday.  The  article  con- 
tains nothing  striking,  the  drift  of  it  being  that  the  Royal 
Society  has  done  much  to  foster  science,  but  that  sciende  never 
was  altogether,  and  is  now  not  at  all,  dependent  on  the  Royal 
Society  for  its  progress— which  is  probably  true.  The  article 
concludes  with  a  strongly-expressed  desire  to  see  literature,  *'  the 
old  learning,"  recognised  by  the  Royal  Society,  that,  in  fact,  it 
should  be  turned  into  a  sort  of  aosdemy,  after  the  pattern  of 
that  of  Paris.  But  practically  the  French  Academy  is  a  collec- 
tion of  societies,  one  of  which,  like  the  Royal  Society,  devotes 
itself  wholly  to  science. 

An  article  in  Tuesday's  Times  describes  some  experiments 
which  are  being  made  at  tbe  Fulham  gas-works  in  (he  lighting 
of  lamps  by  electricity.  The  patent  is  that  of  Mr.  St 
George  Lane  Fox,  the  distinctive  feature  being  an  electro- 
magnetic apparatus  attached  to  each  lamp,  and  connected  with 
a  central  station,  at  which  an  electric  current  is  generated.  If 
the  experiments  prove  successful  and  tbe  apparatus  is  adopted,  a 
grest  saving  is  likely  to  be  effected.  All  practical  difficulties 
seem,  however,  to  have  been  solved  in  America     Electricity 

Digitized  by  VrrOOQ IC 


Dec.  6,  1877] 


NATURE 


109 


has  been  tried  for  the  purpose  of  lighting  and  extinguUhing  220 
street  lamps  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  scattered  over  a  district  nine 
miles  long.  One  man  attends  to  the  whole  business  and  does 
it  in  fifteen  seconds.  The  method  has  now  been  on  trial  for 
some  months,  and  a  saving  of  ten  dollars  per  lamp  per  year  is 
reported. 

As  might  have  been  expected,  Mr.  Stanley  has  been  received 
with  unbounded  enthusiasm  at  the  Cape,  and  his  followers 
petttd  and  loaded  with  presents  to  such  an  extent  that  they 
must  feel  amply  rewarded  for  all  their  labours.  Mr.  Stanley 
in  his  lecture  at  Cape  Town,  reported  in  the  Ttmes  and  Telegraphy 
went  over  all  his  journey  again,  anrl  defended  himself  stoutly 
against  the  criticisms  which  have  been  made  on  his  con- 
duct He  is  expected  in  England  about  Christmas.  The 
United  States  House  of  Representatives  are  to  pass  a  vote 
of  thanks  to  Mr.  Stanley,  and  the  King  of  Italy  is  to  present 
him  with  a  gold  medaL  Would  it  not  be  just  to  recognise,  in 
some  public  manner,  the  great  service  rendered  to  geography  by 
the  organisers  of  the  expedition,  the  proprietors  of  the  Ttlegraph 
and  Herald  ? 

Col.  W.  H.  Reynolds  has  concluded  a  contract  with  the 
English  Government  by  which  the  Post  Office  Department  hes 
adopted  the  Bell  telephone  as  a  part  of  its  telegraphic  system* 
In  a  recent  telephonic  experiment  in  connection  with  the  cable 
21}  miles  long,  between  Dover  and  Calais,  there  was  not  the 
slightest  failure  during  a  period  of  two  hours.  Though  three 
other  wires  were  busy  at  the  same  time,  every  word  was 
heard  through  the  telephone,  and  individual  voices  were  dis- 
t  inguished.  This  important  experiment  was  conducted  by  Mr. 
J.  Bourdeaux,  of  the  Submarine  Telegraph  Company.  Some 
very  successful  experiments  were  made  with  the  telephone 
on  Saturday  night  between  Aberdeen  and  Inverness,  a  dis. 
tance  of  108  miles.  Songs  and  choruses  were  distinctly  trans* 
mitted,  and  conversation  was  carried  on  at  times  with  marvellous 
distinctness,  notwithstanding  the  weather  was  unfavourable. 
The  experiments  were  made  with  Pro^  Bell's  instruments.  The 
Berlin  correspondent  of  the  Daily  News  states  that  a  Berlin 
house  is  making  a  number  of  telephones  for  experimental  use  in 
the  Russian  army.  The  result  is  awaited  with  great  curiosity  in 
military  circles.  The  Cologne  GazetU  denies  that  any  telephone 
is  in  existence  between  Varzin  and  Bismarck's  office  at  Berlin. 
Our  contemporary  says  that  the  dbtance,  363  kilometres,  is  too 
l^rge  for  using  a  telephone  with  any  advantage. 

On  Dec  i  the  council  of  the  Paris  Observatory  held  its  second 
meeting  for  deliberating  upon  the  improvements  to  be  suggested 
to  the  Government.  The  existing  regulations  had  been  printed 
and  distributed  among  members,  who  discussed  them  article  .by 
article,  in  order  to  better,  understand  their  bearing.  M.  Faye, 
the  present  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  one  of  the  coun- 
cillors, did  not  resign  his  office.  He  merely  intimated  to  his  col- 
leagues that  he  should  not  take  part  in  the  discussions  so  long  as 
he  should  be  obliged  to  remain  a  minister  for  the  welfare  of  the 
commonwealth.  Consequently  it  may  be  considered  as  certain 
that  the  Assembly  will  come  to  no  conclusion  so  long  as  the 
political  crisis  does  not  permit  the  learaedjastronomer  to  resume 
his  usual  labours.  M.  Faye,  whose  voice  will  have  great  weight, 
is  a  strong  supporter  of  the  existing  connection  between  astro- 
nomy and  meteorology. 

The  Society  of  Apothecaries  have  decided  to  offer  two  prizes 
for  competition  by  young  women  under  twenty  years  of  age,  in 
the  science  of  botany.  The  prizes  will  consist  of  a  gold  and  a 
silver  medal  and  books,  to  be  awarded  to  the  first  and  second 
candidates  respectively  in  order  of  merit  The  Rev.  M.  J. 
Berkeley  (the  examiner  for  the  prizes  given  by  the  Society  to 
medical  students)  will  conduct  the  examinations.  The  date  of 
the  examination  and  the  conditions  of  competition  will  be  pub- 
lished shortly. 


A  PRIZE  of  1,000  Italian  lire  has  been  offered  by  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  Italian  Alpine  Club  for  the  best  description  of  any 
Italian  mountain  group. 

The  Horseshoe  at  Niagara,  the  New  York  Tribune  states,  is 
now  a  right-angle  rather  than  a  curve.  The  rocks  in  the  centre 
have  been  eaten  away  from  year  to  year,  and  now  the  side  walls 
are  crumbling.  On  November  17  a  large  section  of  rock  toward 
the  Canada  shore  fell  with  a  tremendous  crash,  and  during  the 
night  a  still  larger  area  went  down.  The  falls  now  wear  a  new 
face,  and  visitors  will  undoubtedly  be  charged  twenty-five  cents 
extra  next  season. 

The  Russian  Government  his  issued  an  ukase  according  to 
which  Novaya  Zemlya  is  to  be  colonised.  The  Norwegian  journal 
Tromsoeposten  now  reports  that  on  August  28  last  six  Russian 
sailing  vessels  arrived  at  Tromsoe,  carrying  the  necessary  building 
materials  such  as  timber,  bricks,  and  lime  for  the  construction  of 
six  houses  upon  Novaya  Zemlya.  These  houses  were  to  be  con- 
structed during  the  course  of  the  present  autumn  and  are  to  be 
inhabited  by  six  Samojede  families,  who  will  form  the  first 
colonial  residents  upon  the  island.  The  Russian  Government 
hopes  by  the  colonisation  of  Novaya  Zemlya  to  be  able  to 
establish  successfully  a  permanent  commercial  communication 
with  the  mouths  of  the  Yenisei  and  Obi  Rivers,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  new  colony  may  form  a  convenient  place  of  exile  for 
political  crimitals. 

The  deepest  artesian  well  in  the  world  is  being  bored  at 
Pesth,  and  has  reached  already  a  depth  of  951  metres.  The 
well  at  Paris,  which  measures  547  metres  has  hitherto  been 
the  first.  The  work  is  undertaken  by  the  brothers  Zsigmondy, 
partially  at  the  expense  of  the  city,  which  has  granted  40,000/. 
for  the  purpose,  with  the  intention  of  obtaining  an  unlimited 
supply  of  warm  water  for  the  municipal  establishments  and 
public  baths.  A  temperature  of  161°  F.  is  shown  by  the  water 
at  present  issuing  from  the  well,  and  the  work  will  be  prose- 
cuted until  water  of  178^  is  obtained.  About  175,000  gallons  of 
warm  water  stream  out  daily,  rising  to  a  height  of  35  feet.  This 
amount  will  not  only  supply  all  the  wants  of  the  city,  but 
convert  the  surrounding  region  into  a  tropical  garden.  Since 
last  June  the  boring  has  penetrated  through  200  feet  of  dolomite. 
The  preceding  strata  have  supplied  a  number  of  interesting 
facts  to  the  geologist,  which  have  been  recorded  from  time  to 
time  in  the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Sciences.  Among  some  of 
the  ingenious  engineering  devices  invented  during  the  course  of 
the  boring  are  especially  noteworthy  the  arraUj^ements  for  driving 
in  natls  at  the  enormous  depth  mentioned  above,  for  pulling  them 
out  (with  magnets),  for  cutting  off  and  pulling  up  broken  tubes, 
and  above  all,  a  valuable  mechanical  apparatus  by  means  of 
which  the  water  rising  from  the  well  is  used  as  a  motive  power, 
driving  the  drills  at  a  rate  of  speed  double  that  previously 
imparted  from  the  month  of  the  well. 

The  preliminary  works  for  boring  the  British  Channel  Tunnel 
are  being  prosecuted  with  very  great  activity  at  Sangate.  A 
shaft  has  been  sunk  to  a  depth  of  100  metres,  and  the  experi- 
mental gallery  has  been  commenced.  It  is  to  be  continued  for  a 
kilometre  under  the  sea.  If  no  obstacle  is  met  with  the  work 
will  be  continued  without  any  further  delay.  Two  powerful 
pumps  have  been  established  for  elevating  the  water  which,  of 
course,  filters  in  in  large  quantity. 

In  the  French  estimates  for  1878  a  supplementary  credit  of 
5,000/.  is  asked  for  the  learned  societies  .in  connection  with  the 
exhibition  of  1878. 

An  international  exhibition  is  to  be  held  at  Milan  in  1879. 

An  excellent  measure  was  decided  on  by  M.  Brunet,  the  late 
French  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.     Special  maps  on  the 


Digitized  by 


Google 


no 


NATURE 


\Pec.  6,  1877 


scale  of  iinrairv  ^^  ^o  ^  designed  of  the  couDtrj  around  each 
college,  so  that  pupils  ivhen  out  walking,  may  be  enabled  to 
practice  topography.  These  maps  will  extend  to  a  radhis  of 
thirty  kilometres  from  the  college,  anl  will  be  placed  in  the 
hands  of  masters. 

Thb  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  will  hold  its  annifersary 
meeting  on  December  19 ;  a  banquet  will  take  place  at  the 
Grand  Hotel  on  the  22nd. 

The  administration  of  the  Eastern  Railway  of  France  has  inti- 
mated to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  that  orders  will  be 
given  for  inscribing  on  the  wall  of  each  station  the  altitude  above 
the  tea,  the  distance  from  Paris,  the  name  of  the  chief  town  ^ 
the  district,  the  name  of  th^  department,  &c.,  &c  Thus  railway 
travellers  will  leam  the  geography  of  France  nolem  voiats. 

In  last  week's  Nature  Mr.  G.  J.  Hinde  gave  some  details 
concerning  the  earthquake  of  November  4  in  Canada.  The  Ni7v 
York  Tribune  gives  some  interesting  details  concerning  the  same 
earthquake  in  the  Sutes  as  well  as  subsequent  earthquake 
phenomena.  The  shocks  were  felt  in  the  east,  in  the  west,  and 
in  the  south.  Commenting  upon  them  the  Chicago  Evemng 
Journal  makes  an  interestbg  statement  about  the  recent  active 
condition  of  a  litile-known  volcano  in  Nebraska.  The  latest 
earthquake  shocks,  it  iUtcs,  which  especially  affected  Western 
Iowa,  and  were  still  sharper  in  North-eastern  Nebraska  and 
South- western  Dacota, ^bring  to  mind  the  fact  that  the  "  Ionia 
Volcano,'*  known  to  a  few  sdenific  investigators  of  the  west  as 
existing  in  the  high  bluffs  near  the  little  village  of  Ionia,  in 
Notth-eastem  Nebraska, 'is  diiectly  in  the  cenUe  of  the  area 
travened  by  the  earthquake  vibrations  Being  in  a  retired  spot, 
miles  away  from  any  line  of  travel,  on  the  wett  bank  of  the 
Missouri  River,  in  a  bluffy  region,  the  little  volcano  has  attracted 
the  attcDtion  of  only  a  few  of  those  who  make  such  subjects  a 
study,  and  hence  is  not  mentioned,  as  we  b*Ueve,  in  any  of  the 
works  on  geography  or  geology.  The  occurrence  of  the  earth- 
quake, with  its  key  or  centre  at  the  Ionia  volcano,  makes  worthy 
of  remark  the  fact  that  for  a  few  months  past  this  little 
American  Vesuvius  has  been  unusually  active.  I's  vapours 
have  arisen  almost  constantly,  and,  for  the  first  time  since 
white  men  have  viewed  iu  action,  these  vapours  have  been 
easily  distinguishable  for  a  dozen  or  more  miles  away. 
The  first  of  these  disturbances  of  the  earth's  surface  was  per- 
ceived on  November  4  by  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  Weittrn  Massachusetts,  Northern  and 
Central  New  York,  and  Canada.  The  coune  of  the  shocks  was 
from  west  to  east.  They  were  especially  violent  in  the  Adiron- 
dack Mountains  region.  On  November  15  an  earthquake  shock 
was  felt  in  the  States  of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Iowa,  and  in 
Dakota  Territory.  The  shock  was  a  very  severe  one,  and  its  effects 
were  perceptible  in  most  of  the  cities  of  the  States  mentioned. 
In  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  there  were  two  earthquake  waves,  the 
second  being  the  most  powerful  and  immediately  following  the 
first  There  was  a  continuous  vibration  lasting  forty* five 
seconds.  In  Kansas  the  shock  was  noticed  at  Topeka  and 
Atchison.  At  Topeka,  in  the  Santa  F^  depot,  the  employes  felt 
the  building  rocking  gently  from  north  to  south.  On  November 
16,  the  day  following  the  earthquike  in  the  west,  a  violent 
earthquake  shock  was  felt  at  Knoxville,  Tenn.  The  shock  was 
apparently  only  perceived  at  this  place  in  the  south,  as  there  are 
no  reports  from  any  other  southern  city  of  such  an  occurrence. 

Nothing  is  as  yet  known  about  the  Marquis  Antinori  and 
his  expedition.  The  news  of  his  death,  which  did  not  emanate, 
we  believe,  from  the  Italian  Geographical  Society,  may  therefore 
be  considered  as  premature.  Matteucci,  who  takes  a  lively 
interest  in  the  fate  of  the  Antinori  expedition,  will  probably  be 
able  to  gather  more  predse  and  definite  information  at 
Khartoum. 


Prop.  Stoppani,  the  eminent  Italian  geologist,  hss  been  called 
to  occupy  the  chair  of  geology  at  the  Instituto  Superiore  of 
Florence.  He  delivered  his  opening  discourse  on  Saturday, 
November  17,  and  will  give  exclusively  public  lectures  during 
the  whole  following  scholastic  year. 

The  ''Science  Primers"  by  HoDker,  Balfour  Stewart,  and 
Geiki^^  have  been  translated  into  Italian  by  Profs.  Pedicino, 
Cantoni,  and  Stoppani,  and  published  in  nicely-bouni  small 
volumes  by  the  editor,  U.  Hoepli,  of  Milan. 

The  enormous  whale  captured  in  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  in 
February  last,  has  now  been  studied  b/  Prof.  Capellini,  who 
found  it  to  be  a  new  specie?,  to  which  he  gives  the  name  of 
Balana  larentina. 

We  are  informed  that  Dr.  Forsyth  Major,  of  Florence,  in- 
tends to  publish  a  periodical  for  the  "Zoology  and  Palaeontology 
of  Vertebrata,"  which  will  contain  original  articles  *  in  four 
languages.  We  cannot  bat  wish  the  best  success  to  Mr.  Major's 
ittterprtse,  which  is  the  first  of  the  kind  in  Italy  or  anywhere 
dse,  we  believe. 

A  new  and  perfectly  mounted  meteorological  observatory, 
under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Nardi,  was  inaugurated  on  Sunday, 
November  25,  in  the  Seminary  of  Fiesole,  near  Florence.  The 
funds  for  the  same  were  subscribed  by  the  Bishop  of  Fiesole  and 
the  Italian  Alpine  Cub  Another  observatory  will  shortly  bs 
opened  under  the  care  of  the  latter  society,  at  Castel  Piano,  on 
Mount  Amiato,  near  Siena.  The  number  of  meteorological 
stations  in  Italy  thus  amounts  to  about  eighty,  the  greater  part 
of  which  have  been  founded  on  the  initiative,  and  by  the 
support,  of  the  Club  Alptno,  who  deserve  every  praise  for  their 
continual  and  strenuous  efforts  to  further  and  foster  the  study 
of  meteorology  in  Italy. 

A  most  elaborate  monograph  has  been  published  by  a  dis- 
tinguished Italian  geologist.  Prof.  Baretti,  on  the  geology  of  the 
large  Alpine  group  known  under  the  name  of  Gran  Paradiso 
in  the  Graiian  Alps. 

In  the  Anttali  di  Storia  naiurale  del  Museo  Chieo  di  Gemrva^ 
the  illustrious  traveller  and  botanist,  Prof.  O.  Beccari,  describes 
the  wonderful  gallery  or  bower-constructions  of  the  Amblyomis 
in^rnala^  observed  by  himself  in  the  Arfak  MounUins.  Ttie  huts 
and  garden?,  as  built  and  laid  out  by  this  bird,  which  is  called 
*'the  gardener,"  seem  to  surpass  any  production  of  intelligence 
and  taste  for  the  beautiful  hitherto  described  and  observed  in 
birds  of  the  Paradis:  family. 

On  the  very  rich  collections  made  in,  and  sent  over  from. 
New  Guinea  by  those  intrepid  and  persevering  champions  of 
science,  Messrs.  O.  Beccari  and  D'Albertis,  Prof.  Mantegaxza 
has  completed  a  series  of  anthropological  and  ethnographical 
studies,  the  first  part  of  which  are  now  being  published  in  the 
Archwio  per  V Antropologia  e  la  Efnologia,  It  may  be  men- 
tioned that  the  museum,  founded  by  Prof.  Mantegazza  in  Florence 
contains  the  largest  known  collection  of  Papuan  skulls,  the 
number  of  which  exceeds  two  hundred. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Vervet  Monkey  {Cercopiikecus  lalandit) 
from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  F.  H.  Taylor ;  a  Green 
Monkey  {Cercopiikecus  callitrickus)  from  West  Africa,  presented 
by  Mr.  J.  R.  Phillpotts  ;  a  Spotted  Ichneumon  {I/trpestes  auro- 
punctatm)  from  Persia,  presented  by  Mrs.  Fleuss ;  a  Common 
Ocelot  {Fdis  pardala),  a  Scariet  Ibis  {Ibis  rubra),  a  Fulvus  Tree 
Duck  {Dendrocygna  fulva)  from  South  America,  presented  by 
Mr.  George  Ransom ;  a  long-eared  Owl  {Asso  otus),  European, 
presented  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Millington ;  three  Weeper  Capuchirs 
{Cebus  captuinus)t  a  Squirrel  Monkey  (Saimaris  sciurea)  from 
South  America,  two  Cheer  Pheasanu  {Pkasianus  reevesii)  from 
North  India,  purchased  ;  a  Black-footed  Fox  {Cants  jubata)  and 
an  Azara's  Fox  {Cams  axnnr)  from  South  America,  depositei. 


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NATURE 


III 


THEUB^RTY  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  MODERN 
STATE"" 

III. 

T  F  what  I  have  said  before  is  true — that  half-knowledge  is 
•^  more  or  less  the  characteristic  of  all  naturalists,  that  in  many, 
perhaps  in  most,  of  the  lateral  branches  of  their  own  science, 
even  the  naturalists  themselves  are  only  half-knowers  ;  if  later  on 
I  said  that  the  true  naturalist  was  distinguished  by  his  being 
perfectly  aware  of  the  limit  between  his  knowledge  and  his 
ignorance,  then  you  understand,  gentlemen,  that  also  with 
regard  to  the  public  at  large  we  must  confine  our  claims  to 
demanding  that  merely  what  every  single  investigator  in  his  own 
direction,  in  his  sphere,  can  designate  as  reliable  truth  which  is 
common  to  all— tnat  only  this  shall  be  admitted  into  the  general 
plan  of  education. 

In  thus  marking  the  confines  of  our  knowledge  we  must 
remember  before  all  things  that  what  is  generally  termed  natural 
science  is,  like  all  other  knowledge  in  this  world,  composed  of 
three  totally  different  parts.  Generally  a  difference  is  only  made 
between  objtctive  and  subjective  knowledge,  but  there  is  a  certain 
intermediate  part — I  mean  ^<//y^— which  also  exists  in  science, 
with  this  difference  only,  that  here  it  is  applied  to  other  things 
than  in  the  case  of  religious  belief.  It  is  somewhat  unfortunate, 
in  my  opinion,  that  the  expression  belief  has  been  so  completely 
monopolised  by  the  church,  that  one  can  hardly  apply  it  to  any 
secular  object  without  being  misunderstood.  In  reality  there  is 
a  certain  domain  of  belief  even  in  science,  upon  which  the  single 
worker  no  longer  undertakes  to  prove  what  is  transmitted  to  him 
as  true,  but  where  he  instructs  himself  merely  by  means  of  tradi- 
tion, just  what  we  have  in  the  church.  I  would  like  to  remark 
on  the  contrary — and  my  conception  has  not  been  contradicted 
by  the  church — that  it  is  not  belief  alone  which  is  taught  in  the 
church,  but  that  even  ecclesiastical  dogmis  have  their  objective 
and  their  subjective  sides.  No  church  can  avoid  developing  in 
the  three  directions  I  have  pointed  out :  in  the  middle  the  path 
of  belief,  which  is  cerainly  very  broad,  but  on  the  one  side  of 
which  there  is  a  certain  quantity  of  objective  historical  truth,  and 
on  the  other  a  variable  series  of  subjective  and  often  very  fantastic 
ideas.  In  this  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  scientific  doctrines  are 
ahke.  The  cause  of  this  is  that  the  human  mind  is  a  simple  one, 
and  that  it  carries  the  method  which  it  follows  in  one  domain 
-  finally  into  all  the  others  as  welL  Bat  we  must  be  aware  at  all 
^  times  how  far  each  of  the  directions  mentioned  extends  in  the 
diflferent  domains.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  ecclesiastical 
domain— It  is  easier  to  show  it  in  this  one— we  have  the  real 
dogma,  the  so-called  positive  belief ;  about  this  I  need  not  speak. 
But  each  creed  has  its  peculiar  historical  side.  It  says  :  this  has 
happened,  this  has  occurred,  these  events  have  taken  place.  This 
historical  truth  is  not  simply  banded  down,  but  in  the  garb  of  an 
objective  truth  it  appears  with  certain  proofs.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  Christian  religion  just  as  much  as  with  the  Mohammedan, 
with  Judaism  just  a*  much  as  with  Buddhism.  On  the  other 
side  we  find  the  left  wing  as  it  were,  where  subjectivity  reigns  ; 
there  the  single  individual  dreams,  there  visions  come  and  hallu- 
cination?. One  religion  promotes  them  by  special  drugs,  anothe: 
by  abstinence,  &c.  Thus  subjective  individual  currents  are  deve- 
loped, which  occasionally  assume  the  shape  of  perfectly  indc- 
pendent  phenomena  existing  by  the  side  of  and  apart  from  the 
previous  ecclesiastical  domain,  which  at  other  times  are  rejected 
OS  heresies,  but  which  often  enough  lead  into  the  large  current  of 
the  recognised  church.  All  this  we  find  again  in  natural  science. 
There  too  we  have  the  current  of  the  dogma,  there  too  we  have 
the  currents  of  the  objective  and  subjective  doctrines.  Conse- 
quently our  task  is  a  compound  one.  First  of  all  we  always  try 
to  reduce  the  dogmatic  current.  The  principal  aim  of  science 
has  for  centuries  been  to  strengthen  more  and  more  the  right,  the 
conservative  side.  This  side,  which  collects  the  ascertained  facts 
with  the  full  consciousness  of  proof  this  side,  which  adheres  to 
experiment  as  the  highest  means  of  proof  this  side,  which  is  in 
possession  of  the  real  scientific  treasury,  has  always  grown  larger 
and  broader,  and  this  principally  at  the  expense  of  the  dogmatic 
stream.  Really,  if  we  only  consider  the  number  of  natural 
sciences  which  since  the  end  of  last  century  have  grown  and  now 
flourish,  we  must  admit  that  an  almost  incredible  revolution  has 
taken  place. 

There  is  no  science  in  which  this  is  so  eminently  evident  as  in 
medicine,  because  it  is  the  only  science,  which  has  a  continuous 

'  Address  delivered  at  the  Munich  meeting  of  the  Gcrmau  Association, 
by  IVof.  Rudolf  Viixbow,  of  Berlin.    Continued  from  p.  94, 


history  of  nearly  3,000  years.  We  are/^o  to  speak,  the  patriitrchs 
of  science,  inasmuch  as  we  have  the  dogmatic  current  at  its 
lonirest.  This  current  was  so  strong,  that  in  the  early  part  of  the 
middle  ages  even  the  catholic  church  embraced  it,  and  fhe 
heathen  G  ilen  appeared  like  a  father  of  the  church  in  the  ideas 
of  men  ;  indeed,  if  we  read  the  poems  of  that  period,  he  often 
presents  himself  exactly  in  the  position  of  a  church  dignitary. 
The  medical  dogma  went  on  until  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
As  contemporaries  of  Luther,  Vesal  and  Paracelsus  came  and 
made  the  first  grand  attempts  at  reduction,  they  drove  piles 
into  the  dogmatic  stream,  constructed  dykes  by  its  sides,  and 
Icfc  only  a  narrow  fair-way  to  it.  Beginning  from  the  sixteenth 
century  it  has  grovNTi  narrower  and  narrower  every  century,  so 
that  finally  only  a  very  small  channel  has  remained  for  the 
therapeutists.    Thus  vanishes  the  lordliness  of  the  world.* 

Only  thirty  years  ago  the  Hippocratic  method  was  spoken  of  as 
something  so  sublime  and  importantthat  nothing  more  sacred  could 
be  imagined.  Nowadays  we  must  own  that  this  method  is  annihi- 
lated nearly  down  to  its  root.  At  least,  a  good  deal  of  imagina- 
tion is  necessary  if  we  say  that  any  physician  of  the  present  day 
acts  as  Hippocrates  did.  Indeed,  if  we  compare  the  medicine  of 
to-day  with  the  medicine  of  the  year  1800— accidentally  the  year 
1800  marks  a  great  turning-point  in  medicine — then  we  find  that, 
our  science  has  undergone  a  complete  reformation  during  the  last 
seventy  years.  At  that  time  the  great  Paris  school  was  formed, 
immediately  under  the  influence  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
we  must  admire  the  genius  of  our  neighbours  that  enabled  them 
to  find  all  at  once  the  fundamental  basis  of  an  entire  new 
discipline.  If  now  we  see  medicine  continue  its  development  in 
the  greater  breadth  of  objective  knowledge,  we  will  never  forget 
that  the  French  were  the  precursors,  as  in  the  middle  ages  the 
Germans  were. 

By  our  own  example  I  only  wished  to  show  you  shortly  what 
changes  both  the  methods  and  the  storehouse  of  knowledge 
undergo.  I  am  convinced  that  in  medicine,  at  the  end  of  the 
present  century,  only  a  sort  of  clay-pipe  system  will  have 
remained,  through  which  the  last  weak  waters  of  the  dogmatic 
stream  may  move — a  sort  of  drainage.  For  the  rest  the 
objective  current  will  probably  have  entirely  consumed  the 
dogmatic  one. 

Perhaps  the  subjective  one  will  remain  as  well.  Perhaps  even 
then  many  an  individual  will  dream  his  beautiful  dreams.  The 
field  of  objective  facts  in  medicine,  great  as  it  has  become,  has 
yet  left  such  a  number  of  lateral  fields,  that  for  anybody  who 
wants  to  speculate,  plenty  of  opportunities  offer  daily.  And 
these  opportunities  are  honestly  made  use  of.  A  multitude  of 
books  would  remain  unwritten  if  only  objective  things  were  to  be 
communicated.  But  the  subjective  wants  are  still  so  great,  that 
I  believe  I  a-n  justified  in  maintaining  that  of  our  present  medical 
literature  about  one  half  might  safely  remain  unpublished,  with- 
out doing  any  damage  worth  mentioning  to  the  objective  side. 

Now  when  we  teach^  in  my  opinion,  we  ought  not  to  look 
upon  this  subjective  side  as  an  essential  object  m  the  doctrine. 
I  believe  I  n  )w  belong  to  the  oldest  professors  of  medicine ;  I 
have  taught  my  science  now  for  over  thirty  years,  and  I  may  say 
that  during  these  thirty  years  I  have  honestly  striven  by  myself 
to  fcee  my  mind  more  and  more  from  all  subjective  tendency,  and 
to  get  more  and  more  into  the  objective  current.  Nevertheless 
I  openly  confess  that  I  find  it  impossible  to  give  up  subjectivity 
altogether.  Every  year  I  see  again  and  again  that  even  Ss^  pointy 
where  I  had  believed  mvself  to  be  entirely  objective,  I  Uill 
retained  a  large  number  of  subjective  ideas.  I  do  not  go  so  far 
as  to  make  the  inhuman  demand  that  everybody  is  to  express 
himsilf  entirely  without  any  subjective  vein,  bat  1  do  say  thit  we 
must  set  ourselves  the  task  to  transmit  to  the  students  the  real 
knowledge  of  facts  in  the  first  place,  and  if  we  go  further,  we 
must  tell  them  each  time  :  **  but  this  is  not  proved,  but  this  is 
my  opinion,  tny  idea,  my  theory,  my  speculation.'* 

This,  however,  we  can  only  do  with  those  who  are  already 
educated  and  developed.  We  cannot  carry  the  same  method 
into  the  elementary  schools,  we  cannot  say  to  each  peasant  boy, 
**  This  is  a  fact,  this  we  know,  and  that  we  only  suppose."  On 
the  contrary,  that  which  is  known,  and  that  which  is  only  sup- 
posed, as  a  rule  get  so  thoroughly  mixed  up  that  that  which  is 
supposed  becomes  the  main  thing,  and  that  which  is  really 
known  appears  only  of  secondary  importance.  Therefore  we 
who  support  science,  we  who  live  in  science,  are  all  the  more 
calltd  upon  to  abstain  from  carrying  into  the  heads  of  men,  and 
most  of  all  into  the  heads  of  teachers,  that  which  we  only  suppose. 
Certainly,  we  cannot  give  facts  only  as  raw  material,  that  is 
impossible.     They  must  be  arranged  in  a  certain  systematic 


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[Dec.  6,  1877 


order.     Bat  we  must  not  extend  this  arrangement  beyond  what 
is  a^solately  necessary. 

Thi^  is  a  reproach  wh^'ch  T  cannot  help  making;  against  Prof. 
Niieeli  as  well.  Prof.  Napeli  has  discussed,  certainly  in  the  roost 
meacured  way  and — you  will  notice  this  if  you  read  his  a  Hress — 
jn  a  thorouehlv  philosophical  manner,  the  d'fficu't  O"  stinns 
wVich  h**  ha«  chosen  as  subjects  ^or  his  address.  Nevertheless  he 
has  taV en  a  step  which  T  consider  iextremcly  dangerous.  Hcha« 
in-^eed  don^  in  another  direction  what  is  in  one  way  done  by 
gmet'atic  aquhoea.  He  asks  that  the  mental  domain  ^hall  be 
extended  not  only  from  animals  to  plants,  but  that  finally  we 
shall  actually  pass  from  the  organic  world  into  the  inorganic  with 
o^r  conceptions  of  the  nature  of  mental  phenomena.  This  method 
of  thinking,  which  is  represented  by  great  philosophers,  is  natural 
in  itself.  V  anyone  wants  by  anv  means  to  connect  mental 
phenomera  with  tho«e  of  the  rest  of  the  universe,  then  he  will 
necessarily  come  to  transfer  the  mental  processes,  as  they  occur 
in  man  and  the  animals  of  highest  organisation,  to  the  lower  and 
lowest  animals ;  a^erwa*ds  a  soul  is  even  ascribed  to  plants ; 
Airther  on  the  cell  thinks  and  feels,  and  finally  he  finds  a 
passage  down  to  chemical  a^oms,  which  hate  or  love  one 
another,  seek  one  another,  or  flee  from  one  another.  All 
this  is  very  fine  and  excellent,  and  may  after  all  be  quite  true. 
It  may  he.  But  then,  do  we  reall?  want,  is  there  some  positive 
scientific  necessity,  to  extend  the  domain  of  mental  phenomena 
beyond  the  circle  of  those  bodies,  in  which  and  by  which  we  see 
them  really  happening?  I  have  no  objection  if  carbon  atoms 
have  a  mind  as  well,  or  that  they  obtain  a  mind  in  their  union 
with  the  pla«tidule  association,  but  /  do  not  know  in  what  lam 
to  teeognise  this.  It  is  simply  playing  with  words.  If  I  declare 
attraction  and  repulsion  to  be  mental  occurrences,  to  be  mental 
phenomena,  then  I  simply  throw  the  mind  {dit  Psyche)  out  of 
the  window  ;  then  the  mind  ceases  to  be  mind.  The  phenomena 
of  the  human  mind  may  eventually  be  explainei  in  a  chemical 
way,  but  for  the  present,  I  tbink,  it  is  not  our  task  to  mix  up 
the<e  domains.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  our  duty  to  keep  them 
strictly  where  we  understand  them  to  be.  And  as  I  have  alwajrs 
laid  stress  upon  thi«,  that  we  should  not  in  the  first  line  try  to 
find  the  tr^n^ition  from  the  inorganic  into  the  organic,  but  that 
we  should  first  of  all  determine  the  contrast  bttween  the  inor- 
ganic and  the  organic,  and  cany  on  our  investigations  among 
those  contrasts  in  the  same  way,  I  now  maintain  that  the  only 
way  to  progress— and  I  hold  the  firmest  conviction  that  we  shall 
not  advance  at  all  otherwise — is  to  limit  the  domain  of  mental 
phenomena  where  we  really  perceive  mental  phenomena,  and 
not  to  suppose  mental  phenomena,  where  perhaps  they  may  be, 
but  where  we  do  not  notice  any  visible,  audiSle,  sensible,  in  one 
word,  perceptible  phenomena,  which  we  might  call  mental  ones. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  for  us  the  whole  sum  of  mental  pheno- 
mena is  attached  to  certain  animals,  not  to  the  totality  of  all 
organic  beings,  not  even  to  all  animals  generally,  and  I  maintain 
thb  without  hesitation.  We  have  no  reason  yet  to  say  that  the 
lowest  animals  possess  mental  characteristics  ;  we  find  them  only 
with  the  higher  animals,  and  with  perfect  certainty  only  with  the 
highest 

Now  I  will  admit  with  pleasure  that  certain  gradations,  cer- 
tain gradual  transitions,  certain  points  can  be  found,  where  from 
mental  phenomena  one  gets  to  phenomena  of  simply  material  or 
physical  nature.  I  certainly  do  not  declare  that  it  will  never  be 
possible  to  bring  psychical  phenomena  into  immediate  connection 
with  physical  ones.  All  I  say  is,  that  at  present  we  are  not 
justified  in  setting  down  this  possible  connection  as  a  scientific 
doctrine^  and  I  miut  distinctly  oppose  the  attempts  to  enlarge 
cur  doctrines  prematurely  in  this  manner,  and  to  bring  again 
and  again  into  the  foreground  as  a  positive  statement  what  we  so 
often  proved  a  useless  problem.  We  must  distinguish  strictly 
between  what  we  want  to  teach  and  what  we  want  to  investigate. 
What  we  investigate  are  problems.  We  need  not  keep  them  to 
ourselves  ;  we  may  communicate  them  to  the  whole  world  and 
say,  There  is  the  problem,  this  is  what  we  are  trying  to  find  ; 
like  Columbus,  who,  when  he  started  to  discover  India,  made 
no  absolute  secret  of  it,  but  who  eventually  did  not  find  India, 
but  America.  And  the  same  happens  to  us  not  rarely.  We 
start  to  prove  certain  problems  which  we  suppose  to  be  perfectly 
correct,  and  in  the  end  we  find  something  quite  dfferent,  which 
we  never  expected.  The  investigation  of  such  problems,  in 
which  the  whole  nation  mav  be  interested,  mu^t  be  open  to 
everybody.  That  is  the  liberty  of  research.  But  the  problem  is 
not  at  once  to  be  the  object  of  ins- ruction.  When  we  teach  we 
must  confine  ourselves  to  those  smaller  domains  which  arc 
alrently  £0  large,  and  wh'ch  wc  have  ac'ually  mastered.  I 


Gentlemen,  I  am  convinced  that  only  with  a  resignation  ot 
this  kind,  which  we  impose  on  ourselves,  which  we  exercise 
towards  the  rest  of  the  world,  shall  we  be  enabled  to  conduct 
the  fight  against  our  enemies  with  a  victorious  result.  All 
attempts  to  transform  our  problems  into  doctrines,  to  introduce 
our  theories  as  the  basis  of  a  plan  of  education,  particularly  the 
attempt  simplv  to  depose  the  church,  and  to  replace  its  dogma 
by  a  religion  of  descent  without  further  trr  uble,  these  attempts, 
I  say,  must  fail,  and  their  failure  wotild  at  the  same  time  bring 
the  greatest  dangers  upon  the  potition  of  science  generally. 

Therefore  let  us  be  moderate,  let  us  exercise  resignation,  so 
that  we  give  even  the  most  treasured  problems  wh&h  we  put 
forth,  always  as  problems  only,  and  that  we  say  it  a  hundred  and 
again  a  hundred  timet :  "  Do  not  take  this  for  confirmed  truth, 
be  prepared  that  this  may  perhaps  be  changed ;  only  for  the 
moment  we  are  of  opinion  that  it  may  be  true,** 

By  way  of  illustration  I  will  add  another  example.  At  this 
moment  there  are  probably  few  naturalists  who  are  not  of 
opinion  that  man  is  allied  to  the  rest  of  the  animal  world,  and 
that  a  connection  will  possibly  be  found,  if  indeed  not  with  apes, 
then  perhaps  in  tome  other  direction,  as  is  now  the  opinion  of 
Prof.  Vogt 

I  acknowledge  openly  that  this  is  a  desideratum  of  science. 
I  am  quite  prepared  for  it,  and  I  would  not  for  a  moment 
wonder  nor  be  alarmed  if  the  proof  were  found  that  the  ancestors 
of  man  were  vertebrate  animals.  You  know  that  just  at  present 
I  work  by  preference  in  the  field  of  anthropology,  but  yet  I  must 
declare  that  every  step  of  positive  progress  which  we  have  made 
in  the  domain  of  prehbtoric  anthropology,  has  really  moved  us 
further  away  from  the  proof  of  this  connection.  At  this  moment 
anthropolo^  studies  the  question  of  fossil  man.  From  man  in 
the  present  "period  of  creation**  we  have  descended  to  the 
quaternary  period,  to  that  period  when,  as  Cuvier  maintained  with 
the  greatest  coijfidence,  man  never  existed  at  all.  Nowadays 
quaternary  man  is  a  generally  accepted  fact  Quaternary  man 
is  no  longer  a  problem,  but  a  real  doctrine.  But  tertiary  man  is 
a  problem— of  course  a  problem  which  is  already  in  a  sta^e  of 
material  discussion.  There  are  objects  already  about  which  discus- 
sions  are  going  on  as  to  whether  they  may  be  admitted  as  proofs 
for  the  existence  of  man  during  the  tertiary  period.  Wc  do  not 
merely  speculate  on  the  subject,  bat  we  discuss  certain  objects, 
whether  they  may  be  recognised  as  witnesses  for  the  activity  of 
man  during  the  tertiary  period.  The  question  raised  is  answered 
diflferently  according  to  whether  these  objective  material  elements 
of  proof  are  considered  sufficient  or  not.  Even  men  who,  like 
Abbe  Bourgeois,  are  decided  ecclesiastics,  are  convinced  that 
man  has  lived  during  the  tertiary  period  ;  for  them  tertiary  man 
b  already  a  doctrine.  For  u$,  who  are  of  a  more  critical  naiure, 
tertiary  man  is  still  a  problem,  but,  as  we  must  acknowledge,  a 
problem  worthy  of  discussion.  Let  \is  therefore  for  the  present 
remain  at  quaternary  man,  whom  we  really  find.  If  we  stu^y 
this  quaternary,  fossil  man,  who  ought  after  all  to  stand  nearer  to 
our  ancestors  in  the  series  of  descent,  or  rather  of  ascent,  we  find 
a  man  just  the  same  as  we  are  ourselves. 

Onlv  ten  years  ago,  when  a  skull  was  found,  perhaps  in  peat 
or  in  lake  dwellings,  or  in  some  old  cave,  it  was  believed  that 
wonderful  marks  of  a  wild  and  quite  undeveloped  state  were  seen 
in  it.  Indeed  we  were  then  scenting  monkey  air.  But  this  has 
died  out  more  and  more.  The  old  troglodytes,  lake  inhabitants, 
and  peat  people  turn  out  to  be  quite  a  respectable  society.  They 
have  heads  of  such  a  size  that  many  a  person  living  would  feel 
happy  to  possess  one  like  them.  Our  French  neighbours  have 
certainly  warned  us  not  to  conclude  too  much  from  these  big 
heads ;  it  may  be  possible  that  they  were  not  filled  only  with 
nerve- substance,  but  that  the  old  brains  had  more  intermediary 
tissues  than  U  the  case  now-a-days,  and  that  their  nerve-sub- 
stance in  spite  of  the  size  of  the  brain,  remained  at  a  low  state  of 
development.  However  this  is  only  a  friendly  conversation 
which  to  some  extent  is  held  as  a  support  of  weak  minds.  On 
the  whole  we  must  really  acknowledge  that  all  fossil  type  of  a 
lower  human  development  ii  absolutely  wanting.  Indeed  if  we 
take  the  tota'  of  all  fossil  men  that  have  been  found  hitherto  and 
compare  them  with  what  the  present  offers,  then  we  can  main- 
tain with  certainty  that  amongst  the  present  generation  there  is  a 
much  largernumbcr  of  relatively  low-type  individuals  than  amongst 
the  fossils  hitherto  known.  That  only  the  highest  geniuses  of 
the  quaternary  period  enjoyed  the  gool  fortune  of  being  pre- 
S2rved  for  us  I  do  not  dare  to  suppose.  As  a  rule  we  draw  con- 
clusions fiom  the  condition  of  a  single  fossil  object  with  respec: 
to  the  majority  of  others  which  have  not  been  found.  But  I  will 
not  do  this.      1  will  not  maintain  that  the  wVole  rac«:  vv;is  as 


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good  as  the  few  sknl^  which  were  found.  But  I  must  say  that  one 
fossil  monkey-skull  or  man-ape  skull  which  really  belonged  to  a 
human  proprietor  has  never  been  found.  Every  addition  which 
w«  have  obtained  in  the  material  inventory  of  objects  for  dis- 
cussion has  moved  us  further  away  from  the  problem  to  be 
solved.  Now  of  course  we  cannot  avoid  the  consideration  that 
perhaps  It  was  on  some  quite  special  spot  of  the  earth  that  tertiary 
man  lived.  This  is  quite  possible,  since  during  the  last  few  years 
the  remarkable  discovery  has  been  made  in  North  America  that 
the  fossil  ancestors  of  our  horses  occur  in  countries  from  which 
the  horse  had  entirely  disappeared  for  a  long  time.  When 
America  was  discovered  there  were  no  horses  there  at  all ;  in  the 
very  place  where  the  ancestors  of  our  horses  hsul  lived  no  living 
horse  had  r  mained.  Thus  it  may  also  be  that  tertiary  man  has 
existed  in  Greenland  or  Lemuria,  and  will  again  be  brought  to 
light  from  under  the  ground  somewhere  or  other.  But  as  a  fact 
we  must  positively  acknowledge  ih%t  there  is  always  a  sharp 
limit  between  man  and  the  ape.  We  cannot  tfach,  we  cannot 
designate  it  as  a  revelation  of  science,  that  man  descends  from  the 
ape  or  from  any  other  animal.  We  can  but  designate  this  as  a 
problem,  miy  it  seem  ever  so  probable  and  may  it  lie  ever  so 
near. 

We  ought  to  be  sufficiently  warned  by  the  experiences  of  the 
past,  at  a  time  when  we  are  not  justified  in  drawing  conclusions, 
not  unnecessarily  to  burden  ourselves,  wiih  the  obligation,  or 
yield  to  the  temptation  of  drawing  them  all  the  same.  Look 
you,  gentlemen,  it  is  in  this  that  the  difficultv  lies  for  every 
naturalist  who  speaks  to  the  world  at  large.  Whoever  speaks 
or  writes  for  the  public,  ought,  in  my  opinion,  doubly  to  examine 
just  now,  how  much  of  that  which  he  knows  and  sajrs  is  objec- 
tive truth.  He  ought  to  try  as  much  as  possible  to  have  all 
inductive  extensions  which  be  makes,  all  progressing  conclusions 
by  the  laws  of  analogy,  however  probable  they  may  seem, 
printed  in  small  type  underneath  the  g:eneral  text,  and  to  put  into 
the  latter  only  that  which  really  is  objective  truth.  In  that  cise 
we  might  perhaps  succeed  in  gaining  an  always  increasing  circle 
of  followers,  in  obtaining  an  always  increasing  number  of  lellow- 
workersi  and  in  causing  the  educated  public  to  continue  to  take 
part  in  that  fertile  manner  in  which  it  has  already  taken  part  in 
many  domains.  Otherwise,  gentlemen,  I  fear  that  we  overrate 
our  power.  Certainly  old  Bicon  said  with  perfect  jostice, 
scienlta  est  pctentia^  knowledge  is  power.  But  he  has  also 
defined  knowledge,  and  the  knowledge  which  he  meant  was  not 
speculative  knowledge,  not  the  knowledge  of  problems,  but  it 
was  the  objective  knowle^lge  of  facts.  I  think  that  we  should 
abuse  our  power,  we  should  endanger  our  power,  if  in  our  teaching 
we  do  not  fall  back  upon  this  perfectly  justified,  perfectly  safe, 
and  impregnable  domain.  From  this  dumain  we  may  as 
investigators  make  our  excursions  in  the  direction  of  problems, 
and  I  am  convinced  that  every  attempt  of  this  kind  will  then 
find  the  necessary  safety  and  support. 


AMERICAN  SCIENCE 

THE  principal  paper  in  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and 
Arts  for  November,  is  Prof.  March's  able  address  at  the  recent 
meeting  of  the  American  Association,  on  the  Introduction  and  Suc- 
cession of  Vertebrate  Lifein  America,  which  we  have  given  at  length. 
— Diicussing  the  question.  Is  the  existence  of  growth  rings  in  the 
early  exogenous  plants  proof  of  alternating  seasons  ?  Dr.  Warring 
concludes  from  observations,  that  some  exogens  form  rings  at 
intervals  much  less  than  a  year;  others  rtquire  intervals  of 
several  years,  and  some  form  no  lings.  The  presence  or  absence 
of  rings  in  exogens  occurs  in  all  climates.  Large  and  well- 
defined  rings  are  found  where  there  is  absolutely  uo  appreciable 
variation  of  temperature  or  moisture  throughout  the  year.  An 
exogen  naturally  forming  rings  will  continue  to  form  them, 
although  the  climate  become  uniform  throughout  the  year. 
Thus  the  existence  of  these  markings  in  ancient  flora  gives  no 
informat  on  as  to  the  existence  at  that  time  of  seasons,  and  so  far 
ts  they  are  concerned  we  are  left  free  to  adopt  any  conclusion  as  to 
inclination  of  the  earth's  axis,  which  may  appear  most  reasonable. 
— Some  years  ago  Prof.  Newcomb  showed  that  the  improvements 
introduced  into  the  theory  of  the  moon's  mean  mot  on  by 
Hanssen's  lunar  tables  did  not  extend  to  the  inequalities  of  long 
period  in  that  motion.  Wnile  Hanssen,  by  an  empirical  term 
had  secured  a  very  good  agreement  with  observations  from  1750 
to  i860,  this  agreement  was  found  to  have  been  obtained  by 
sacrificing  the  agreement  before  1750,  and  the  moon  had  then 
begun  to  deviate  from  the  tables  at  such  a  rate  that  they  could 


not  continue  satisfactorily  to  represent  the  observations.  Prof. 
Newcomb  has  since  attempted  a  complete  discussion  of  all 
recorded  observations  of  any  astronomical  value  before  the  year 
1 750,  and  his  suspicion  has  been  entirely  confirmed.  The  results 
of  this  examination  are  communicated.  Comparing  a  theory  of 
the  moon's  mean  motion  founded  on  gravity  alone,  with  the 
observations,  he  is  led  to  suppose  that  the  deviations  may  be  due 
to  the  action  of  some  of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system.  He 
corrects  Hanssen's  term  by  an  empirical  addition.  —  Prof. 
Dana  contributes  to  the  number  a  rote  on  the  Helderberg 
formation  of  Bernardston,  Massachusetts,  and  Vernon,  Vermont, 
and  Mr.  Mallet  describes  "  Serpylite,"  a  new  niobate,  from 
Amherst  County,  Virginia. 

The  New  York  Tribune  states  that  the  Johns  Hopkins  Scien- 
tific Association  has  recently  been  organised  in  Baltimore.  Prof. 
Sylvester  is  president.  Prof.  Remsen,  vice-president.  Dr.  Story, 
secretary.  A  great  feature  in  the  programme  is  that  the  essays 
presented  are  to  be  short  and  concise,  and  to  contain  the  par- 
ticulars of  original  research  exclusively.  There  is  also  to  be  a 
discussion  of  new  scientific  publications,  both  foreign  and 
domestic,  at  the  meetings,  of  which  the  fir^t  has  been  held,  with 
a  score  of  members  present. 

Under  date  November  20,  the  TW^M/r^has  the  following  telegram 
from  Washington : — Messrs.  S.  H.  Scudder  of  Cambridge,  and  F. 
C.  Bowditch,  of  Boston,  have  just  returned  from  a  two  months' 
tour  in  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Utah,  where,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dr.  Hayden,  they  have  been  exploring  for  fossil  insects 
and  collecting  specimens  especially  in  the  high  regions.  They 
report  having  secured  many  specimens  of  fossil  insects  at  different 
points  along  the  railways  from  Pueblo  to  Cheyenne,  and  from 
Cheyenne  to  Salt  Lake,  as  stell  as  at  Lakin,  Kansas,  and  Gar- 
land, and  Georgetown,  Col,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  South 
Park  and  surrounding  region.  Their  time  was  so  limited  that 
they  were  unable  to  visit  White  River  and  explore  the  beds  of 
fossil  insects)  known  to  exist  there.  Ten  days  were  spent  at 
Green  River,  and  in  that  vicinity,  in  exploring  the  tertiary  strata 
for  fossil  insects,  but  with  very  unsatisfactory  results.  Near 
Flori«ante  the  tertiary  basin  was  found  to  be  exceedingly  rich 
in  insects  and  plants.  Mr.  Scudder  spent  several  days  in  the 
careful  survey  of  this  basin,  and  estimates  that  the  extent  of  the 
insect-bearing  shales  there  is  at  least  fifty  times  as  great  as  that 
of  those  in  Southern  Bavaria.  Six  or  seven  thousand  specimens 
of  insects,  and  2,000  or  3,000  of  pbints  have  already  been 
received  from  Florisante,  and  as  many  more  are  expected  before 
the  close  of  the  year.  Arrangements  were  also  made  with  persons 
who  have  found  a  new  and  rich  deposit  of  fossils  in  the  tertiary 
strata  in  Wyoming  to  forward  all  the  specimens  obtained  there. 
Mr.  Scudder  believes  that  the  tertiary  strata  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  region  are  richer  in  t|)e  remains  of  fossil  insects  than 
any  others  in  the  world,  and  that  within  the  next  few  months 
the  amount  of  material  at  hand  for  the  study  of  the  subject  will 
be  greater  than  was  ever  before  possessed  by  any  single  naturalist. 
Prof.  Joseph  Leidy,  the  comparative  anatomist  and  microscopist, 
has  also  recently  returned  from  his  second  visit  to  the  west,  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Hayden.  His  field  of  operations  during 
the  past  season  was  the  country  about  Fort  Bridger,  Unitah 
Mounuins  and  the  Salt  Lake  Basin.  The  specimens  he  has 
collected  comprise  the  lowest  and  simplest  forms  of  animal  life, 
the  most  minute  requiring  high  microscopic  power  to  distinguish 
their  structure. 


W^ 


THE  METEOR 

£  have  received  some  further  communications  concerning 
this  remarkable  phenomenon,  and  some  interesting  detail;! 
concerning  a  similar  body  will  be  found  in  our  "Astronomical 
Column."     Mr.  A.  O.  Walker  writes  from  Chester  :— 

In  reading  the  notice  of  the  meteor  of  November  23  in 
Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  94, 1  am  surprised  to  see  no  mention  of 
any  report  from  it  As  I  only  heard  it  without  seeing  it  I  send 
you  the  notice  of  it  from  my  diary,  written  immediately  after  the 
occurrence  :— 

'*  About  8.30  P.M.  heard  a  loud  report  like  that  of  a  cannon 
(say  32  Ibe.),  fired  about  200  yards  off,  which  shook  the  house, 
and  the  servants  saw  a  bright  flash.  The  sky  overhead  was  quite 
clear  and  only  deudy  on  the  horizon  south  and  east.  Thought 
it  was  the  explosion  of  an  aerolite." 

Next  day  I  made  inquiries  and  added  the  following  :— 

*<  Parry  and  Field  said  the  flash  was  blue,  and  five  minutes 


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elapsed  between  tbe  flash  and  bane.  Parry's  girl  was  outside, 
ana  came  in  crying  ;  said  she  had  seen  *  a  very  funny  kind  of 
lightning.'    Parry  remarked  it  shook  his  door." 

The  two  men  named  above  are  in  my  employ,  and  live  about 
300  yards  from  my  house.  Some  friends  of  ours  living  about 
two  miles  from  us  also  saw  the  flash  and  heard  the  report^  but 
the  latter  not  so  loud  as  we  did.  They  described  it  as  sounding 
as  if  a  bird  had  flown  against  the  window." 

I  give  the  above  extracts  vefbatinty  as  first  impressions,  unin« 
fluenced  by  what  one  hears  or  rezds  subsequently,  are  much  the 
most  valuable. 

Dr.  S.  Drew,  of  Chapeltown,  Sheffield,  writes  as  follows  : — 

I  send  you  the  following  calculations  as  to  the  meteor  of 
November  23.  They  may  interest  some  of  your  readers.  The 
estimates  are  only  intended  as  approximate,  as  the  observations 
at  differeot  points  of  view  were  too  vague  for  much  accuracy, 
and  indeed,  in  two  instances,  obviously  quite  unreliable. 

The  visible  course  of  the  meteor  appears  to  have  been  from  a 
point  about  150  miles  above  the  town  of  Worksop  to  the  Irish 
Channel,  nonh-west  of  Liverpool,  probably  nearly  half-way 
between  Liverpool  and  the  Isle  of  Man— a  direction  from  east 
by  south  to  west  by  north,  the  horizontal  distance  traversed 
being  rather  over  100  miles  and  the  perpendicular  150  miles. 
The  sire  of  the  fire-ball  before  breaking  up  was  about  150 
yards  in  diameter.  By  this  is  meant  the  size  of  the  luminous 
sphere,  not  that  of  the  actual  bolide,  which  would  be  much  less. 

The  rate  of  motion  was  near  twenty  miles  per  sfcond  in 
horizontal,  and  thirty  miles  in  perpendicular  ;  as  this  in  horizon- 
tal is  little  more  than  would  be  caused  in  appearance  by  the 
orbital  and  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  it  is  evident  that  the 
proper  motion  of  the  meteor  was  nearly  perpendicular  to  the 
earth's  surface  ;  and,  if  belonging  t#  the  solar  system,  it  must 
have  moved  in  a  very  eccentric  orbit,  stretching  far  beyond  that 
of  tbe  earth.  The  meteor  broke  at  an  elevation  of  about  fifty 
miles,  and  then  appeared  much  larger.  Tae  fragments  must 
have  dropped  into  the  sea. 

Was  it  seen  from  Ireland  or  the  Isle  of  Man  ? 

S.  A,  K.  writing  to  the  Manchester  Courier  from  Black- 
pool states  that  about  8.30  p.m.  on  the  23rd  he  beheld  a  ball 
of  a  pale  blue  colour  shoot  across  the  sky  from  east  to  west, 
followed  by  a  train  of  rainbow  lines,  brilliant  beyond  descrip- 
tion. "  It  was  over  in  a  moment ;  but  as  I  and  several  others 
stood  discussing  the  phenomenon  we  had  just  witnessed,  two 
muffled  booms  as  of  lar-distant  cannon  were  distinctly  heard  in 
the  west,  after  an  interval  of  two  or  three  minutes.'*  Capt. 
Tupman  writes  from  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  to  the 
Ttnus:  "There  is  reason  to  suppose  that  the  great  meteor 
which  appeared  at  8.20  p.m.  on  Friday  last  (November  23)  fell 
into  the  sea  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Dee.  From  its  splendour 
it  was  probably  seen  by  many  persons  near  the  shores  of  North 
Wales,  Cheshire,  and  Lancashire,  whose  observations  would  be 
of  the  greatest  vsilue ;  and  I  venture  to  solicit  the  publicity  of 
your  columns  in  order  that  such  observations  may  be  forwarded 
here.  On  Tuesday  night  (Nov.  27),  at  10.26,  G.M.T.,  I  observed 
another  pass  slowly  from  a  point  about  6*^  over  Castor  to  5"  left  of 
Sirius.  It  remained  in  sight  fifteen  or  sixteen  seconds,  deter- 
mined by  counting.  Towards  the  end  it  became  faint,  of  a  dull 
red  colour,  and  mof  ed  with  extreme  slowness.  I  have  no  doubt 
it  most  have  appeared  very  large  to  observers  near  Dover  and  in 
Normandy,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  its  path  has  been  recorded 
elsewhere." 

A  meteor  was  observed  at  Strassburg  on  November  23,  the 
very  day  when  the  meteor  was  observed  in  England,  but  the  time 
was  a  little  after  six  o'clock  (local  time),  and  the  direction  from 
north  to  south.  A  violent  detonation  was  heard,  but  without  any 
resemblance  to  that  of  thunder.  The  light  was  as  vivid  as  ordinary 
lightning  at  Strassburg.  A  witness  states  that  he  saw  the  meteor 
(idling  at  a  small  distance  from  him  (three  or  four  metres)  in  a 
wood  belonging  to  the  Chevaudier  de  Valdrome  on  the  new 
road  leading  from  Lorquin  to  the  French  frontier.  All  the  trees 
were  illuminated  as  if  by  daylight.  It  is  not  reported  by  the 
Strassburg  Gazette  whether  any  stone  was  found  on  the  spot. 


UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Oxford. — ^The  Brackenbury  Scholarship  in  physical  science 
has  been  awarded  to  Mr.  Cunningham,  BaUiol  College. 


London. — The  Council  of  University  College  have]  awarded 
the  Sharpey  Physiological  Scholarship  to  Mr.  Patrick  Geddes 
and  the  Joseph  Hume  Scholarship  in  Political  Economy  of  20/. 
per  annum  for  three  years  to  Mr.  J.  G.  Schurmao. 

Edinburgh. — A  public  meeting,  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Right  Hon.  the  Lord  Provost,  was  held  on  the  29th  ult.  at 
Edinburgh  to  advocate  the  claims  of  the  Edinburgh  University 
Buildingi  Extension  Scheme.  The  cost  of  the  new  medical 
school,  &c,  will  be  about  187,000/.,  and  of  that  sum  82,000/. 
has  been  subscribed  by  the  public  and  80,000/.  has  been  promised 
by  Government  on  condition  that  the  remaining  25,500/.  be  sub- 
scribed before  the  end  of  next  year.  It  was  announced  that 
about  10,000/.  of  this  has  been  promised,  leaving  upwards  of 
14,000/.  still  to  be  raised.  In  support  of  the  appeal  it  was  men- 
tioned that  in  some  class-rooms  ther4  is  not  sitting  room  for  the 
students.  The  number  of  students  is  increasing  every  year,  there 
being  at  present  enrolled  212  more  than  at  the  same  time  last 
year,  so  that  btfore  the  summer  session  is  over  there  will  probably 
be  close  on  2,500  students  matriculated. 

The  first  meeting  of  the  fourth  session  of  the  Chemical  Society 
of  the  University  was  held  in  the  University  on  November  28, 
the  president.  Prof.  A.  Crum  Brown,  in  the  chair.  The  president 
gave  an  introductory  lecture  on  the  **Life  and  Works  of  Dr. 
Joseph  Black."  The  fv4lowing  office-bearers  were  elected  for  the 
ensumg  seasion  : — President — Prof.  A.  Cram  Brown  ;  Vice- 
Presidents— J.  Gibson,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  W.  Inglis  Clark, 
B.Sc.  ;  Secretary— J.  Adams;  Treasurer— C.  Maxwell,  R.N. 
The  society  numbers  fifty-iwo  members,  and  ten  new  members 
were  proposed. 

Manchester. — A  Chemical  Society  has  been  commenced  at 
the  Owens  College.  The  society  is  intended  to  include  all 
students  of  science  at  the  College — Dalton  .Scholars,  Associates, 
and  a  few  others  connected  now,  or  in  the  past,  with  the 
Science  Clisses  of  Owens  College,  The  scciety  was  opened  on 
Wednesday  evening  by  an  address  from  Prof.  Thorpe,  F.  R.5t. 
on  **  Robert  Boyle  and  the  Sceptical  Chemist."  The  Syllabus 
of  the  society  for  the  session  is  as  follows  : — "  Are  the  Elements 
Elementary?"  by  Mr.  Pattison  Muir;  *' Graham,"  by  Mr.  P. 
P.  Bedson,  B.Sc.  ;  *•  Berzelius,"  by  Mr.  J.  K.  Crow,  B.Sc; 
**  Alkali  Manufacture,"  by  Mr.  Bcvan  :  **  Crystallisation,"  by 
Mr.  Biker  ;  **  Liebig,"  by  Mr.  C.  F.  Cross  ;  •«  Valensy,"  by 
Mr.  0*Shea  ;  **  Chemical  Industry  of  Japan,"  by  Mr.  Si^uira  ; 
and  a  paper,  subject  not  settled,  by  Prof.  Gamgee.  It  is  hoped 
and  believed  that  the  society  will  tend  to  increase  the  interest  in 
scientific  pursuis  already  manifested  by  members  of  the  College. 

France. — A  number  of  important  measures  have  been  taken 
by  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  for  fostering  the 
zeal  of  students  and  professors  in  the  several  French  faculties. 
By  a  decree  issued  on  November  5  a  number  of  scholarships 
have  been  created  in  each  academy  at  the  expense  of  the  public 
exchequer.  In  future  years  scholars  are  to  be  appointed  after 
having  passed  special  examinations  similar  to  those  for  exhibi- 
tions in  the  English  universities.  Exceptions  are  created  in 
favour  of  students  who  have  been  particularly  successful  in 
taking  their  preliminary  degrees  and  have  published  approved 
papeis  in  the  Academical  Transactions^  or  have  rendered  special 
services  in  tuition.  For  the  present  year  the  different  scholar- 
ships are  to  be  granted  by  a  special  commission.  Three  of  these 
commissions  have  been  established — one  for  letters,  another  for 
science,  and  the  third  for  medicine.  These  scholarships  are  to 
be  continued  only  for  a  limited  time,  varying  from  two  to  four 
years,  but  are  to  be  stopped  at  once  if  the  scholar  does  not  give 
sa'isfaction  to  the  professors  or  lecturers.  A  part  of  these 
scholarships  is  to  be  granted  to  candidates  for  the  mastership  of 
arts  (Licencices-Lettres  and  es-Sciences),  and  another  part  to  the 
masters  in  several  faculties  wishing  to  take  the  highest  honours 
in  their  respective  faculties.  By  another  decree,  published  on 
the  same  day,  M.  Brunet  has  created  a  number  of  lectureships 
styled  ** conferences."    A  number  of  the  lecturers  are  to  act  as 

{)ublic  tutors,  helping  public  professors  in  their  duties.  Oiher 
ectureships  are  to  be  granted  to  professors  teaching  supple- 
mentary sciences  which,  up  to  the  present  time,  have  not  come 
within  the  limits  of  the  official  programme.  The  salary  of  all  ot 
them  is  120/.,  and  they  are  to  be  appointed  yearly  from  among 
doctors  or  members  of  the  academies.  In  some  peculiar  cases 
Masters  of  Arts  are  eligible  to  these  lectureships.  The  new 
organisation  is  expected  to  work  during  the  present  classical 
year. 


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Dec.  6,  1877]. 


NATURE 


1 1 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
Geological  Society,  November  7. — Prof.  P.  Martin 
DuDcan,  F.R.S.,  prcsidenf,  in  the  chair. — Stephenson  Clarke, 
William  Hunter,  and  the  Rtvt  W,  Roberts,  were  elected  Fellows 
of  the  Society.  The  following  communications  were  read  :  A 
letter  dated  September  14  wa*  read,  from  Lord  Derby,  stating 
that  his  lordship  had  received  a  despatch  from  her  Majesty's 
Minister  et  Tehran,  reporting  that  a  raining  engineer  had  arrived 
there  from  Berlin,  who,  at  the  request  of  the  Persian  government, 
had  been  selected  by  Messrs.  Siemens  to  ascertain  what  founda- 
tion there  was  for  the  reported  existence  of  a  rich  vein  of  gold  in 
the  vicinity  of  2>ngan ;  that  he  had  visited  the  locality  and 
reported  that  auriferous  quartz  does  exist,  but  that  he  had  not  yet 
succeeded  in  finding  any  vein  or  deposit  of  the  netal. — Notes  on 
fossil  plants  discovered  in  Grinnell  Land  by  Capf,  H.  W. 
Feilden,  Naturalist  to  the  English  North  Polar  Expedition,  by 
Prof.  Oswald  Hcer,  F.M.G.S.  Near  Discovery  Harbour,  where 
H.M.S.  Discovery  \AnX^fe\  in  1875-6,  in  about  8i*  45' N.  lat, 
and  64"  45'  W.  long.,  a  bed  of  lignite,  from  twenty- five  to  thirty 
feet  thick,  was  fouin),  resting  unconfbrmably  upon  the  azoic 
schists  of  which  Grinnell  Land  chiefly  consists.  The  lignite  was 
overlain  by  black  sh^es  and  landstones,  the  former  containing 
many  remains  of  plants  ;  and  above  these  there  were,  here  and 
there,  beds  of  fine  mud  and  glacial  drift,  containing  shells  of 
marine  moUusca  of  species  now  living  in  the  adjacent  sea.  This 
glacial  marine  deposit  occurs  up  to  levels  of  f  ,00a  feet,  indicating 
a  depression  and  subsequent  elevation  of  the  region  to  at  least 
this  extent.  Remains  ot  tireotj-five  species  of  plants  w<re  col- 
lected by  Capt  Feilden,  and  eighteen  of  these  are  known  from 
miocene  deposits  of  the  Arctic  zone.  The  deposit  is  therefore 
no  doubt  miocene.  It  has  seventeen  species  in  common  with 
Spitxbergen  (78°  79'  N.  lat.),  and  eight  species  in  common  with 
Greenland  (70**  71'  N.  lat.).  With  the  miocene  flora  of  Europe 
it  has  six  species  in  common  ;  with  that  of  America  (Alaska  and 
Canada)  four;  with  that  of  Asia  (Sachalin)  four  also.  The 
species  found  include  two  species  of  Equuetunt^  ten  Coniferae, 
PhragmUes  (ettingensis,  Carex  ftoursoaJk^fuis,  and  eight  dicoty- 
ledons, namely,  Poptdut  arctica^  Betula  prisca,  and  Bron^iarti^ 
CoryiUS  m^cquami  and  insignis^  Ulmus  bonalii^  Vibmnuni 
nordinskibUiy  and  Nymphcca  arctica.  Of  the  Conifers,  Torellia 
ri^ida^  previously  known  only  by  a  few  fragments  from  Spiiz- 
bergen,  is  very  abundant,  and  its  remains  show  it  to  have 
been  allied  to  the  Jurassic  gen^a  Pfujfnicopsis  and  BaUra, 
the  former  in  its  turn  related  to  the  carboniferous  CarJaitts^ 
and  among  recent  conifers,  to  Podocarpus,  Oiher  conifers 
are,  Thuites  ehrens7udrdi  {?)^  Taxodium  distichum  miocgnum  (with 
male  flo^eri),  Pinus  feildtniana  (a  new  species  allied  to  P, 
strolbui)^Pinu5 polar is^  P,  abus  (iw'xgs  covered  with  leaves),  a  species 
of  Tsuga  Pinus  dicksoniana,  I  leer.),  and  a  white  spruce  of  the 
group  of  Pinus  grandis  and  cariocarpa,  Pinus  abits^  which 
occurs  here  and  in  Spitzbergen,  did  not  exist  in  Europe 
in  miocene  times,  but  had  its  original  home  in  the  extreme 
north,  and  thence  extended  southwards ;  it  is  met  wiih 
in  the  Norfolk  forest-bed,  and  in  the  interglacial  lignites 
of  Switzerland.  Its  present  northern  limit  is  694*  N.,  and 
it  spreads  over  25°  of  latitude.  Taxxlmm  distichum,  on 
the  contrary,  spread  in  miocene  times  from  Central  Italy  to 
82**  N.  latitude,  whilst  at  present  it  is  confined  to  a  small 
area.  Bdula  brongniartiy  Ett.,  is  the  only  European  species 
from  Grinnell  Land  not  previously  known  from  the  arctic  zone. 
The  thick  lignile  bed  of  Grinnell  Land  indicates  a  large  peat- 
moss, probably  containmg  a  lake  in  which  the  water-lilies  grew ; 
oa  its  muddy  shores  stood  the  large  reeds  and  sedges,  tlie  birche*, 
poplars,  Taxod.a,  and  Toidiiis.  The  drier  spots  and  neiglibour- 
ing  chains  of  hills  were  probably  occupied  by  the  pines  and  fir.«, 
associated  with  elms  ami  hazel  bushes.  A  single  el>lron  of  a 
httiXc  {Carabttt's /didiu-anus)  is  at  present  the  sole  evidence  of 
the  existence  oi  animals  in  this  forest  region.  The  nature  of  the 
flora  revealed  by  Capt.  Ftilden's  discoveries  seems  to  confirm 
and  extend  earlier  results.  It  approaches  much  more  closely  to 
that  of  Spitzberj^en  than  to  that  of  Greenland,  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  the  relative  posilicns  of  the  localities ;  and  the  dif- 
ference is  the  same  in  kind  as  that  already  indicated  by  ;Prof. 
Heer  between  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  and  would  indicate 
the  same  kind  of  climatic  difference.  Neveithcles?,  the  presence 
of  laxotiium  distichum  excludes  arctic  conditions,  and  that  of 
the  water-lily  indicates  the  existence  of  fre^h-water,  which  must 
have  remained  open  a  great  part  of  the  year.  Representatives 
of  plants  now  living  exclr.=^ivt iy  in  the  arciic  zone  arc  wanting  in 


the  Grinnell  Land  deposits  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  most  of  the 
genera  still^extend  into  that  zone,  although  they  range  in  Grin- 
nell Land  from  12°  to  15°  further  north  than  at  present— On 
our  present  knowledge  of  the  invertebrate  fauna  of  the  lower 
carboniferous  or  calciferous  sandstone  series  of  the  Edinburgh 
neighbourhood,  especially  of  that  division  known  as  the  Wardie 
Shales,  and  on  the  first  appearance  of  certain  species  in  the 
beds,  by  Mr.  R.  Eiheridge,  jun.,  F.G.S. 

Zoological  Society,  November  20.— Prof.  Flower,  F.R  S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Howard  Saunders  exhibited  a 
specimen  of  the  rare  Aleutian  Tern  (Sterna  aleutica)  from 
Alaska,  and  made  remarks  upon  its  intermediate  position 
between  typical  Sterna  and  the  group  of  the  Sooly  Terns  (Ouy- 
choprion). — A  communication  was  read  from  the  Marquis  of 
Tvvceddale,  F.R.S.,  containing  an  account  of  a  collection  of 
birds  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  in  the  li^land  of  Zebu,  Philip- 
pines. Six  new  species  were  found  in  this  collection,  and  were 
named  Oriolus  assimilis,  Phylhmis  flavipennis^  Zostcrops  cveretti, 
Prionochilus  quadricohr,  Turnix  ni^rescens,  and  Megapodius 
pusi  lus, — Three  communications  were  read  from  Dr.  O.  Finsch, 
C.M.Z.S.  The  first  contained  a  report  on  a  collection  of  birds 
made  at  Eua,  Friendly  Islands,  by  Mr.  F.  Hiibner,  which  had 
increased  our  knowledge  of  the  avifauna  of  Eua  from  four  to 
twenty.four  species.  The  second  contained  a  description  of  a 
collection  of  birds  made  on  the  Island  of  Ponape,  Eastern  Caro- 
linas,  by  Mr.  J.  Kubary.  The  total  number  of  species  known 
at  present  from  Ponape  was  stated  to  be  twenty-nine,  of  which 
seven  were  peculiar  to  the  island.  The  third  contained  a  list  of 
the  birds  obtained  at  Ninafou  Island  in  the  Pacific,  by  Mr.  F. 
HUbner.  This  collection  raised  the  number  of  the  known  birds 
of  this  island  from  one  to  twenty. — Prof.  Garrod,  F.R.S.,  read 
notes  on  the  Taenia  of  the  rhinoceros  of  the  Sunderbunds  P/agio* 
taenia  gi^^antia),  on  the  anatomy  of  the  Chinese  water-deer 
(Hydropates  tnermis)^  on  the  possible  cause  of  death  in  a  young 
seal,  and  on  the  occurrence  of  a  gall-bladder  in  certain  species  of 
parrots. — Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  F.Z.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the 
Laridtc  collected  during  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Chalhnger, 
which  comprised  nine  species  of  Sternce,  five  of  LarituE,  and  three 
of  Stercorariti(€f  altogether  seventeen  speciej  represented  by  fotty- 
givtn  specimens ;  seveial  of  these  were  very  rare  in  museums, 
although  none  of  them  were  absolutely  new  to  science. — A  com- 
munication was  read  from  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer,  containing  some 
additional  proofs  of  the  fact  that  the  Red  Eclecti^xe  the  females 
of  the  green  species  of  that  genus. — A  paper  was  read  by  Mr. 
G.  French  Angas,  C.M.Z.S.,  containing  notes  on  Hdix sepul» 
charalis  of  Ferrasac,  and  its  allies,  with  descriptions  of  two 
new  species. 

Physical  Society,  November  17.— Dr.  Stone,  vice-president, 
in  the  chair. — The  president,  Prof.  G.  C.  Foster,  described  and 
exhibited  a  very  simple  form  of  absolute  electrometer,  which 
acts  on  the  same  principle  as  Sir  W.  Thomson's  trapdoor  form 
of  apparatus,  but  can  be  constructed  at  a  very  moderate  cost. 
To  one  arm  of  a  balance  is  suspended  by  silk  fibres  a  zinc  disc, 
which  hangs  horizontally  in  the  plane  of  a  sheet  of  the  same 
metal  forming  a  guard- plate  ;  and  at  a  ci stance  of  about  one 
inch  below  is  a  flat  sheet  of  zinc,  also  horizontal.  An  electrical 
connection  is  formed  between  the  guard-plate  and  suspended  disc 
by  a  bridge  of  very  fine  wire.  The  method  of  using  the  appa- 
ratus to  determine  the  potential  required  for  a  spark  to  pass  from 
a  Iloltz  machine  through  varyitg  thicknesses  of  air  was  ex- 
plained. When  the  balance  has  been  accurately  counterpoised, 
an  excess  weight,  say  one  gramme,  b  introduced  into  the  scale 
pan,  and  the  guard-plate  and  the.  loȴer  attracting- plate,  as  well 
as  the  two  knobs  of  a  spark- measurer,  are  connected  with  the 
conductors  of  the  machine.  If  this  be  now  set  in  action,  and 
the  knobs  of  the  spark-measurer  be  gradually  separated,  a  point 
w  11  be  reached  at  which  the  attraction  upon  the  suspended  diic 
just  overcomes  the  excess  weight  in  the  baUnce  pan.  The  length 
of  spark  for  which  this  occurs  can  now  be  read  oft  The  dif- 
ference of  potential  causing  the  spark  is  given  by  the  formuU 

>/S>',  where  tf  is  the  radius  of  the  attracted  disc,  ^  its  dis- 
tance from  the  attracting-plate,  and  F  the  force  of  attraction  in 
dynes.  In  the  apparatus  exhibited,  a  had  the  value  5"  195  cm., 
and  e  the  value  24  cm.,  whence,  if  n/  be  the  excess  weight  in 
grammes— 80  that  F  ^  9S1  n/— the  difference  of  potential  bc- 
co.nes  39  Vw.  The  proper  action  of  the  apparatus  depends 
essentially  upon  the  attracted  disc  being  accurately  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  guard-plate.  To  facilitate  this,  adjustment,  each 
of  the  silk  fibres  by  which  the  disc  is  suspended  is  attached  to  a 


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{pec,  6,  187;^ 


r,  \rf  which  it  can  be  separately  raised  or  lowered  ;  and  by 
means  of  another  screw  the  small  brass  plate  holding  the  sus- 
pending screws  can  be  raised  or  lowered  as  a  whole.  A  few 
nnmerical  results  were  giren  to  illustrate  the  action  of  the  appa- 
ratus. These  were  taken  from  a  set  of  experiments  in  which  the 
difference  of  potential  needed  to  produce  sparks  in  air  between 
two  equal  brass  spheres  of  2 '61  cm.  radius  was  measured.  The 
foUowiog  are  the  results  for  a^^few  of  the  shortest  and  longest 
sparks  measured  : — 


Length  of  Spu-k.       >  Diflference  of  Potential. 


cm. 
0-1325 
0-1825 
0237 

068 
071 
074 


17*4 
20 '4 
24*6 

62-9 


Mean  Electrical  Force. 


117 
104 

93 

92 

93 


Vienna 
Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  October  1 1. — Preliminary 
note  on  the  position  of  the  optical  axes  of  elasticity  in  gypsum 
for  various  colours,  by  M.  Lang.  The  angle  of  the  optic 
axes  shows  a  maximum  for  the  Fraunhofer  line  D.  The 
dispersion  of  the  axes  of  elasticity  in  the  plane  of  symmetry  is 
abnormal.  These  observations  agree  on  the  one  hand  with 
Poggendorff 's  exact  description  of  the  axial  forms  of  gypsum, 
and  on  the  other  side  with  Desdoigeaux's  observation  that  at 
the  higher  temperatures,  where  the  plane  of  axis  b  at  right- 
angles  to  the  place  of  symmetnr,  no  horizontal  dispersion  is 
observable.— Annual  periods  ot  the  insect  fauna  of  Austro- 
Hungary,  by  M.  Fritsch. — On  the  relation  between  the  second 
principal  proposition  of  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat  and 
the  calculation  of  probability  respecting  the  propositions  011  heat- 
equilibrium,  by  M.  Boltzn.ann. — The  cylindroid  and  its  spe- 
cialties, by  M.  Kozak.~Simple  calculation  of  elliptic  arches, 
by  G.  Seewald.~On  eruptive  sands,  and  on  the  Flysch  and  the 
ArgUU  scagHose^  by  M.  Fuchs. — On  equal  figures  in  curves, 
cones,  and  surfaces  of  the  second  order  and  of  certain  of  higher 
orders,  by  M.  Puchta. — Calculation  of  cylindrical  vessels  with 
complicated  relations,  by  M.  Streicher. — On  development  of  the 
resinous  passages  in  some  conifers,  by  M.  Weiss. — Continued 
studies  on  the  mode  of  ending  of  nerves  of  smell,  by  M.  £xnor. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  November  26.~*1ii.  Peligot  In  the 
chair : — The  following  papers  were  read  : — Geographical  posi- 
tions of  the  principal  pomis  of  the  coast  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli,  by 
M.  Monchez.  This  relates  to  observations  during  the  hydro- 
graphic  voyage  of  the  Castor  in  1876,  of  some  fifty  points  equally 
distributed  along  about  300  leagues  of  coast — On  some  applica- 
tions of  elliptic  functions  (continued),  by  M.  Hermite.—The 
Echidna  of  New  Guinea,  by  M.  Gervais.  He  notes  several 
points  In  which  the  head  differs  from  that  of  the  Australian 
animaL — On  invariants,  by  ProC  Sylvester. — On  the  waves  of 
various  kinds  which  result  from  the  working  of  the  sluice  of 
Autx>is,  by  M.  CaUgny. — On  the  solution  of  tne  equation  of  the 
fifth  degree,  by  M.  BrioschL — Nature  of  the  hydrocarbons  pro- 
duced by  action  of  adds  on  mangane^iferous  spiegeleisen,  by  M. 
Cloez.  Several  of  thete  products  seem  identical  with  those  which 
exist  m  the  ground  and  are  extracted  on  a  large  scale  under  the 
name  of  petroleum.  This  production  of  complex  carbonised 
compounds,  without  any  intervention  of  life,  supports  the  views 
of  certain  geologists  on  the  origin  of  petroleum.  The  reproduc- 
tion of  a  huge  number  of  organic  species  might  be  realised  by  com- 
mencing with  ethylenic  or  formemc  hydrocarbons,  furnished  by 
cast  iron. — Discovery  and  observation  of  the  planet  175  by  Mr. 
Watson. — On  the  dutances  of  stars,  by  M.  Flammarioc.  He 
cites  several  facts  which  seem  not  to  allow  of  basing  on  differ- 
ences of  brightness  an  estimate  of  distances. — On  the  interme- 
diary integial  of  the  third  order  of  the  equation  with  partial 
derivatives  of  the  fourth  order  expressing  that  the  problem  of 
geodesic  lines  supposes  an  algebraic  integnd  of  the  fourth  degree 
by  M.  Levy.— Uiaphic  ubles  and  anamorphic  geometry ;  recla- 
matioa  of  priority,  by  M.  Lalannc—Second  note  on  the  mag- 
nctisation  of  steel  tubes,  by  M.  Gaogaio.  The  variations  of 
magnetism  prodoced  by  heat  in  a  solid  bar  of  st«tl  art  not 


different  from  those  in  a  system  composed  of  a  tube  and  a  core. 
Both  seem  to  depend  on  the  inverst  magnetism  developed  by 
the  mutual  reaction  of  concentric  layers,  whether  of  the  bar  or 
of  the  system. — Liquefaction  of  bioxide  of  nitrogen,  by  M. 
CaiUetet.  This  he  effected  by  compressing  to  104  atmospheres 
at  -  11^  At  +  8°  the  bioxide  is  still  gaseous  under  270 
atmospheres.  He  hopes,  also,  to  be  able  to  lique^  formene. 
M.  Berthelot  remarked  on  the  importance  of  this  achieve- 
ment, and  thought  it  probable  that  most  of  the  gases  not 
yet  liquefied,  such  as  oxygen,  which  already  diverges  from 
Mariotte's  law  under  great  pressures,  and  oxide  of  carbon,  would 
yield  to  M.'Cailletei's  new  processes. — On  nitrification  by  organic 
ferments,  by  MM.  Schloesing  and  Muntz.  Whenever,  in  these 
experiments,  a  nitrifiable  milium  has  remained  in  the  presence 
of  chloroform,  or  has  been  heated  to  100°,  then  guarded  from 
dust,  the  nitrification  has  been  suspended,  but  it  has  been 
possible  to  renew  it,  by  introducing  into  the  heated  medium  a 
minimum  quantity  of  a  substance  like  mould  in  process  of  nitrifi- 
cation.— On  the  termination  of  the  nerves  in  tactile  corpuscles,  by 
M.  Ranvier.  He  studied  these  organs  in  the  tongue  and  bill  of 
the  domestic  duck  (where  they  are  found  in  great  simplicity). 
The  tactile  disc,  the  true  sensitive  nervous  organ,  is  protected 
against  mechanical  excitations  from  without  by  the  special  cells 
surrounding  it.  It  cafi  only  be  impressed  in  an  indirect  way. — 
An  experiment  in  stasimetry  or  measurement  of  the  consistence 
of  organs,  by  M.  Bitot  The  instrument  is  a  kind  of  balance 
having  at  the  end  of  one  arm  a  perforating  or  sounding  needle, 
at  the  end  of  the  other  a  small  controlling  plate^  and  at  the  centre 
a  pendulum  with  successive  weights  and  a  long  indicator  needle 
connected  to  it  above,  moving  over  a  graduated  scale. — On  a  mo- 
dification of  Bell's  telephone,  with  multiple  membranes,  by  M. 
Trouv^.  A  cubical  chamber  is  substituted  for  the  single  mem- 
brane ;  each  face  of.it  is  a  membrane  which,  in  vibrating,  influences 
a  fixed  magnet  with  electric  circuit.  Associating  all  the  cprrents 
generated,  an  intensity  is  obtained  proportional  to  the  number  of 
magnets  affected.—On  the  telephone,  by  M.  Pollard.  This 
describes  some  experiments   at  Cherbourg.    M.   Du  Moncel 

called  attention  to  the  ideas  expressed  by  M.  Ch.  B more 

than  twenty  years  ago,  and  which  contains  the  telephone  in 
germ. — On  a  new  sounding  apparatus  for  works  of  coast  hydro- 
graphy, by  M.  Pinheiro. 

CONTBNT8  Paca 

TSCHNICAL  EOUCATION 97 

North  Ambrican  STAxriSHSs 9^ 

Vogbl's  *'Spbctrum  Analysis.**  By  Dr.  Arthur  Schustbr  .  .  99 
Our  Book  Shrlf  ^-> 

Young's  "Nya9<a:  x  Joui^al  of  Adventures  whilst  Exploiing 
L«ke  Nyassa,  Central  Africa,  and  Establuhing  the  Settlement  of 

'  Livbgstonia '  " 99 

Cayzer'ft  '*  Briunnia :  a  Collection  of  the  Principal  Passages  in 
Latin  Authors  that  refer  to  this  Island  ".........      99 

LSTTKRS  TO  THB  EDITOR  :— 

The  Colour  Sense  of  the  Greeks.-»Rev.  W.  Robbrtson  SMrrH    .  100 
Ihe  Comparative  Richness  of  Faunas  and  Floras  tested  Numeri- 
cally.—Alprio  R.  Wallacb 100 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fjiy.—ALPRBD  R.  Wallace lot 

Nocturnal   Increase  of   Temperature  with    Elevation.— Dr.  B. 

BONAVIA >oc 

Expected  High  Tides— B.C.  Jbnkins lot 

Diffusion  Figures  in  liquids.— C  Tom LIK90N,  F.RS.      .     .    .    .  xos 

Bees  and  Flowers. — ^John  B.  Bridgman aoa 

Hearing  in  Insects.— Henry  Crcil loa 

A  Zoological  Station  for  thr  Channbl  Islands.  By  W.  Savillb 

Kent loa 

Gb«man  Universitibs .    .    .    •  103 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :^ 

The  Meteorite  of  July  ao,  x8Co S04 

The  Planet  Mars  and  B.  A. C  8ia9 105 

The  Binary  star  Caaor aos 

Tran&iu  of  the  Shadow  ofTitan  across  the  Disc  of  Saturn    ...  105 

The  "  Nautical  Almanac,"  x88i 105 

OlbROmbr.    ByDr.  W.  Dobbrck  (f»YM///a»/mh^M)     ....  105 

NOTBS »o» 

Thb  LiBBRTY  or  Scibncr  in  THB  MoDBRN  Statb,  IIL     By  Prof. 

RUDOLT  ViRCHOW "* 

American  Sorncb ....••.  113 

ThbMbtbor "I 

UMivBRsmr  AMD  EoucATioMAL  Imtblugbhcb U4« 

Sooims AMD  AcAoacns .   .••••.•••••*•«•  s^S^ 

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THURSDAY,   DECEMBER    13,   1877 

HYDROPHOBIA 

POPULAR  alarm  has  of  late  been  aroused  by  the 
publication  of  an  unusual  number  of  cases  of  death 
from  this  most  terrible  disease,  and  interest  and  hope  have 
been  excited  by  the  statement  that,  at  last,  a  drug  has 
been  found—curare — which  does  exert  such  an  influence 
that  at  least  one  case  is  said  to  have  been  rescued  from 
otherwise  certain  death.  We  propose  to  discuss  briefly 
in  this  article  the  chief  points  in  the  natural  history  of 
hydrophobia,  to  examine  what  light,  if  any,  science  has 
thrown  upon  its  nature,  and  to  inquire  what  reasons  there 
are  for  believing  in  the  alleged  efficacy  of  drugs  in  its 
treatment. 

Hydrophobia  is  a  disease  which  never  occurs  spon- 
taneously in  man,  being  invariably  communicated  to  him 
by  the  bite  of  some  animal  affected  with  it—commonly  by 
the  dog,  more  rarely  the  cat,  more  rarely  still  the  fox  and 
wolf.  The  bite  induces  the  disease  by  permitting  the 
absorption  of  the  saliva  of  the  diseased  animal,  the  peculiar 
poison  or  ^^tnateries  morbi"  of  the  disease  being  con- 
tained in  the  saliva.  Inasmuch,  then,  as  man  only 
becomes  affected  with  hydrophobia  through  the  inter- 
mediation of  the  lower  animals,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
consider  it,  first  of  all,  as  it  makes  itself  manifest  in  them. 

It  has  been,  and  still  is,  a  subject  of  dispute  amongst 
veterinarians  whether  hydrophobia,  or  *'  rabies,"  was  origi- 
nated spontaneously  in  the  dog.  Avowedly  the  immense 
majority  of  cases  of  the  disease  can  be  proved  to  have 
been  due  to  the  bites  of  rabid  animals ;  some  cases  do 
occur,  however,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  there  was  no 
possibility  of  contact  with  a  diseased  animal,  and  these 
are  held  to  prove  the  occasional  spontaneous  origin  of  the 
disease.  Now,  whilst  we  are  not  prepared  absolutely  to 
contradict  such  a  surmise,  and  to  allege  that  at  no  time, 
and  imder  no  circumstances,  hydrophobia  originated 
spontaneously,  we  do  hold  that  there  is  no  better  evidence 
of  such  a  new  origin  fww  than  there  is  of  the  spontaneous 
generation  of  the  poisons  which  induce  small-pox^  scarlet 
fever,  or  measles.  In  the  case  of  these  diseases,  as  in 
that  of  hydrophobia,  it  does  sometimes  happen  that  some 
of  the  links  in  the  chain  of  evidence  are  lost  which  are 
required  to  prove  the  connection  between  one  case  of 
disease  and  its  precursor,  but  the  exceptional  cases  do 
not  outweigh  the  immense  mass  of  evidence  which  proves 
that  each  of  the  diseases  previously  mentioned  is  as 
certainly  the  offspring  of  a  previous  case  as  is  each 
animal  or  plant  at  present  living  the  offspring  of  a  pre- 
existing parent  organism.  We  shall  then  probably  be 
quite  right  in  assuming  that  not  only  is  it  true  of  hydro- 
phobia as  it  affects  man,  but  of  the  disease  as  it  is 
manifest  in  all  animals,  that  it  is  always  due  to  the 
inoculation  of  poison  from  a  diseased  into  a  healthy 
organism. 

In  commencing  a  description  of  hydrophobia  we  must 
point  out  that  whilst  the  disease  is  always  more  or  less 
prevalent,  periods  when  it  becomes  much  more  frequent 
occur  from  time  to  tinie.  Within  the  present  century, 
especially  between  1800  and  1830^  several  such  outbreaks 
occurred ;  in  this  respea  hydrophobia  resembles  other 
Vou  xvn.— No.  424 


diseases  of  the  zymotic  class,  which,  though  always  more 
or  less  prevalent,  only  occasionally  prevail  with  epidemic 
intensity.  We  must  assume  that  at  this  period  the  cir- 
cumstances which  are  required  for  the  spread  of  the  par- 
ticular disease  are  specially  favourable,  though  it  is  only 
rarely  that  we  can  do  more  than  surmise  what  these 
special  circumstances  really  are. 

In  the  dog,  as  indeed  in  all  animals,  there  is  a  period 
of  latency,  or  as  it  is  technically  termed,  of  "  incubation,*' 
which  intervenes  between  the  inoculation  of  the  poison 
of  hydrophobia  and  the  development  of  any  symptoms ; 
this  period  varies  remarkably :  it  may  be  as  short  as  a 
week,  or  as  long  as  three  months ;  the  greater  number  of 
cases  occurring,  however,  between  the  twentieth  and 
fiftieth  days  after  the  poisonous  wound  has  been  inflicted. 
It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog 
always  induces  the  disease  in  other  dogs  which  it  bites  ; 
a  certain  number  of  such  bites  prove  abortive.  Thus, 
out  of  131  dogs  which  had  been  bitten  by,  or  inoculated 
with,  the  virulent  saliva  of  certainly  rabid  dogs,  only  sixty- 
three  fell  victims.  The  failures  in  these  cases  are  to  be 
explained  in  several  ways.  In  some  cases  it  is  probable 
that  the  saliva  was  not  active,  just  as  sometimes  the 
liquid  from  the  vaccine  vesicle,  when  fairly  tested,  is  found 
to  be  incapable  of  reproducing  vaccinia  ;  in  other  cases 
the  poisonous  saliva  has  doubtless  been  prevented  from 
penetrating  the  wound,  having  been  retained  by  the  hair 
and  cuticle  of  the  bitten  animal ;  finally,  in  a  Uiird  class 
of  cases,  it  must  be  assumed  that  the  bitten  animal  did 
not  offer  conditions  required  for  the  development  of  the 
disease.  A  case  is,  indeed,  recorded,  on  the  best 
authority,  in  which  a  pointer  dog  was  caused  to  be  bitten 
on  seventeen  separate  occasions  by  dogs  affected  with 
rabies,  without  the  disease  being  induced. 

The  period  of  incubation  having  passed,  the  first 
symptoms  of  rabies  usually  consist  in  a  change  in  the 
temper  of  the  dog,  which  becomes  sullen  and  snappish, 
and  which  often  bites  those  around  it,  even  widiout 
any  provocation.  This  prominence  of  the  cerebral 
symptoms  in  the  early  stages  of  hydrophobia  in  the  dog 
is  very  remarkable,  and  contrasts,  as  will  be  seen  in  the 
sequel,  with  the  phenomena  of  the  disease  in  man. 
It  is  evidenced  not  merely  by  the  tendency  to  bite,  but 
by  the  whole  changed  aspect  of  the  animal,  which  is  now 
observed  to  be  obviously  ailing.  The  appetite  becomes 
capricious,  food  often  being  refused,  and  all  kinds  of 
rubbish  swallowed,  and  often,  though  by  no  means 
invariably,  the  dog  utters  dismal  howls.  It  is  in  this 
stage  that  the  dog  often  wanders  from  home,  and  ap- 
parently under  the  influence  of  maniacal  excitement, 
rushes  on,  biting  all  dogs  which  it  meets,  and  often  all 
human  beings  who  happen  to  come  in  its  way.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  the  dog  does  not  exhibit  any  of  the 
dread  of  water  which  is  so  painfully  evident  in  the  disease 
as  it  affects  man  ;  this  depends  upon  the  fact  that  in  the 
dog  there  appears  to  be  little,  if  any,  tendency  to  spasm 
of  the  muscles  of  deglutition.  As  the  disease  advances 
palsy  of  the  posterior  extremities  often  occurs ;  in  other 
cases  a  peculiar  paralysis  of  the  muscles  connected  with 
the  lower  jaw  sets  in,  so  that  the  sufifering  animal  is 
unable  to  utter  any  sound,  and  is  said  to  be  suffering  from* 
"  dumb>madness."  Throughout  the  disease  there  is 
usually  an  increased  secretion  of  viscid  saliva.     The 


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{Dec.  13,  1877 


whole  course  of  hydrophobia  in  the  dog  is  run  in  from 
four  to  eight  days,  the  majority  of  cases  proving  fatal 
about  the  fourth  or  fifth  day.  This  short  description  of 
rabies  orhydrophobia,  as  it  affects  the  dog,  is  almost 
exactly  applicable  to  the  disease  as  it  occurs  in  other 
domestic  animals ;  a  maniacal  excitement  and  a  tendency 
to  injure  men  and  animals  with  which  they  come  in  con- 
tact being  as  characteristic  of  herbivorous  animals  as  it  is 
of  dogs,  cats,  foxes,  and  wolves. 

Having,  then,  before  us  an  outline  of  hydrophobia  as  it 
affects  the  lower  animals,  let  us  compare  with  it  the 
disease  as  it  is  observed  in  man. 

In  the  first  place  as  to  the  frequency  with  which  the 
bite  of  a  mad  dog  is  followed  by  hydrophobia.  No 
general  satement  can  be  made  on  this  matter,  as  the 
results  vary  very  greatly  according  to  the  part  bitten, 
according  to  the  treatment  to  which  the  bitten  part  is 
subjected,  &c.  For  instance,  bites  inflicted  upon  parts 
protected  by  clothing  are  followed  by  hydrophobia  much 
less  frequently  than  those  in  which  the  hand  or  face  is 
injured,  the  poison  in  the  former  case  being  absorbed  by 
the  intervening  clothing. 

Next,  as  to  the  period  of  incubation.  In  man  this 
varies  even  more  than  in  the  case  of  the  dog ;  the 
majority  of  cases  of  human  hydrophobia  have,  however,  a 
period  of  incubation  which  varies  between  thirty  and  fifty 
days,  though  exceptional  cases  occur  in  which  many 
months  have  elapsed  between  the  infliction  of  the  bite 
and  the  supervention  of  the  symptoms  ;  these  remarks 
might  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  cases  which  have 
occurred  in  England,  and  which  have  been  recorded  in 
the  medical  journals  during  the  last  two  years ;  the 
shortest  period  of  incubation  observed  within  this  period 
having  been  eighteen  days,  and  the  longest  nine  months. 
During  the  period  of  incubation  there  is  nothing  to 
distinguish  a  bite  inflicted  by  a  rabid  dog  from  the  bite 
of  a  healthy  dog.  The  study  of  some  of  the  recorded 
cases  of  the  disease  would  almost  had  to  the  conclusion 
that  in  man  there  is  during  the  period  of  incubation  a 
tendency  to  nervous  depression  and  melancholia  which 
is  a  precursor  of  the  terrible  symptoms  which  are  to 
follow ;  it  is  obvious,  however,  that  great  caution  ought 
to  be  exercised  in  the  interpretation  of  such  mental 
symptoms,  which  are  after  all  in  many  cases  but  the 
necessary  and  logical  results  of  an  injury  of  which 
the  possible  consequences  are  but  too  well  known  and 
correspondingly  dreaded.  If  we  except  these  symptoms 
of  depression  and  melancholy  there  are  no  characteristic 
phenomena  which  intervene  between  the  infliction  of  the 
bite  and  the  onset  of  the  attack  of  hydrophobia. 

In  a  certain  number  of  cases  the  advent  of  the  disease 
is  ushered  in  by  pain  of  a  neuralgic  character  in  the 
bitten  part  ;  this  appears  to  be  merely  an  evidence 
of  the  general  feeling  of  illness  which  then  supervenes, 
rather  than  any  evidence  of  the  specific  nature  of  the  bite. 
More  commonly  the  first  phenomena  are  merely  vague 
symptoms  of  feeling  very  unwell,  accompanied  often  by 
an  intense  feeling  of  melancholy.  A  deep  sighing  cha- 
racter of  the  inspirations,  or  even  paroxysmal  attacks  of 
difficulties  of  breathing,  wiih  some  pain  in  the  throat 
and  pain  in  the  prsecordial  region  often  follow.  Beyond 
the  feeling  of  impending  evil,  there  b  no  mental  symp- 
tom at  this  stage  of  the  disease  at  all  comparable  with 


those  observed  in  the  lower  animals.  Next  in  the  order 
of  accession  is  the  difficulty  which  the  poor  patient 
experiences  in  swallowing ;  this,  at  first  slight,  symptom 
soon  acquires  a  terrible  intensity ;  the  patient  is  troubled 
by  an  agonising  thirst,  and  yet  dares  not  drink;  any 
attempt  to  drink  gives  rise  to  a  terrible  spasm  of  the 
muscles  engaged  in  deglutition,  and  apparently  to  a 
simultaneous  spasm  of  the  muscles  engaged  in  inspiration 
so  powerful  that  he  dreads  suflbcation.  An  analyst: 
of  the  symptoms  at  this  stage  leads  one,  indeed,  to  the 
opinion  that  swallowing  is  often  dreaded  because  of,  and 
is  indeed  impeded  by,  the  spasm  of  the  inspirator)* 
muscles  which  it  induces.  Then  follows  a  stage  in  which 
often,  though  by  no  means  invariably,  the  patient  becomes 
subject  to  delusions,  and  often  violently  maniacal,  and 
this  is  succeeded  by  a  stage  of  exhaustion  and  quiet  which 
ushers  in  the  fatal  termination. 

If  we  have  sketched  with  some  degree  of  minuteness 
the  outlines  of  a  very  painful  picture,  we  have  done  so 
because  a  knowledge  of  them  was  absolutely  essential 
before  we  could  attempt  to  consider  what  light  science 
has  thrown  upon  this  dread  disease,  and  what  reliance 
is  to  be  placed  upon  the  remedies  which  have  been 
suggested  for  its  cure. 

We  shall  now,  in  the  first  place,  consider  the  results  of 
pathological  investigations  relating  to  hydrophobia.  Are 
there  not  some  well  marked  and  constantly  present 
lesions  of  the  great  nerve-centres  corresponding  in  some 
measure  to  the  symptoms  which  manifest  themselves 
during  life  ?  The  older  observations  generally  concur  in 
showing  that  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  the  seat  of 
congestions  which  are,  however,  not  sufficiently  constant 
in  their  localisation  to  admit  of  any  conclusions  being 
drawn  from  them.  And,  since  the  time  when  pathological 
anatomy  attained  its  present  development  and  accuracy, 
but  few  persons  sufficiently  competent  to  draw  accurate 
conclusions  from  their  observations  have  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  working  at  the  subject.  From  the  observations  of 
Benedict  (FifVr/4en«/'j  Archiv^  \Z^l\\\,  resuhed,  that  in  addi- 
tion to  more  or  less  widely  spread  congestion,  there  occur 
granular  degeneration  of  nerve-ceils,  and  of  nerve-fibres 
in  various  parts  of  the  brain.  Subsequently  Wassilief!, 
working  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Botkin,  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, described  {Centralblatt  /.  d,  med,  Wissenschaft^ 
1876,  p.  625)  a,  some  alterations  in  the  nerve-ceils  of 
the  medulla  oblongata,  the  outlines  and  nuclei  of  which 
are  indistinct  and  the  contents  cloudy  ;  ^,  a  large  accu- 
mulation of  corpuscles  of  the  size  of  white  blood-cells  in 
the  interstitial  connective  tissue  of  the  brain,  in  the 
peri-vascular  canals  and  immediately  surrounding  them  ; 
and  ^,  the  presence  of  a  highly  refracting  substance  in  the 
peri- vascular  spaces,  especially  in  the  cortical  layers  of 
the  cerebral  hemispheres.  Somewhat  akin  to  them  are 
the  observations  of  Dr.  Cowers  who  found  in  the  medulla 
oblongata  after  death  from  hydrophobia,  accumulations 
of  cells,  resembling  white  blood-cells,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  blood-vessels,  and  ^also  in  the  nervous  substance. 
But  what  do  all  these  observations  indicate  ?  In  all 
probability  the  accumulations  of  white  cells  are  caiised 
by  the  emigration  of  white  blood  corpuscles  fi'om  the 
blood,  so  that  they  are  to  be  held  as  supporting  the  older 
observations  which  alleged  congestions  of  the  brain  to  be 
frequently  present,  and  the  other  pathological  changes 


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noticed  by  the  three  observers  to  whom  we  have  referred, 
cannot  as  yet  be  adequately  interpreted. 

Pathological  anatomy  then  helps  us  a  little  in  our 
attempts  to  elucidate  hydrophobia.  Can  we  obtain  better 
results  by  reasoning  upon  the  symptoms  and  course  of 
the  disease  from  the  standpoint  of  physiology  ?  Hardly, 
but  we  may  make  the  attempt.  Physiology  necessarily 
cannot  help  us  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  peculiarly 
subtle  poison  which  can  lurk  so  long  in  the  system  with* 
out  betraying  its  presence  by  any  symptom,  but  she 
may  help  us  in  explaining  the  phenomena  which  it  in- 
duces. Of  this  poison  we  know  as  litde,  if  not  less, 
than  of  the  other  poisons  which  are  capable  of  inducing 
zymotic  diseases.  Each  of  those  diseases  appears  to 
depend  upon  a  definite  materies  morbid  upon  the  presence 
of  which  the  peculiar  phenomena  of  each  depend  ;  but 
the  periods  which  elapse  between  the  introduction  of  the 
poison  and  the  manifestation  of  the  disease  varies  in  each 
case,  no  less  than  the  course  and  duration  of  the  disease, 
and  the  organs  and  tissues  of  the  body  which  are  affected. 
Thus,  in  scarlet  fever  the  poison  induces  changes  in  the 
epitheliated  surfaces  of  the  body,  manifested  by  the  rash, 
the  sore  throat,  the  acute  kidney  affection  ;  in  typhoid  fever 
anatomical: changes  of  the  most  obvious  nature  are  wrought 
in  the  alimentary  canal,  and  lead  to  the  special  dangers  of 
the  disease ;  in  typhus,  again,  the  poison,  whilst  producing 
changes  in  the  general  nutrition  of  the  body,  and  exciting 
a  specially-marked  action  upon  the  brain  proper  (as 
evidenced  by  the  marked  affection  of  all  mental  pro- 
cesses), produces  no  typical  anatomical  changes.  These 
diseases  all  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  poison  of  each 
zymotic  disease  affects  certain  tissues  and  organs  of 
the  body,  and  it  might  be  easily  shown  that  it  is  by  the 
implication  of  particular  functions  that  each  of  these 
poisons  usually  induces  death.  Is  there,  in  the  case  of 
hydrophobia,  any  evidence  that  it  affects  specially  any 
particular  organ  of  the  body?  Yes;  a  physiological 
analysis  of  the  disease  reveals  the  fact  that  its  symptoms 
depend  upon  an  affection  of  the  nerve-centres,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  medulla  oblongata. 

These  essential  symptoms  are— the  spasmodic  difficulty 
of  breathing,  which  depends  upon  a  spasm  of  the  inspira- 
tory mechanism  and  a  spasmodic  affection  of  the  group 
of  muscles  engaged  in  deglutition.  The  nerve-centres 
which  preside  over  respiration  and  the  co-ordinated 
movements  of  deglutition  are  situated  in  the  medulla 
oblongata,  and  it  is  these  centres  which  appear  to  be 
peculiarly  affected.  The  reflex  excitability  of  this  portion 
of  the  nervous  apparatus  becomes  first  of  all  heightened 
so  that  a  stimulus  applied  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
gullet,  which  in  health  would  give  rise  to  a  normal  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  of  deglutition,  travelling  on  to  the 
morbidly  irritable  medulla,  throws  the  centre  presiding 
over  deglutition  into  a  state  of  tonic  spasm  so  intense  as 
to  be  acutely  painful ;  not  confining  its  action  to  this  one 
centre,  the  stimulus  is  able  to  throw  the  contiguous 
respiratory  centre  into  a  similar  state  of  spasm,  and  the 
patient  runs  the  risk  of  suffocation  because  the  move- 
ments of  the  thoracic  box,  which  are  essential  causes  of 
the  passage  of  air  into  and  out  of  the  lungs,  cease  for  a 
time.  The  mechanism  of  suffocation  in  these  cases 
resembles  that  observed  when  the  upper  end  of  the 
pneumogastric  nerve  is  stinnilated  by  a  succession  of 


strong  induction  shocks,  except  that  in  hydrophobia  the 
abnormal  effect  is  doubtless  due  nol  to  the  intensity  of 
the  stimulus,  but  rather  to  the  heightened  excitability  of 
the  nerve-centres  implicated.  Apparently  a  subtle  animal- 
poison  acting  upon  an  intensely  vulnerable  but  limited  part 
of  the  nervous  mechanism  induces  in  it  an  action  similar  in 
kind  to  that  produced  by  strychnia  upon  the  spioal  cord. 
Under  the  influence  of  this  well-known  poison  the  excita- 
bility of  the  nerve-centres  in  the  cord  is  heightened,  so 
that  a  stimulus  reaching  it  by  an  afferent  nerve  which 
would  in  the  healthy  unpoisoned  condition  lead  to  the 
reflex  and  painless  contraction  of  but  a  small  group  of 
muscles,  will  be  able  to  throw  the  nerve-cells  of  the  whole 
cord  into  intense  activity,  and  as  a  result  occasion  the 
characteristic  and  terribly  painful  convulsions  of  strych- 
nia poisoning.  There  are,  indeed,  other  facts  besides 
those  previously  mentioned  which  point  to  a  state  of  irri- 
tation and  increased  nervous  excitability  of  the  medulla 
and  contiguous  nerve-centres.  Thus  it  has  been  observed 
that  occasionally  the  pulse  has  been  abnormally  slow,  a 
result  almost  certainly  due  in  these  cases  to  an  excitation 
of  the  inhibitory  centre  in  the  medulla — of  that  centre 
which  exerts  a  moderating  or  restraining  influence  upon 
the  heart's  action ;  further,  it  not  imfrequently  happens 
that  towards  the  close  of  the  hydrophobic  stage,  stimuli 
which  were  at  first  only  capable  of  inducing  the  spasms 
of  deglutition  and  inspiration,  are  able  to  bring  on  attacks 
of  general  convulsions.  Here  we  have  a  stiU  further 
extension  of  the  effects  of  the  irritation  due  to  an 
extension  of  the  reflex  excitability  from  the  medulla  to 
the  spinal  cord. 

Our  analysis  of  the  symptoms  of  hydrophobia  reveals 
that  as  a  rule  the  spasmodic  stage  terminates  before 
death,  which  is  not  produced,  as  in  strychnia  poisoning, 
by  the  mechanical  result  of  the  convulsions— suffocation 
— but  apparently  by  a  more  general,  though  we  confess 
unknown,  action  of  the  poison  on  the  organism  generally. 
We  know  as  little  of  the  mode  of  death  in  this  case  as  we 
do  in  that  of  scarlet  fever,  or  diphtheria,  or  typhus,  each 
one  of  which  may  produce  death  without  leading  to  the 
anatomical  results  which,  at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  the 
two  former  of  these  diseases  are  their  usual  accompani- 
ments. Zymotic  poisons  may  indeed  leave  as  few  traces 
of  their  action  as  the  simpler  and  better  known  poisons 
such  as  prussic  acid  or  morphia,  so  that  whilst  we  cannot 
disregard  the  local  manifesUtions  or  changes  which  they 
induce,  and  which  of  themselves  are  a  frequent  source  of 
danger,  we  must  admit  that  they  are  in  many  cases — 
nay  in  most  cases— secondary  in  importance  to  the  more 
general  phenomena  which  are  the  expression  of  the 
poisonous  influence  affecting  the  organism. 
{To  be  eontinuid,) 

ANCIENT  HISTORY  FROM  THE  MONUMENTS 
Ancient  History  from  the  Monuments,     The  History  of 

Babylonia.    By  the  late  George  Smith  ;  edited  by  A. 

H.  Sayce.      The  Greek  Cities  and  Islands  of  Asia 

Minor.    By  W.  S.  W.  Vaux.     (Society  for  Promoting 

Christian  Knowledge,  1877.) 

THE  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  has 
been  doing  a  very  useful  work  in  acquainting  the 
public  with  the  historical  results  of  recent  Oriental  research 


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in  a  cheap  and  handy  shape.    The  work  has  been  wisely 
placed  in  the  hands  of  those  who  have  themselves  been 
pioneers  in  the  task  of  discovery,  and  the  reader  has  thus 
been  secured  against  the  errors  and  unfounded  conclu- 
sions   almost    inseparable    from  second-hand    informa- 
tion.   The  histories  of  Egfypt,  Assyrii,  and  Persia,  have 
now  been  followed  up  by  those  of  Babylonia  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  the  fact  that  the  history  of  Babylonia  was  the 
last  literary  work  which  Mr.  George  Smith,  the  indefati- 
gable Assyrian  explorer,  lived  to  accomplish,  gives  a 
melancholy  interest  to  it  over  and  above  that  of  its  sub- 
ject matter.     Indeed,  the  materials  for  reconstructing 
Babylonian  htstdry  are  still  but  scanty,  and  must  remain 
so  until  systematic  excavations  can  be  made  among  the 
buried  cities  and  libraries  of  anc  lent  Chaldea.    With  the 
exception  of  a  few  early  bricks  and  a  few  dedicatory 
inscriptions  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  successors,  it  is 
from  the  clay  tablets  of  Nineveh  that  almost  all  our 
knoMrledge  of  the  sister  kingdom  has  been  derived.  Even 
Babylonian  chronology  is  still  in  an  uncertain  and  tenta- 
tive condition,  and  the  fragments  of  the  Babylonian  his- 
torian, Berosus,  help  us  but  little.    Whole  periods  must 
still  be  left  blank,  and  though  one  or  two  dates,  like  the 
conquest  of  the  Elamite  king,  Cudur-nankhundi,  in  B  c. 
2280,  can  be  fixed  by  the  aid  of  later  monuments,  the 
relative  position  of  even  whole  dynuties  has  not  yet  been 
settled.    Our  acquaintance  with  the  mythical  epoch  is 
quite  as  great  as  with  the  historical  epoch  ;  the  Assyrians 
preferred  the  legends  of  the  rival  monarchy  to  a  record 
of  its  glories,  and  while,  therefore,  we  now  have  in  detail 
the  stories  of  the  creation,  of  the  flood,  or  of  the  hero 
Izdubar,  we  know  comparatively  little  of  the  political 
changes  which  passed  over  the  Babylonia   of  history. 
Compared,  however,  with  what  we  knew  of  them  a  few 
years  back^  even  this  limited  knowledge  seems  large  and 
accurate,  and  the  best  evidence  of  this  is  the  volume 
which  Mr.  Smith  has  written,  and  which  would  have  been 
an  impossibility  but  a  short  time  ago.    Those  who  wish 
to  learn  what  light  has  been  thrown  by  cuneiform  disco- 
very on  this  important  section  of  ancient  history  cannot 
do  better  than  refer  to  his  book.    The  importance  of 
Babylonia  for  the  history  of  culture  and  civilisation  is 
daily  becoming  more  manifest ;  the  early  Accadian  popu- 
lation of  the  country,  who  spoke  an  agglutinative   lan- 
guage and  invented  writing,  left  a  rich  inheritance  of  art^ 
science,  mythology,  and  religious  ideas  to  their  Semitic 
successors,  and  through  them  to  the  Jews  and  Greeks. 
The  latter  were  influenced  partly  through  the  Phoenicians, 
partly  through  the  nations  of  Asia  Minor.    Mr.  Vaux*s 
volume  on  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  is  therefore  a 
suitable  companion  to  Mr.  Smith's  *'  History  of  Babylo- 
nia."   His  difficulty  in  compiling  it  must  have  been  the 
converse  of  Mr.  Smith's,  as  here  it  was  not  the  meagre- 
ness  but  the  superabundance  of  materials  which   was 
likely  to  cause  embarrassment    His  selection,  however, 
is  good  and  judicious,  and  the  book  he  has  produced  is 
at  once  instructive  and  readable.    He  has  not  forgotten 
to  invoke  the  assistance  of  the  latest  discoveries ;  the 
first  few  pages  are  devoted  to  an  account  of  Dr.  Schlie- 
mann's  life  and  discoveries,  and  the  researches  of  New- 
ton, Wood,  and  Fellows,  have  been  largely  drawn  upon. 
Considering  the  space  at  his  command,  Mr.  Vaux  must 
be  congratulated  upon  the  amount  he  has  been  able  to 


cram  into  it,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  no  city  or  fact  of 
importance  has  been  omitted  Both  volumes  are  appro- 
priately illustrated,  and  the  "  History  of  Babylonia"  con- 
tains  a  copy  of  a  bronze  image  of  an  ancient  Chaldean 
monarch  recently  brought  to  the  British  Museum,  and 
interesting  on  account  of  the  rarity  of  such  early  monu- 
ments. Tlieir  value  is  further  increased  by  the  addition 
of  indices,  and  the  editor  of  Mr.  Smith's  volume  has 
added  a  chronological  table  of  the  Babylonian  kings,  and 
an  explanatory  list  of  proper  names. 

FRENCH  POPULAR   SCIENCE 

Musie  Entomolojiique  lllustrL  Les  Papillom :  Organisa- 
tion, Chasse,  Classification,  80  Plates  and  260  Wood- 
cuts. Les  Coliopthres:  Organisation,  Mceurs^  Chasse^ 
Collections,  Classification.   48  Plates  and  335  Woodcuts. 

Anatomie  et  Physiologic  de  VAbeille,  Par  Michael 
Girdwoyn.     12  Lithographic  Plates. 

Les  Champignons.  Par  F.  S.  Cordier.  60  Chromolitho- 
graphs and  8  Woodcuts. 

Les  Prairies  Artificielles.  Par  Ed.  Viaune.  127 
Woodcuts. 

Les  Rava^eurs  des  Forits  et  des  Arbres  d*Alignemeni. 
Par  H.  De  la  Blanch^re.    162  Woodcuts. 

I^s  Ravageurs  des  Vergers  et  des  Vignes;  avec  u  -.e  £tude 
sur  le  Phylloxera.  Par  H.  De  la  Blanch^re.  160 
Woodcuts. 

Le  Chalutneau.  Analyses  Qualitatives  et  Quantitatives. 
Guide  Pratique.  Traduction  libre  du  Traitd  de  B. 
KerL    Par  E.  Jannettaz. 

Les  Aliments.  Determination  Pratique  de  leurs  Falsifi- 
cations. Par  A.  VogL  Traduction  par  Ad.  Focillon. 
160  Woodcuts.  '.(All  published  by  J.  Rothschild,  Rue 
des  Saints- P&res,  Paris.) 

WE  have  received  the  preceding  batch  of  works 
from  the  house  of  Rothschild  of  Paris.  This 
is  not  the  first  time  we  have  been  able  to  show 
not  only  how  worthily  M.  Rothschild  is  maintaining 
his  position  as  one  of  the  first  publishers  of  popular 
science  works  of  the  time,  but  how  eagerly  such 
works  are  read,  and  how  highly  they  are  appreciated 
in  France.  It  is  impossible  to  speak  too  highly  of  the 
honest  work  which  has  been  put  into  each  of  the  volumes, 
while  many  of  them  are  written  by  men  whose  names  are 
widely  known  on  this  side  the  Channel.  As  is  proper  in 
this  style  of  literature,  the  text  is  equalled  by  the  illustra- 
tions. Why  is  it  that  in  the  matter  of  illustrated  books 
such  as  those  before  us,  the  French  finished  product  is 
so  far  superior  to  nine-tenths  of  those  published  on  this 
side  the  water  ?  Nothing  can  exceed  the  perfection  of 
many  of  the  hundreds  of  woodcuts  in  the  above  volumes, 
while  we  have  rarely  seen  more  finished  specimens  of 
chromolithography  than  those  to  be  found  in  some  of  the 
volumes. 

We  cannot  think  that  the  French  public  is  so  far 
beyond  our  own  in  its  appreciation  of  science,  as  to 
make  the  publication  of  similar  works  in  our  own  country 
hopeless.  We  shall  therefore  give  an  analysis  of  each  of 
the  above  works  in  a  single  article,  with  a  view  of  shoiring 
the  treatment  adopted  abroad  in  popularising  the  branches 
of  science  with  which  the  volumes  deal^  \nstead  of  devoting 


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one  to  each  of  them  in  turn,  which  we  should  have  been 
quite  justified  in  doing,  having  regard  to  their  value. 

Of  the  two  volumes  on  the  Natural  History  of  Insects, 
which  are  published  by  a  society  of  French  and  foreign 
entomologists,  vol.  i.  is  devoted  to  the  Coleoptera,  and 
comprises  their  organisation  and  their  different  orders, 
with  a  short  description  of  each,  and  woodcuts  showing 
their  different  stages  of  development  These  are  fol- 
lowed by  other  useful  matter,  and  then,  in  the  second 
part,  we  come  to  **  Le  Monde  des  Scarab^es."  The  stag- 
beetle  is  here  taken  as  an  example  of  his  family  to 
show  the  anatomy  of  these  insects.  The  description 
of  their  dwellings  and  instincts  is  clear,  and  written  in 
such  a  style  that  it  may  be  understood  and  enjoyed  by 
those  not  versed  in  entomology.  This  part  occupies  a 
good  portion  of  the  book.  In  the  pages  devoted  to  the 
hunting,  preparing,  and  keeping  of  beetles,  beginners 
may  find  every  information  they  require;  pincers, pins,  and 
nets  are  all  shown,  as  well  as  the  necessary  requisites  for 
the  knapsack.  A  list  of  the  principal  entomological 
works  is  given,  after  which  we  have  a  lengthy  classi- 
fication and  iconography  of  European  coleoptera,  illus- 
trated with  forty<eight  plates  beautifully  coloured  by 
hand. 

The  arrangement  of  volume  ii.,  on  Butterflies,  is  very 
similar  to  the  above,  and  contains  thirty  coloured  plates 
illustrating  the  butterfly,  caterpillar,  and  chrysalis,  to- 
gether with  the  plants  on  which  these  are  most  frequently 
to  be  found. 

"  The  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Bee,"  is  taken 
from  volume  vL  of  the  "  Memorials  of  the  Polish  Society 
of  Exact  Sciences  in  Paris,"  and  translated  into  French 
by  M.  Pillain.  This  work  consists  of  twelve  lithographic 
plates  which  obtained  medals  of  merit  both  at  the  Univer- 
sal Exhibition  at  Vienna  and  from  the  Royal  and  Imperial 
Society  of  Agriculture  of  Cracow.  On  these  plates  we  have 
172  figures  of  the  various  parts  of  a  bee,  greatly  magni- 
fied. It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  these  are 
extremely  well  finished.  In  the  folio  we  have  the  memoir 
itsdf,  a  book  of  forty  pages,  which  first  introduces  us  to 
the  bees  of  different  countries  and  the  bibliography  of  the 
subject  In  chapter  i.  the  author  describes  the  exterior 
parts  of  the  bee,  and  in  the  second  and  third  the  interior 
and  more  complicated,  such  as  the  muscles,  nervous 
system,  circulation  of  the  blood,  &c.  The  work  terminates 
with  explanations  of  the  figures.  Altogether  this  is  a 
valuable  addition  to  an  entomologist's  library,  and  does 
great  credit  to  the  society  from  which  it  has  emanated. 

In  M.  Cordier's  book  on  Fungi  we  have  much  valuable 
information.  In  the  first  place  he  treats  generally  of  the 
organisation  of  fungi,  their  physiology,  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion, and  geography,  how  to  distinguish  the  edible  from 
the  poisonous,  and  he  shows  us  how  to  extract  this  poison  ; 
he  tells  how  this  works  on  the  animal  economy  and  the 
best  means  of  counteracting  it  In  the  second  part  all 
the  fungi  useful  to  man  are  chronicled,  with  detailed 
descriptions  of  each  order  and  drawings  from  nature. 

M.  Cordier  has  adopted  Persoon's  classification  in 
preference  to  any  other,  as  he  takes  it  to  be  more 
practical ;  indeed  he  dedicates  the  book  to  his  memory 
as  the  "Crdateur  de  la  Science  Mycologique."  The 
drawing  and  colours  of  the  sixty  chronioUthographs  are 
well  worthy  of  note.    The  book  also  contains  a  glossary. 


table  of  common,  and  one  of  the  scientific,  names  of  the 
fungi 

The  author  has  evidently  endeavoured  to  make  his 
subject  as  interesting  and  complete  as  possible.  The 
style  of  the  popular  portion  of  the  book  is  admirable,  and 
bon  vivants  will  be  glad  to  be  informed  that  there  are 
eight  pages  dealing  with  the  proper  way  of  cooking  truffles. 

The  two  small  books  by  H.  de  la  Blanch^re— one  on 
the  enemies  of  forest  trees,  with  162  engravings  of  insects 
and  larvae,  the  other  on  the  enemies  of  orchards  and  vines 
similarly  illustrated,  form  part  of  a  large  series  now  well 
known  and  highly  appreciated  in  France.  We  have 
already  noticed  some  of  them,  and  these  are  in  no  way 
inferior  to  the  former  ones. 

**  Plants  used  for  Food,'*  written  by  A.  Vogl,  of  Prague, 
translated  into  French  by  Ad.  Focilion,  is  a  practical 
guide  for  detecting  the  adulteration  of  flour,  coffee, 
chocolate,  tea,  and  the  like, 

"  The  Blowpipe,"  by  E.  Jannettaz,  is  extremely  well 
arranged,  and  is  a  thoroughly  practical  guide  for  engi- 
neers, mineralogists,  &c. ;  the  information  is  accurate  and 
condensed,  and  M.  Jannettaz*s  name  is  a  guarantee  of  its 
scientific  value. 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

The  Fifth  Continent^  with  the  Adjacent  Islands  ;  being 
an  Account  of  Australia^  Tas mania y  and  New  Guinea, 
with  Statistical  Information  up  to  the  Latest  Date. 
By  C.  H.  Eden.    With  Map.    (London  :  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  ;  no  date.) 
This  volume  contains  much  information  on  the  Aus- 
tralian colonies,  but  it  is  somewhat  desultory  and  in- 
complete.    It  is  not  a  children's  book,  and  it  will  not 
satisfy  those  who  are  in  quest  of  full  information  on  the 
subject    It  affords  some  idea  of  the  history,  people,  and 
products  of  Australia  and  New  Guinea,  but  it  would  be 
better  to  cut  out  much  of  what  is  said  about  the  history 
and  the  people  and  give  more  space  to  well-digested 
information  about  the  resources  of  the  countries. 

Notes  by  a  Field  Naturalist  in  the  Western  Tropics.  By 
Henry  H.  Higgins,  M.A  (Liverpool :  Edward 
Howell,  1877.) 
This  is  a  readable  record  of  observations  made  during 
a  yacht  voyage  to  the  West  Indies  by  Mr.  Higgins,  who  is 
president  of  the  Liverpool  Naturalists'  Fiela  Club.  Mr. 
Higgins  went  over  well-trodden  ground,  and  therefore  we 
need  not  look  for  any  novelties  in  this  little  volume, 
although  much  of  it  is  interesting.  The  chief  purpose  of 
the  voyage,  undertaken  by  Mr.  Cholmondley,  the  owner  of 
the  yacht,  was  to  observe  and  collect  tropical  birds.  Mr. 
Higgins  collected,  also,  many  specimens,  both  zoological 
and  botanical,  from  sea  and  land,  which  are  now  being 
arranged.  He  may  possibly,  he  states,  publish  an  account 
of  the  biology  of  the  voyage. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold kunsdf  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Netther  can  he  unaertahe  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejecUd  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  ke^  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  ana  novel  facts.} 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 
Prof.  Foster's  clear  representation  of  what  he  conceives  to 

be  the  effect  of  rarefaction  reduces  the  question  between  us  to  a 

definite  issue. 
Having  assumed  that  heat  is  flowing  across  an  intervening 

layer  of  gas  from  a  hotter  surface  A  to  a  colder  surface  b,  he 


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layf  :^"  Tbcn,  I  imadne,  the  flow  of  heat  tiirough  the  gas 
will  take  place  as  tfurngk  there  were,  in  contact  with  each  s<Hid 
snrlace,  a  liiyer  of  gas  whose  temperature  is  throvghont  the  same 
as  that  of  the  contiguous  solid,  and  whose  thickness  is  equal  (or 
at  least  proportional)  to  the  mean  length  of  path  of  the  molecules." 
Without  these  layers  of  uniform  temperature  or  whatevf^r  may 
produce  an  equivalent  effea  it  follows  directly  from  Pi  of.  Fuster's 
reasoning  that  the  rate  at  which  heat  is  communicated  is,  as  I 
maintain  it  is,  independent  of  the  density,  whereas  if  there  were 
any  such  layrn  I  should  at  once  admit  tne  force  of  VxoA,  Foster's 
reasoning.  The  whote  questitm  turns  therefore  on  the  existence 
of  these  Lyers  of  uniform  temperature. 

Now  what  evidence  of  such  layers  have  we  ?  No  experimental 
evidence  certainly ;  and  not  Only*  has  the  kinetic  theory  not  as 
yet  been  applied  to  explain  their  existence  but  it  is  easy  to 
demonstrate  that  according  to  this  theory  no  such  layers  or  any 
equivalent  can  exist.  For  in  order  that  the  condition  of  heat 
may  remain  unaltered  it  is  necessary  that  the  rate  at  which  heat 
is  transmitted  across  all  surfaces  paraDel  to  the  solid  surfaces 
which  can  be  drawn  throtigh  the  gas  should  be  the  same.  And 
the  rate  at  which  heat  is  transmitted  is  for  small  variations  of 
temperature  proportional  to  the  degradation  of  temperature, 
hence  if  there  were  a  layer  of  uniform  temperature  no  heat  could 
be  transmitted. 

It  is  surely  incumbent  on  Prof.  Foster  hi  assuming  the  existence 
of  these  layers  to  give  some  sort  of  proof  in  support  of  his 
assumption,  but  not  one  word  does  he  say ! 

I  cannot  allow  this  to  pass  without  pointing  out  that  the 
description  which  Mr.  Stoney  has  given  of  my  view  is  grossly 
wrong  and  is  certainly  not  to  be  gtohered  from  anything  I  have 
written.  Mr.  Stoney  carefully  turns  my  position.  He  makes 
out  that  I  have  explained  the  action  in  question  as  arising  from 
convection  currents^  whereas  I  have  from  6rst  to  last  maintained 
that  it  is  these  currents  which  oppose  and  eventually  overcome 
the  action.  He  makes  out  that  my  theory  takes  no  account  of 
molecular  motion,  whereas,  in  truth,  it  takes  no  account  of  any- 
thing but  molecular  motion,  the  effect  of  the  expansion  of  the 
gas  oeing  so  obviously  trivial  that  I  have  never  even  men- 
tioned it. 

Your  readers  may  judge  of  this  by  comparing  the  fint  of  the 
following  quotations,  which  is  from  Iklr.  Stoney's  letter,  with  the 
others  which  are  from  my  own  papers,  and  are  the  only  expres- 
sions, not  mathematical,  which  I  have  given  of  my  views  as  to 
action  in  the  question : — 

Mr,  Stoney*s,  My  Own. 

*'Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  *' Whenever  heat  is  commu- 
explanation  is  based  on  the  fact  nicated  from  a  hot  smface  to 
that  when  a  disc  with  vertical  gas,  the  particles  which  im- 
sides  is  heated  on  one  side  and  pinge  on  the  surface  will  re- 
exposed  to  a  gas,  a  convection  t)ound  with  a  greater  velocity 
current  sets  in,  which  draws  a  than  that  with  which  they  ap. 
continuous  supply  of  cold  gas  propriate  ;  and  consequently 
into  contact  with  the  hot  surface  the  effect  of  the  blow  must  be 
of  the  disc.  As  this  cold  gas  ereater  than  it  would  have  been 
reaches  the  disc  it  is  expanded,  had  the  surface  been  of  the 
and  thus  its  centre  of  gravity  is  same  temperature  as  the  gas. 
thrown  further  from  the  disc  "And,  in  the  same  way. 
Accordingly,  the  disc,  if  freely  whenever  heat  is  communicated 
suspended,  will  move  in  the  from  a  gas  to  a  surface,  the 
opposite  direction  so  as  to  keep  force  on  the  smface  will  be 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  gas  less  than  it  otherwise  would 
and  disc  in  the  same  vertical  be,  for  the  particles  will  re- 
line  as  before,  and,  if  not  freely  bound  with  a  less  velocity  than 
suspended,  will  suffer  a  pressure  that  at  which  they  approach. ' 
tending  to  make  it  move  in  that  "  These  forces  arise  from 
direction.  If  I  have  understood  the  communication  of  heat  to 
Prof.  Reynolds  aright,  this  is  or  from  the  surface  from  or  to 
both  a  correct  and  full  descrip-  the  gas.  These  forces  will  be 
tion  of  his  explanation  as  last  directly  proportional  to  the  rate 
piescnted."  at  which  the  heat  is  communi- 

cated ;  and  since  this  rate  has 
been  shown  by  Prof.  Maxwell 
to  be  independent  of  the  den- 
sity of  the  gas,  these  forces  will 
be  independent  of  the  density 
of  the  surrounding  medium, 
and  their  effect  will  increase  as 
the  density  and  conveaion* 
currents  diminish."  ^ 
'  Proceedimgs^  Royal  Sodenr.  1874,  p.  407. 
'  PML  Jtf^.,  Movembcr,  1874.  p.  3. 


The  first  of  the  quotations  from  mv  papers  is  followed  by  a 
mathematical  cxpre»sion  on  which  I  have  depended  for  com- 
pleteness, and  from  tbi<(  expression,  in  which  neither  convectioa 
currents  nor  the  expansion  of  the  gas  have  any  place  whatsoever, 
it  follows  that  whenever  heat  is  steadily  diffusing  in'o  or  through 
a  g^s,  the  momentum  transmitted  across-  any  surface  in  ttie 
diiection  in  which  the  heat  is  diffusing  will  be  greater  than  that 
transmitted  in  the  opposite  direction  by  a  quantity  propordoqal 
to  the  rate  at  which  the  heat  diffuses,  divided  by  the  square  root 
of  the  absolute  temperature  of  the  gas. 

As  to  the  value  of  what  fallows  in  Mr.  Stoney's  letter,  I  must 
laive  it  to  your  readers  to  decide.  He  proceeds  to  claim  that 
his  own  theory  has  the  advantage  of  being  based  on  molecular 
motions  he  says  : — 

"  My  explanation,  on  the  other  hand,  is  based  on  molecular 
motions  which  go  on  in  the  gas  without  causing  any  molar 
motion,  and  is  independent  of  convection  currents." 

Then  having  thus  attributed  to  me  an  explanation,  I  never 
even  thought  of  offering,  and  having  assumed  the  true  base 
of  my  theory  as  alone  belon^g  to  his,  he  pix>ceeds  to  show 
wherein  I  am  wrong.  And  m  every  sulMequent  position  which 
he  attributes  to  me,  he  is  as  wrong  as  he  is  in  his  first  statement. 

Under  these  circumstances  it  would  be  useless  for  me  to  enter 
upon  questions  as  to  how  far  *'  diffusion,"  according  to  the  kinetic 
theory  may  be  more  "sluggish  "  than  Mr.  Stoney's  •*  penetration," 
or  to  discuss  further  the  possibility  of  his  **  Crookes's  byers," 

In  my  last  letter  I  showed  that  the  condition  of  a  gas  which 
Mr.  Stoney  called  a  *'  Crookes's  layer"  was  impossible,  and  I  do 
not  see  that  Mr.  Stoney  has  improved  his  position  by  showing 
that  he  had  arrived  at  the  possibility  of  the  condition  by  making 
the  false  assumption  **  that  gas  is  a  perfect  non-conductor  of  heat. " 

Wherein  Mr.  Stoney's  views  are  at  variance  wuh  the  re»ults 
of  the  laborious  investigations  of  Maxwell,  Clausius,  Thomson, 
and  others,  he  may  kiest  convince  himself  by  referring  to  the 
works  of  these  authors.  Until  he  has  read  my  papers  and 
explained  the  discrepancies  between  his  views  and  the  generally- 
accepted  laws  of  ^ase.s  I  do  not  tee  that  we  have  any  common 
grrund  for  discussion.  OSBORNE  REYNOLDS 

November  30 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay 

If  Mr.  Wallace  had  read  my  letter  in  Nature  of  November 
29  with  a  little  more  attention,  he  would  have  seen  that  l^Anot 
refer  to  the  Daily  Telegraph  "as  an  authority  in  a  matter  of 
scientific  inquiry,"  but  that  the  account  I  gave  of  Mr.  Crookes's 
'*  scientific  tesU  "  was  given  in  Mr.  C.*s  own  communication  to 
the  •  Spiritual! st^*  which  would  have  been  reproduced  without 
abridgment  if  the  columns  of  Nature  could  have  admitted  it. 

What  I  hold  myself  pledged  to  show  (in  Nature,  if  it 
pleases,  as  well  as  in  the  new  edition  of  my  Lectures)  is  that  the 
•*  t^ing-down  by  electricity "  described  by  Mr.  Crookes  in  the 
Spiritualist f  is  no  more  effective  in  preventing  the  performance 
of  juggling  tricks  than  Eva  Fay's  ordinary  tyiog-down  under 
which  her  tricks  were  publicly  reproduced  two  years  ago  by 
Messrs.  Maskel^e  and  Cooke.  And  since  Mr.  Crookes  made 
no  mention  of  the  extraordinarily  sensitive  galvanometer  he 
ujed,  which  is  described  for  the  first  time  by  Mr.  Wallace  in 
the  last  number  of  Fraier,  I  only  consider  myself  bound  to  show 
the  method  by  which,  with  ordinary  apparatus,  the  electric  test 
may  be  evaded—the  trained  skill  of  the  acute  trompeuse  being 
very  probably  required  to  meet  the  more  severe  test  now  first 
specified. 

Mr.  Wallace  seems  to  me  to  have  been  a  little  hasty  on  another 
point  "  The  supposed  exposure  of  Eva  Fay  in  America,"  he 
says,  "  was  no  exposure  at  all,  but  a  clumsy  imitation."  As  this 
is  merely  Mr.  W.'s  dictum  founded  upon  an  imperfect  newspaper 
report,  I  prefer  to  trust  the  judgment  of  the  eye-witnesses  who 
have  publicly  testified  to  the  completeness  of  the  exposure.  Among 
these  are  not  only  three  of  the  ablest  men  in  New  York  (the 
Rev.  Dr.  Bellows,  Ex-Surgeon-Gcncral  Mott,  and  Dr.  Ham- 
mond),  but  the  reporters  of  the  very  newspaper  referred  to  which 
had  previously  shown  a  decided  leaning  to  the  claims  of  spiri- 
tualism. And  their  judgment  is  oonfinned  by  the  fact  (which 
Mr.  Wallace  probably  considers  as  a  newspaper  fiction,  but  of 
which  I  have  independent  testimony)  that  £va  fay  wcls  forcea 
by  the  local  authorities  to  tahe  out  a  licence  as  a  juggler  as  a  con- 
dition of  the  continuance  of  her  public  performaDces. 

The  fundamental  difference  between  Mr.  Wallace  and  myself 
as  to  the  validity  of  testimony  in  regard  to  the  "  occult "  comes 
out  so  strongly  in  this  case  that  we  have  really  no  oommoi| 


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ground  for  a  discussion  which  I  cannot  consider  it  profitable  to 
continue.  WiLLlAM  B.  Cakpintxr 

The  Glacial  Oeology  of  Orkney  and  Shetland 

Owing  to  an  accident  I  did  not  see  jour  number  of  Sep- 
tember 13  containing  mj  letter  on  the  glacial  geology  of  Orkney 
and  Shetland  and  Prof.  Geikie's  article  (toL  xvi  p.  414),  untU 
my  return  from  Scotland  a  few  days  ago.  Otherwise  I  should 
have  troubled  you  sooner  with  a  few  observations  thereon. 

In  tlie  first  place  I  wish  to  thank  Prof.  Geikie  for  the  very 
courteous  manner  in  which  he  has  refened  to  the  remarks  of  an 
outsider  who  has  ventured  to  intrude  on  what  the  Professor  has 
made,  to  such  an  extent,  his  own  peculiar  province. 

In  the  neat  place  I  am  glad  to  nnd  that  upon  what  was  the 
most  important  fact  in  my  statement,  viz.,  the  absence  cf  raised 
beaches  or  other  signs  of  recent  elevation  of  the  land  in  Orkney, 
Prot  Geikie  agrees  with  me. 

I  call  this  the  most  important  because  it  bears  directly  on  the 
theory  of  wide-spread  changes  in  the  relative  level  of  sea  and 
land  owing  to  secular  causes,  such  as  a  change  in  the  axis  of  the 
earth's  rotation,  or  in  the  position  of  its  centre  of  gravity.  If  it 
can  be  proved  that  the  difference  of  level,  which  caused  the 
raised  beaches  of  the  south  of  Scotland,  and  extended  north 
along  the  coast  of  Rosi  and  Sutherland,  dies  out  as  we  proceed 
further  north,  and  disappears  altogether  in  Orkney  and  Shetland, 
it  is  truly  a  crucial  experiment  which  shows  that  these  raised 
beaches  are  due  to  load  elevations  of  the  laod,  and  not  to  a 
general  linking  of  the  sea. 

This  is  the  conclusion  to  which  Prof.  Geikie  points,  though 
he  naturally  finds  it  difBcult  to  understand  why  the  upheaval,  so 
marked  in  Sutherland,  did  not  affect  Caithneu  and  Orkney. 

I  believe  I  can  add  a  few  facts  which  may  assist  in  removbg 
these  doubta 

At  one  of  the  places  in  Caithneu  mentioned  by  Prof.  Geikie, 
where  the  existence  of  a  raised  beich  mi^ht  be  possible,  viz.,  in 
the  sheltered  Bay,  between  Freswick  and  Wick,  I  believe  there 
is  one,  though  less  strongly  luarked  and  at  a  lower  elevation 
than  those  m  similar  situations  in  Sutherland.  I  allude  to  a 
terrace  which  bounds  the  links  of  Keiss  Bay,  about  half  a  m'de 
inland  from  the  present  coast-line.  I  cannot  speak  positively, 
not  having  seen  it  for  some  years ;  but  my  recollecuon  is  that 
it  is  a  perfect  miniature  reproduction  of  the  terraces  round  Brora 
and  other  bays  in  Sutherland.  If  so,  it  is  a  positive  proof  that 
the  elevation  of  the  land  died  out  towards  the  north,  and  we 
might  reasonably  suppose  that  somewhere  about  the  line  of  the 
Pentland  Firth  was  the  neutral  axis,  on  one  side  of  which  the 
land  rose,  while  on  the  other  it  fell. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  fact  is,  I  think,  incontrovertible  that 
Orkney  did  not  share  in  the  southern  movement  of  elevation. 
This  rests  not  only  on  the  absence  of  raised  beaches,  forming 
terraces,  which  might  possibly  have  disappeared,  but  still  more 
on  the  absence  of  ail  traces  of  marine  action,  such  as  pebbles, 
sand,  or  shells,  on  the  low  plains  which  must  have  been 
submerged. 

I  would  ask  Prof.  Geikie  to  consider  whether  the  single 
instance  of  the  Loch  of  Stennis  is  not  conclusive.  If  the  sea  had 
ever  stood  twenty  or  thirty  feet  higher  relatively  to  the  land  than 
it  now  does,  the  whole  plain  up  to  the  hills  must  have  been  a 
Weltered,  shallow,  iidand  fiord. 

As  the  land  rose  to  its  present  level  this  must  have  left  not 
only  a  terraced  beach  at  the  foot  of  the  hilts,  which  might  pos- 
sibly  have  disappeared  (though  it  is  hard  to  see  why  it  should 
have  done  so  in  such  a  sheltered  situation),  but  the  whole  plain 
must  have  been  a  raised  sea-bottom,  strewed  over  with  pebbles, 
sand,  and  shells.  Tbe^e  could  not  have  disappeared,  and  as 
they  are  nowhere  visible  and  the  plain  consists  everywhere  of  the 
ordinary  rock,  with  a  thin  mantle  of  soil  resoltiog  from  its  disin- 
tegration by  ordinary  atmospheric  causes,  I  am,  I  think,  justified 
in  assuming  it  to  be  proved  that  Orkney  did  not  share  in  the 
recent  movement  of  elevation  which  affected  the  rest  of  Scotland. 

Now  one  word  as  to  glaciation.  I  can  assure  Prof.  Geikie 
that  I  do  not  think  for  a  moment  of  setting  my  authority  against 
his,  and  that  il  he  is  right  in  the  instances  of  glaciation  he  tells 
us  he  has  observed  in  Orkney,  so  far  from  being  disappointed,  I 
shall  be  pleased,  for  it  will  dear  up  what  has  long  seemed  to  me 
a  perplexing  anomaly. 

Of  course  Orkney  must  have  experienced  the  fidl  rigour  of  the 
glacial  period,  and  it  is  only  natural  to  expect  that  it  should 
show  the  same  abundant  signs  of  gladatioo  as  the  iMljoining 
coundcs  of  Scotland.    Pro£  Geikie  will  therefore  excuse  me  if 


I  still  retain  a  little  of  that  healthy  soepticUm  which  is  to  con- 
ducive to  the  establishment  of  truth,  and  venture  to  plead  that 
judgment  may  be  stispended  until  there  is  further  evidence.  I 
do  so  mainly  because  the  Professor's  own  statement  is  that  during 
his  visits  to  Orkney  his  attention  was  devoted  mainly  to  the  old 
red  sandstone,  and  his  remarks  on  glaciation  weie  only  indden^aL 
Now  there  are  some  proofs  of  g'aciation  which  are  so  obvious 
that  there  can  be  no  mistake  about  them,  others  which  may 
easily  be  mistaken,  and  which  require  dose  examination  by  a 
practised  eye  directed  specially  to  them,  to  arrive  at  a  just  oon« 
dusion. 

Boulders  of  foreign  rock,  perched  blocks,  rocks  unmistakably 
rounded  and  polish^  by  the  ice  plane,  are  among  the  former. 
But  striae  require  great  practice  and  careful  examination  to  be 
sure  of  them  in  a  district  of  finelv  laminated  sandstones  which 
weather  constantly  into  parallel  lines  or  grooves.  Stony  day 
attain,  from  disintegrated  rock,  is  often  so  Idie  boulder  clay  that 
it  requires  close  observation  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other. 
And  finally  where  steep  hilla  have  crumbled  away  and  filled 
up  many  places  in  the  narrow  valleys  between  them  with  their 
Mris^  as  at  Hoy,^the  appearances  are  very  like  those  of  glacial 
moraines. 

Now  I  observe  that  nearly  all  the  condusive  proofs  of  glacial 
action  are  wanting  in  Prot  Gdkie's  enumeration.  He  has  not 
seen,  or  heard  of  anyone  who  has  seen,  a  single  boulder  or  perched 
block,  or  even  a  single  piece  of  foreijgn  stone  in  Orkney. 

As  regards  boulder-clay  I  would  join  issue  on  his  instances, 
taking  especially  that  of  Kirkwall  Bay,  because  it  is  typical  of 
the  other  cases  and  so  easily  accessible  that  the  facts  can  readily 
be  verified* 

I  believe  it  to  be  disintegrated  and  not  boulder  clay,  for  the 
following  reasons  :— 

I.  The  day  is  not  compact  like  that  of  genuine  boulder-clay, 
but  of  looser  structure^  and  often  dearly  mide  up  of  minute 
splinters  of  the  disintegrated  rock. 

a.  The  stones  in  the  day  are  never  foreign  stones,  and  are  not 
scattered  irregularly,  as  if  shot  out  into  a  huge  rubbish  heap,  as 
in  true  boulder-day,  but  arranged  for  the  most  part  so  that  the 
original  lines  of  stratification  can  be  followed. 

3.  If  the  section  which  resembles  boulder-day  be  followed  up, 
it  will  be  found  to  merge  insensibly  in  what  is  unmistakably 
the  common  disintegratea  surface  soil  of  the  district. 

There  only  remains  the  question  of  rochet  motUontUa^  and  here 
I  speak  with  the  greatest  diffidence,  for  certainly  Prof.  Geikie 
ought  to  know  a  great  deal  better  than  I  whether  a  humm  Kk  of 
rock  is  or  is  not  "  admirably  ice- worn  and  suiated  "  like  those 
behind  Stromness. 

I  can  only  say  that  I  have  looked  at  them  o'ten,  and  they 
appear  to  me  to  be  very  different  from  the  rockes  moutonnies  of 
which  I  have  seen  so  many  in  ScotUnd,  W^les,  and  Swi  zeiUn  '. 
They  are  not  rounded,  sm  K>th,  and  polished,  as  if  i^Uiici  into 
shai>e  by  some  gigantic  tool,  but  simply  inegolir  hunmocks  of 
rock,  sometimes  smooth  and  sometime  tou^h,  axoidmg  t) 
acddents  *n  the  bedding  and  weatherini^  of  the  s'rata.  So  at 
least  they  seem  to  me,  and  even  in  the  v^llos  o^  Hoy,  where,  if 
anywhere,  there  were  locU  glaciers,  the  sections  shown  bv  the 
small  streams  and  low  coast-line,  always,  I  believe,  exhibit  the 
same  appearance  of  sandstone  strata,  c  »miag  ar  an  angle  10  ihe 
surface,  and  with  their  edge*  not  planed  off,  but  passing 
gradually  into  surface  soil  by  dsintegration. 

0\  course  I  make  these  statements  subject  to  correction.  It 
may  be  that  I  have  failed  to  see  things  because  my  eye  is  not  suffi- 
ciently educated.  .  But  when  we  couple  what  is,  I  believe,  abso- 
lutely certain,  viz.,  the  absence  of  the  more  prominent  and 
obvious  proofs  of  glaciation  in  the  form  of  boulders  and  foreign 
rocks,  with  the  equally  certain  fact  that  O  knev  was  an  excep* 
tion  to  the  general  rale  of  recent  elevation,  I  think  Prof.  Geikie 
wi  1  admit  that  the  interests  of  sdcnce  will  be  promote*!  by  any 
remarks  which  may  lead  to  reasonable  doubts,  and  therefore  to 
condusive  investigation,  as  to  the  fact  whether  Orkney  does  or 
does  not  ^ive  proof  o'  hiving  been  covered  by  a  great  polar  ice* 
sheet  dunug  the  glacial  pericxL  S.  Laino 

36,  WUton  Crescent,  S.  W. 


Explosions 

I  HAVB  been  waiting  to  see  if  Mr.  Galloway's  paper  on 
''Explosions  in  Mines ''^published  in  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  21, 
would  l«ul  to  any  conespondence.  Your  residers  may  be  in- 
terested in  an  inddent  reported  to  me  by  the  kue  Dr.  Bottinger, 
of  Messrs.  Allsopp's  brewery,  Burton-on- Trent 


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[Dec.  13.  1877 


In, their  new  brcwerj,  ticaf  the  railway .  station,  tie  crdihed 
nwh'ts  lifted  from  one  ftoor  to' another  by  a  scries  of  cups 
revoiyipg  on  a  leathern'  bandj  ^e  caslog;  which'  incloses  the 
WkI,'  18  full  of  floating  malt  dus»:  while  the  revolution  is.  g'»ing 
on,  and  on  openhig  one  of  the  doors  of  the  casing  a  puff  of  malt- 
dust  is  sent  out  into  the^  room.  Soon  -after  the  brewery  was 
opened,  a  workman' went  with  an  undeTehded  light  to  make 
some  examination  of  the  working  of  the  leathern  band,  and  on 
opening  the  door  of  the  ess  ng  an  explosion  followed ;  not  of  a 
very  serious  character,  but  enough,  I  think,  to  throw  the  band 
out  of  gear.  The  cause  of  the  expl-^sion  is  evident ;  the  rapid 
CO  '  busticn  of  the  fine  malt  dust  with  which  the  air  puffed  out 
into  the  room  was  charged. 

Dr  Bottinger  died  a  few  years  since,  but  it  would  probably  not 
be  diff  cult  to  get  accurate  details  of  the  accident  from  Messrs. 
Allsopp  and  Sons.  A.  Mackennah 

Bowdoo,  December  xi 


Means  of  Dispersal 

In  his  great  work,  "Insecu  Maderensia,"  Mr.  Wollaston 
remarks  upon  the  great  affinity  in  the  coleopterous  fauna  of 
Madeira  with  that  of  Sicily,  and  in  his  "Coleiptera  H  Rperi- 
dum,"  on  the  nortktrn  character  of  that  of  the  Cape  Verde 
Isles.  Mr.  Andrew  Murray  also  found  ihat  out  of  27$  Cape  Verde 
species  91  were  comm  n  to  the  Canaries  and  81  to  the  Madeiran 
group.  The  last  author  would  seem  to  rely  on  the  efficacy  of 
now  submcged  contintnts  as  a  means  of  transmission  between 
the  two  areas. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  commencement  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  Ponugpese. carried  the  sugar-catie  fVonn 
Sioty  to  Madeira  and  the  CanariesC  The  iheans  of  introduction 
would  probably  be  the  same  .then  as  now  ;  the  young  shoots  01 
cane  woufd  be  conveyed' in  boxes'  or  baskets  o^  earth  from  one 
locality  to  the  othcV,  a«  the  writer  oUce  cafii^ed  young  cane  plants 
from  Car  Nicobar  vtd  Rangoon  to  PcnanV^  and  has  seen'  the 
same  arrive  in  the  last  locality  from 'th6  West  Indies'.  There 
tan  be  little  doubt  that  manv  of  these  plams'  must  have  been 
earned  from  S\C\\j  to  the  Atlantic  Ules  before  a  successful  or 
safficent  introduction  was  made,  and  witii  th6  eknh  in  which 
the  plants  were  conveyed,  '  many  geodephagous  and  6*her 
toleoptera  woutd  find  kn  enfbrced  m'-ans  of  migration.  The 
sui^ar-cane  is  also  reported  as  havmg  been  introduced  intb 
Cyprus  from  Asia,  tfnd  transplanted  froai  there  to  Madeira,  t*ius 
adding  another  iirik  to'the  locsdities  in  whuh  thes^  colea^teral 
Unities  have  been  detected.  ' 

-  It  is^Dt  prnposied  th%t  this  Was  the  sole,  but  only  a  pfobible 
means  of  the  transmission  of  common  form<  in  the  cofeopreral 
faunas  of  these  ikridely-separated  disUicts.  *  The  riumber  of  caiises 
Which  have  been  factors  to  the  J^artie  in  the  pait  ^ay  be  in  an 
mverse  ratio  to  our  kndwiedge  of  theoi.       '   W.  L.  Distant 

Stippktnentary  Byebro^' 

I  MET  a  gentleman  a  few  days  |ago  who  li«  on  either  side  i)f 
the' forehead  a  supplementary  eyebrow  branching  oTTJromJthe 
superciliary  ndge  near  the^up^-orbiC^l  notch^  and  passing 
obliquely  upwards  and  outwards  f.-r  abdut  J  inch'  acro^s  the 
forehead.  Bcne^h  these  brows,  which  contain  large  and  coarse 
hairs,  are  line's  ofsoft  down-like  hair,  one  on  either  side  occupy* 
ing  the  usual  position  of  the  eyebrows.  Since  my  allentfon  was 
drawn  to  this  subject' I  have^  noticed  that  niany  persons  have  a 
short  secondary  spur  of  hairs  at  the  points  indicated.  Artists,  I 
believe,  liave  noticed  this  deviation  from  the  normal  eyebrow-line,^ 
as  we  occasionally  observe  it  in  ponraits  o(  Puck  and  other 
mischievous  sprites. 

There  b  a  spot  about  midway  between  the  orbits  in  animals 
that  I  have  examin<  d  (namely,  horses,  dogs^  and  cats),  whence 
the  lines  of  hair-insertion  into  the  skin  radiate  in  various  direc- 
tions. ^  If  we  conuder  the  secondary  eyebrows  of  man  as  a 
reversion  to  an  isncestral  type,  we  must  conclude  that  our  hairy 
progenitors  also  possessed  such  a  radiating  point  of  hair  insertion 
npon  their  foreheads,  and  (hat  the  secon&ry  eyebrows  are  only 
remnants  of  a  hairy  oovehng  which  original^  enveloped  the 
whole  £sce.  W.  AlKSLlE  Hollis 

Brighton 

Difiysion  qr  Cohesion  Figures  in  Liquids 
With  reference,  to  the  above,  allow  me  to  relate  some  experi- 
ments made  sevnal  years  ago»  and  easily  repeated. 

I.  Take  a  tall  precipitate  glass,  fill  it  with  water,  drop  into  it 
a  piece  of  lump  or  refined  sugar  and  four  or  &9t  grains  of  oomm<» 


tiXt  'Let  tlie  vessel  r^aitt  quiet,  so  that  when  the  sugar  it  dis- 
solved there  may  beilifferent  densities  in  the  fluid  from  top  to 
bottom.  Then  lightly  touch  the  snrface  with  a  piece  of  lunar 
caustic  {silvex  nitratfl),  and  c^Mfftyt  the  figure  ^^ich  results. 

2..  The  experiment  may  be  repeated  with  sugar,  diluted  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  barium  chloride,  the  figures  varying  with  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients  used. 

3.  Take  a  common  tumbler  glass  filled  with  water,  dissolve  in 
H  half  a  tea-spoonful  of  common  salt  Touch  the  surface  of  the 
solution  with  the  point  of  a  pen  filled  with  ordinary  black  ink, 
and  the  characteristic  figures  are  produced.  F.R.S. 

Brighton,  December  12 

Meteor 

At  8h.  13m.  (i:  2m.)  P-M.  on  December  9,  a  brilliant  meteor 
passed  from  32  Camelenpardalis  (d:  l')  through  ii  Lyrae  (±  l°), 
and  disappeared  about  o<*  beyond  *;  time  of  passa*^,  I  '6  (±  '3) 
sec.  ;  mag.,  3  (±  2)  x  Lyre ;  colour,  emetald  green ;  track* 
yellow,  visible  I  second  ;  seen  from  51'  24'  43"  N.,  a*  13"  E. 
This  may  enable  a'norihem  observer  to  fix  the  position. 

Bromley,  Kent  W.  M.  F.  P. 


ON  THE  CAUSATION  OF  SLEEP 

THE  last  number  of  Pfliigefs  Arckiv  (voL  xv.,  p.  573) 
contains  the  following  interesting  note  by  Dr. 
Slriimpell :—  .  . 

**  In  the  autumn  of  last  year  there  was  received  into  tae 
medical  clinik  of  Leipzig  a  youth,  aged  16,  in  wbom  various 
phenomena  of  ansesthesia- gradually  developed  themselires 
to  an  extent  which  has  very  rarely  been  observed* .  The 
skin  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  was  completely 
insensible,  and  that  in  respect  to  every  kind  of  sensation. 
The  most  powerful  electric  current — a  burning  taper  held  to 
the  sfcin — ^was  not  able  to  produce  any  pain  or  even  a  sensa- 
tion' pf  touch.  Almost  all  the  accessible  parts  of  the  mucous 
inembrane  of  the  body  exhibited  the  samd  insensibility  to 
piin. '  Also  all  those  sensations  which  s^e  classed  together 
under  thct  ikmcuc  of  '.muscpl^r  sense,^  were  entirely  absent. 
The  patient,  when  his  eyes  were  closed,  could  be  curled 
about  round  the  room,  his  limbs  could  be  placed  in  the 
most  inconvenient  positions  without  his  being. in  any  inay 
Conscious  of  it.  Even  the  feeling- of  muscular  exhaustion 
was  lost.  In  addition  there-came  on  also  a  eomplete  loss 
of  taste  and  smell,  amaurosis  of  the  left  eye^  and  deafoess 
of  the  right  ear. 

''  In  shorty  here  was  ah  iiidividual  ^o^e  only  con- 
nection with  the  outer  world  was  limited  to  two  doors  of 
sense— to  his  one.  (rig^t)  eye,  and  liis  one  (l^'t)  eiur. 
Moreover,  both  these  r^i^ining.  doors  could  at  any  time 
bC:  easily  closed^and  in  this  way  it  was  possible  to  inves- 
tigate the  cottsequenoes^  idi  cocnpletely  isolating  the  bra^n 
from  all  external  stimulation  through  the  senses.  I  have 
frequently  made  the  following  experiment,  and  often 
showed  it  to  others  : — U  the  patient's  seeing  ^e  .was 
bandaged  and  his  hearing  ear  was  Stopped,  after  a  few 
(usually  from  two  to  three)  minutes  the  expression  of  sur- 
prise and  the  uneasy  movements  which  at  first  showed 
themselves  ceased,  the  respiration  became  quiet  and 
regular;  in  fact '  the  patient  wai  sound'  asUep,  Here, 
the^refore,  the  possibility  of  artificially  inducing  sleep  at 
any  tiipe  in  4  person  simply  by  withholding  from  the 
brain  all  stimujUttion  Jt>y  means  of  the  senses  was  realised. 

"  The  awakening  of  the  patient  was  as  interesting 
as  the  sending  him  to  sleep.  He  could  be  awakened 
by  an:  auditory  stimulation,  as,  for  example,  by  calling 
into  his  hearhig  ear  or  by  visual  stimulation,  by  allowing 
the  stimulus  of  Hght  to  fall  upon  his  seeing  eve  ;  but  he 
could  -not  be  woke  by  any  pushing  or  shaking.  If  he 
was  left  to  himself  he  did  eventually  wake  up  of  his 
own  accord  in  coufse  of  the  day,  after  the  sleep  had 
lasted  many  hours,  the  awakening  bein^  due,  it  might  be, 
to  intrinsic  stimuli  started  in  the  brain,  or  it  might  be  'to 
slight  ext(^n^  tinavoidable  stimuU  acting  through  his 
still  functional  sense  organs,  and  making  themselves  felt 
in  consequence  of  the  sensitiveness  of  the  brain  bein^ 
increased  during  the  repose  of  the  sleqpi** 


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125 


THE  MODERN  TELESCOPE^ 

II. 

THETHER  the  telescope  be  of  the  first  or  last  order 
of  excellence,  its  light-grasping  powers  will  be 
practically  the  same ;  there  is  therefore  a  great  distinction 
to  be  drawn  between  the  illuminating  and  defining  power. 


W 


Fig.  5.— Satuin  and  his  moons  (geneial  view  mth  a  3}  ioch  object-glass.) 

The  former  as  we  have  seen  depends  upon  size  (and  sub- 
sidiarily upon  polish),  the  latter  depends  upon  the  accuracy 
of  the  curvature  of  the  surface. 

If  the  defining  power  be  not  good,  even  if  the  air  be 


perfect,  each  increase  of  the  magnifying  power  so  brings 
out  the  defects  of  the  image,  that  at  last  no  details  at  all 
are  visible,  all  outlines  are  blurred  or  stellar  character  is 
lost  Even  with  the  best  telescopes  the  power  should  not 
be  strained. 

The  testing  of  a  glass  therefore  refers  to  two  diflferent 
qualities  which  it  should  possess.  Its  quality  as  to  ma- 
terial and  the  fineness  of  its  polish  should  be  such  that  the 
maximum  of  light  shall  be  transmitted.  Its  quality,  as  to 
the  curves,  should  be  such  that  the  rays  passing  through 
every  part  of  its  area  shall  converge  absolutely  to  the 
same  point,  with  a  chromatic  aberration  not  absolutely 
ir/7,  but  sufficient  to  surround  objects  with  a  faint  violet 
light.  With  the  reflector  we  have  to  consider  the  brilliancy 
'  of  the  surface  and  the  perfection  of  curvature. 

In  close  double  stars,  therefore,  or  in  the  more  minute 
markings  of  the  sun,  moon,  or  planets,  we  have  tests  of 
its  defining  power  ;  and  if  this  is  equally  good  in  the 
instruments  examined,  the  revelations  of  telescopes  as 
they  increase  in  power  are  of  the  most  amazing  kind. 

A  3|-inch  suffices  to  show  Saturn  with  all  the  detail 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  while  Fig.  6  shows  us  the  further 
minute  structure  of  the  rings  which  comes  out  when  the 
planet  is  observed  with  an  object-glass  with  an  aperture  of 
26  inches. 

In  the  matter  01  double  stars,  a  telescope  of  2  inches 


Fig.-  6.-DetaiIs  of  the  ring  of  Saturn  observed  by  Trourelot  with  the  26-inch  Washington  Refractor. 


aperture,  with  powers  varying  from  60  to  100,  should 
show  the  following  stars  double  r — 

Polaris.  7  Arietis.  a  Gcminorum. 

a  Piscium.  p  Herculis.  y  Leonis. 

M  Draconis.  f  Ursa?  Msjoris.        f  Cassiopejp. 

A  4inch  aperture,  powers  80-120,  reveals  the  duplicity 
of— 
^  Ononis.  a  Lyrse.  8  Geminorum. 

6  Hydrae.  f  Ursae  Majoris.         o-  Cassiopese. 

•  Buoii.s  y  Ceti.  c  Draconis. 

Leonfs. 

'  Continued  rrom  p.  68. 


A  6- inch,  powers  240-300 — 

«  Arctis.  20  Draconis. 

32^  Ononis.  k  GeminoruiD. 

\  OphtucbK  I  EqunleL 

An  8- inch — 

8  Cygni  Siriu«. 

7*  Andromef^ae.  19  Draconis. 

The  "  spurious  disk,**  which  a  fixed  star  presents,  as 
seen  in  the  telescope,  is  an  effect  which  results  from  the 
passage  of  the  light  through  the  circular  object-glass, 
or  its  reflection  Irom  a  circular  mirror ;  and  it  is  this 


(  HercuUi. 
i  Buotis. 


fi'  Hercoli?. 
M*  Bootis. 


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NA  TURE 


[Dtc.  13.  1877 


appearance  which  necessitates  the  use  of  the  largest 
apertures  in  the  observation  of  close  double  stars,  as  the 
s'ze  of  the  star's  disk  varies,  roughly  speaking,  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  aperture. 

In  our  climate,  which  is  not  so  bad  as  some  would 
make  it,  a  6-  to  an  8-inch  glass  is  doubtless  the  size  which 
will  be  found  the  most  constantly  useful ;  larger  apertures 
being  frequently  not  only  useless,  but  hurlfuL  Still,  4  or 
3J  inches  are  apertures  by  all  means  to  be  encouraged  ; 
and  by  object-glasses  of  these  s'zes,  made,  of  course,  by 
the  best  makers,  views  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and 
double  stars,  may  be  obtained,  sufficiently  striking  to  set 
many  seriously  to  work  as  amateur  observers,  and  with  a 
prospect  of  securing  good,  useful  results. 

Observations  should  always  be  commenced  with  the 
lowest  power,  gradually  increasing  it  until  the  limit  of  the 
aperture,  or  of  the  atmospheric  condition  at  the  time,  is 
reached.  The  former  may  be  taken  as  equal  to  the 
number  of  hundredths  of  inches  which  the  diameter  of 
the  object-glass  contains.  Thus,  a  3i-inch  object-glass, 
if  really  good,  should  bear  a  po  ver  of  375  on  double  stars 
where  light  is  no  object ;  the  planets,  the  moon,  &c.,  will 
be  best  observed  with  a  much  lower  povver. 


Frc.   7.— Appearance  of  diffraction        Fig.  B. — ^Aopearance  of  same  object 
hf^^  round  a  srar  wben  the  ob-  when  object-glass  is  out  of  adjust- 

ject-glass  is  properly  adjusted. 


Care  should  be  taken  that  the  object-glass  is  properly 
adjusted.  And  we  may  here  repeat  that  this  may  be  done 
by  observing  the  image  of  a  large  star  out  of  focus.  If 
the  light  be  not  equally  distributed  over  the  image,  or  the 
diffraction  rings  are  not  circular,  the  screws  of  the  cell 
should  be  carefully  loosened,  and  that  part  of  the  cell 
towsuxis  which  the  rings  are  thrown  very  gently  tapped 
with  wood,  to  force  it  towards  the  eyepiece,  or  the  same 
purpose  may  be  effected  by  means  of  the  set-screws  always 
present  on  large  telescopes,  until  perfectly  equal  illumina- 
tion is  arrived  at.  This,  however,  should  only  be  done  in 
extreme  cases ;  it  is  here  especially  desirable  that  we 
should  let  well  alone.  In  the  case  of  mirrors,  instructions 
for  adjustment  are  generally  given  by  the  maker. 

The  convenient  altitude  at  which  Orion  culminates  in 
these  latitudes  renders  it  particularly  eligible  for  observa- 
tion ;  and  during  the  first  months  of  the  year,  our  readers 
who  would  test  their  telescopes  will  do  well  not  to  lose 
the  opportunity  of  trying  the  progressively  difficult  tests, 
both  of  illuminating  and  separating  power,  afforded  by  its 
various  double  and  multiple  systems,  which  are  collected 
together  in  such  a  circumscribed  region  of  the  heavens 
that  no  extensive  movement  of  their  instruments — ^an 
imoortant  point  in  extreme  cases — will  be  necessary. 

Beginning  with  b,  the  upper  of  the  three  stars  which 
form  the  belt,  the  two  components  will  be  visible  in 
almost  any  instrument  which  may  be  used  for  seeing 
them,  being  of  the  second  and  seventh  magnitudes,  and 
well  separated.  The  companion  to  /3,  though  of  the  same 
magnitude  as  that  to  d,  is  much  more  difficult  to  observe, 
in  consequence  of  its  proximity  to  its  bright  primary,  a 
first  magnitude  star.  Quaint  old  Kitchener,  in  his  work 
on  telescopes,  mentions  that  the  companion  to  Rigel  has 
been  seen  with  an  object-glass  of  2|-inch  aperture ; 
it  should  be  seen,  at  all  events,  with  a  3-inch.  The 
bottom  star  in  the  belt  is  a  capital  test  both  of  the 


dividing  and  space-penetrating  power,  as  the  two  bright 
stars  of  the  second  and  sixth  magnitudes,  of  which  the 
close  double  is  composed,  are  exactly  2^  apart,  while 
there  is  a  companion  to  one  of  these  components  of  the 
twelfth  magnitude  about  i"  distant  The  small  star 
below,  which  the  late  Admiral  Smyth,  in  his  charming 
book, ''  The  Celestial  Cycle,"  mentions  as  a  test  for  ^is 
object-glass  of  59  inches  in  diameter,  is  now  plainly  to 
be  seen  in  a  3|.  The  colours  of  this  pair  have  been 
variously  stated. 

That  either  our  modem  opticians  contrive  to  admit 
more  light  by  means  of  a  superior  polish  imparted  to  the 
surfaces  of  the  object-glass,  or  that  the  stars  themselves 
are  becoming  brighter,  is  again  evidenced  by  the  point  of 
light,  preceding  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the  system 
composing  er.  This  little  twinkler  is  now  always  to  be 
s;en  in  a  3  j-inch,  while  the  same  authority  we  have  before 
quoted — Admiral  Smyth— speaks  of  it  as  b^ng  of  very 
difficult  vision  in  his  instrument  of  much  larger  dimensions. 
In  this  very  beautiful  compound  system  there  are  no  less 
than  seven  principal  starr ;  and  there  are  several  other 
faint  ones  in  the  field.  The  upper  very  faint  companion 
of  X  is  a  delicate  test  for  a  3}-inch,  which  aperture,  how- 
ever, will  readily  divide  the  closer  double  of  the  principal 
stars  which  are  about  5"  apart. 

These  objects,  with  the  exception  of  C>  have  been  given 
more  to  test  the  space-penetrating  than  the  dividing 
power ;  the  telescope's  action  on  52  Ononis  will  at  once 
decide  this  latter  quality.  This  star,  just  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  on  a  fine  night,  to  the  right  of  a  line  joining 
a  and  b,  is  a  very  close  double.  The  components  of  the 
sixth  magnitude  are  separated  by  less  than  two  seconds 
of  arc,  and  the  glass  which  shows  a  goini  wide  black 
division  between  them,  free  from  all  stray  Jight,  the 
spurious  disc  being  perfectly  round,  and  not  too  iarge^ 
is  by  no  means  to  be  despised. 

Then,  ag^in,  we  have  a  capital  test  object  in  the  great 
nebula  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made. 

The  star  to  whidi  we  wish  to  call  especial  attentioB  is 
situate  (see  Fig.  4)  opposite  the  bottom  of  the  '*  fauces/' 
the  name  given  to  the  indentation  which  gives  rise  to  the 
appearance  of  the  ''fish's  mouth."  Th\%  object,  which 
has  been  designated  the  .'*  trapezhim,"  from  the  figure 
formed  by  its  principal  components,  consists,  in  fact,  of 
six  stars,  the  fifth  and  sixth  (y'  and  a'}  being  excessively 
faint  Our  previous  remark,  relative  to  the  increased 
brightness  of  the  stars,  applies  here  with  great  force ;  for 
the  fifth  escaped  the  gace  of  the  elder  Herschel,  anned 
with  his  powerful  instruments,  and  was  not  discovered 
till  1826,  by  Struve,  who,  in  his  turn,  missed  the  sixth 
star,  which,  as  well  as  the  fifth,  has  been  seen  in  modern 
achromatics  of  such  small  size  as  to  make  all  comparison 
with  the  giant  telescopes  used  by  these  astronomers 
ridiculous. 

Sir  John  Herschel  has  rated  y  and  a'  of  the  twelfth  and 
fourteenth  magnitudes— the  latter  requires  a  high  power 
to  observe  it,  by  reason  of  its  proximity  to  a.  Both  these 
stars  have  been  seen  in  an  ordinary  5-foot  achromatic, 
by  Cooke,  of  3  j-inches  aperture,  a  fact  speaking  volumes 
for  the  perfection  of  surface  and  polish  attained  by  our 
modern  opticians. 

Let  us  now  try  to  form  some  idea  of  the  perfection  of 
the  modern  object-glass.  We  will  take  a  telescope  of 
eight  inches  aperture,  and  ten  feet  focal  length.  Suppose 
we  observe  a  close  double  star,  such  as  f  Ursae.  then  the 
images  of  these  two  stars  will  be  brought  to  a  focus  side 
by  side,  as  we  have  previously  explained,  and  the  distance 
by  which  they  will  be  separated  will  be  dependent  on  the 
focal  length  of  the  object-glass. 

If  we  take  a  telescope  ten  feet  long  and  look  at  two 
stars  I**  apart,  the  angle  will  be  i° ;  and  at  ten  feet  off  the 
distance  between  the  two  images  will  be  something  like 
2]^  inches,  and  therefore,  if  the  angle  be  a  second,  the 
hues  will  be  the  ^K^^^i^th  part  of  that,  or  about  t7\>v^  P^^ 


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of  an  inch  apart,  so  that  in  order  to  be  able  to  see  the 
double  star  ^  Urs^,  which  is  a  i''  star,  by  means  of  an 
eight-inch  object-glass,  all  the  surfaces,  the  50  square 
inches  of  surface,  of  both  sides  of  the  crown,  and  Doth 
sides  of  the  flint  glass,  must  be  so  absolutely  true  and 
accurate,  that  after  the  light  is  seized  by  the  object-glass, 
we  must  have  those  two  stars  absolutely  perfectly  distinct 
at  the  distance  of  the  seventeen  hundredth  part  of  an 
inch,  and  in  order  to  see  stars  ^'  apart,  their  images  must 
be  distinct  at  one-half  of  this  distance  or  at  iiiVrffth  part 
of  an  inch  from  each  other. 

J.  Norman  Lockver 
{.To  h€ continued,) 


BIOLOGICAL  NOTES 

Classification  of  Decapod  Crustaceans,— In 
this  well-defloed  group,  the  position  of  the  anomurous 
forms  (hermit-crabs,  &c.)  has  often  been  the  subjea  of 
doubt  The  special  adaptations  of  some  genera  for 
particular  modes  of  life  have  caused  them  to  be  thrown 
together  ;  and  no  doubt  they  agree  in  possessing  neither 
the  powerful  abdomen  of  the  lobsters,  nor  the  very  much 
aborted  one  of  the  crabs.  Yet  the  anomurous  forms 
include  markedly  contrasted  groups.  The  family  Hippidae, 
with  its  lobster-like  cephalothorax  and  firm  abdomen, 
differs  greatly  in  aspect  from  the  hermit-crabs.  Hippa 
ialpoida^  a  small  species  found  along  the  whole  eastern 
coast  of  the  United  States,  inhabits  sandy  beaches 
exposed  to  the  waves,  at  a  zone  very  near  low-water  mark. 
It  nas  a  smooth  oval  form,  and  short  and  stout  thoracic 
legs  (second,  third,  and  fourth  pairs),  enabling  it  to 
burrow  backwards  in  the  sand  with  mwellous  rapidity. 
In  life  the  antennse  are  peculiarly  crossed,  with  the 
flageUa  curved  round  the  mouth  90 that  the  setae,  with  which 
they  are  densely  covered,  all  project  inwards,  and  the 
function  of  the  antennae  appears  to  consist  chiefly  in  the 
removal  of  all  parasitic  growths  or  foreign^  bodies  from 
the  anterior  parts  of  the  body.  The  appendages  of  the 
mouth  are  not  adapted  for  prehension  or  masticatimi,  and 
the  alimentary  canal  is  found  loaded  with  flne  sand.  The 
thoracic  appendages  have  neither  external  nor  superior 
elements  (exopodites^  epipodites) ;  while  the  oflice  of 
protecting  and  cleanmg  the  gills  is  discharged  by  the 
small  Umbs  corresponding  to  the  fifth  pair  of  ambulatory 
legs  in  lobsters,  which  are  curved  upwards  and  hidden 
beneath  the  carapace.  The  development  of  this  form  has 
been  recently  carefully  described  by  Mr.  Sidney  Smith, 
of  Yale  College,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Connecticut 
Academy,  voL  iii.  p.  311.  They  pass  through  larval 
stages  very  analogous  to  the  zoea  stages  of  crabs,  only 
being  destitute  of  a  large  dorsal  spine ;  and  they  then 
assume  a  form  like  the  brachyuran  me^alops,  with  lar^e 
eyes,  and  powerful  abdominal  swimmmg  legs.  But  m 
this  condition  they  buried  themselves  in  sand  with  great 
alacrity.  Thus  it  is  determined  that  the  embryonic 
development  of  Hippa,  as  well  as  of  Albunea,  studied 
by  Claus,  agrees  much  more  closely  with  that  of  crabs 
proper  than  with  hermit  crabs  or  lobsters  ;  and  this 
publication  by  Mr.  Smith  furnishes  an  important  addition 
to  the  evidence  favouring  the  view  that  the  Anomura  are 
a  heterogeneous  group  made  up  of  specialised  families  of 
Brachyura  and  Macrura. 

The  American  Bison.— Mr.  J.  A.  Allen's  valu- 
able "  History  of  the  American  Bison,"  so  sump- 
tuously produced  by  the  Geological  Survey  of  Kentucky 
and  the  Harvard  Museum  of  Zoology,  has  excited  so 
much  interest  that  to  supply  the  demand  for  it  Dr. 
Hay  den  has  republished  almost  the  whole  of  the  text  in 
the  ninth  annual  report  of  his  survey  of  the  territories, 
and  as  a  separate  pamphlet  of  150  pages,  with  con- 
siderable additions  by  the  author.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  of  these  consists  in  the  publication  of  a  letter 


from  Mr,  J.  W.  Cunningham,  of  Howard  County, 
Nebraska^  on  the  domestication  of  this  species.  It 
appears  that  the  bison  has  been  crossed  with  the  ordi- 
nary milch  cow,  and  that  half-  and  quarter-breds  are 
not  uncommon,  and  the  cows  yield  extremely  rich  milk. 
They  prove  to  be  both  hardy  and  tame.  Ihit  colour  of 
the  bison  and  the  majority  of  the  distinguishi%  characters 
disappear  after  repeated  crossings.  The  lump  of  flesh 
covermg  the  dorsal  vertebrae  also  becomes  diminished. 
The  preservation  of  a  pure  domestic  breed  of  the  bison 
does  not  seem  so  easy.  In  some  instances  where  buffa- 
loes have  been  broken  to  the  yoke  they  have  proved 
strong  and  serviceable,  but  rather  unmanageable  at  times. 
Unless  the  breed  is  maintained  in  some  way  artificially, 
the  wild  species  will  no  doubt  before  very  long  become 
extinct. 

Products  of  Assimilation  in  MusACEit.— Herr 
Emil  Godlewski  has  recently  investigated  whether  in  the 
case  of  Musaceae  the  first  assimilation-product  is  oil  or 
starch,  which  latter  is  the  first  product  in  most  plants. 
Sig.  Briosi  had  recently  maintained  that  oil  was  first  pro- 
duced. The  question  which  had  to  be  solved,  therefore, 
was  whether  these  plants,  when  decomposing  carbonic  acid 
under  the  influence  of  light,  exhale  h.  vokjme  uJ  ux)gt:u 
greater  than  that  of  the  carbonic  acid  decomposed.  If 
oil  is  formed  from  the  carbonic  acid  this  must  be  the  case. 
Measurements  which  Herr  (Godlewski  made  to  this  end 
with  Musa  sapient  turn,  gave  negative  results  ;  the  ostygen 
exhaled  was  not  of  greater  volume  than  the  carbonic  acid 
decomposed.  Sig.  Briosi  had  failed  to  discover  starch  in 
the  grains  of  chlorophyll  of  the  mesophyll-celis  of  the 
leaves ;  while  Herr  Godlewski  was  perfectly  successful  also 
in  this  direction,  perceiving  numerous  granules  of  starch  In 
leaves  from  young  specimens  of  species  of  botb  J/MWf  and 
StreliiMt^  ndiioh  hod  been  collected  in  the  evenijig  after  a 
hot  day. 

Fertilisation  in  Thyme  and  MAiyoRMf.— Under 
the  title  of ''  Das  Variiren  der  Groise  gefarbten  Blikheni- 
hiiUen,  und  seine  Wirkung  auf  die  Naturztichtung  der 
Blumen,**  Dr.  Hermann  Miiller  reprints  from  Kosmos  a 
paper  containing  manv  of  the  facts  which  have  appeared 
from  time  to  time  with  his  signature  in  these  columns. 
The  special  point  to  which  he  calls  attention  is  the 
occurrence  in  many  species  of  Labiatae— 7>i>MiMj  ser- 
pyllum.  Origanum  vul^are,  &c—o(  two  distinct  forms, 
one  with  larger  hermaphrodite  protandrous,  the  other 
with  smaller  female  flowers.  The  second  of  these  two 
forms  can  manifesdy  only  be  fertilised  by  the  former,  and 
will  disappear  where  the  conditions  of  life  are  imfavour- 
able  ;  while  the  propagation  of  the  first  form  is  in  no  way 
dependent  on  the  other. 

A  Fossil  FuNGUS.—One  ot  the  most  interesting  re- 
cent discoveries  io  pilaeophytology  has  recently  been  made 
by  Mr.  Worthington  Smith,  in  the  detection,  in  the  coal- 
measures,  of  a  fossil  fungus  nearly  allied  to  that  which 
produces  the  potato  blight,  and  which  he  has  named 
Peronosporites  antiquarius.  Fossil  fungi  were  not  pre- 
viously altogether  unknown.  Some  years  ago  Mr.  Car- 
ruthers,  the  keeper  of  the  botanical  department  at  the 
British  Museum,  detected  mycelial  threads  among  the 
cells  of  a  fossil  fern  {Osmunda)  from  the  Lower  Eocene 
strata  of  Heme  Bay ;  and  Mr.  Darwin  has  stated  that 
fungus  threads  in  a  fossil  state  in  silicified  wood  were  shown 
to  him  more  than  forty  years  ago  by  the  late  Mr.  Robert 
Brown.  Messrs.  Hancock  and  Atthey  have  also  described 
in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  0/ Natural  History  (4th  ser. 
vol.  iv.  1869,  p.  121,  t.  ix.  X.),  under  the  name  of  Archa- 
garicon,  what  may  be  a  fossil  Peronosporites  from  the 
Cramlington  black  shale.  The  specimen  examined  by 
Mr.  Worthington  Smith  (the  fungoid  nature  of  the 
organism  having  been  first  suggested  by  Mr.  Cairuthers), 
was  seen  within  the  vascular  axis  of  a  Lcpidodendron, 


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[Dec.  13,  i«77 


and  is  thus  described  by  that  gentleman :— It  consists  of 
a  mass  of  mycelia  ana  zoosporangia  (or  oogonia).  Be- 
ginning with  the  mycelium,  a  close  examination  shows 
that  it  is  furnished  with  numerous  joints  or  septa.  If, 
therefore,  any  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  modem 
distinguishing  characters  of  the  now  living  species  of  the 
genera  Peronospora  and  Pythium^  as  furnished  by  a 
septate  or  non-septate  mycelium,  the  fossil  parasite 
belongs  to  the  former,  and  not  to  the  latter  genus,  nor  to 
any  of  the  Saprolegnieae.  The  oogonia  do  not  agree 
with  those  of  Cystopus,  Within  many  of  the  fossil  oogo- 
nia the  differentiation  of  the  protoplasm  into  zoospores 
is  clearly  seen ;  but  if  any  doubt  could  exist  as  to  the 
exact  nature  of  this  differentiation,  then  other  oogonia  (or 
zoosporangia)  on  the  same  slide  show  the  contained  zoo- 
spores with  a  clearness  not  to  be  exceeded  by  any  living 
specimens  of  the  present  time.  It  is  a  very  remarkable 
fact  that  the  oogonium  precisely  resembles,  in  size  and 
other  characters,  average  oogonia  of  the  present  day, 
especially  those  belonging  to  Peronospora  infesfans.  The 
contained  zoospores  are,  moreover,  the  same  in  form  and 
dimensions  with  those  of  P,  infestans  when  measured  to 
the  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch.  The  organisms  are,  in 
fact,  apparently  identical ;  and  the  average  number  of 
zoospores  in  each  oogonium  is  also  the  same,  viz.,  seven 
or  eight  The  aerial  condition  of  the  fimgus  has  not  yet 
been  observed.  Mr.  Worthington  Smith  suggests,  in 
conclusion,  that  we  probably  have,  in  Peronosporiies 
antiguartuSf  one  of  the  primordial  plants  from  which 
both  the  great  £amiilies  of  fungi  and  algae  may  possibly 
have  descended  ;  but  should  not  this  primordial  pl^mt  have 
led  a  non-parasitic  life  ? — for  if  parasitical,  then  this  fact 
points  to  some  pre-existing  plant. 

The  Laws  of  Digital  Reduction.— Hitherto  there 
has  been  little  explanation  of  the  curious  variation  in  the 
number  and  relative  size  of  the  digits  in  the  vertebrata. 
Mr.  John  A.  Rydtr  {American  Naturalisty  October)  suggests 
that  the  number  of  toes  is  least  where  Uie  mechanical 
strains  are  greatest,  and  impacts  most  frequent  and  severe. 
He  quotes  several  cases  in  which  the  hinder  digits  are 
reduced  more  than  those  of  the  fore  feet,  and  shows  that 
in  all  of  them  the  body  in  jumping  or  running  pitches 
mainly  upon  the  hind  limbs.  He  looks  upon  the  outer 
toes  of  man  as  in  process  of  undergoing  reduction,  being 
now  weaker  and  shorter  than  in  any  of  the  higher  apes. 
The  chrysochloris  among  moles  is  an  instance  of  special 
reduction  in  the  anterior  extremity,  and  here  the  mecha- 
nical strains  are  most  frequent  and  severe.  Among 
fossonal  animals  the  daws  and  toes  are  usually  best 
developed  on  the  fore  limbs.  The  retention  by  certain 
groups,  of  digits  in  a  very  equal  state  of  development  in 
manus  or  pes,  or  both^  is  attributed  to  the  equal  distribu- 
tion of  strains  on  all 

The  Birds  of  Guadaloupk  Island.— This  inter- 
esting fauna  is  dealt  with  by  Mr.  Robert  Ridgway  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club  for  July.  It 
is  strange  that  only  eight  forms  from  this  island,  situated 
about  220  miles  south-west  of  San  Diego,  are  satisfactorily 
known,  and  their  afiBnities  are  almost  entirely  with  those 
of  western  North  America.  They  are  recognised  by  Mr. 
Ridgway,  however,  as  specifically  distinct,  differing  from 
their  nearest  mainland  allies  in  the  (i)  increased  size  of 
the  bill  and  feet,  (2)  shorter  wings  and  tail,  and  (3)  darker 
colotirs. 

The  Distribution  of  Freshwater  Fishes.— Dr. 
D.  S.  Jordan,  the  well-known  American  ichthyologist, has 
contributed  to  the  American  Naturalist  for  October  some 
of  his  conclusions  derived  from  long  study  of  the  fishes 
of  rivers  flowing  in  different  directions,  and  imder  the 
most  widely- varied  physical  conditions.  He  finds  that  in 
the  case  of  rivers  flowing  into  the  ocean,  the  character  of 
the  fishes  of  the  upper  waters  bears  little  or  no  relation  to 
the  place  of  discbarge.    The  higher  or  the  older  the 


watershed  between  two  rivers,  the  fewer  species  are  com- 
mon to  both.  Certain  species  (not  including  species  of 
general  distribution)  occur  on  opposite  sides  of  even  the 
highest  watersheds.  When  the  watershed  between  two 
rivers  is  a  swampy  district,  the  same  species  are  found  ia 
the  head  waters  of  both,  though  the  faunas  of  the  lower 
courses  may  be  distinct  There  is  often  a  great  differ- 
ence between  the  forms  in  the  upper  and  k>wer  waters  of 
a  river,  owing  to  differences  in  physical  conditions.  Some 
species  are  strictly  confined  to  one  river  basin ;  others 
are  widely  distributed.  Usually  the  more  southern  rivers 
have  the  most  peculiar  and  varied  faunas.  Species  of 
the  widest  distribution  often  have  breaks  in  their  range 
which,  cannot  be  accounted  for  by  any  known  facts.  The 
characteristically  American  forms  of  freshwater  fishes 
are,  generally  speaking,  absent  or  rare  in  the  waters  of 
New  England  and  of  the  Pacific  slope.  The  larger  the 
river-basin,  the  greater  its  variety  of  forms.  Seventy 
species  have  been  taken  in  the  little  White  River  at  In- 
dianopolis,  representing  forty-eight  genera,  twice  as  many 
as  occur  in  aU  the  rivers  of  New  England.  Other  tbing^ 
being  equal,  a  river  whose  course  lies  in  a  region  of 
undisturbed  stratified  rocks,  or  of  glacial  drift,  contains 
most  genera  and  species.  Certain  forms  appear  generally 
distributed  in  a  definite  range,  either  without  regard  to 
the  direction  in  which  the  rivers  flow,  or  even  bounded 
by  parallels  of  latitude.  In  any  river-basin  the  most 
abundant  species  (of  small  fishes)  are  usually  (i)  those 
peculiar  to  it,  or  (2;  those  of  widest  distribution. 

Earwigs  (FORFicULiDiE). — Linnaeus  seems  to  have 
knoim  but  two  species  of  earwigs  {Forficula  auriculata 
and  minor).  Both  were  European,  and  h^A  Elytra  dimi* 
cUata  et  Ala  tectce,  and  were  placed  among  the  beetles 
(Coleoptera).  There  are  now  about  250  speciesknown  which 
are  found  all  over  the  world,  and  grouped  in  about  thirty 
genera,  of  which  the  eenus  Forficula  is  by  far  the  richest 
in  species  and  the  widest  in  its  geographical  distribution. 
Happily,  too,  it  still  retains  the  two  first-named  species, 
and  it  has  also  most  justly*  given  its  name  to  the  lamily. 
Entomologisu  will  be  glad  to  know  that  Mr.  Samuel 
Scudder  has  just  published  a  series  of  critical  and  his- 
torical notes  on  this  family,  in  which  he  gives  descriptions 
of  all  the  known  genera,  and  an  alphabetical  list  with  fuU 
synonyms  of  all  the  described  species ;  this  most  valuable 
list  will  make  the  study  of  these  interesting  insects  an 
easy  one.  It  is  published  in  Parts  3  and  4  of  vol  xviiu  of 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 

Hungarian  Spiders.— The  first  part  of  a  work  on 
Hungarian  Spiders  by  Assistant- Director  Otto  Hermann, 
of  Buda  Pest,  has  just  reached  us.  It  forms  a  handsome 
royal-quarto  volume,  with  three  plates,  and  is  printed  in 
double  colunms,  one  in  Magyar,  and  the  other,  fortu- 
nately for  us,  in  German.  This  volume  forms  part  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Hungarian  Natural  History 
Society,  which  is  really  to  be  congratulated  on  the 
appearance  of  this  and  the  next  work  that  we  will 
mentioiL  The  present  volume  gives  a  sketch  of  the 
literature  belonging  to  spiders,  and  forms  one  of  the 
most  generally  interesting  portions  of  the  work,  for  it 
is  most  carefully  elaborated,  being  divided  into  the 
bibliography  of  the  older  and  the  newer  times.  It 
further  treats  of  the  life-history  of  spiders  in  general,  and 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  those  species  to  be  met 
with  in  Hungary.  The  next  volume  will  contain  the 
spiders  met  with  in  Hungary  proper. 

Hungarian  Rotifers  or  Wheel-Animalcules.— 
A  memoir  on  Hungarian  Rotifers  by  Dr.  Bartsch  Samu  is 
also  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  Royal  Hungarian 
Natural  History  Society,  but  it  is  written  exclusively  in 
Magyar,  if  we  may  except  a  short  appendix  containing 
brie!  descriptions  of  the  new  species  determined  by  the 
author,  and  therefore  unforttmately  we  can  do  no  more 
than  call  attention  to  it 


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OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Satellites.— The  following  table  presents  at 
one  view  the  mean  distances  of  the  satellites  from  tlieir 
primaries,  expressed  in  equatoriid  semi-diameters  of 'the 
latter,  and  founded  upon  the  most  reliable  data  hitherto 
available : — 

Thd  Earth.    Mara.       Jupiter.       Saturn.       Uranus*    Naptuna. 


T.  ...  60*37  ...  272  ...  570 

IL  ...  —  ...  681  ...  907 

IlL  ...  —  ...  —  ...  14-46 

IV.  ...  -  ...  -  ...  25  44 

V.  ...  —  ...  —  ...  — 

VL  ...  —  ...  —  ...  — 

VII. 


VIIL 


-    ...    -^    ...     -    ...5728 


298  ...    771 

3-83  ...  10  75 

4-7|  ...  17-63  ...    - 

8-47  .. 

19  67  .. 
24*80 


1455 


23  57  ...    — 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  outer  satellite  of  Saturn, 
lapetus,  is  the  only  one  revolving  round  its  primary  at  a 
distance  similar  to  that  of  our  moon,  with  respect  to  the 
semi-diameter  of  the  central  body.  The  exterior  satel- 
lites of  Jupiter  and  Uranus  are  similarly  placed  in  this 
respect,  and  as  regards  the  former  planet  the  reader  will 
remember  a  suggestion  of  Sir  John  Herschel's,  that  a 
distant  satellite,  by  which  was  intended  one  situate  more 
nearly,  as  our  moon  or  the  Saturnian  satellite  lapetus, 
might  be  "worth  a  search."  At  the  end  of  the  last 
century  it  was  thought  that  if  satellites  of  Mars  existed 
they  might  be  "  d^tant  many  degr^'es  from  the  principal 
planet,"  upon  which  idea  the  late  Prof.  O' Arrest  argued 
that  a  search  after  a  satellite  situate  many  degrees  from 
Mars  would,  be  an  almost  endless  task ;  and  further,  that 
a  satellite  at  a  maximum  digression  of  seventy  minutes  of 
arc  would  have  a  sidereal  period  greater  than  the  synodi- 
cal  revolution  of  the  primacy.  The  same  astronomer 
endeavoured  to  ascertam,  at  the  opposition  of  1864,  to 
what  magnitude  stars  were  visible  in  the  vicinity  of  Mars 
with  the  Copenhagen  refractor,  which  has  an  aperture  of 
about  eleven  £nglish  inches.  He  considered  that  a  satel- 
lite as  bright  as  the  twelfth  magnitude  could  haidly  have 
escaped  him,  and  that  objects  of  a  fainter  class  were 
only  visible  in  such  an  instrument  at  distances  of  eight  or 
ten  minutes,  and  in  the  case,  of  Mars  opportunities  of 
viewing  a  satellite  m  such  position  would  occur  compara- 
tively seldom:  Perhaps  the  more  prevalent  idea  respecting 
possible  satellites  of  Mars,  prior  to  their  actual  discovery, 
was  that  they  would  be  ''  very  small  and  close  to  the 
planet^    (Hind,  in  "  Solar  System,''  p.  78.) 

Tycho  Brake's  Star  of  1572.— It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  vicinity  of  the  famous  star  in  Cassiopeia,  with 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  associate  Tycho  Brahe's 
name,  may  continue  to  receive  frequent  attention,  and  in 
particular  that  the  small  star,  whicn  at  present  is  so  near 
to  the  most  accurate  position  we  are  able  to  obtain  of  the 
star  of  1572,  may  be  assiduously  watched  and  its  bright- 
ness determined  from  time  to  time  by  comparison  with 
its  neighbours,  and  not  merely  by  estimation  of  magni- 
tude. It  was  Bessel  who,  as  he  states  in  a  letter  to 
Olbers,  in  1824,  first  eng;aged  Argelander  to  work  up  the 
position  of  the  Nova  Cassiopeiae,  with  all  possible  pre- 
cision. Forty  years  later  Argelander  revlsea  his  calcula- 
tions with  improved  positions  for  tne  reference-stars,,  and 
obtained  a  result  differing  in  no  material  degree  from  the 
earlier  one.  The  small  star  alluded  to  is  so  near  to 
Argekmder's  |ast  position  Kdiflfering  only  fiffy  seconds  of 
arc),  as  to  be  within  jts  possible  limits  of  error ;  it  is  No.  1 29 
of  the  catalogue  of  stars  in  the  vicinity  which  was  pre- 
sented to  the  Copenhagen  Academy  in  January,  1064, 
and  an  eleventh  magnitude  on  Bessers  scale.  It  will  be 
most  readily  identified  by  means  of  the  star  of  the  ninth 
m^rnitude,  Na  300  of  Oeltzen^s  Catalogue  from  Argelan- 
dert  northern  zones,  the  position  of  which  for  1 878*0  is 
in  R. A.  oh.  1701.323.,  N.P.D.  26®  22''6 ;  the  suspicious 
pbject  follows  Axgelander's  star  29-6S.,  and  is  south  of 


it  id  4*.  "^  Th^pla4^t>f  Nbva^fb'r  1878^  is^lh  R.A. 
oh.  18m.  2'is.,  N.P,D.  26®  31'  43^ 

T^.  AuSTRlAy/COHET-B«DALfc— We  have  received 
from  the  I^iperial  Academy,  of  Sciences  at  Vienna,  the 
conditions  upon  which  that  body  has  resolved  to  renew, 
until  further  notice,  the  prizes  for  the  discovery  of  tele- 
scopic comets,  and  which  appear  to  be  similar  to  those 
originally  issued  in  June,  1872.  The  awarding  of  a 
prize,  which  will  consist,  according  to  the  wish  of  the 
receiver,  in  a  gold  medal  or  its  money  value  of  twenty 
Austrian  ducats,  is  connected  with  the  following  condi- 
tions :  (i)  Prizes  will  be  awarded  only  for  the  first  eight 
successful  discoveries  in  each  calendar-year,  for  comets 
that  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  were  tdescopic,  ie, 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  that  had  not  been  previously 
seen  by  any  other  observer,  and  which  could  not  have 
been  predicted,  and  it  is  important  to  observe  that  in  the 
case  of  independent  discoveries  priority  is  to  be  decided 
by|the  epoch  of  the  first  position.  (2)  The  discovery  must 
be  communicated  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences  imme- 
diately, by  telegraph,  where  practicable,  otherwise  by  the 
earliest  mail,  the  Academy  undertaking  to  make  it  known 
without  delay  to  several  observatories.  ^3)  This  first 
notice  must  necessarily  contain  the  position  and  motion 
of  the  comet  as  accurately  as  they  are  known,  with  the 
place  and  time  of  discovery,  and  is  to  be  supplemented  at 
the  next  opportunity  by  later  observations.  (4)  If  the 
discovery  should  not  have  been  verified  by  other  ob- 
servers, the  prize  will  only  be  adjudged  "  when  the 
observations  of  the  discoverer  are  sufficient  for  deter- 
mining the  orbit.^  (5)  The  prizes  will  be  awarded  in  the 
general  sitting  of  the  Academy  held  at  the  end  of  May  in 
each  year,  and  in  cases  where  the  first  intimation  of  the 
discovery  arrives  between  March  i  and  May.  31,  the 
award  will  be  decided  in  the  i^eneral  May  session  in  the 
following  year.  (6)  Application  must  tie  made  for  the 
prize  to  the  Imperial  Academy  within  three  months  after 
the  first  notice  of  discovery  shall  hav^  reached  it,  later 
applications  being  rejected.  Finally,  the  astronomers  of 
the  observatory  or  the  University  of  Vienna  are  appointed 
judges,  whether  the  condiUons  in  (i)^  (3),  and  (4)  have 
been  fulfilled. 


GEOLOGICAL  WORK  OF  THE  US.  SURVEY 
UNDER  PROF.  HAYDEN  DURING  THE 
SUMMER  OF^i%77' 

THE  necessity  of  s^  careful  examination ,  of  the  various 
geological  foripations  in  the  field,  and  a  review  by  a 
practical  p^aeontolpgist  of  the  various  districts  that  have 
from  year  to  year  been^surveyed  by  the  different  geologists 
of  this  apd  other  surveys,  has  be^  long  fejt.  Such  a 
work,  indeed,  was  imperativ^y  necessary,  before  a  con- 
sistent an4  comprehensive  classification  of  the  formations 
could  be  established.  This  duty  was  assigned  to  Or.  C. 
A.  White,  the  palaeontologist  of  this  survey,  and  he  took 
the  field  at, the  beginning  of  the  past  season  and  con- 
tinued his  labours  until  its  close.  The  special  duty  with 
whiqn  he  was  charged  was  to  pursue  such  lines  of  travel 
as  would  enable  him  to  make  critical  examination  of  the 
geological  formations  in  succession. as  they  are  exposed 
to  view  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain,  and 
also  on  both  sides  of  the  Uinta  chain ;  to  collect  and 
study  the  fossils  of  these,  ibrmations  ia  such  4etail  as  to 
settle,  as  far  as  possibly  the  questions  of  the  natural  and 
proper  vertical  Jimits^of  the  formatpns,  their  geographical 
range,  their  correlation  with  each  otjicr,  aAd  to  define 
the  palaeontologu^ai  chara9teristicsof  each. 

He  hfs  pur,sued  his  researches  with  such  success  during 
the  past  season,  as  to  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  con- 
tinuing this  class  of  investigations  by  various  lines  of 
travel  across  what  is  generally  known  as  the  gjreat  Rocky 
Mountain  region,  especially  those  portions  of  it  that  have 


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NATURE 


{Dec.  13,  1877 


been  surveyed,  as  well  as  those  in  which  surveys  are  in 
progress. 

Among  other  important  results,  he  has  shown  the 
identity  of  the  lignitic  series  of  strata  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Colorado,  with  the  Fort  Union  group  of 
the  Upper  Missouri  River,  and  also  its  identity  with  the 
great  Laramie  group  of  the  Green  River  Basin  and  other 
portions  of  the  region  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
He  also  finds  the  pkines  of  demarcation  between  any  of 
the  mesozoic  and  cenozoic  groups,  from  the  Dakota  to  the 
Bridgcr,  inclusive,  to  be  either  very  obscure  or  inde- 
finable ;  showing  that  whatever  catastrophal  or  secular 
changes  took  place  elsewhere  during  all  that  time, 
sedimentation  was  probably  continuous  in  what  is  now 
that  part  of  the  continent,  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  of 
the  epochs  just  named. 

The  general  course  of  travel  pursued  by  Dr.  White 
during  the  season  was  as  follows,  not  including  the  nu- 
merous detours,  meanderings,  and  side  trips,  which  the 
work  necessitated.  Outfitting  at  Cheyenne,  he  journeyed 
southward,  traversing  in  various  directions  a  portion  of 
the  great  plain  which  lies  inmiediately  adjacent  to  t^e 
eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado.  The 
most  easterly  point  thus  reached  was  some  sixty  miles 
east  of  the  base  of  the  mountains,  and  the  most  southerly 
point,  about  twenty-five  miles  south  of  Denver.  Return- 
ing to  Denver  to  renew  his  outfit,  he  crossed  the  Rocky 
Mountains  by  way  of  Boulder  Pass,  through  Middle 
Park.  After  making  certain  comparative  examinations  of 
the  mesozoic  and  cenozoic  formations  in  Middle  Park,  he 
proceeded  westward  to  the  head-waters  of  Yampa  River, 
following  that  stream  down  to  the  western  foothills  of  the 
Park  Range  of  mountains.  Here,  resuming  his  compara- 
tive examination  of  the  mesozoic  and  cenozoic  strata,  he 
passed  down  the  Valley  of  the  Yampa  as  far  as  Yampa 
Mountain,  one  of  those  peculiar  and  remarkable  upthrusts 
of  palaeozoic  rocks  through  mesozoic  strata.  In  all  this 
area,  as  well  as  that  between  the  Yampa  and  White 
Rivers,  the  Laramie  group  reaches  a  very  great  and 
characteristic  development ;  and  it  received  careful 
investigation,  yielding  some  of  the  most  important  results 
of  the  season's  work.  Crossing  the  ground  between  the 
two  rivers  named,  to  White  River  Indian  Agency ;  thence 
down  White  River  Valley  about  100  miles,  thence  to 
Green  River,  crossing  it  at  the  southern  base  of  the 
Uinta  Mountains,  making  many  detours  on  the  way,  he 
reviewed  the  geology  of  the  region  which  he  had  sur- 
veyed during  the  previous  season.  This  review  brought 
out  not  only  the  important  palaeontological  facts  before 
referred  to  but  it  also  added  materially  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  geological  structure  of  the  region  which  lies 
between  the  eastern  end  of  the  Uinta  mountain  range  on 
the  west,  and  the  Park  range  on  the  east 

Beyond  Green  River  he  pursued  his  travels  westward, 
studying  the  mesozoic  and  cenozoic  strata  that  fiank  the 
Uinta  range  upon  its  south  side,  and  making  comparisons 
of  both  their  lithological  and  palaeontological  charac- 
teristics. 

In  this  way  he  traversed  the  whole  length  of  the  Uinta 
range,  crossing  at  its  junction  with  the  Wasatch  range 
over  into  the  valley  of  Great  Salt  Lake.  Re-crossing  the 
Wasatch  to  the  north  side  of  the  Uinta  rang^,  he  con- 
tinued his  examinations  of  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary 
strata  into  and  entirely  across  the  Great  Green  River 
basin,  leaving  the  field  at  the  close  of  the  season  at 
Rawlin's  sution  on  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad. 

A  general  statement  of  the  results  of  the  season's  work 
has  been  given  in  a  previous  paragraph,  but  the  following 
additional  summary  will  make  the  statement  somewhat 
clearer,  being  made  alter  the  route  of  the  season's  travel 
has  been  indicated.  The  formations  of  later  mesozoic 
and  earlier  cenozoic  ages,  especially  those  to  which  Dr. 
White,  in  former  publications,  has  applied  the  provisional 
designation  of  "  post-crttaccou.%*'   have  received   par- 


ticular attention.  The  extensive  explorations  of  l^u 
Hayden  in  former  years,  and  the  palaeontological  in- 
vestigations of  the  late  Mr.  Meek,  pomted  strongly 
to  the  equivalency  of  the  Fort  Union  beds  of  the 
Upper  Missouri  River  with  the  lignitic  formation 
as  it  exists  along  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  Colorado  ;  and  also  to  the  equivalency  of  the 
latter,  with  the  Bitter  Creek  series  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  investigations  of  the  year  have  fully 
confirmed  these  views  by  the  discovery  not  merely  of  one 
or  two  doubtful  species  common  to  the  strata  of  each  of 
these  regions,  but  by  an  identical  molluscan  fauna  ranging 
through  the  whole  series,  in  each  of  the  regions  named. 
This  shows  that  the  strata  just  referred  to  all  belong  to 
one  well  marked  period  of  geological  time  ;  to  the  strata 
of  which  Mr.  King  has  applied  the  name  of  ''  Laramie 
group"  (Point  of  Rocks,  Group  of  Powell).  His  in- 
vestigations also  show  that  the  strata  which  in  former 
reports  by  himself  and  Prof.  Powell,  have  been  referred 
to  the  base  of  the  Wasatch  group,  also  belong  to  the 
Laramie  gp'oup,  and  not  to  the  Wasatch.  He  has  reached 
this  later  conclusion  not  merely  because  there  is  a  simi- 
larity of  type  in  the  fossils  obtained  from  the  various 
strata  of  the  Laramie  group  with  those  that  were  before 
in  question  ;  but  by  the  specific  identity  of  many  fossils 
that  range  from  the  base  of  the  Laramie  group  up,  into,  and 
through  the  strata  that  were  formerly  referred  to  the  base  of 
the  Wasatch.  Furthermore  some  of  these  species  are  found 
in  the  Laramie  strata  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Thus  the  vertical  range  of  some  of  these  species 
is  no  less  than  three  thousand  feet  and  th^ir  present 
known  geographical  range  more  than  a  thousand  miles. 

Besides  the  recognition  of  the  unity  of  the  widely  dis- 
tributed members  of  the  formation  of  this  great  geological 
period,  bounded  by  those  of  undoubted  cretaceous  age 
below,  and  those  of  equally  undoubted  tertiary  age  above ; 
his  further  observations  have  left  comparatively  little 
doubt  that  the  ''lake  beds"  of  Dr.  Hayden,  as  seen  in 
Middle  Park,  the  "Brown's  Park  group"  of  Prof.  Powell, 
and  the  "  Umta  group "  of  Mr.  King,  all  belong  to  one 
and  the  same  epoch,  later  than,  and  distinctly  separate 
from,  the  Bridger  groups.  In  that  portion  of  the  region 
which  lies  adjacent  to  the  southern  base  of  the  Uinta 
mountain  range,  and  which  is  traversed  by  Lake  Fork 
and  the  Du  Chesne  River,  not  only  the  Uinta  group,  but 
both  the  Green  River  and  Brideer  groups  abo,  are  well 
developed,  each  possessing  all  its  peculiar  and  usual 
characteristics,  as  seen  at  the  typical  localities  in  the 
great  Green  River  Basin,  north  of  the  Uinta  Mountains. 
This,  added  to  the  known  existence  of  Bridger  strata  in 
White  River  Valley,  and  the  extensive  area  occupied  by 
the  Green  River  group  between  White  and  Grand  Rivers, 
has  added  very  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  the  south- 
ward extension  of  those  formations. 

In  all  the  comparative  examinations  of  the  formations 
or  groups  of  strata  that  have  just  been  indicated  he  has 
paid  special  attention  to  their  boundaries  or  planes  of 
demarcation,  crossing  and  recrossing  them  wherever 
opportunity  offered,  noting  carefully  every  change  of  both 
lithological  and  palaeontological  characters.  While  he 
has  been  able  to  recognise  with  satisfactory  clearness  the 
three  principal  gp-oups  of  cretaceous  strata,  namely,  the 
Dakota,  Colorado,  and  Fox  Hills,  on  both  sides  o(  the 
Rocky  and  Uinta  Mountains  respectively,  they  evidently 
constitute  an  unbroken  series  so  far  as  their  origin  by 
continuous  sedimentation  is  concerned.  While  each  of 
the  groups  possesses  its  own  peculiar  palaeontological 
characteristics,  it  is  also  true  that  certain  species  pass 
beyond  the  recognised  boundaries  of  each  within  the 
series. 

The  stratigraphical  plane  of  demarcation  between  the 
Fox  Hills,  Uie  uppermost  of  the  undoubted  cretaceous 
groups^  and  the  Laramie  group,  the  so-called  post- creta- 
ceous, IS  equally  obscure ;  but  the  two  groups  are  palaeou- 


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131 


tologically  very  distinct,  inasmuch  as  the  former  is  of 
marine  origin,  while  the  latter,  so  far  as  is  now  known, 
contains  only  brackish-water  and  fresh- water  invertebrate 
forms.  He  reports  a  similar  obscurity  or  absence  of  a 
strati^raphical  plane  of  demarcation  between  the  Laramie 
and  Wasatch  groups,  although  it  is  there  that  the  final 
change  from  brackish  to  entirely  fresh  waters  took  pUce 
over  that  great  region.  Furthermore,  he  finds  that  while 
the  three  principal  groups  of  the  fresh-water  tertiary 
series,  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  namely,  the 
Wasatch,  Green  River,  and  Bridger  groups,  have  each 
peculiar  characteristics,  and  are  recognisable  whh  satis- 
factory distinctness  as  general  divisions,  they  really  con- 
stitute a  continuous  series  of  strata,  not  separated  by 
^.sharply-defined  planes  of  demarcation,  either  stratigra- 
phical  or  paYaeontoIogical. 

During  the  progress  of  the  field  work,  as  above  indi- 
cated, large  and  very  valuable  collections  of  fossils  have 
been  made,  all  of  which  will  constitute  standards  of 
reference  in  the  future  progress  of  the  work,  and  quite  a 
large  number  of  the  species  are  new  to  science.  These 
are  now  being  investigated,  and  will  be  published  in  the 
usual  palaeontological  reports  of  the  survey. 


NOTES 

At  the  moment  of  going  to  rress  we  have  received  the  report 
of  the  InfltxibU  Committee.  The  impression  a  fint  glaoce  over 
it  gives  is  that  the  InfltxibU  it  a  passable  ship,  but  that  the 
Committee  strongly  urge  the  Admiralty  not  to  proceed  with  any 
more  like  it,  which  practically  puts  an  end,  we  presume,  to  the 
Ajax  and  Agamemnon^  in  their  present  form,  as  well  as  to  the 
fourth  ship  which  the  Admiralty  proposed  to  build.  It  is  proper, 
however,  to  state  that  a  closer  perusal  of  the  report  shows  the 
InfltxibU  herself  to  be  open  to  the  gravest  objections  ia  several 
respects,  and  that  the  Committee  recommend  considerable  modi- 
^  fications  in  her.  In  our  next  number  we  shall^fully  review  the 
report 

Wb  have  received  several  letters  'from  India,  showing  that 
great  interest  is  being  taken  in  that  country  with  reference  to  the 
best  methods  of  determining  the  amoaht  and  variation  of  solar 
radiation.  We  may  state  that  both  Prof.  Stewart  and  Mr. 
Lockyer  have  recently  devised  instruments  to  secure  these  data. 
The  latter  proposes  to  utilise  Capt  Abney's  method  of  ohtaioing 
photographs  of  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum,  so  that  variations 
in  thermal  and  chemical  inteiuity  may  both  be  .recorded  auto- 
matically. 

Sir  William  Thomson  has  been>lected  a  Foreign  Associate 
of  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences,  to  fiU  the  place  vacated  by 
the  death  of  von  Baer. 

Prop.  Sir  Wyvillb  Thomson  has  been  created  a  Knight  of 
the  Royal  Order  of  the  Polar  Star  by  the  King  of  Sweden. 

M.  Tempel  is^  to  continue  henceforth  the  publication  of 
Donati's  BolUtHno  of  the  Arcetri  Observatory,  of  which  only 
one  number  had  been  issued  when  Mr.  Donati  died. 

Gen.  Nansouty,  Director  of  the  Observatory  situated  on  the 
top  of  the  Pic  da  Midi  has  been  nominated  **  Officier  de 
Mr  r  University  "  by  M.  Faye,  the  new  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion. The  General,  as  our  readers  know,  spends  his  winters  on 
that  precipitous  mountain  for  meteorological  observations.  We 
are  glad  to  register  such  an^acknowledgment  of  his  ^devoti<m  to 
science. 

Dr.  Burdon-Sanderson  gives  notice  that  the  first  of  his 
annual  course  of  lectures  on  comparative  pathology  will  be  de- 
livered at  the  University  of  London,  Burlington  Gardens,  on 
Saturday,  December  15,  at  half-past  five  o'clock.  The  subject 
pi  the  lecture  will  be,  <*  The  Infective  Processes  of  Disease." 


The  succeeding  lectures  will  be  on  the  >fonday,  Wednesday, 
and  Friday  of  the  following  week,  at  the  same  hour,  fpr  which 
days.** The  Nature  and  Causes  of  Septic  Infection,"  "The 
Germ  Theory,*'  and  "The  Theory  of  Contagium  Vivum/*  are 
among  the  topics  to  be  discussed.         , 

The  German  postal  department  has  issued  a  complete  series 
of  regulations  for  the  use  of  the  telephone  in  the  various  offices 
where  it  has  been  established.  In  §  15  we  notice  the  rule  that 
the  speaker  shall  pronounce  each  syllab  e  dowly  and  separately, 
and  make  a  pause  at  the  end  of  every  six  words  to  give  time  for 
the  receipt  of  the  message.  The  receiver  repeats  the  whole 
message  at  the  end  at  an  ordinary  rate  of  delivery.'  Proper 
names  and  foreign  messages  are  Spelled.  The  Postmaster* 
General,  Dr.  Stephan,  who  wages  an  unmerciful  war  in  his 
department  against  all  foreign  words  where  a.  German  eq^ival^t 
is  possible,  has  christened  the  new  invention  as  ihtFems^echtr 
(far-speaker),  and  excluded  entirely  the^Gneek  Ultphoof  Uom 
his  regulations. 

In  consequence  of  the  large  numbers  who  were  unable  to 
obtain  adoiission  to  the  recent  lecture  at  the  Society  of  Arts  on 
the  "Telephone,"  Prof.  Bell,  at  the  special  request  of  the 
Councd  of  the  Society,  has  consented  to  repeat  his  lecture  on 
Wednesday,  the  19th  insr.  As  there  is  certain  to  be  a  large 
attendance,  it  is  suggested  that  those  members  who  heard  the 
first  lecture,  should  refrain  from  exercising  their  privilege  of 
being  present  on  the  second  occasion. 

Prop.  Kekul£,  of  Bonn,  the  originator  of  the  present  benzene 
theory  has  been  nominated  for  president  of  the  German  Chemical 
Society  for  the  coming  year.  The  policy  which  the  society 
adopted  at  its  last  annual  elecdon  of  choosing  its  chief  officer 
from  among  the  leading  Gennan  chemisu  at  a  di>tance  from  the 
headquarters  of  the  society,  seems  to  meet  general  favour,  and 
Prof.  Wohler,  the  Nestor  of  organic  chemistry,  will  certainly  be 
ably  succeeded  by  Prof  Kekul^  whose  classical  researches  and 
theoretical  deductions  form  the  basis  of  the  present  atomisdc 
theory.  The  German  Chemical  Society  would  do  well  to  copy 
one  of  the  customs  of  its  sister  society  in  London,  viz.,  to  require 
an  inaugural  address  from  its  newly-elected  presidents.  We 
notice  that  the  library  of  the  society  will  be  enriched  by  the 
bequest  of  the  extensive  chemical  library  of  the  late  Prof. 
Oppenheim,  an  accession  which  wdl  double  the  present  number 
of  volumes. 

Dr.  Vohl,  of  Cologne,  has  adopted  an  ingenious  method  of 
determining  the  impurides  in  the  Rhine^  which  consists  in 
analysing  the  boiler  incrustations  of  the  river  steamers,  as  well 
as  the  concentrated  residues  remaining  in  the  boilers  after  passing 
over  a  certain  distance.  By  this  means  he  has  detected  the 
presence  of  a  large  amount  of  arsenious  acid  in  the  river  water — 
resuldng  chiefly  from  the  aniline  and  dyeing  establishments^ai 
well  as  other  poisonous  substances.  An  unusually  high  per* 
centage  of  phosphoric  acid  showed  that  the  sea  was  daily  absorb- 
ing  vast  quantities  of  the  most  valuable  fertilising  material  from 
the  soil  of  Germany. 

The  Scientific  Congress  of  France  will  meet  at  Nice  froia 
January  10  to  20,  1878.  The  locality  is  likely  to  attract  many 
visitors  at  such  a  cold  period  of  tlie  year. 

Another  sitting  of  the  enlarged  Council  of  the  Observatory 
of  Paris  was  held  on  December  9.  The  councillors  passed  a 
resolution  for  an  increase  of  the  salary  of  the  astronomers  and 
auxiliary  astronomers,  the  maximum  pay  of  the  former  to  be 
10,000  francs  instead  of  8,000,  and  of  the  second  7,000  instead 
of  6,00a  They  propose  to  the  Government  to  place  the 
appointment  of  the  director  of  the  establishment  partly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  partly  in  the  handsof  the 
Coimdl,  the  Minister  to  have  only  the  pririlege  to  choose 


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[Dec.  13,  1877 


between  bodi  pretentatioiis.  It  thonld  be  remembered  that 
under  the  former  organisation  the  appointment  of  the  director 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes,  which  had  to 
designate  yearly  their  member  to  preside  over  the  observations. 
Arago  and  his  illustrious  predecessor  held  their  office  by  a  yearly 
tenure,  renewed  up  to  the  time  of  their  death.  It  was  ooly 
Leverrier  who  was  appointed  by  the  Government ;  under 
the  old  monarchy  the  director  was  appointed  by  the  king, 
A  proposal  was  made  for  suppressing  the  general  assembly  of 
astronomers,  which  was  establbhed  by  M.  leverrier,  and  is  to 
be  held  at  Easter  at  the  Minbtry  of  Public  Inctractioo.  The 
proposal  was  out-voted.  At  the  next  sitting  the  long-discussed 
organisation  of  meteorology  will  be  introduced ;  the  existing 
order  of  things  continues  to  enjoy  the  support  of  the  majority. 

A  TZLEGRAM  from  Alexandria  states  that  Capt.  Burton  has 
started  from  Suez  for  Moilah  on  a  second  expedition  to  Midia, 
accompanied  by  many  Europeans  and  a  laige  number  of  native 
workmen  and  troops.  A  d^p6t  will  be  formed  at  Moilah  in  the 
Gulf  of  Akaba,  and  the  expedition  will  extend  to  the  second 
range  of  mountains  hitherto  unexplored.  Capt  Burton  expects 
to  discover  a  rich  mineral  country  between  the  two  ranges  of 
mountains.     He  will  be  absent  four  months. 

Thb  Montsouris  Park,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  Montsouris 
Observatory  has  been  erected,  is  almost  ready  for  public  use. 
Admittance  to  the  observatory  grounds  will  be  procured  on 
application  to  the  secretary,  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the 
instruments  and  the  working  of  the  meteorological  observations. 

In  Wiirtemberg  a  remarkable  property  of  ripe  grapes  has  been 
recently  discovered,  which  the  agricultural  authorities  have  now 
published,  so  that  all  proprietors  of  vineyards  may  derive  bene6t 
from  being  acquainted  with  it.  It  appears  that  if  ripe  grape«, 
uhich  have  become  frost-bitten,  are  kept  for  a  little  time  in  some 
dry  place,  they  entirely  lose  the  bad  effects  caused  by  the  frost 

In  the  BuUeiin  of  the  French  Geographical  Society  for 
October  are  some  interesting  notes  from  the  Abb^  Defgodins, 
on  Tibet  The  Abb^  gives  tome  information  concemmg  the 
Brahmapootra,  which  he  obtained  from  an  old  lama,  whom  he 
believes  to  be  thoroughly  trustworthy.  This  lama  has  travelled 
much,  and  visited  nearly  the  whole  of  Tibet  His  information 
goes  to  prove  the  identity  of  the  Yar-tsiou-tsang-po  with  the 
Brahmapootra.  He  has  followed  the  great  river  from  its  source 
in  or  near  the  lakes  of  Tso^ma-pang  in  the  west  of  the  province  of 
Ngar^  the  most  western  of  Tibet,  and  in  making  his  pilgrimages 
he  has  reached  the  frontiers  of  the  savage  tribe  of  the  Lhopa. 
The  lama  states  that  some  days  to  the  east  of  Lassa  the  river 
turns  towards  the  south,  making  a  great  bend,  and  traverses  the 
well-peopled  and  rich  district  of  Hia-zul,  just  to  the  north  of  the 
Lhopa.  Passing  through  the  latter  district,  it  flows  among  steep 
and  rugged  r  nrk*,  and  after  a  certain  distance  forms  a  great 
waterfaU.  This  faU  of  the  Yar-kiou-tsang-po,  M.  Desgodins 
has  no  doubt,  is  identical  with  the  fall  of  Brama-Khoond,  well 
known  to  the  Assamese.  The  lama  affirmed  that  the  river  did 
t.ot  reach  so  far  as  the  Nahengs  (Mishmi>),  but  that  it  disap- 
peared more  to  the  west,  among  the  Lhopa.  The  lama  gave 
the  Abb^,  besides,  much  information  concerning  the  people  and 
the  districts  through  which  the  river  pastes.  The  Bulletin  con- 
tains, l)esklcf,  a  learned  article  by  M.  E.  Cortambert  on  some 
of  the  geographical  monuments  of  the  middle  ages  in  the 
National  Library,  dwelling  at  considerable  length  on  the  well- 
known  Mappemonde  of  Beatus,  a  beautiful  facsimile  of  which  is 
given. 

Tub  Italian  Geographical  Society  has  received  letters  from 
Aden  dated  November  25,  which  confirm  the  arrival  of  the 
tecood  Italian  (Ifartini-Cecchi)  expedition  at  Far.^.  There  is  no 
nevt  at  all  about  t)ie  tuppcted  defeat  of  King  Menelik  of  Schoa 


in  connection  with  which  the  death  of  the  Marquis  Antinori  was 
reported.  It  seems,  however,  that  King  Kassa  gained  a  victory 
over  a  Prince  Menelik  (son  of  the  late  Kiog  Theodor),  who 
had  rebelled  in  Kassa's  camp.  The  resemblance  of  names 
explains  the  misunderstanding  and  deprives  of  any  foundation 
the  news  about  the  mbfortime  said  to  have  happened  to  the 
members  of  the  first  Italian  (Antinori)  expedition. 

The  French  Acclimatisation  Society  held  its  anniversary 
meeting  on  December  7  last,  under  the  presidency  of  M. 
Qnatrefages.  The  Society  lost  recently  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhujrs, 
one  of  its  founders,  a  former  minister  of  the  empire,  well  known 
in  France  as  well  as  abroad. 

In  this  month's  Geographical  Magazine  Mr.  C.  R.  Markham 
continues  his  valuable  pipers  on  Irrigation  in  Southern  India, 
and  Mr.  G.  J.  Morrison  concludes  his  interesting  description  of 
the  island  of  Formosa.  In  criticising  Mr.  Trelawney  Saunders 
on  the  question  of  "  Water-partings  versus  Ranges,"  Mr.  R.  B. 
Shaw  appears  to  have  misconceived  Mr.  Saunders'  statements ; 
Mr.  Saunders'  knowledge  is  too  extensive  and  accurate  to  allow 
him  to  maintain  the  identity  of  the  two  terms.  Sir  George  Nares 
contributes  an  important  article  on  the  Greenland  Foehn,  recently 
noticed  in  Nature. 

We  are  glad  to  learn  from  the  Geographical  Magatine  that  the 
Dutch  are  making  active' preparations  to  resume  Arctic  explora- 
tion, to  which  they  have  been  able  to  do  little  since  the  days  of 
the  brave  but  unfortunate  Barentz,  and  nothing  at  all,  we  believe, 
during  the  last  century.  «  A  new  schooner  is  to  be  built  to  be 
sent  out  in  May  next  year  to  make  a  summer  cruise  in  the 
Spitzbergen  and  Barentz  Seas. 

The  hygrometer  devised  by  M.  AUaard,  described  in  Nature, 
voL  xvil  p.  14,  was  constructed  by  M.  L.  Golaz,  of  24,  Rue  des 
Fosses  St  Jacques,  Paris,  who  contributed  some  beautifully- 
constructed  apparatus  to  the  recent  Loan  CoUection  at  South 
Kensington. 

Dr.  Schliemann,  assisted  by  Mr.  Streatfield,  of  the  Science 
and  Art  Department,  is  busy  arranging  his  Trojan  treasures  in 
the  South  Kensington  Museum.  Although  a  large  space  has 
been  assigned  for  their  reception,  it  will  take  considerable  in- 
genuity to  get  all  the  interesting  articles  satisfactorily  arranged. 

M.  Daulander  communicates  to  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Sciences  the  results  of  his  observations  on  the  comparative 
rapidity  with  which  heated  solid  bodies  are  cooled  by  immersion 
in  various  liquids.  If  the  cooling  power  of  water  be  taken  aa 
unity,  that  of  alcohol  is  0*58,  of  mercury  2X>7,  of  a  concentrated 
solution  of  salr,  1*05,  and  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate 
of  copper,  I  03.  The  rapidity  of  the  cooling  increases  with  the 
increased  temperature  of  the  liquid. 

The  twenty-first  annual  report  of  the  committee  of  the  Free 
Public  Libraries  and  Museums  of  Sheffield,  speaks  favourably  of 
the  progress  of  these  institutions.  We  are  glad  to  see  that  the 
number  of  scientific  works  sought  for  both  in  the  lending  and 
consulting  libraries  bears  a  fair  proportion  to  the  number  in  other 
departments. 

According  ]to  the  published  reports  of  the  Koenigsberg 
Board  oi  Trade,  the  total  production  of  amber  in  the  province  of 
Prussia  amounted  to  135  tons  during  the  year  1876,  of  which 
eighty-five  tons  were  furnished  by  one  mine  alone,  viz.,  the 
mine  of  Palmnicken.  This  production  consklerably  exceeded 
that  of  the  previous  year.  The  amber  was  exported  prindpallj 
to  Austria,  France,  Russia,  America,  China,  and  Japan,  wbilft 
the  export  to  India,  Persia,  and  Australia  does  not  pay  thft  pfo« 
ducers,  and  is  therefore  extremely  limited.  The  number  oC 
workmen  in  the  province  who  are  employed  in  the  f  rnilinriiP  jf 
amber  amounts  to  nearly  1,40a 

Now  that  the  struggle  in  the  East  seems  to  be 
crisis,  the  fine,  Urge,  clear  map  ot   the  BospbonM 


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Dec.  13,  1877] 


NATURE 


133 


Dardanellci^  jnst  published  by  Mr.  Stanford,  will  be  extremely 
viefnl  to  those  who  derire  to  follow,  with  iotelligeBce^  further 
movementt,  military  or  diplomatic. 

Mr.  Hbighway*s  handbook 'of  '* Practical  Portrait  fhoto- 
graphy"  (London,  Piper  and  Carter),  has  reached  a  second 
edition,  into  which  some  improvements  have  been  introdaced. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  John  G.  Anthony,  who  for 
S3me  years  has  had  charge  of  the  conchological  department  of 
the  Cambridge  Museum.  He  was  one  of  the  party  accompanying 
ProC  Agassis  in  his  celebrated  scientific  expedition  to  Brazil 

THE.number  of  French  communes  receiving  the  daily  warn* 
ings  of  the  iotemational  service  for  agricultural  purposes  is 
increasing  daily  ;  the  death  of  Leverrier  has  not  destroyed 
that  extraordinary  movement  It  is  said  the  "twenty  districu 
into  which  Paris  has  been  divided,  will  very  .soon  .have  the 
daily  warnings  posted  at'each  of  their  respective/mairies.  Ac- 
cording to  a  saying  attributed  to  M.  Dumas,  "The  existing 
meteorology  had  had  *t  own  plebisdtum." 

Prof.  J.  Plateau,  of  Ghent,  has  reprinted  (from  the  Pro* 
aedings  of  the  French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  1876)  a  paper  on  the  question.  Is  the  instinct  of  insects 
deceived  by  artificial  dowers  ?  As  far  as  the  series  of  experi- 
ments performed  by  him— rather  few  in  number,  but  apparently 
carried  out  with  great  care— can  be  relied  on,  although  insects 
may  be  attracted  from  a  distance  by  the  bright  colours  of  arti- 
ficial flowers,  they  are  never  tempted  by  the  resemblance  to 
alight  on  them  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  food  from  them.  He 
concludes,  therefore,  that  insects  make  use  of  some  other  organ 
than  that  of  sight  in  the  selection  of  the  flowers  which  they 
Tisit 

Prof.  E.  Morren,  of  Li^e,  has  issued  the  fifth  annual 
edition  of  his  "  Correspondance  Botanique,"  which  contains  a 
*^  complete  list  of  botanical  gardens  and  museums^  and  the  occn- 
^^  pants  of  botanical  chairs  throughout  the  world.  Even  adding 
a  number  of  "unattached"  English  botanists  whose  names 
are  given,  it  is  ^instructive  to  compare  the  number  engaged  in 
botanical  research  in  Great  Britain  with^that  in  France  or 
Germany,  or  even  in  Italy  or  Russia. 

A  BRIEF  report  of  the  third  annual  conference  of  the  Crypto- 
gamic  Society  of  Scotland,  heldat  Dunkeld  in  October  last,  has 
been  published,  from  whidi  it  is  evident  the  meeting  was  success- 
fuL  The  first  fasciculus  of  ,the  "  Fungi  .Sootid  Exsiccati "  will 
be  published  in  January.  Dr.  Buchanan  White,  Perth,  will 
receive  orders ;  no  subscribers  names  c^  bs  received  after  the 
20th  inst 

Ws  have  received^Part'a,  i876>77,  of  the  Tya$tsactums  of  the 
Cumberland  Association  ot  Literature  and  Science,  which  con- 
tains a  number  of  scientific  papers  tof  considerable  value. 
Among  these  are  six  original  papers  commonicatcd  to  the  socie- 
connected  with  the  Association  during  the  session,  and 
selected  by  the  Council  for  publication.  Two  of  these  will 
interest  the  scientific  reader:  "Jonathan  Otley,  the  Geologist 
and  Guide,"  by  Mr.  Clifton  Ward,  and  "  Notes  on  the  Migra- 
tory Birds  of  the  English  Like  District,"  by  Mr.  John  Biikett. 

The  seventh  annual  report  of  the  Leeds  Naturalists'  Club 
and  Scientific  Association  speaks  in  the  most  favourable  terms  of 
the  continued  progre»  of  that  society. 

In  the  MonaUbtrkhi  of  the  Prussian  Academy  of  Sciences  for 
July,  which  has  just  appeared,  we  notice  papers  by  H.  Anver«, 
"On  the  Results  of  the  Transit  Observations  with  Bradley's 
Quadrant;"  by  H.  Websky,  "On  the  Horn  Mercury  from  el 
Doctor  in  Mexico ; "  by  Prof,  du  Bois  Reymond,  Prof.  Peters, 
and  ProC  Mobius,  "On  the  Amphibious  Collections  made  by 
Dr.  Sachs  during  his  late  trip  to  Venesutla." 


In  the  Atti  deUa  Realt  Academia  dei  Lined  at  Rome,  some 
interesting  investigations  are  described,  which  were  made  by 
Messrs.  A.  and  G.  De  Negri  at  the  Chemical  Laboratory  of  the 
Genoa  University,  on  the  purple  dies  of  antiquity.  The  authors 
have  thoroughly  investigated  the  subject ;  after  an  elaborate 
account  and  an  enumeration  of  the  various  historical  data  with 
regard  to  the  molluscs  fron.which  the  ancients  obtained  their 
purple  colours,  they  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  chemical  and 
optical  properties  of  these  substances,  the  methods  of  dyeing  with 
them,  the  adulterations  found  in  them,  and  various  other  details 
concerning  them.  We  must  refer  our  readers  to  the  original 
treatise  fur  further  particulars,  as  our  space  will  not  permit  us  to 
enter  into  them.  The  paper  is  accompanied  by  a  number  of 
plates,  giving  the  spectra  of  the  colours  obtained  irom  species  of 
the  genera  Applysia  and  Murex.  The  same  volume  of  this 
publication  contains  an  excellent  account,  by  Sigoor  C  Bagnis, 
of  the  fungi  species  Puccinia,  illustrated  by  no  less  than  eleven 
weli'drawn  plates. 

The  Pisciculiural  Institution  of  Schwerin  has  recently  made 
some  important  experiments  with  a  view  to  ascertain  whether 
the  artificial  culture  of  river  Crawfish  {Asteicus  fluvuUilis)  is 
possible  on.a  large  scale.  The  experiments  were  entirely  suc- 
cessful In  the  spring  of  last  year  some  700  crawfish  with  ova 
were  placed  into  two  circular  ponds  of  only  six  feet  diameter, 
and  for  each  animal  a  separate  hole  had  bea&  constructed.  At 
the  end  of  November  the  ponds  were  drained  in  order  to  sepante 
the  young  crawfish  from  the  old  ones.  It  appeared  that  of  the 
latter  only  three  or  four  were  crawling  about  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pond  while  all  the  others  had  occupied  their  respective 
dwellings.  The  young  were  of  the  size  of  a  bee  and  extremely 
lively ;  they  were  taken  out  of  the  ponds  and  already  on  the 
following  day  could  be  fed  artificially  with  carrots  and  meat 
Many  a  land  or  garden  proprietor  could  thus  make  crawfish- 
culture  a  lucrative  pastime  at  very  little  cost,  particulariy  since 
the  consumption  of  these  crustaceans  increases  largely  every 
year. 

The  last  number  of  the  Zeitsckrift  fur  Ethnolo^  contains  a 
most  valuable  and  elaborate  review  of  the  entire  ethnological 
and  anthropological  literature  of  1876,  prepared  by  Prof.  W. 
Koner.  Over  1,000  pamphlets,  periodicals,  and  bo(^  are 
referred  to,  and  as  few  subjects  are  handled  in  a  greater  variety 
of  languages  than  those  in  question,  the  labour  of  compiling 
such  a  report  can  easily  be  imagined. 

We  have  received  the  third  (final)  part  of  Herr  Axel  Blytt's 
ekborate  Flora  of  Norway,  which  is  published  by  order  of 
the  Royal  Norwegian  Society  of  Sciences,  and  bears  the  title, 
"  Norges  Flora  ;  eller  Beskrivelser  af  de  i  Norge  vildtvoxende 
Karplanter '*  ("  Flora  of  Norway;  or.  Description  of  the  Wild 
Plants  in  Norway.") 

A  COREESPONDBNT  asks  where  he  can  find  a  description  of 
the  mode  of  drying  sections  of  trees.  He  has  a  transverse  sec- 
tion, three  inches  thick,  of  an  elm  tree,  and  he  wants  to  dry  it 
so  that  it  may  be  cut  in  veneer  when  ready. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Diana]  Monkey  {CercopUfucus  diana)  from 
West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  Walter  Mayhew;  a  Rhesus 
Monkey  {Macacut  trythrctus)  from  India,  presented  by  Mr.  R.  S. 
Cox;  two  White  Storks  \ciconia  aiba),  a  Common  Heron 
{Ardsa  cmerea),  a  Greater  Biack-backed  Gull  (Lotus  marinus), 
European,  presented  by  Mr.  C.  Clifton  ;  a  Hobby  {Hypotriorchis 
subbuUo\  captured  at  sea,  presented  by  Mr.  W.  Renney ;  two 
Lesser  Sulphur-crested  Cockatoos  {Caca/ua  sulphurea)  from  the 
Moluccas,  presented  by  Mrs.  Roberts  ;  seven  Gelada  Baboons 
{Cynocephalus  gelada)  from  Abyssinia,  four  Bubary  Turtle- 
Doves  {Turtur  risortm)  from  North  Africa,  deposited ;  two 
Schlegel's  Doves  {ChakoptUa  pudla)  from  West  AMca, 
purchased. 


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NATURE 


{Dec.  13,  1877 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

Cambridge. — The  examination  for  open  scholarsbipt  at 
Christ's  College  will  be  held  on  Tuesday,  April  9.  Candidates 
in  natural  science  will  be  required  to  show  a  satisfactory  know- 
ledge of  elementary  chemistry,  both  theoretical  and  practical. 
Candidates  are  required  to  send  in  their  names  to  one  of  the 
tutors  o^  the  college  before  April  2.  Further  information  can 
be  obtained  on  written  application  to  Mr.  John  Peile,  or  the  Rev. 
J.  W.  Cartmell,  Christ's  College. 

SciBNCB  AND  Art  DEPARTMENT.— The  list  has  been  pub- 
lished by  the  Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  successful  can* 
didates  in  honours  at  the  examination  of  science  schools  and 
classes.  May,  1S77.  We  give  the  names  of  the  two  first  in  the 
first  class  of  each  subject :— Subject  I.  Practical,  Plane,  and 
Solid  Geometry— John  R.  Smith,  age  32,  clerk ;  William  J. 
Last,  age  19,  engineer.  Subject  II.  Machine  Construction  and 
Drawing^Robert  A.  Sloan,  age  22.  engineer  ;  William  Sisson, 
age  24,  engineer.  Subject  III.  Building  Construction— Cxichton 
Walker,  age  34,  carpenter  ;  Robert  Henry,  age  22,  draughtsman. 
Subject  IV.  Naval  Architecture— Frederick  B.  Ollis,  age  18, 
shipwright's  apprentice ;  George  A.  Agnew,  age  23,  shipwright's 
apprentice.  Subject  V.  Pure  Mathematics,  Stages  One,  Two, 
and  Three— George  J.  T.  Barker,  age  18,  student ;  Arthur  W. 
Ward,  age  18,  cotton  broker.  Stages  Four  and  Five — Frederick 
W.  Watkin,  age  18,  pupil ;  Arthur  E.  Holme,  age  18,  engineer. 
Subject  VI.  Theoretical  Mechanics— William  Sisson,  age  24, 
engmeer;  WUliam  Martin,  age  22,  engineer.  Subject  VII. 
Applied  Mechanics— Frank  W.  Dick,  age  23,  engineer  ;  Fred 
Ogden,  age  18,  engineer,  William  J.  Last,  age  19,  engineer, 
Robert  A.  Sloan,  age  22,  engineer,  Robert  Greenhalgb, 
age  22,  engineer— eq.  Subject  VIII.  Acoustics,  Light,  and  Heat 
—Frederick  £.  Boughton,  age  20,  draughtsman  ;  James  Greer, 
age  31,  Inland  Revenue  officer.  Subject  IX.  Magnetism  and 
Electricity— Robert  A.  Sloan,  age  22,  engineer,  Frederick  E. 
Boughton,  age 20,  dranghUman— eq,;  William  J.  Last,  19,  engi- 
neer. Subject  X.  Inorganic  Chemistry— Charles  N.  Luxmore^ 
age  19,  chemist's  assistant ;  Sidney  E.  Meates,  age  17,  chemical 
student.  Subject  XI.  Organic  Chemistry— Charles  M.  Luxmore, 
age  19,  chemist's  assistant.  Subject  XX.  Navigation— George 
Goodwin,  age  14,  engineer's  apprentice  ;  William  AUingham,  age 
26,  clerk.  Subject  XX IL  Steam— Robert  A.  Sloan,  age  22,  engi- 
neer, William  Sisson,  age  24,  engineer— eq. ;  Alfred  Cliff,  age  22, 
engineer,  JerdanNidiols,  age  2 1,  engineer— eq.  Subject  XXIII. 
Physical  Geography— John  S.  Harper,  age  19.  student  in  trainiiig ; 
John  Sharkey,  age  29,  schoolmaster.  Subject  XXIII.  Physio- 
graphy—George A.  Freeman,  age  26,  schoolmaster ;  John  A. 
Lakin,age2i,teacher,  Fredk.  J.  Richardson,  age  16,  teacher— eq. 
Subject  XXIV.  Principles  of  Agriculture— Edward  S.  Chesney, 
age  21,  student ;  WilUam  E.  Akroyd,  age  20,  student.  There 
have  been  no  first  class  successes  in  Geology,  Mineralogy, 
Animal  Physiology,  Elementary  Botany,  General  Biology, 
Principles  o(  Mining,  MeuUurgy,  and  Nautical  Astronomy. 

Bristol, — ^The  annual  meeting  of  the  governors  of  University 
College  was  held  on  Friday  last,  when  a  report,  on  the  whole 
satisiactory,  was  presented.  The  number  of  students  has  some- 
what decreased,  as  indeed  might  have  been  expected,  but  there 
seems  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  college  has  taken  its  place 
as  an  important  centre  of  education  in  the  west  of  England. 
The  funds  of  the  college,  though  considerable  in  amount,  are 
yet  not  sufficient  to  keep  ic  going  with  complete  efficienqr»  «nd 
we  hope  the  appeal  made  by  the  governors  will  be  satisfactorily 
responded  to.  It  is  proposed  to  make  the  college  a  local  cenue 
for  the  examinations  of  the  University  of  London. 

PxsTH.— A  commission  has  recently  been  appointed  by  the 
various  faculties,  to  make  fitting  preparations  for  the  celebration 
of  the  first  centennial  of  the  opening  of  the  university,  which  was 
performed  by  Maria  Iheresa  m  1780.  The  university  is  wealthy, 
possei^sing  property  to  the  amount  of  6,000^000  florins,  and  a 
library  of  120,000  volumes,  and  forms  Uie  real  centre  of  Hun- 
garian intellectual  life.  The  other  two  Hungarian  nniversidts, 
Klansenberg  and  Agram,  were  founded  rtspectively  in  1872 
and  1874.  At  present  the  instructors  number  150  and  the 
ttndenu  3,63a 

WOrzbuec— Prof.  Sacfai  has  declnied  the  call  to  the  vacant 
duir  of  t>otany  at  the  Bcriin  University,  and  the  authorities  are 
still  seeking  a  sacoesior  for  the  late  Prof.  Braon. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  Deoember6.— Points  of  resemblance  between 
the  suprarenal  bodies  of  the  horse  and  dog,  and  certain  occa- 
sional structures  in  the  ovary,  by  Charles  Creightun,  M.B., 
Demonstrator  of  Anatomy,  Cambridge  University.  Communi- 
cated by  Prof.  Humphry,  F.  R.S. 

On  the  tides  at  Malta,  by  Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  K.C.B.,  Astronomer- 
Royal. 

Observations  on  hermetically-sealed  flasks  opened  on  the 
Alps,  in  a  letter  to  Prof.  Huxley,  Sec.  R  S.,  by  Profl  Tyndall, 
LL.D.,  F.R.S.  Thoujgh  the  author  believes  the  question  of 
"Spontaneous  Generation"  is  practically  set  at  rest  for  the 
scientific  world,  he  has  been  making  some  experiments  on  j^ 
Bacteria,  ^^ 

He  took  with  him  this  year  to  the  Alps  sixty  hermetically- 
sealed  flasks,  containing  infusions  of  beef,  mutton,  turnip,  and 
cucumber,  which  had  been  boiled  for  five  minutes  and  sealed 
during  ebullition.  These  were  kept  for  six  weeks,  when  some 
were  opened  in  a  hay-lo't  and  others  on  the  edge  of  a  predplce. 

The  two  groups  of  flasks  were  then  placed  in  the  author's 
kitchen,  where  the  temperature  varied  from  about  65**  to  90*^  Fahr. 
The  result  was  that  twenty-one  of  twenty-three  flasks  opened  in 
the  hay-loft  were  filled  with  organism  ;  two  of  them  remained 
clear.  All  thefflasks  opened  on  the  edge  of  the  precipice  remained 
as  clear  as  distilled  water.     Not  one  of  them  gave  way. 

Chemical  Society,  December  6. — The  President  in  the  chair. 
— The  following  papers  were  read  :— On  gallium,  by  W.  Odling. 
The  properties  of  the  metal,  its  chloride,  and  sulphaie,  and 
their  reactions,  were  given  and  specimens  exhibited. — On  nitrifi- 
cation, a  report  of  experiments  conducted  in  the  Rothamsted 
Laboratory,  by  R.  Warrington.  Schloesing  and  Mlintz  have 
shown  that  nitrification  is  due  to  the  action  of  an  organised  fer- 
ment whose  action  is  suspended  by  chloroform.  The  author  has 
completely  confirmed  the  above  statement,  and  has  proved  that 
carbolic  acid  and  bisulphide  of  carbon  also  stop  the  action  of  the 
ferment,  and  moreover  that  darkness  is  essential  for  the  process. 
The  author  has  succeeded  in  converting  a  dilute  solution  of  am-  v 

monium  chloride  into  a  nitrate  by  seeding  it  with  some  earth  \  ^ 
from  a  fairy  ring  and  keeping  it  in  the  dark  for  three  months. — 
On  poUble  waters,  by  £.  J.  Mills,  D.Ss.  The  author  investi- 
gates the  minute  errors  incidental  to  the  process  of  Frankland 
and  Armstrong  with  great  care,  suggests  a  new  form  of  evaporator, 
and  anives  at  three  natural  constants  or  ratios  of  organic  carbon 
to  organic  nitrogen  in  potable  waters. — On  some  derivatives  of 
allylacetone,  by  J.  R.  Crow.  By  the  action  of  sodium,  a  secon- 
dary alcohol  homologous  with  allyl  alcohol  was  prepared ;  its 
su:etate  and  dibromide  were  also  investigated. — On  a  fourth 
method  for  estimating  bismuth  volumetrically,  by  M.  M.  P. 
Muir.  The  bismuth  is  precipitated  as  oxalate,  the  latter  on 
boiling  is  converted  into  a  basic  oxalate,  the  predpiute  u  well 
washed,dissolvcd  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  solution  titrated 
with  permanganate. — On  the  gas  of  the  Grotto  del  Cane,  by  T. 
G.  Young.  This  gas  contains  61-71  per  cent  of  carbonic 
add,  the  restdual  air  having  the  composition  oxygen,  20*25, 
nitrogen,  7975. — Note  on  tetrabromide  of  tin,  by  T.  Camelly, 
D.Sc,  and  L.  T.  O'Shea.  Ttiis  body  was  obtained  as  a  colour- 
less  liquid,  sohdifyiog  to  a  mass  of  colourless  crystals,— melts  at 
30«  C,  boils  at  20i*. 

Meteorological  Society,  November  21.— Mr.  H.  S.  Eaton, 
M.A.,  president,  in  the  chair. —The  following  gtndemen  were 
elected  Fellows  of  the  Society,  viz.  :— £.  D.  Archibald,  B.A., 
R.  W.  P.  Birch,  Capt  W.  F.  Cabome,  H.  Clarke,  L.R.C.P., 
Cohen  de  Lissa,  F.S.S.,  R.  Gordon,  J.  Hunter,  jun.,  J.  J. 
Lake,  Rev.  E.  A.  D.  O'Gara,  O.S.B  ,  R.  Pennington.  LUB.,  . 

E.  E.  Prichard,  and  Rev.  S.  J.  W.  Sanders.— The  following  '^ 
papers  were  read  :— On  the  general  character  and  principal 
sources  of  variation  in  the  weather  at  any  part  of  a  c>  clone  or 
anu-cyJone,  by  the  Hon.  Ralph  Aberurumby,  F.M.S.  In  a 
cyclone  the  broadest  feature  of  the  weather,  as  seen  on  a  synoptic 
chart,  is  an  area  of  rain  about  the  centre  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
cloud,  beyond  which  the  sky  is  dear.  The  precise  form  and 
position  of  ihesff  arta^  vary  with  ihe  t*  peo'  presi^te  distribulioti, 
with  the  ia tensity  of  the  cyd"ne,  and  with  the  rate  ot  its  pro* 
grciS  ;  they  are  also  itifluetjctd  by  JocaJ,  ditimaL  and  seasutiat 
variaaoosj  the  geueril  spider e  of  e»ch  ot  wbtcii  is  indicated  By 
rtcoidirg  the  ajppesraiic;  to  a  siDgle  ©bierver  of  any  patt  of  « 


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Dec.  13,  1877] 


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135 


cydone  as  it  passes  over  him,  it  is  discoTered  that  the  area  of 
rain  and  cloud-ring  may  be  divided  into  two  portions — the  front 
and  the  rear — diflfering  in  physical  appearance  and  general  cha- 
racter of  the  weather  by  a  line  drawn  through  the  centre,  in  front 
of  which  the  barometer  is  falling  and  in  rear  of  which  it  is  rising. 
Details  are  given  and  it  is  shown  that  this  character  remains 
constant  whatever  changes  the  variations  above  mentioned  may 
effect  In  anti-cy dunes  synoptic  charts  show  great  irregularity 
in  the  positions  of  doud,  &c.,  owing  to  local,  diurnal,  and  other 
variations,  but  to  a  single  observer,  who  considers  the  surround- 
ings and  physical  appearance,  a  certain  general  character  can  be 
discovered  in  every  part.  A  marked  contrast  is  shown  to  exist 
between  the  diurnal  variation  of  the  weather  in  a  cyclone  or 
anti-cyclone,  and  a  probable  connection  is  pointed  out  between 
the  diurnal  variation  of  the  weather  and  the  diurnal  variation  of 
the  barometer. — On  a  remarkable  barometric  oscillation  on 
Tanuary  30,  1876,  by  Robert  H.    Scott,  F.R.S.     At  8  a.m. 

aremarkable  dip  appeared  in  the  barometric  curve  for  Armagh. 

'\  1 1  total  amount  of  reduction  of  pressure  was  '097  inch  in  25 
minutes  and  for  a  portion  of  the  time,  from  8*5  to  8*10,  the  fall 
was  "058  inch,  being  at  the  rate  of  '697  inch  per  hour.  On 
looking  to  the  other  barograms,  it  was  found  that  while  a  very 
similar  oscillation  of  slightly  greater  amplitude,  'I02  inch, 
appeared  at  Aberdeen  at  noon,  almost  exactly  four  hours  subse- 
quent to  the  occurrence  at  Armagh,  hardly  ft  trace  of  disturb- 
ance could  be  detected  in  the  barogram  (or  Glasgow,  and  yet 
the  li^t-named  observatory  lies  almost  on  the  direct  line  between 
Armagh  and  Aberdeen.  The  barograms  for  Stonyhurst  and 
Halifax  showed  as  little  disturbance  as  Glasgow.  At  Dunecht 
Observatory  the  osdllation  took  place  somewhat  earlier  and 
exhibited  less  intensity  than  at  Aberdeen.  At  Bidston,  however, 
which  lies  more  out  of  the  probable  path  of  the  depression  than 
Stonyhurst,  the  osdllation  is  seemingly  recorded  with  consider- 
able distinctness.  Temperature  showed  no  appreciable  change 
at  Armagh,  Glasgow,  or  Aberdeen.  At  the  time  of  occurrence 
of  the  minimum  a  temporary  change  of  direction  and  increase  of 
vdodty  of  the  wind  is  recorded  both  at  Armagh  and  Aberdeen. 
—The  "arched  squalls  "  of  the  neighbourhood  of  the  trade- winds 
and  of  those  regions  where  the  monsoons  blow  with  slight  force 
and  with  interruptions,  by  Capt  A.  Schiick. 

Physical  Society,  December  i.— Prof.  G.  C.  Foster,  pre- 
tident,  in  the  chair.— Prof.  Graham  Bdl  exhibited  and  described 
the  telephone  before  a  crowded  meeting  of  the  Sodety,  prefacing 
his  account  of  the  apparatus  now  so  well  known  bv  a  very  com- 
plete historical  sketch  of  the  progress  of  electric  telephony.  The 
first  experiments  referred  to  were  those  of  Prof.  Page,  who,  in 
iS37>  wfts  studying  the  relation  of  electridty  to  magnetism,  and 
found  that  if  a  coil  of  wire^  traversed  by  a  current,  surrounds  an 
iron  rod,  a  sonnd  like  a  pistol  shot  proceeds  from  this  latter  when- 
ever the  current  is  made  or  broken.  He  was  followed  by  De  la 
Rive,  Poggendorif,  Reiss,  and  others,  but  Reiss  was  the  first  to 
employ  the  human  voice  in  his  experiments.  After  pointing  out 
that  in  transmitting  sounds  by  electrical  means  the  initial  sounds 
th'mselves  are  in  no  sense  transmitted  but  are  only  employed  to 
generate  currents  which  reproduce  similar  sounds.  Prof.  Bell 
proceeded  to  examine  the  phenomena  which  take  place  when 
sounds  are  transmitted  through  the  air.  It  is,  of  course,  not  the 
motion  of  the  vocal  organs  themsdves  that  is  recdved  in  the  ear, 
but  that  of  the  air  set  in  motion  by  their  means,  and  all  pecu- 
liarities in  the  sound  must  be  peculiarities  in  the  motion  of^  that 
air.  If  the  rapiditv  of  motion  varies  it  occasions  a  variation  in 
the  pitch,  and  the  loudness  is  chained  by  changing  the  ampli- 
tude. The  shape  of  the  vibration  produces  timbre.  If  by 
moving  the  air  in  certain  specified  ways,  certain  vowel 
sounds  are  given  out,  then  those  same  sounds  will  bs  emitted 
if  an  identical  movement  be  occasioned  by  any  mechanical 
means  whatever,  and  Prof.  Bdl  has  found  that  such  a  motion 
may  really  be  given  to  the  air  in  various  wavs.  Three  classes 
of  dectrical  currents  have  been  employed  for  transmitting 
sounds  to  a  distance,  and  these  he  denominates  intermittent, 
pulsatory,  and  undulatory.  The  firit  form  b  obtained  when  a 
current  passes  for  a  brief  interval,  is  then  followed  by  an  interval 
during  which  no  current  passes,  and  this  by  a  current  of  the 
tame  or  opposite  sign.  In  the  second  dass  a  current  is  con- 
tinually pa.*>sing,  but  its  intensity  increases  and  decreases  instan- 
taneously, and  finally,  in  the  third  class  this  variation  takes  place 
eradualiy,  and  may  therefore  be  represented  by  a  sinuous  line. 
In  his  experiments  on  the  nature  of  the  movement  of  the  air 
Prof.  Bell  employed  a  human  ear,  a  hay  style  attached  to  the 


incus  recording  the  jnovement  communicated  to  it  on  a  moving 
sheet  of  smoked  glass.  A  very  interesting  series  of  carves  pro- 
duced by  this  means  was  shown  upon  the  screen,  and  he  explained 
how  his  experiments  in  this  direction  led  him  to  the  present  form 
of  telephone.  ^  Since  the  very  small  membraue  of  the  ear  was 
capable  of  setting  in  motion  comparativdy  large  bones,  it  seemed 
probable  that  it  could  cause  a  lit^ht  piece  of  iron  to  vibrate.  In 
the  earlier  form  of  apparatus  a  piece  of  sted  spring  was  theiefore 
attached  to  a  stretched  membrane  of  gold-beaters'  skin  and 
placed  in  front  of  the  pole  of  the  ma^et,  but  he  found  on 
mcreasing  the  area  of  metd  that  the  action  of  the  instrument 
was  improved,  and  thus  was  led  to  do  away  with  the  membrane 
itself.  Another  branch  of  the  investigation  referred  to  the 
strength  of  the  magnet  employed,  and  this  was  modified  by 
varying  the  strength  of  current  The  battery  was  gradually 
reduced  from  fifty  cells  to  none  at  all,  and  still  the  effects  were 
observed,  but  in  a  much  less  marked  decree ;  the  action  was  in 
this  latter  case,  doubtles9,  due  to  residual  magnetism,  hence,  in 
the  present  form  of  apparatus,  a  permanent  magnet  is  employed. 
Lastly,  the  effect  of  varying  Uie  dimensions  of  the  coil  of  wire 
was  studied,  when  it  was  found  that  the  sounds  became  louder  as 
its  length  was  diminished ;  a  certain  length  was,  however,  ulti- 
matdy  reached  beyond  which  no  improvement  was  effected,  and 
it  was  found  to  be  only  necessary  to  inclose  one  end  of  the 
magnet  in  the  coil  of  wire.  A  number  of  diagrams  were  pro- 
jected on  to  the  screen  which  showed  the  various  forms  the 
apparatus  has  taken  from  the  time  of  Page  to  the  present  day. 
An  air  sung  in  a  distant  part  of  the  building  was  distinctly  heard 
in  the  room  by  the  aid  of  an  improved  form  of  Reiss'  telephone, 
lent  by  Prof.  Barrett,  and  made  by  Mr.  Yates^  of  Dublin.  ProC 
Bell,  Profl  Foster,  and  Dr.  Gladstone  then  carried  on  a  conver- 
sation with  a  gentleman  at  a  distance,  and  utterances  were  diown 
to  be  audible  when  the  transmitting  instrument  was  hdd  about  a 
foot  from  the  mouth.  A  discussion  then  followed  in  which  Mr. 
De  la  Rue,  Dr.  Gladstone,  Profs.  Foster,  Guthrie,  Atkinson,  and 
others  took  part  In  replying  to  the  various  questions,  Prof. 
Bdl  stated  that  his  attempu  to  determine  the  amplitude  of  the 
vibrations  had  not  been  successful,  and  he  is  coming  to  the  con- 
dusion  that  the  movement  must  be  molecular.  Very  distinct 
sounds  are  emitted  when  a  considerable  mass  of  iron  is  employed ; 
and  further,  if  the  iron  be  glued  to  a  piece  of  wood  an  inch  thick 
and  this  be  interposed  between  it  and  the  magnet  the  action  still 
continues.  Conversation  has  been  carried  on  through  a  distance 
of  258  miles,  but  a  resistance  of  60^000  ohms  has  been  inter- 
posed without  preventing  the  action.  There  is  a  very  marked 
difference  in  the  manner  in  which  letters  are  reproduced  by  the 
telephone.  Vowel  sounds  are  more  acceptable  than  consonants, 
and,  as  a  rule,  those  letters  are  best  transmitted  which  involve 
a  large  oral  aperture  in  their  utterance.  Finally,  he  finds  that 
high  sounds  are  produced  more  fully  than  low  ones,  but  this 
question  has  not  yet  recdved  suffident  attention. 

Zoological  Society,  December  4.— ProfL  Newton,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Henry  Seebohm,  F.Z.S.,  ex- 
hibited and  made  remarks  upon  some  of  the  rarer  eggs  and 
birds  which  he  had  obtained  during  his  recent  visit  to  the  Arctic 
regions  of  the  Yen-e-sey,  in  Eastern  Siberia,  and  gave  a  rapid 
sketch  of  his  journey.  Some  of  the  skins  were  interesting  from 
the  fact  that  ttiey  extended  our  knowledge  of  geographical  dis- 
tribution,  such  as  Phylloscopms  trochilHS  and  Acrocephalus  scha* 
nobanus^  from  long.  88**  £.,  Afithus  gustavi  of  Swinhoe  (A, 
seebohmi  of  Dresser,  and  A,  baichianensu  of  Gray)  from  the 
same  longitude,  and  young  in  fir^t  plumage  of  this  spedes.  — 
Mr.  Saville  Kent,  F.Z.S.,  exhibited  the  plans  of  a  Zoological 
Station  and  Museum  and  Institute  of  Pisdculture  to  be  esta- 
blished at  St.  Heller's,  Jeriey.  The  object  sought  in  the 
esublishment  of  this  institution  was  the  provision  within  British 
waters  of  facilities  for  pursuing  marine  biological  invest  illations 
similar  to  those  which  exist  at  the  Z^iological  Station  of  Naples, 
and  at  the  Ander»en  School  of  Natund  Histoiv  at  Peaikese 
Island.  Buziards  Bay,  U.S.  A.-^The  Secretary  exhibited,  on  the 
part  of  Mr.  Andrew  Anderson,  F.ZS.,  some  spiBdmens  of 
natural  history  collected  in  India,  amongst  which  were  chicks  of 
Rhvnchops  and  specimens  of  Podiceps  cristatus  obtained  breeding 
in  North- Western  India.— A  communication  was  read  from  Mr. 
Henrv  Lee,  F.Z.S.,  containing  an  account  of  the.  capture  of  a 
Rissos  grampus  at  Sidlesham,  near  Chichester. — Mr.  A.  G. 
Butler  rtad  a  paper Jn  which  he  gave,  an  account  of  a  collection 
of  lepidoptera  made  in  Northern  Formosa  by  Mr.  H.  £).  Hobson.. 
— A  communication  was  read  from  the  Matquis  of  Tweeddale, 


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{Dec.  13,  1877 


F.R.S.,  conUining  an  account  of  a  collection  of  Urds  made  bjr 
Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  in  the  Island  of  Mindanao,  Philippines. 
Eight  nevr  species  were  found  in  this  collection,  and  were  named 
Tanygnathus  everdti^  Mulieripicus  fidiginosus^  Pendopides  affims^ 
Criniger  everoH^  Orthotomus  nigriceps^  jEthopyga  bMa^  Antho* 
threptus  grisdguiaris  and  Ptilopus  incognitus. 

Geological  Society,  November  2i.^ohn  Evans,  F.R.S., 
▼ice-president,  in  the  chair. —Oswald  Fitch,  John  Hadkinson, 

B.  Holgate,  H.  F.  Parsons^  M.D.,  and  Edgar  P.  Rathbone, 
were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Sodety.— The  following  communica- 
tions were  read  :~On  the  glacial  deposits  of  West  Cheshire, 
together  with  lists  of  the  fauna  found  in  the  drift  of  Cheshire  and 
adjoiding  counties,  by  W.  Shone,  F.G.S. — ^The  chair  was  then 
taken  by  Warington  W.  Smyth,  F.R.S.— The  Moffat  series,  by 

C.  Lapworth,  F.G.S. 

Victoria  (Philosophical)  Institute,  December  3. — Mr.  C. 
Brooke,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  in  the  chair.  The  paper  of  the  evening 
was  read  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Howard,  F.R.S.,  and  referred  to  the 
advances  that  modem  science  had  made  in  regard  to  nature, 
and  the  value  of  "  a  slow  but  sure  path  of  induction." 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  December  3.— M.  Peligot  in  the 
chair : — ^The  following  papers  were  read  : — On  artificial  pro- 
duction of  corundum,  ruby,  and  different  oystallised  silicates, 
by  MM.  Fremy  and  Feil.  In  a  crucible  of  refiractory  earth  is 
put  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  alumina  and  minium,  and 
calcined  for  some  time  at  a  bright  red  heat ;  after  cooling  there 
are  found  two  layers,' one  vitrnms,  formed  chiefly  of  stUcate  of 
lead,  the  other  crystalline  and  often  presenting  geodet  full  of 
beautiful  crystals  of  alumina.  To  obtain  the  red  colour  of  ruby, 
about  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  bichromate  of  potash  is  added  to  the 
mixture  of  alumina  and  minium.  The  silicate  of  lead  on  the 
ruby  crjTStals  is  removed  by  the  action  of  fused  oxide  of  lead, 
hydrofluoric  acid,  or  otherwise.  A  silicate  of  alumina  (appa- 
rently dysthene)  is  produced  by  beating  for  some  time  a  mixture 
of  equal  weights  of^ silicon  and  fluoride  of  aluminium  (fluoride  of 
silicon  is  disengaged).  Other  reactions  with  flaonde«  giving 
crystalline  bodies  are  described. — On  invariants,  by  Prof. 
Sylvester. — On  various  means  of  accelerating  the  service  in 
navigation-locks,  by  M.  de  Caligny.— Sir  William  Thomson 
was  elected  foreign  associate,  in  room  of  the  late  von 
Baer,  receiving  twenty-seven  votes  against  twenty-five  for  M. 
Van  Beneden. — Report  on  a  memoir  of  M.  Hautefeuille^  on 
reproduction  of  albite  and  orthose.  M.  Hautefeuille's  process 
consisu  in  keeping  the  elements  of  these  mineraU  (free  or  com- 
bined), in  presence  of  certain  fused  salts,  such  as  tungstic  acid  and 
the  alkaline  raog^tates.  Thus  a  mixture  of  silica  and  alumina, 
in  presence  of  an  acid  tungstate  of  potash  at  a  temperature 
between  900^  and  i,oooP  produces  tridymite,  orthose,  and 
tridintc  felspars.  If  the  elements  have  been  exactly  propor- 
tioned, the  tridymite  and  felspar  disappear,  and  their  elements 
go  to  increase  the  crystals  ot  orthose. — On  the  law  of  absorption 
of  radiations  through  bodies,  and  its  use  in  quantitative  spectrum 
analysis  (tirst  pan),  by  M  Govi  This  relates  to  a  comparison  of  the 
curves  of  ab'urpf  ion  given  by  wed^e-shaped  lorms  of  the  absorbent 
substance. — Practical  tracing  of  the  circle  which  has  to  be  substi- 
tuted for  a  given  curve  of  finite  extent,  bv  M.  Ltomtd — Battery  in 
which  carbon  is  the  electrode  attacked,  by  M.  Jablochkoff. 
Intj  fused  nitrate  of  potash  or  nitrate  of  soda  is  placed,  as  the 
attackable  electrode,  ordmary  coke,  and  as  the  unattackable, 
platina.  Toe  electromotive  force  varies  between  two  and  three 
units,  and  thus  exceeds  that  of  the  Bunsen  and  Grenet  batteries. 
The  cuke  may  be  lit  and  put  in  the  nitrate  in  a  powdered  state. 
The  ease«  developed  by  the  battery  are  utilised.  The  containing 
vesseU  are  of  iron  (that  (or  the  cart>on,  of  iron  wire). — Action 
of  oxalic  acid  on  silicate  of  soda,  hydrated  quartz,  by  M. 
Monier. — On  M.  Allaire*s  new  method  of  puriticauon  ot  fatty 
water  of  surface-condensers,  by  M.  Uetet — On  the  respiration 
of  submerged  aquatic  plants,  k>y  M.  Bartbelemy.  These  plants, 
observed  in  the  normal  state,  do  not  liberate  gas,  even  m  sun- 
light, any  more  than  aquatic  animals  (the  liberation  observed 
hitherto  has  been  cauiea  by  experiment).  The  true  respiratory 
act  ot  these  plants  consists  m  absorption  of  air  in  solu- 
tion in  the  water,  probably  by  the  riM>ts. — A  new  one-liquid 
battery,  by  M.  Jourdan.  The  electrodes  are  zinc  and  black- 
lead,  the  liquid  an  aqneous  solution  of  sal  alkalL^Occulta- 
tions ;  graphic  predictioD,  by  M.  Baills. — Observations  of  the 


r\  and  the  rotation  of  Mais  during  the  oppoiitioa  of  1877,  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro  Observatory,  by  M.  Crula.  The  time  of 
rotation  obtained  from  three  values  is  a^h.  37m.  34^— On  a 
fundamental  problem  of  grodesy ;  application  of  a  general 
method  of  transformation  of  integrals  depending  on  square  roots 
(continued),  bv  M.  Callandeau.— On  tne  rational  integrals  of 
the  problem  of  geodesic  lines,  by  M.  Levy. — On  the  superficial 
tensions  of  aqueous  solutions  of  alcohol  and  fatty  actd«,  by  M. 
Dndanx. — On  some  properties  of  boric  acid,  by  M.  Ditte.  A 
lecture  experiment  is  recommended,  which  demonstrates  the 
liberation  of  heat  in  chemical  actions.  It  is  to  add  12$  grammes 
of  water  to  100  grammes  of  boric  acid.  The  heat  is  such  that 
an  ingot  of  Daroet's  alloy  put  into  the  mixture  is  fused  in  a  few 
seoonds.— On  the  formation  of  nltramarines  and  their  coloration, 
by  M.  Guinet— On  the  alterations  of  eggs,  h  profios  of  note  by 
MM.  Bechamp  and  Eustache^  by  M.  Gayon.-~On  the  mechanism 
of  death  produced  by  inoculation  of  anthrax  in  the  rabbit,  by 
M.  Toussaint— On  some  new  mammalia  of  New  Guinea,  by  M. 
MOne  Edwards.— On  compound  machines,  their  economic  pro- 
duce, and  the  general  conditions  of  their  action,  bv  M.  de  Fre- 
minvOle.— Process  of  registration  and  reproduction  of  pheno- 
mena perceived  by  hearing,  by  M.  Cros  (sealed  packet). 

Geneva 
Society  of  Physics  and  Natural  History,  October  4. —M. 
Alphonse  Favre  has  found  on  the  Allelin  Mountain,  dominating  the 
upper  part  of  the  Saas  Valley  near  Mont  Rosa,  a  bed  of  enphotide. 
This  name  is  applied  to  a  rock  formed  of  two  elements,  viz.,  sans- 
surite,  a  leaden  gray  mineral,  and  diallage,  a  bright  green  mineral, 
classed  among  amphibolites.  This  bM  e]q>lams  the  origin  of 
the  erratic  blocks  of  that  substance,  which  are  seen  in  ntmibers 
in  the  plain  occupied  formerly  by  the  Rhone  glacier.— Profl 
Wartmann  showed  two  apparattu  based  upon  the  properties 
recently  recognised  by  him  among  derived  currents.  One  it 
intended  to  determine  inunediately  the  fraction  of  an  electri: 
current  which  traverses  a  given  conductor.  The  other  is  a 
current-inverser,  in  which  the  production  of  the  extra-current  is 
avoided,  because  the  current  always  finds  its  pasnge. 


CONTENTS  Pagu 

HvoioPHOsia S17 

AnCIBNT  HlSTOBY  P«OM  TKB  MoMUMSMTS 119 

FaSNCH  POPULAX  SCIBNCB ItO 

OiTB  Book  Skblp  :— 

Eden's  "  Fifth  Continent,  with  ih«  Adiaceot  Islands;  b«inc  an 
Account  of  Australia,  Taunania,  and  N«w  Guinea,  with  Stattsti- 

callnrormatkm  up  to  the  LrfUest  Date  ** ist 

Higgins's  **  Notes  hy  a  Field  Natuzalist  io  the  Western  IVopics  "  tat 

Lbttbbs  to  tub  Sditob  :— 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons.— ProC  Osaoaim   Rbvholo^ 

FR.S. ttt 

Mr.    Crookes  and   Stb   Fav.— Dr.  WU4.IAM    B.    CABPBirrBB, 

FR.S. tea 

The  Glacial  Geology  of  Orkney  and  Shetland.— S.  Laing*  MP.,  s  aj 

Explottoos.— A.  Mackbnnau raj 

Means  of  DispersaL— W.  L.  Distant 1S4 

Sup|>lefneQtary  Eyebrows.oW.  Ainsub  Hoixis ssa 

Dtffusion  or  Cobesioo  Figures  in  Liquids.— FJt.S 114 

Meteor.— W.  M.  F.  P 194 

On  tub  Causation  or  Slbbp , 194 

Thb  Moosrn  Tslbscopb,  IX.    By  J.  Nobman  Lockybb,  F.R.S. 

{IVitk  iUmtrmtims) 1*5 

Biological  Notbs  : 

Classiftcation  of  Decapod  Crustaceans ss7 

The  American  Bison s>7 

Producuof  Aaumilationin  Musacea lay 

Fe  tilisatioo  in  fhywe  and  Marjoram tt/ 

A  Fossil  Fungus xa? 

The  l^ws  of  Digital  Reduction     •    .    • r«S 

The  Birds  of  GuadaJoupelstaod zaS 

The  Distribiitton  of  Freshirater  Fi&hes laS 

Earwigs  (Forficulidae) i»S 

Hunganan  SiMdcrs taS 

Hungarian  Rotifers  or  Wheel-Aoimalcales laS 

Ova  ASTBONOMICAL  CoLVMN  :— 

The  Satellites • aa9 

Tycho  Brahe's  Star  of  1571 1*9 

The  Austrian  Comet-medal ia9 

GbOLOGICAL  WOBK    OP    THB    U.S.    SUBVBY    UNDBB  PbOP.   HaTDBM 

DUBING  THB  SUMMBB  OP  X877 XB^ 

Notbs 13s 

Univbbsitv  and  Educational  Intblligbmcb i  J4 

SOCtBTlBSAIIOACASBMISS.     ••.••••••••.•••  S34 


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THURSDAY,   DECEMBER   20,  1877 


THE  ''INFLEXIBLE'' 

ON  July  12  last  we  explained  the  Inflexible  case  at 
some  length  to  our  readers  on  the  ground  that  there 
might  be  seen  in  it  the  beginning  of  a  system  which  not 
only  involved  the  safety  of  the  four  large  and  costly  ships 
then  conmienced  or  contemplated,  but  which  "having 
received  countenance  and  sanction  in  the  highest  quarters 
in  this  country,  may  not  improbably  become  extended 
over  the  navies  of  the  world."  A  week  later  we  considered 
the  Parliamentary  Papers  on  the  subject,  and  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  Inflexible  was  not  a  safe  ship  for 
battle,  and  that  the  objections  brought  against  her  had 
been  much  too  lightly  treated.  Now  that  the  Report  of 
the  Admiralty  Committee  is  before  us  we  are  able — not- 
withstanding much  that  appears  in  it—to  point  our 
readers  to  it  as  a  full  and  complete  justification  of  the 
course  we  and  others  then  pursued,  for  that  Report  con- 
cludes with  these  words  : — *'  We  therefore  desire  to  bring 
under  the  very  serious  consideration  of  their  Lordships 
the  necessity,  before  proceeding  with  the  construction  of 
more  vessels  of  the  type  of  the  Inflexible,  of  thoroughly 
investigating  whether  by  more  beam  their  safety  may  not 
be  largely  increased  without  impairing  their  speed  and 
effidency."  As  this  appeal  "to  the  very  serious  con- 
sideration of  their  Lordship's  "  in  arrest  of  the  construc- 
tion of  other  ships  of  the  type  closely  follows  a  paragraph 
in  which  the  Committee  show  the  very  great  advantages 
of  an  alteration  in  the  form  and  proportions  of  the 
InflexibUs  citadel  (without  increase  of  armour),  it  is  not 
conceivable  that  the  Board  of  Admiralty  will  proceed 
with  the  other  vessels  of  the  type,  and  it  is  absolutely 
certain  that  no  more  ships  possessing  the  defects  of  which 
we  complained  in  July  will  be  laid  down.  The  great 
object  which  we  set  before  ourselves,  therefore,  is  already 
accomplished,  and  the  extension  of  a  dangerous  system 
of  design  throughout  our  own  navy,  and  the  navies  of  the 
world,  has  been  effectually  arrested.  As  we  know  that 
the  case  of  the  Ajax  and  Agamemnon  was  actually  before 
the  Committee,  and  as  their  Report  makes  no  exception 
of  them  in  their  appeal  to  the  Admiralty  to  stop  further 
proceedings,  it  is  to  be  inferred,  we  presume,  that  the 
beam  of  these  two  ships  will  have  to  be  increased  in 
accordance  with  the  Committee's  views.  With  these 
results  before  them  all  those  who  took  part  in  bringing 
about  this  inquiry  may,  we  think,  be  congratulated  on  the 
success  and  value  of  dieir  labours. 

There  only  remains  the  Inflexible  herself  to  consider  in 
the  light  of  the  Committee's  Report ;  and  in  discussing 
this  part  of  the  subject  we  must  not  forget  that  no  incon- 
siderable portion  of  the  report,  and  especially  the  aspect 
which  its  opening  pages  presents,  has  been  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  form  of  the  Admiralty  reference.  We 
take  leave  to  say  that  the  first  of  the  questions  put  by  the 
Admiralty  to  the  Committee  has  little  or  nothing  to  do 
with  the  subject.  We  do  not  remember  that  even  Mr. 
Reed,  who  has  most  strongly  condemned  the  InflexibUs 
design  ever  contended  that  "  the  blowing  out  of  the  whole 
of  the  stores  and  cork  by  shell-fire "  would  occur  very 
early  in  an  engagement ;  and  if  he  had,  the  elicitation  of 
Vou  xviL— No,  425 


a  contrary  opinion  from  the  Conmiittee  would  have  no 
serious  bearing  upon  the  subject,  simply  because  experi- 
ment, and  experiment  alone,  can  determine  the  degree 
and  rapidity  of  the  injury  to  which  thin  iron  chambers 
filled  with  cork  are  liable.  Mere  opinions,  in  the  absence 
of  experiments,  are  comparatively  valueless  in  such  a 
case.  But  what  we  should  have  thought  was  absolutely 
self-evident,  even  without  any  experiment,  is  that  shell- 
fire  from  modem  ordnance  would  certainly  blow  cork 
packing  out  of  thin  iron  chambers  at  some  rate  or  other ; 
and  yet,  strange  to  say,  this  is  what  the  Committee  appear 
to  doubt,  and  even  to  deny,  for  they  say  that  in  their  opinion 
that  which  may  "be  fairly  assumed  to  represent  the 
greatest  amount  of  damage  the  ship  would  be  likely  to 
suffer  in  any  action  "  is  the  condition  in  which,  although 
the  unprotected  ends  are  completely  riddled  and  water- 
logged, the  cork  and  stores  remain  in  place,  and  add  to 
the  buoyancy.  It  is  fair  to  assume,  then,  according  to 
the  Committee,  that  in  no  naval  action  will  the  cork  be 
blown  out  of  place  by  shell-fire,  and  this  in  face  of  the 
fact  that  when  an  experiment  was  actually  tried  at  Ports- 
mouth the  contrary  result  was  experienced.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  note  carefully  that  it  is  only  by 
making  the  above  extraordinary  assumption — an  assump- 
tion which  we  believe  will  not  meet  with  the  concurrence 
of  scientific  artillerists  and  seamen— that  the  Conmiittee 
are  able  to  oppose  in  any  degree  the  opinions  of  the 
ship's  danger  whicH  we  and  others  expressed  in  the 
autumn.  It  is  on  this  assumption  that  they  rest  their 
opinion  that  *'  the  unprotected  ends  are  as  well  able  as 
the  armoured  citadel  to  bear  the  part  assigned  to  them,*^ 
and  that  therefore  "a  just  balance  has  been  maintained 
in  the  design.**  It  unfortunately  is  made  perfectly  clear 
afterwards  by  the  Committee  that  the  "part  assigned  to 
them "  is  to  hold  the  citadel  and  the  rest  of  the  ship 
upright,  and  it  is  clear  that  they  cannot  be  presumed  fit 
to  perform  this  part  if  shell-fire  can  blow  out  the  cork 
Thisisthe  weak  point— we  venture  to  think  the  danger- 
ously and  even  fataUy  weak  point — of  the  Committee's 
Report,  and  one  which  the  conmion  sense  and  observa- 
tion of  men  will  prevent  them  from  assenting  to,  and 
consequently  the  InflexibUs  safety  is  so  ill-assured  that 
we  doubt  if  responsible  persons  will  sanction  the  com- 
pletion of  such  a  ship. 

The  committee  have  £dlen,  as  it  appears  to  us,  into  a 
grave  inconsistency,  likewise,  as  regards  the  Inflexible 
herself.  They  say,  as  we  have  seen,  that  the  unprotected 
ends  are,  as  designed,  well  able  to  perform  their  part,  and 
well  balanced  with  the  citadeL  In  subsequent  passages, 
nevertheless,  they  go  on  to  disclose  and  assert  even  more 
serious  defects  .in  them  than  any  of  us  adverse  critics  of 
the  ship  have  alleged,  and  to  reconunend  an  enormous 
extension -of  the  cork  chambers.  What  is  the  meaning  of 
a  scientific  committee  dealing  with  an  extremely  grave 
public  question  in  this  way?  Either  the  unarmoored 
ends  are  well  designed  at  present,  or  they  are  not ;  if  they 
are^  why  alter  them  to  the  very  large  extent— far  larger 
than  a  cursory  perusal  of  the  report  might  lead  readers 
to  expect,  for  the  increase  of  cork  chambers  recommended 
is  enormous  ?  If  they  are  not,  why  has  the  contrary 
statement  been  made  and  circulated  ?  The  truth  is  tkey 
have  not  been  satisfactorily  designed,  as  we  shall  presently 
prove  from  the  Conunittee's  own  report    But  first  let  us 


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NATURE 


)€C.  20,  1 5 


dispose  of  a  long  argument  which  the  Committee  enters 
upon  and  pursues  with  the  object  of  proving  that  by 
lengthening  the  citadel  you  would  thin  the  armour  upon 
it,  and  thus  reduce  its  defensive  power.  Assuredly  you 
would :  nor  can  any  one  doubt  for  a  single  moment  Uiat 
it  would  be  far  better  to  reduce  the  armour  a  little  for 
the  purpose  of  making  the  citadel  stable  enough  to  hold 
the  ship  upright  in  spite  of  any  injury  to  the  unpro- 
tected ends,  rather  than  to  keep  the  present  thickness,  and 
to  reduce  its  length  sufficiently  to  cause  the  whole  to  capsize 
when  the  unarmoured  ends  only  are  badly  damaged. 
We  know  how  naval  officers  answer  this  question.  But, 
in  truth,  the  whole  argument  of  the  Committee  on  this 
point  is  beside  the  mark,  and  a  mere  beating  of  the  air, 
for  no  one  that  we  know  of  has  urged  the  change  which 
the  Committee  take  so  much  pains  to  discuss.  What  we 
have  always  understood  Mr.  Reed  to  allege,  and  certainly 
what  we  have  in  Nature  maintained  is,  that  in  the 
Inflexible  the  citadel  and  unarmoured  ends  were  neither 
well-formed,  well-proportioned,  nor  well-balanced  against 
each  other,  and  that  a  ship  of  her  type  should  have  em« 
braced  a  larger  area  of  flotation  within  the  citadel  and  a 
less  area  within  the  unarmoured  ends.  And  this  is  pre- 
cisely what  the  Committee  themselves  declare,  and  thus 
refute  their  own  assertion  that  the  ship  is  properly 
designed  at  present.  Near  the  end  of  the  Report  they 
say  ;— 

"  Results  which  have  been  obtained  in  the  course  of 
the  experiments  at  Torquay  on  the  resistance  of  ships, 
show  that  a  considerable  increase  of  the  extreme  breadth 
of  the  IrflexibUy  if  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  fining 
of  the  ends  so  as  to  keep  the  displacement  unaltered, 
would,  if  anyUiing,  diminish  the  resistance  of  the  intact 
vessel  to  propulsion  at  full  speed.  Supposing  the  ship 
thus  increased  in  beam  10  feet,  and  the  citadel  shortened 
so  as  to  retain  the  same  perimeter  and  thickness  of 
armour,  her  transverse  stability  would  then  be  about 
doubled  in  the  e  and/'  conditions,  and  in  the  riddled  and 
gutted  condition,  would  be  more  than  it  now  is  in  condi- 
tion e  oxf.  Her  longitudinal  stability  in  the  riddled  and 
gutted  condition  would  be  reduced  10  per  cent.  (/, 
Appendix  No.  15),  but  would  not  be  diminished  in  condi- 
tion ey  and  scarcely  appreciably  so  in  /  The  increase  of 
beam  would  also  add  to  the  area  of  the  citadel  in  a  hori- 
zontal plane,  and  thus  increase  the  buoyancy  in  the 
riddled  condition." 

When  the  Committee,  who  lay^down  these  clear  and 
cogent  proofs  that  the  Inflexible  is  vastly  inferior,  in 
respect  of  stability  and  safety,  to  what  she  might  have 
been,  also  tell  us  that  "  a  just  balance  has  been  main* 
tsuned  in.  the  design  ^  of  that  ship,  and  that  "  a  good 
result  has  been  obtained,"  we  find  great  difficulty  in 
reconciling  their  statements,  and  feel  strongly  that  if 
the  public  were  to  trust  only  to  the  language  of  the  Report 
they  might  readily  be  led  to  draw  extremely  wrong  infer- 
ences. We  much  fear  that  the  gentlemen  composing  the 
Committee  have  thought  too  much  of  the  Admiralty,  with 
which  they  are  all  more  or  less  connected,  and  too  little 
of  the  public,  who  have  been  waiting  for  many  months  for 
their  verdict.  That  verdict  has  been  pronounced  in  a 
manner  which,  speaking  [on  behalf  of  scientific  men,  we 
lament.  It  is  inconsistent,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  under- 
stand it,  contradictory,  in  its  several  parts,  and  is  in  large 

'  These  references  raod /,  are  to  the  Parliamentarf  Papers,  and  represent 
the  ship  with  the  ends  riddled  and  water- logged,  t,  showing  the  ooal  as  well 
as  the  coik,  &c,  in  place,  and  /with  the  cork,  &c,  in,  but  not  the  coal. 


part  likely  to  beget  in  certain  quarters  a  fatal  confidence  ' 
in  a  ship  the  defects  and  dlmg^  of  which  the  Committee 
evidently  well  understand.  So  uncertain  and  indefinite  is 
it  that  it  does  not  make  it  unquestionably  clear  even  that 
the  Ajax  and  Agamemnon  are  included  in  their  desire  to 
have  progress  arrested,  for  although  after  speaking  of  the 
Inflexible  only  they  ask  that  no  more  vessels  of  the  type 
may  be  proceeded  with,  and  thus  employ  terms  widch 
cannot  well  be  otherwise  interpreted ;  the  absence  of  all 
mention  of  their  names  nevertheless  leaves  room  for  the 
suggestion  of  a  doubt  on  the  point  It  was  clearly  due 
to  all  concerned  that  their  viein^  on  so  weighty  a  matter 
should  have  been  placed  beyond  all  hesitation  and 
question. 

But  those  who  would  understand  the  full  significance 
of  this  Report  must  not  be  deterred  from  perusing  it  care- 
fully through,  for  if  after  reading  thirteen  out  of  its  sixteen 
pages  they  were  to  throw  it  aside  they  would  have  derived 
from  it,  we  say  without  hesitation,  not  only  a  very  insuffi- 
cient but  a  very  untrue  conception  of  the  InflexibUs 
actual  condition.  Up  to  that  point  both  a  hasty  and  a 
deliberate  perusal  of  it  yields,  to  our  minds  at  least,  the 
impression  that  the  Committee  are  admirers  of  the  exist- 
ing ship  in  almost  every  particular.  But  the  disclosures 
which  the  scientific  conscience  of  the  Committee  de- 
manded and  enforced  commence  on  p.  14,  and  thence  to 
the  end  facts  of  an  appalling  nature  respecting  her  are 
gradually  unfolded  with  so  much  effect  that  even  the 
Committee]  themselves  end  by  imploring  the  Admiralty 
not  to  repeat  such  a  design  !  Let  us  briefly  observe  what 
these  disclosures  are. 

The  first  relates  to  the  inclining  force  which  the  action 
of  the  rudder  exerts  upon  a  ship  of  small  stability.  The 
Committee  made  experiments  with  the  Thunderer  ex- 
pressly to  acquire  facts  illustrative  of  the  Inflexible's  case, 
and  the  conclusion  at  which  they  arrived  is  thus  stated : — 
''T\iQ  Inflexible  riddled  and  gutted,*  and  without  water 
ballast,  going  at  7*24  knots,  and  turning  in  the  circle  of 
1,210  feet  in  diameter,  would  require  a  righting  lever 
or  GZ  of '13  feet,  and  as  the  value  of  GZ  at  her  maximum 
stability  in  this  condition  is  only  '12  feet,  she  would  on  this 
supposition  overset."  To  soften  down  this  alarming  fact 
the  Committee  add  :  "  It  is,  however,  not  to  be  expected 
that  the  ship  under  this  condition  could  be  driven  at  this 
speed"— a  speed  of  7i  knots  only  round  the  ch-cle,  corre- 
sponding to  only  eleven  knots  in  the  Thunderer  when 
steaming  on  a  straight  course !  And  this  the  reader  will 
bear  in  mind  is  true  of  the  Inflexible^  not  when  her 
armour  has  been  pierced  by  huge  shells,  or  her  bottom 
knocked  about  by  rams  and  torpedoes,  but  when  nothing 
but  her  exposed  unarmoured  ends  have  been  badly 
injured.  Her  armour  and  her  bottom  may  be  perfectly 
intact,  ay,  untouched,  and  yet  her  own  rudder  would 
capsize  her  in  steaming  at  a  low  speed.  No  statement 
ever  made  about  the  Inflexible  by  those  who  condemn 
her  has  gone  or  ever  could  go  much  beyond  this.  And 
what  can  be  thought  of  the  figures  given  ?  The  line  GZ 
is  the  lever  or  arm,  at  the  ends  of  which  the  gravity  and 
buoyancy  of  the  ship  act  in  opposite  directions.  The 
length  required  for  withstanding  the  rudder's  action  under 

t  This  phrase.   "The  InfUxibU  riddled   and   gutted"  is  (improperly) 
*  *  ^  the  Committee  when  they  speak  of  the  unarmoured  ends  being 


employed  by  the  Committee  when  they  s 
riddled  and  having  the  cork  blown  our. 


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139 


the  given  conditions  was  '13  of  a  foot  {\\  inches  only  [!]), 
but  even  that  is  more  than  has  been  allowed  in  the  design 
of  this  ship  (viz.  '12)  in  which  the  Committee  say  "  a  just 
balance  "  has  been  preserved^  And  this  inability  of  the 
ship  to  withstand  her  own  rudder's  action,  and  that  at 
a  low  speed,  even  with  virgin  armour  and  a  bottom  un- 
touched by  ram  or  torpedo,  having  been  asserted  and  urged 
by  others,  elicits  no  remonstrance  or  objection  whatever 
from  the  Committee.  And  yet,  when  a  little  later  on  in 
their  Report  they  have  disclosed  a  somewhat  similar 
degree  of  longitudinal  instability— discovered,  as  they  sup- 
pose by  themselves,  but  already  well-known  and  obvious, 
doubtless,  to  others — and  have  shown  that  the  ship  would 
not  be  safe  at  seven  and  nine  knots  speeds  because  of  her 
tendency  to  capsize  lengthwise  (so  to  speak),  and  so 
more  or  less  down  headforemost,  then  the  Committee  see 
grave  danger  showing  itself,  for  they  say,  "  We  consider 
that  any  large  limitation  in  the  ship's  speed  may  expose 
her  dangerously  to  the  attack  of  ram  or  torpedo,"  and 
in  the  summary  they  incidentally  tell  us,  in  the  mildest 
terms,  that  a  blow  from  either  would  be  fatal ;  ''  the  small 
residuum  of  stability  she  would  possess  would  not  avail 
to  render  such  an  attack  other  than  fatal."  The  only 
difference  in  the  two  cases  is  (and  this  is  possibly  the 
reason  why  the  Conmiittee  lay  the  greater  stress  on  this 
case)  that  it  is  not  here  necessary  to  suppose  the  cork  or 
stores  blown  out,  for  a  single  shot  or  shell  maldngalarge 
wound  near  the  stem,  bulging  a  skin  plate  outwards,  and 
completely  rupturing  the  internal  bulkheads,  would  so 
destroy  the  longitudinal  stability  of  this  large  ironclad, 
costing  more  than  half-a-million  sterling,  that  even  at 
seven  knots'  speed  she  would  run  her  bows  under  ;  "  and 
again,"  we  are  told  by  the  Committee,  ''her  speed  is 
similarly  limited  to  nine^knots  by  wounds  of  a  much  less 
critical  character  in  other  parts  of  her  sides."  We  have 
said  that  even  this  danger  was  doubtless  foreseen  by 
others— as  it  certainly  was  by  ourselves,  whether  men- 
tioned or  not — ^before  the  Committee's  Report  appeared  ; 
but  the  Committee  certainly  have  carried  the  subject  a 
step  forward  by  the  experiments  they  have  made  with  the 
model,  and  by  their  positive  declaration  that  "on  the 
whole  the  effect  of  sea-waves  must  be  to  aggravate,  and 
in  some  circumstances*  greatly  to  aggravate,"  this  very 
serious  and  certain  source  of  danger.  In  a  word,  the 
very  Committee  who  have  in  another  place  asserted  that 
in  the  Inflexible  the  balance  is  fairly  maintained  between 
the  armoured  and  unarmoured  ends,  have  elsewhere  in 
their  Report  shown  that  that  balance  is  so  ill  maintained 
between  the  two,  that  with  all  the  cork  in  place  one  or 
two  shot  and  shell  penetrating  the,  unarmoured  parts 
would  so  reduce  her  stability  that  she  could  not  be 
steamed  ahead  with  any  reasonable  speed,  but  would  of 
necessity  become  a  prey  to  any  ram  or  torpedo  craft  that 
might  evade  or  disregard  her  guns ! 

Another  disclosure  of  the  Committee  is  that  the  mere 
running  out  of  the  gims  ''would  become  a  serious  element 
of  danger  as  the  ship  approaches  the  riddled  and  gutted 
condition."  Here  again  they  employ  the  phrase  to  which 
we  have  already  intimated  an  objection  in  a  foot-note, 
and  speak  of  "  the  ship  "  approaching  "  the  riddled  and 

'  llie  Committee,  at  the  bottom  of  pa|:e  15,  give  us  the  means  of  readily 
illustrating  the  amount  of  stability  which  the  InJUxibU  has  pn  the  case 
above  considered,  for  they  tell  us  that  60  tons  in  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  which 
herself  weighs  over  xz,ooo  tons,  would  alter  the  lenjcth  of  o  z  to  'sa  ^  a  foot 


gutted  condition."  They  mean  nothing  of  the  kind  ;  by 
"the  ship"  they  mean  the  exposed  unarmoured  ends 
only  ;  and  here  again  it  \&  to  be  observed  that  the  danger 
disclosed  is  not  one  contingent  upon  the  blowing  out  of 
all  the  cork,  &c.,  but  arises  before,  yf^tn  the  unarmoured 
part  only  approaches  that  condition.  That  the  danger  is, 
again  in  this  case  as  in  the  previous  'one,  a  very  serious 
and  practical  one  is  shown  by  the  Conmiittee  recom- 
mending an  alteration  in  the  gunnery  arrangements, 
proposing  that  the  travel  of  the  gun  on  the  slides  should 
be  restricted,  lest  by  running  the  guns  out  to  the  full 
extent  at  present  arranged^  for,^hey  should  capsize  the 
ship. 

We  have  now  sketched,  sufficiently  for  our  present 
purpose,  the  substance^of  the  Committee's  Report.  We 
may  end  'this  article  as  we  ended  that  of  July  19,  and 
repeat :  "  The  conclusions  we  have  arrived  at  are,  that 
the  Infieicible  is  not  a  safe  ship  for  battle  in  her  present 
state,  that  the  objections  brought  against  her  have  been 
much  too  lightly  treated,  and  that  the  disclosure  of  her 
condition,  [with  the  circumstances  that  have  followed  it, 
have  excited  just  surprise  and  dissatisfaction."  That 
surprise  and  dissatisfaction  will  be  greater  than  ever  when 
the  Committee's  Report  has  had  time  to  produce  its  full 
effects,  both  intended  and  unintended. 


HYDROPHOBIA  i 
II. 

WE  do  not  intend  to  do  more  than  allude  in  a  cursory 
manner  to  the  prophylactic  treatment  of  hydro- 
phobia, i,e.  to  the  treatment  adopted  to  prevent  the  occur- 
rence of  the  disease  in  those  who  have  been  bitten  by  mad 
dogs.  The  general  experience  of  the  past  sanctions,  as  might 
be  expected,  the  practice  of  attempting  to  prevent  the 
absorption  of  the  poison  of  rabies  by  excising  or  destroying 
by  caustics  the  wounds  inflicted  by  rabid  animals ;  of  the 
innumerable  internal  remedies  which  have  been  proposed 
and  made  use  of  with  the  object  of  preventing  the  deve- 
lopment of  hydrophobia  in  those  bitten  by  rabid  dogs,  it 
may  be  said  with  justice  that  nothing  whatever  is  known 
which  warrants  the  assertions  of  their  advocates.  This 
is  indeed  a  case  in  which  the  fallacies  which  beset  all 
therapeutical  inquiries,  especially  when  attempted  by 
ignorant  persons  and  fanatics,  are  specially  liable  to 
obscure  the  truth.  Of  all  dogs  supposed  to  be  rabid,  only 
an  infinitesimal  proportion  really  are  so,  and  it  is  but 
rarely  that  the  fact  of  a  dog  being  rabid  is  tested  by 
having  it  watched  until  it  dies,  or  by  the  unfortunate  fact 
that  some  of  those  bitten  perish  by  hydrophobia  ;  then, 
of  all  persons  bitten  by  certainly  rabid  dogs,  only  a  small 
proportion  become  affected  with  hydrophobia,  even  when 
no  treatment  is  adopted,  so  that  the  vadue  of  any  drug  or 
remedial  measure  as  a  prophylactic  could  only  be  tested 
by  an  experience  such  as  no  one  ever  has  had. 

Less  uncertainty  prevails  in  reference  to  the  effects 
of  treatment  when  hydrophobia  has  been  developed. 
According  to  the  best  observers  this  disease  has  hitherto 
been  invariably  fatal.  There  are,  it  is  true,  a  few  cases— 
and  of  these  two  have  been  recorded  within  a  compara- 
tively recent  period— in  which  a  cure  is  said  to  have  been 
effected,  but  when  examined  with  care  the  gravest  doubts 

s  Continued  from  p  1x9. 


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of  their  real  nature  most  be  entertained.  Here  again 
there  are  fallacies  to  be  encountered  of  no  insignificant 
nature.  The  continued  and  terrible  anxiety  lest  a  bite 
which  has  been  inflicted  should  be  followed  by  its  terrible 
consequences  has  led,  in  the  case  of  persons  of  a 
susceptible  and  unstable  nervous  system — as  all  other 
long- continued  worries  and  anxieties  are  liable  to  do^to 
the  development  of  hysteria  and  insanity  and,  in  the 
attacks  of  acute  mania  which  have  occurred  in  such  indi- 
viduals, many  of  the  phenomena  of  hydrophobia  have  been 
imitated.  An  admirably-narrated  case  of  this  ''  hydro- 
phobic non  rabique  "  of  French  writers  was  lately  placed 
on  record  by  Mr.  Hugh  Norris,  of  South  Petherton 
("  Hydrophobia  or  its  Eikon — which  ?" — Lancet^  Septem- 
ber 22, 1877) : — "A  gentleman  underwent  terrible  anxiety 
on  account  of  his  young  son  having  been  bitten  by  a  dog 
which  suddenly  had  become  ill  and  strange  in  its 
behaviour.  The  danger  which  threatened  the  boy  caused 
the  father  to  become  intensely  emotional,  and  prolonged 
sleeplessness  ensued.  Other  worries  superadded  them- 
selves to  this  one  great  gnawing  anxiety,  and  the  poor 
man  fell  ill ;  at  first  there  appeared  symptoms  which 
simulated  very  closely  the  hydrophobic  phenomena,  but 
these  were  succeeded  by  a  genuine  attack  of  acute  mania, 
which  necessitated  the 'patient's  removal  to  an  asylum, 
where  he  died  on  the  seventh  day  of  his  illness."  In 
this  case  there  was  no  evidence  that  the  patient  was 
actually  bitten  by  a  dog,  his  statement  that  he  had  been 
80  injured  having  been  made,  in  a  peculiarly  suspicious 
manner,  only  after  his  illness  had  commenced,  and  being 
apparently  but  one  of  the  delusions  which  afterwards 
haunted  him.  Had  this  man  been  certainly  bitten,  and 
had  his  illness  been  followed,  as  it  might  have  been,  by 
recovery,  his  case  would  in  all  probability  have  been 
quoted  as  one  of  the  few  instances  of  recovery  from  hydro- 
phobia, though  the  impartial  critic  would  have  pointed 
out  some  anomalies  which  rendered  the  conclusion 
doubtfiil  The  knowledge  of  the  undoubted  occurrence 
of  such  cases  necessarily  imposes  great  caution  in  the 
examination  of  alleged  instances  of  recovery  from  hydro- 
phobia. 

The  drug  to  which  attention  has  of  late  been  directed 
for  the  treatment  of  hydrophobia  is  curare  or  woorara,  a 
substance  used  by  the  natives  of  South  America  as  an 
arrow  poison.  This  poison  has  been  known  since  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  made 
the  conquest  of  Guinea  ;  but  attention  was  drawn  to  it  in 
a  special  manner  by  the  celebrated  traveller,  Waterton, 
who  first  made  experiments  on  animals  with  it,  which 
were  continued  by  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie  and  Dr.  Sibson, 
and  were  succeeded  by  the  now  celebrated  researches  of 
Claude  Bernard,  Kdlliker,  and  other  eminent  physiologists. 
Curare,  the  active  principle  of  which  is  derived  from 
a  strychniaceous.  plant,  when  directly  introduced  into  the 
blood  or  injected  under  the  skin,  produces  paralysis  of 
all  voluntary  movements ;  this  paralysis  depends  upon  Its 
exerting  a  special  action  upon  the  terminations  of  motor 
nerves  in  the  muscles,  especially  in  voluntary  muscles. 
The  poison  leaves  intact  the  sensory  nerves  of  the  body, 
and  at  least  in  the  early  stages  of  its  action,  the  nerve- 
centres.  An  animal  subjected  to  its  influence  becomes 
absolutely  motionless,  and  dies  rapidly  of  suffocation 
from  paralysis  of  the  respiratory  muscles ;  if,  however, 


respiration  be  kept  up  by  artificial  means,  life  may  be 
prolonged  for  long  periods,  and,  the  poison  becoming 
eliminated,  recovery  may  ensue.  As  long,  however,  as 
the  stage  of  complete  paralysis  continues,  the  creature 
is  entirely  unable  to  communicate  with  the  external  world. 
There  is  no  proof  that  external  stimuli  do  not  affect  it ; 
that  it  does  not  feel— but  the  channels  by  which  the  evi- 
dence of  sensibility  reach  us  are  for  the  time  interrupted. 
Curare  has  been  suggested  as  a  remedy  for  many  diseases 
of  a  spasmodic  character,  but  a  great  obstacle  to  its  use 
is  presented  by  the  danger  which  attends  its  employment. 
A  dose  which  will  be  sufficient  to  arrest  an  abnormal 
spasmodic  contraction  of  a  muscle  or  group  of  muscles, 
will  presumably  cause  a  stoppage  of  respiratory  move- 
ments, and  the  medical  man,  if  haply  he  be  near  the 
patient,  will  find  himself  compelled  to  keep  up  artificial 
respiration— no  easy  task  to  accomplish,  especially  with 
the  means  which  the  physician,  as  distinguished  from  the 
physiologist,  could  employ.  Hitherto  the  attempu  to  use 
curare  have  been  few,  and  the  results  (if  we  except  the 
two  supposed  cases  of  cure  of  hydrophobia)  we  think 
worthless.  Curare  is  indeed  a  drug  the  employment  of 
which  must  be  attended  with  so  great  a  risk  that  a  very 
strong  case  should  be  made  out  in  its  favour  before 
patients  are  exposed  to  it. 

Knowing  as  we  do  the  physiological  action  of  curare, 
we  may  ask  whether  it  is  a  drug  at  all  likely  to  be  ser- 
viceable in  spasmodic  affections  generally,  and  specially 
in  hydrophobia.  The  majority  of  spasmodic  diseases  are 
due  to  a  central  cause,  or  to  a  cause  acting  through  a 
pretematurally  excitable  centre.  Any  drug  which  will 
cut  off— as  curare  does — the  communication  between  the 
nerve-centre  and  the  muscle  will  prevent  its  spasm,  and 
will  of  course  obviate  any  evil  results  which  follow 
directly  from  the  spasm ;  but,  necessarily,  under  these 
circumstances  the  abolition  of  the  spasm  is  no  index  that 
any  change  has  been  effected  in  the  morbid  state  to  which 
it  owed  its  existence.  In  hydrophobia  there  occur,  it  is  true, 
as  prominent  phenomena,  spasms  of  the  muscles  concerned 
in  inspiration  and  in  deglutition.  The  administration  of 
curare  in  doses  sufficient  to  stop  the  respiratory  move- 
ments would  doubtless  prevent  Uiese  spasms,  though  we 
must  not  forget  that  it  would  do  so  at  no  mean  risk.  But 
are  these  spasms  the  proximate  or  remote  cause  of  death 
in  hydrophobia?  We  believe  not  They  are  spasms 
which,  as  we  tried  to  show,  are  probably  dependent  upoa 
a  morbid  state  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  with  which  is 
connected  a  morbidly  heightened  reflex  excitability  of 
that  portion  of  the  nervous  system.  But  there  is  no 
evidence  that  curare  would  exert  any  influence  in  dimin- 
ishing this  abnormal  excitability. 

From  our  knowledge  of  the  physiological  action  of 
curare  we  should  not  then  be  inclined  to  believe  that  it 
cotdd  affect  in  a  beneficial  manner  the  progress  of  the 
essential  morbid  processes  of  hydrophobia  ;  it  could  but 
modify  some  of  the  painful  phenomena  which  belong  to 
it.  Actually  curare  has  been  tried  in  several  cases,  but 
only  twice  has  its  administration  said  to  have  been 
attended  with  success,  and  these  two  cases  cannot  be 
accepted  as  having  been  certainly  cases  of  hydrophobia. 
We  have  seen  one  case  of  hydrophobia  treated  with 
curare  without  any  influence  having  been  exercised  by  it. 
There  are  drugs,  however,  which  the  physician  is  habitu- 


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ally  employing  that  possess  actions  which  would  cause 
one  to  predict  that  they  would  be  of  special  use  in 
controlling  the  terrible  spasms  of  hydrophobia,  e,g,^ 
bromide  of  potassium,  chloral,  and  Calabar  bean.  These 
drugs  all  diminish  in  a  signal  manner  the  reflex  ex- 
citability of  the  nerve-centres  ;  and  the  second  in  the  list 
possesses  in  addition  powerful  properties  as  a  hypnotic ; 
they  have  all  been  used  in  the  treatment  of  hydrophobia  ; 
and  one  of  them— chloral— has,  in  sufficiently  large 
doses,  been  successfully  used,  in  so  far  as  relief  of  suffering 
was  concerned.  But  as  for  a  cure  for  hydrophobia  it  has 
yet  to  be  discovered  ;  and  this  remark  applies  to  all 
zymotic  diseases.  The  majority  of  these  diseases,  unlike 
hydrophobia,  tend  naturally  towards  recovery  rather  than 
death,  and  the  physician  is  undoubtedly  able,  by  judicious 
measures,  to  obviate  the  tendency  to  death.  He  cannot 
cure  the  disease,  however,  in  the  sense  in  which  he  might 
be  said  to  cure  it  were  he  able  to  destroy  the  poison  which 
is  its  cause ;  apparently,  once  introduced  into  the  system 
the  poison  must  produce  its  effects — ^intense  or  slight— 
which  must  have  a  certain  course,  and  then  cease,  be- 
cause the  poison  which  induced  them  has  passed  away, 
or  because  the  soil  «which  nourished  the  poison  supplies 
it  no  longer  with  the  conditions  which  it  required. 
But  the  day  may  come,  and  we  believe  will  come,  when 
even  this  great  result  may  be  achieved ;  when  not  only  shall 
we  know  the  conditions  which  attend  the  spread  of  zymotic 
diseases  so  accurately  that  we  shall  be  able  to  prevent 
their  spread,  but  when  medicine  may  supply  us  the  means 
of  dealing  directly  with  the  materies  morbi  of  the  diseases, 
as,  for  instance,  by  ''sterilising"  the  soil  in  which  they  are 
implanted. 

Our  general  review  [of  the  main  facts  in  the  history  of 
rabies  and  hydrophobia  has  naturally  brought  out  with 
considerable  clearness  how  little  is  known  concerning  it 
and  how  much  remains  to  be  done.  We  hail,  therefore, 
with  satisfaction  the  'appointment  of  a  Committee  of  the 
British  Medical  Association  charged  with  the  investigation 
of  this  important  and  interesting  subject  This  Committee 
consists  of  Dr.  Lauder  Brunton,  Mr.  Callender,  Mr. 
Ernest  Hart,  and  Prof.  Burdon-Sanderson. 

Before  concluding,  a  few  words  concerning  the  measures 
to  be  adopted  for  preventing  the  spread  of  hydrophobia. 

From  our  insular  position  we  are  in  a  better  position 
than  any  neighbouring  nation  for  holding  a  check,  or 
even  ''stamping  out''  such  a  disease  as  hydrophobia, 
which,  as  the  vast  mass  of  evidence  tends  to  show,  does 
not  originate  spontaneously,  nor  does  it  appear  that  it 
would  be  difficult  to  effect  this  result  were  the  suggestions 
which  have  been  made  by  several  recent  writers  carried 
into  effect.  It  is  certain  that  the  number  of  dogs  kept  in 
England  is  enormously  in  excess  of  any  requirements,  and 
it  is  equally  certain  that  this  state  of  matters  might 
promptly  be  put  a  stop  to.  The  existing  dog  tax  need  not 
be  increased  in  amount,  but  it  should  be  enforced  in  the 
most  stringent  manner,  the  business  of  collecting,  prose- 
cuting, &c.,  being  handed  over  to  the  police  authorities  of 
each  district  Each  dog  should  have  a  separate  number 
on  the.  local  register,  and  might  be  the  wearer  of  a  collar 
bearing  its  registered  number.  Further,  the  licence  should 
bear  a  description  of  the  premonitory  symptoms  of  rabies, 
and  owners  of  dogs  should  be  cautioned  instantly  to  report 
any  suspicious  case  to  the  police.     These  regulations 


would,  as  a  necessary  result,  lead  to  each  dog  being  indi- 
vidually looked  after  and  cared  for,  and  would,  we  believe, 
in  the  course  of  very  few  years,  lead  to  the  disappearance 
of  rabies. 


DIEN'S  ''CELESTIAL  ATLAS • 
Atlas  CilesU^  comprenatU  toutes  Us  Cartes  de  Vancien 
Atlas  de  Ch,  Dien,  Rectifi^,  augment^,  &C.,  par  Camille 
Flammarion.  3*  Edition.  (Paris  :  Gautbier-Villars,  1877.) 

THIS  is  a  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  Dien's  "Atlas 
Celeste,**  which  first  appeared  in  1864,  with  the 
co-operation  of  M.  Babinet,  and  is  brought  out  under  the 
editorship  of  M.  Camille  Flammarion.  That  the  forma- 
tion of  the  atlas,  both  in  its  original  and  extended  plan 
has  involved  a  great  amount  of  labour  will  be  evident 
upon  a  very  superficial  examination.  The  first  issue  was 
said  to  contain  upwards  of  100,000  stars  and  nebulse,  of 
which  50,000  had  been  observed  by  Lalande,  projected  on 
the  development  of  a  sphere,  sixty-five  centimetres  in 
diameter,  their  places  being  reduced  to  the  year  i860, and 
this  scale  was  stated  to  be  sufficiently  large  to  allow  of  the 
insertion  without  confusion  of  all  stars  to  the  ninth 
magnitude  inclusive.  The  charts  were  said  to  contain 
"  nearly ^the  totality  of  stars  in  the  caulogues  of  Lalande, 
Herschel  I.,  Piazzi,  Harding,  Struve,  Bessel,  Herschel  II., 
Groombridge,  and  Argelander,**  while  for  the  southern 
heavens  recourse  was  had  to  the  catalogues  of  La  Caille 
and  Brisbane.  This  description  of  the  authorities  con- 
sulted is  not  very  definite.  The  reference  to  Harding 
must  apply  to  his  atlas  ;  that  to  Bessel  may  be  supposed 
to  at  least  include  the  catalogue  of  equatorial  stars  ob- 
served by  the  Kdnigsberg  astronomer,  which  was  prepared 
by  Weisse  of  Cracow,  and  published  in  1846,  if  not  the 
second  catalogue  founded  upon  Bessel's  observations, 
containing  stars  from  15^  N.  to  45®  N.  declination,  also 
reduced  by  Weisse,  which  appeared  in  1863.  The  refer- 
ence to  Argelander  is  especially  indefinite  ;  we  have  the 
well-known  catalogue  of  560  stars,  and  the  "  Uranometria 
Nova,"  but  previous  to  the  year  1864,  when  "Dien's 
Atlas"  was  published,  astronomers  were  also  in  posses- 
sion of  vols.  3, 4,  and  5  of  the  "  Durchmusterung,"  with 
the  results  of  the  survey  of  the  whole  northern  heavens. 

The  progranmie  originally  prepared  was  a  very  exten- 
sive one.  The  new  edition  is  stated  to  have  received 
numerous  corrections  and  considerable  enlargement  to 
bring  up  the  work  to  the  actual  state  of  astronomical 
science,  and  there  is  sufficient  evidence  that  an  attempt 
has  been  made  in  this  direction,  but  we  regret  to  have  to 
express  the  opinion,  after  a  dose  examination  of  the 
"  Atlas,"  that  in  its  present  state  it  does  not  fulfil  the  pro- 
gramme upon  which  it  was  formed.  It  will  soon  be  evi- 
dent, on  comparing  the  maps  with  the  charts  issued  by 
the  Berlin  Academy,  or  more  generally  with  those  in  the 
original  edition  of  Harding's  Atlas,  that  so  far  from  con- 
taining stars  to  the  ninth  magnitude  inclusive,  numerous 
eighths,  and  even  stars  of  67  magnitude,  are  omitted, 
and  it  is  not  easy  to  see  from  what  cause.  It  might  be 
inferred  that  Bessel's  catalogue  of  equatorial  stars  had 
not  been  utilised,  since  stars  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
magnitude  observed  by  Bessel  and  not  observed  by 
Lalande,  are  wanting.  But  in  addition  we  soon  miss 
stars  that  do  occur  in  the   "  Histoire  Cdleste,"   as  for 


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instance  L.  39836,'a  star  which  Lalande  considered  a  sixth 
magnitude. 

Different  views  will  be  taken  with  regard  to  the  proper 
contents  '  celestial  atlas,  intended  for  general  use,  and 
it  is  not  nerefore  desirable  to  .be  too  critical  upon  this 
point,  but  to  take,  we  will  say,  two'extreme  uses  to  which 
an  atlas  of  the  pretensions  of  Dien's  may  be  applied,  first 
for  following  a  small  planet  with  the  aid  of  a  chart  pro- 
fessing to  contain  stars  to  a  less  degree  of  brightness,  and 
secondly,  for  identifying  the  naked-eye  stars  by  the 
general  maps  including  only  these  brighter  stars,  an 
elementary  purpose  for  which  an  atlas  may  be  quite  as 
readily  adapted  as  a  globe.  In  the  former  case  Dien's 
maps  are  not  sufficiently  filled  in  to  allow  of  a  planet 
equalling  in  brightness  stars  of  Bessel's  ninth  magnitude 
being  identified  without  some  trouble  and  disappointment, 
and  in  the  latter  case  we  meet  with  a  failing  which  is  only 
too  common  with  star-atlases— the  outlines  of  constella- 
tions are  so  prominently  drawn  as  seriously  to  interfere 
with,  if  not  entirely  to  obliterate  the  naked-eye  stars  of 
the  lower  magnitudes,  in  using' the  '^  Atlas  "  in  the  open  air. 
As  a  model  of  what  an  atlas  should  be  in  the  latter 
respect,  we  must  still  refer  to  Argclander's  "  Uranometria," 
which,  in  our  opinion,  has  yet  no  equal  for  the  more 
elementary  uses  of  such  a  work. 

Among  the  best  features  in  the  new  edition  of  Dien's 
"  Atlas  "  are  the  delineation  of  the  southern  heavens,  in 
which  Brisbane's  stars  are  laid  down,  the  view  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  double  and  multiple  stars  by  M.  Flanmiarion, 
the  orbits  of  some  of  the  principle  revolving  double-stars, 
and  figures  of  remarkable  nebulas  and  clusters  of  stars. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Horticulture.     By  F.  W.  Burbidge.     With  Illustrations, 
(London  :  E.  Stanford,  1877.) 

This  is  one  of  the  series  of  small  handbooks  on  the  British 
maufacturing  industries,  edited  by  Mr.  G.  Phillips  Bev^.n, 
of  which  we  have  already  noticed  several  volumes.  A 
compact  work  on  practical  gardening,  to  serve  as  a  guide 
to  the  amateur  gardener  and  fruit-grower,  was  much 
wanted;  and  this  volume  to  a  certain  extent  supplies  the 
desideratum.  After  a  short  chapter  on  commercial  garden- 
ing, the  author  treats  of  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  and  of  the 
various  descriptions  of  vegetables  and  herbs ;  and  then 
of  gardening  in  its  various  departments,  but  more  from 
the  economical  than  from  the  amateur's  point  of  view. 
If  the  owner  of  a  garden  wants  to  turn  his  bit  of  land 
to  the  most  profitable  account,  he  will  find  Mr.  Burbidge 
an  admirable  guide  ;  but  if  he  infers  from  the  title  of  the 
book  that  he  will  obtain  from  it  advice  as  to  the  treatment 
of  his  pelargoniums,  fuchsias,  and  chrysanthemums,  or 
the  management  of  his  hothouses,  he  will  be  disappointed. 
We  fancy  that  information  of  this  kind  would  conmiend 
itself  to  a  larger  number  of  readers  than  the  guide-book 
information,  of  the  exact  number  of  acres  in  each  of  our 
London  parks,  and  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining  them. 
The  advice  as  to  the  culture  of  fruit  and  vegetables  seems 
to  us  very  good ;  but  the  rather  poor  woodcuts  do  not 
add  to  the  value  of  the  volume. 

Mittheilungen  aus  dem  k.  zoologischen  Museum  su 
Dresden.  Herausgegeben  mit  Unterstiitzung  der  Gene- 
ral-direction der  koniglichcn  Sammlungen  fur  Kunst 
imd  Wissenschaft,  von  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer,  Director  des 
koniglhrhen  zoologischen  Museums.  Zweites  Heft  mit 
TafeJ.    (Dresden,  1877.) 

In  a  former  volume  of  Nature  (vol  xiiL,  p.  464)  we  have 


given  some  account  of  the  origin  of  this  meritorious  work, 
of  which  the  second  portion  is  now  before  us.  Like  the 
former  half  of  the  first  volume  of  the  contributions  the 
present  section  is  chiefly  occapied  with  memoirs  based  upon 
the  collections  made  by  Dr.  A.  B.  Meyer  during  his  well- 
known  expedition  to  New  Guinea  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
Herr  Th.  Kirsch,  the  entomologist  of  the  Dresden  Mu- 
seum, corhmences  with  two  articles  upon  the  lepidoptera 
and  beetles  collected  by  Dr.  Meyer  in  New  Gumea,  Of 
the  former  Herr  Kirsch  enumerates  167  species,  of  which 
133  belong  to  the  diurnal  section.  Several  novelties  are 
described  and  well  figured.  The  next  article  is  by  Dr. 
Meyer  himself,  and  gives  us  an  account  of  a  large  series  of 
Papuan  skulls  which  he  collected  on  the  mainland  of  New 
Guinea  and  in  the  Island  of  Mysore, in  the  Bay  of  Geeldink. 
The  collection,  embracing  altogether  135  examples,  is, 
we  believe,  by  far  the  finest  of  this  branch  of  the  human 
family  ever  made,  and  should,  we  suppose,  lead  to  some 
definite  results  upon  that  somewhat  mysterious  subject — 
the  differentiation  of  the  various  races  of  mankind  by  their 
skulls.  A  second  article  by  Dr.  Meyer  relates  to  the  speci- 
mens of  anthropoid  apes  in  the  Dresden  Museum.  We 
cannot  say  that  the  photographic  plates  of  the  stuffed  speci- 
mens of  these  creatures  are  either- elegant  or  likely  to  be  of 
very  great  use,  but  it  is.'satisfactory  to  have  the  vexed  ques- 
tion of  the  identity  of  the  celebrated  "  Ma/oka  *'  lately  living 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  Dresden,  a^d  long  supposed  to 
be  a  gorilla,  finally  set  at  rest,  as  is  done  by  von  BiscbofTs 
article  on  its  anatomy,  which  follows  that  of  Dr.  Meyer* 
A  memoir  on  the  Hexactinellid  Sponges  collected  by  Dr. 
Meyer  in  the  Philippine  Seas,  in  the  preparation  of  which 
Herr  W.  Mardiall  has  given  his  assistance,  concludes 
this  interesting  volume,  of  which  we  may  say  that  it  adds 
materially  to  the  status  of  the  Dresden  Museum,  and  to 
the  scientific  fame  of  its  energetic  director. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  of  inions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of^  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communtcatioms. 

The  Editor  urgently  reauests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  /acts,] 

The  Radiometer  and  ita  Lessons 

I  AM  obliged  to  ask  you  to  allow  me  to  add  a  few  words,  by 
way  of  further  explanation,  to  my  letter  priated  in  Nature, 
vol.  xvli.  p.  80. 

In  trying  to  estimate  the  effect  of  the  communication  of  heat 
between  a  solid  body  and  contiguous  gas,  I  have  assumed  that 
certain  simplifying  suppositions  may  be  legitimately  made,  for 
the  most  pait  identical  with  what  are  very  commonly  adopted  in 
discussing  the  pressure  exerted  by  a  gas  on  a  solid  in  contact 
with  it.  That  is  to  say»  I  have  assumed,  first,  that  we  may 
resolve  the  velocities  of  the  molecules  of  gas  into  three  rectangu- 
lar components,  one  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  solid 
and  the  other  two  parallel  to  it ;  second,  that  we  may  conceive 
of  the  whole  number  of  molecules  as  divided  into  three  equal 
parts,  one-third  moving  in  the  direction  of  each  of  the  resolved 
components  of  the  velocity  respectively ;  third,  that  the  mutual 
pressure  between  the  solid  and  the  gas,  and  any  communication 
of  heat  from  one  to  the  other,  may,  for  the  purpose  in 
hand,  be  attributed  to  direct  impacts  of  molecules  against 
the  solid  surface;  fourth,  that  all  the  molecules  endowed 
with  a  velocity  perpendicular  to  the  solid  surface,  and  con- 
tained within  a  layer  adjacent  to  this  surface  of  a  thickness 
not  greater  than  the  mean  length  of  path,  will  strike  the  surface, 
while  none  of  those  which  are  outside  Uiis  layer  will  evei  reach 
it ;  fifth,  that  the  particles  which  have  struck  the  solid  surface 
will  return  from  it  with  an  average  velocity  corresponding  to  the 
temperature  of  the  surface,  and  will  retain  this  velocity  until 
they  arrive  at  the  farther  side  of  the  layer  before*mentioned.  It 
was  on  the  supposition  that  these  are  legitimate  assumptions  that 


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I  ipoke  of  heat  passing  across  a  stratum  of  gas  from  one  solid 
surface  to  another  "  as  though  there  were,  in  contact  with  each 
solid  surface,  a  layer  of  gas  whose  temperatore  is  throoehout  the 
same  as  [it  woidd  perhaps  have  been  been  better  to  naTe  said 
«  determined  by  "]  that  of  the  contiguous  solid." 

I  am  fully  aware  of  the  ease  with  which  one  mar  be  led  into 
serious  mistakes  by  trusting  too  implicity  to  sudi  simplifying 
assumptions,  and  also  that  some  of  the  particular  suppositions 
made  abore  would  be  inadmissible  in  a  discussion  of  the  general 

}>roblem  of  the  conduction  of  heat  in  gases  ;  but  I  do  not  see  any 
isllacy  in  employing  them  for  the  special  purpose  which  I  had  in 
▼iew  in  my  last  letter,  namely,  to  show  why  I  think  that  the  flow 
of  heat  across  a  thin  stratum  of  gas  must  be  facilitated  by  dimi* 
nishing  the  pressure  of  the  gas.  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  argu- 
ment that  "  if  there  were  a  layer  of  uniform  temperature,  no  heat 
would  be  transmitted,"  does  not  appear  to  me  to  be  applicable 
to  the  case  in  question.  It  seems  conceivable,  as  an  extreme 
case,  that,  in  a  very  thin  layer  of  gas,  between  parallel  solid 
surfaces  maintained  at  diflerent  temperatures,  the  molecular 
movements  might  take  place  exclusively  in  the  direction  of  the 
perpendicular  to  the  bounding  surfaces.  In  such  a  case  the 
particles  would  move  from  side  to  side  of  the  layer  of  gas  with  a 
uniform  velocity,  though  the  velocity  one  way  would  be  greater 
than  the  velocity  the  other  way,  and  heat  would  be  transmitted 
across  a  layer  of  gas  having  the  same  temperature  throughout. 
Such  a  condition,  whether  practically  realisable  or  not,  would, 
if  I  understand  him  aright,  be  the  limiting  case  In  one  direction 
of  what  Mr.  Stoney  has  called  for  shortness  a  ''Crookes*s 
layer  : "  the  limiting  case  in  the  other  direction  bemg  the  ordi* 
nary  condition  of  a  gas,  where  the  average  velodty  of  the 
molecules  is  independent  of  direction.  I  venture  to  think  that, 
in  pointing  out  the  results  which  must  follow  from  the  existence 
of  a  predominating  direction  of  molecular  motion,  Mr.  Stoney 
has  made  a  very  important  contribution  to  the  kinetic  theory 
of  gases ;  and  I  do  not  see  that  his  con(.lusions  are  in  any  way 
invalidated  by  its  being  shown  that  they  are  not  in  harmony 
with  '*  ti)e  generally-acceped  laws  of  |;ases,'*  inasmuch  as  these 
hws  are  deduced  from  suppositions  which  expressly  exclude  the 
conditions  he  has  investigated.  G.  Carky  Foster 

December  17 


Allow  me  to  say  a  few  words  on  what  I  believe  to  be  the 
correct  theory  of  the  radiometer,  lliis  theory  was  given  to  me 
by  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  during  spring  of  1875,  and  I  have 
found  it  capable  of  explaining  every  experiment  on  the  subject 
with  which  I  am  acquainted. 

The  conservation  of  momentum  is  one  of  the  laws  of  nature 
which  even  molecules  do  not  break,  and  that  law  puts  some 
restraints  on  the  wonderful  things  which  the  shocks  of  molecules 
can  accomplish.  Imagine  a  vessel  full  of  gas  at  a  certain  tem- 
perature. The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  gas  and  that  of  the  vessel 
are  supposed  to  be  at  relative  rest  Suppose  now  that  I  increase 
the  velocity  of  a  certain  number  of  molecules  in  a  given  direction, 
the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  gas  will  move  relatively  to  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  vessel,  and  no  number  of  encounters  between 
the  molecules  can  alter  that  motion  until  the  momentum  has 
been  taken  up  by  the  vessel  If  in  any  gas  we  have  a  passage  of 
heat  in  a  certain  direction,  we  shall  have  a  propagation  of 
momentum  owine  to  the  fact  that  the  molecules  move  more 
quickly  in  one  direction  than  in  the  opposite  one,  and  no 
number  of  encounters  can  alter  that  propagation.  Where  the 
momentum  enters  the  gas  and  where  it  loives  it  we  observe 
certain  forces.  This  is  Prof.  Reynolds's  theory  of  the  radiometer. 
It  has  been  objected  that  an  increased  pressure  on  the  cool  side 
of  the  vanes  of  a  radiometer  will  counterbalance  the  force  acting 
on  the  blackened  sides,  when  the  dimensions  of  the  vessel  are 
large  compared  with  the  mean  path  of  a  molecule,  but  I  do  not 
think  that  such  is  the  case.  The  following  special  case  may 
make  this  point  a  little  clearer.  If  the  forces  on  the  vanes  are 
coimterbalanced,  the  forces  on  the  vessel  must  be  counter- 
balanced as  weU.  In  the  case  of  an  ordinaiy  radiometer  the 
forces  reduce  to  a  couple,  and  I  do  not  see  how  any  crowding  of 
molecules  in  one  part  of  the  vessel  more  than  in  another  can 
produce  a  couple  on  the  vesseL  The  whole  problem  is  one  of 
conduction  of  heat  All  the  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Crookes 
on  cups,  inclined  vanes,  &c,  admit  of  the  same  easy  explanation 
as  the  fact  that  when  a  long  and  a  short  vrire  are  connected  with 
the  poles  of  a  t>attery,  the  current  in  the  shorter  wire  will  be  the 
strongest.     In  a  radiometer  with  inclined  vanev,  for  instance,  the 


temperature  is  the  same  on  both  sides,  but  the  gradient  of  tem- 
perature is  much  larger  on  one  side,  and  hence  more  heat  will 
escape  on  that  side.  The  dimensions  of  the  vessel  also  have  to 
be  taken  into  accotmt  in  the  same  wav  as  the  length  of  a  wire 
has  to  be  taken  into  account  when  the  strength  of  an  electric 
current  flowing  through  it  has  to  be  calculated.  It  is  difficult  to 
say  exactly  what  takes  place  within  very  soiall  distances  from 
the  hot  snrfaoe,  but  it  seems  clear  that  any  phenomenon,  such  as 
Prof.  Carey  Foster  supposes  to  exist,  most  affect  the  passage  of 
heat  in  the  same  way  as  the  force  on  the  vanes.  As  the  careful 
researches  of  Messrs.  Ktmdt  and  Warburg  have  shown  that 
under  great  exbau»tion  the  conduction  of  heat  decreases  and 
does  not  increase,  I  do  not  see  how  an  increase  in  the  force  can 
take  place. 

The  scientific  world  will  judge  how  far  Prof.  Stoney  has  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing*any  new  laws  on  the  conduction  of  heat 
through  gases.  In  justice,  however,  to  Messrs.  Provostaye  and 
Dessains,  whose  experiments  he  calls  to  his  aid,  I  wish  to  point 
out  that  their  numerous  experiments,  with  two  exceptions,  are  in 
entire  accordance  with  existing  theories.  At  the  time  these  experi- 
ments were  made,  no  distinction  was  drawn  between  convection 
and  true  conduction.  In  order  to  deduce,  therefore,  the  loss  of 
heat  due  to  true  conduction.  Prof.  Stoney  is  obliged  to  subtract 
the  effect  due  to  convection  currents.  He  draws,  therefore,  a 
curve  representing  the  loss  of  heat  due  to  this  cause.  All  his 
conclusions  must  stand  or  fall  with  this  curve,  and  I  am  afraid 
they  must  fall. 

After  Professors  Clausius  and  Maxwell  had  deduced  theoreti- 
cally the  coefficient  of  conductivity  for  ga^s,  a  series  of  cele- 
brated experiments  were  made  by  Stefan,  by  Narr,  by  Plank,  by 
Winkelmann,  and  last,  but  not  least,  by  Kundt  and  Warburg. 
The  influence  of  convection  currents  has  been  fully  discussedjm 
these  papers  and  eliminated,  and  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by 
all  these  experimenters  are  fully  in  accordance  with  each  other  and 
with  theory.  It  appears,  as  was  expected,  that  when  the  efiiects 
of  convection  currents  are  eliminated,  the  coefficient  of  conduc- 
tivity is  independent  of  pressure  until  the  dimensions  of  the 
vessel  are  comparable  with  the  mean  free  path  of  a  molecule, 
and  that  then  the  conductivity  rapidly  diminishes.  It  also 
appears  that  at  the  pressures  at  which  Messrs.  Provostaye  and 
Dessains  found  that  the  loss  of  heat  was  independent  of  pressure, 
convection  currents  most  have  ceased  to  be  appreciable,  and 
therefore  the  great  mass  of  their  experiments  is  fully  in  agreement 
with  later  researches. 

The  onl^  exception  is  found  in  the  case  of  carbonic  acid  and 
nitrous  oxide.  These  abnormal  results  were  not  confirmed  by 
Messrs.  Kundt  and  Warburg  in  the  case  of  carbonic  acid,  the 
only  one  of  the  two  gases  which  they  examined.  Whoever  reads 
their  account  of  the  difficulty  they  had  in  exduding  the  last 
traces  of  moisture,  and  considers  the  increased  conductivity  which 
such  an  admixture  would!  produce  as  the  pressure  diminishes, 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  explaining  the  anoinaly.  At  any  rate  I 
do  not  think  Profl  Stoney  will  be  inclined  to  base  important 
conclusions  on  unconfirmed  experiments  on  two  gases  in  which 
we  should  expect  the  effect,  owing  to  their  density,  to  be  parti- 
cularly small.  The  discovery  of  Master  Gerald  Stoney,  who 
found  that  a  red  hot  wire  was  cooled  when  a  tin  can  containing 
water  was  brought  sufficiently  close  might,  I  think,  have  been 
foretold  by  the  recognised  theory.  Prof  Stoney,  no  doubt,  will 
find  on  reading  over  the  literature  on  the  subject,  that  what  he 
calls  penetration  of  heat,  has  hitherto  been  known  under  the 
name  of  conduction  of  heat,  that  it  takes  place  at  all  pressures, 
and  begins  to  disappear  at  the  exact  point  at  which  he  makes  it 
appear. 

The  timely  calculation  of  Mr.  S.  T.  Preston  in  the  August 
number  of  the  Phil,  Mag,^  shows  that  any  theory  of  the  radio- 
meter which  makes  the  action  depend  on  the  comparatively  large 
ratio  of  the  mean  firee  path  to  the  dimensions  of  tne  vessel,  must 
necessarily  be  wrong.  Arthur  Schustsr 


The    Proposed  j  Channel    Islands'  Zoological  Station, 
Aquariom,  and  Pisciculttiral  Institute 

I  AM  very  anxious  that  this  project  x  should  succeed,  mainly 
because  of  the  facilities  it  wul  afford  to  inland  aquaria,  in 
procuring  living  animals  cheaper,  better,  more  variedly,  and 
more  systematiodly,  than  at  present  This,  I  t)elievf,  will  form 
the  most  profitable  part  of  the  undertaking. 

s  Referred  to  in  Nature,  vol.  xrii.  \,  xm» 


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{Dec.  20,  1877 


I  hope,  alio,  it  ma?  saooecd  as  a  sort  o£  livingr  iBiifettm«  with* 
oat  any  of  the  kind  of  attractions  whidi  are  not  biological  ones, 
and  which,  indeed,  are  not  scientific  in  any  sense,  as  common 
and  ribald  music,  theatricals,  acrobatic  and  jugglery  performances, 
and  so  forth.  Only,  no  aqnariom  has  ever  permanently  thriven 
without  tiiese  things. 

I  greatly  doubt  whether  anyone  yet  possesses  the  requisite 
knomedge  to  be  able  to  rear  any  marine  crustacean  from  the  egg 
state  to  an  adult  condition,  and  to  feed  it  in  captivity  in  such 
manner  as  to  be  able  to  sell  it  in  the  open  market  at  rates  below 
those  sold  under  present  circumstances.  Yet  this  is  put  forward, 
conspicuously,  as  one  of  the  ftims  of  the  scheme.  In  Britain  are 
eaten  as  huooan  food  about  a  dozen  species  of  crabs,  lobsters, 
prawns,  and  shrimps,  and  most  of  these  have  been  occasionally 
bred  in  aquaria  'as  far  as  the  Zoea  state,  when  they  ate  free 
swimmers,  and  they  then  generally  die.  Rarely,  some  few  have 
been  brought  up  to  a  higher  stage,  but  I  know  of  no  instance, 
during  twenty*five  years  of  experience,  where  any  marine  crus- 
tacean of  any  kind  has  been  reared  to  an  adult  condition  in  an 
aquarium.  And  if  such  a  thing  could  be  done,  I  believe  that  to 
feed  them  in  any  state  of  captivity,  vrith  animal  food,  which  they 
require  in  great  abundance  and  variety,  and  which  must  be 
purchased,  would  be  very  expensive,  indeed,  far  too  costly  I 
think,  to  be  practically  and  commercially  remunerative. 

I  am  glad  to  see  that  in  last  week's  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  133, 
it  is  stated  that  that  excellently-tasted  little  fre«h.vwiter  lobster, 
Astacusy  has  been  bred  artificially  by  a  Piscicultural  Institution 
at  Schwerin.  If  so,  why  should  it  not  be  similariy  bred  in 
Britain,  where  it  is  much  seldomer  eaten  than  in  France  and 
Germany.  In  Berlin,  Hamburg,  and  Dresden,  I  have  often 
purchased  it  at  sixpence  a  dozen,  while  in  Paris  I  have  given  as 
much  as  sixpence  each  for  it  It  is  a  pity,  however,  that  the 
Schwerin  account  is  not  more  full  and  explicit  It  is  stated  that 
in  the  spring  of  1876,  700  Astacus  in  egg,  veere  placed  in  two 
round  'ponds,  each  of  six  feet  diameter.  Holes  were  made  in 
these,  and  recently,  on  draining  the  ponds,  only  three  or  four 
adult  crayfish  were  found  straytog  about  the  ponds,  the  rest  each 
being  in  a  separate  hole,  and  a  lati^e  number  of  young  ones  were 
found,  as  big  as  bees,  and  very  lively.  What  size  were  the 
crayfish  at  birth,  and  if  very  small,  and  swimming,  how  were 
they  prevented  from  escaping  from  the  ponds  ?  Information  is 
wanted  as  to  die  shape,  length,  breadth,  direction'as  to  angle, 
and  distance  apart  of  these  holes,  and  their  position  in  the 
I  onds,  whether  in  the  sides  or  ba^e,  or  both.  If  neariy  700 
animals  occupied  as  many  holes,  where  were  the  young  ones? 
How  many  young  were  there?  If  each  female  had  only  as  few 
as  100  ei?gs  hatched  out,  then  70,700  nmst  have  been  the  popu- 
lation of  these  two  little  pooK  When,  and  in  what  ipanner, 
were  the  males  introduced  ?  We  require  also  to  be  told  of  the 
materia]  of  which  the  ponds  were  constructed,  and  if  the  sides 
were  upright,  and  the  bottoms  flat,  or  if  rounded  or  basin-shaped. 
If  water  ran  in  and  out,  how  much  in  a  named  time,  of  what 
quality,  as  to  foreign  substances  it  contained  in  solution  and 
suspension,  and  what  was  its  temperature  at  various  periods  of 
the  ^ear?  In  what  direction  and  in  what  amount  was  light 
admitted  ?  How  much  vegetation,  and  of  what  kinds,  grew  in 
the  ponds  ?  What  kinds  of  animal  food  was  given  them,  and 
how  much  and  often,  and  was  it  cooked  or  raw  ?  Carrots  appear 
an  odd  food  for  crayfish.  Let  all  these  things  and  mor^  be 
carefully  ascertained,  to  see  if  they  can  be  applied  to  the  culture 
of  Homarusy  the  near  marine  relative  of  Astacus^  before  much 
money  is  spent 

It  would  be  an  ezcdknt  ^ing  for  students  to  have  a  place  to 
study  at,  such  as  is  proposed  to  be  provided  for  them  at  Jersey, 
and  simflar  to  the  zoological  station  and  aquarium  at  Naples,  in  the 
arrangement  of  which  I  had  much  to  do.  But  would  students  be 
content  to  go  only  so  far  as  Jersey  ?  Is  not  the  access  too  easy, 
and  too  cheap,  as  it  is  not  easy  or  cheap  to  go  so  ^  as  Naples, 
and  to  have  the  name  of  so  going  ?  I  have  often  thought  it  odd, 
and  evincing  not  at  all  a  reaUy  zealous  spirit  in  mv  own  direction 
on  the  part  of  my  fellow-natturalists,  that  such  a  thing  should  be, 
that  though  the  Crystal  Palace  Aqtiarium  has  existed  for  seven 
years  within  less  than  one  hour's  railway  ride  from  London,  and 
though  it  contains  a  constantly  advertised  collection  of  living 
marine  animals  exceeded  in  variety  and  interest  by  none  in 
Britain,  or  even  Europe,  yet  no  scientific  man,  except  the 
late  Edward  Newman,  has  ever  applied  for  permission  to 
carry  on  any  course  of  inouiry  here  on  any  subject,  continuously 
or  occasionally,  connected  vrith  the  habits  of  living  creatures, 
in  the  spirit  of  say,  Gilbert  White  of  Selbome.     Yet  we  offer 


«U  sudi  advantages  as  table-space,  good  light,  and  the  use 
of  any  animals  in.  our  tanks  not  having  a  considerate  money 
value — ^lest  injury  be  done  to  such  spedmens^absolutely  fme  of 
all  charges.  At  this  moment  we  possess  many  Italian  animals 
in  our  collection,  as  fishes,  crustaceans,  moUufks,  zoophytes,  &c, 
which  can  be'seen  alive  nowhere  else,  save  on  tiie  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  yet  no  professed  zoologist  known  to  me  ever 
comes  to  see  them,  or  takes  the  smallest  interest  in  them.  They 
are  therefore  bdield  only  by  the  general  public,  who  only  look  at 
them  for  their  mere  prettiness,  or  for  what  untrained  observers  are 
complacently  pleased  to  teem  ''  ugliness."  No  student  ever  asks 
us  for  xxixxt  than  any  dead  animals  we  may  chance  to  have,  and 
which  we  give  away  gratis,  and  these  apparently  afford  far  more 
pleasure  than  the  sight  of  living  specimens.  It  is  not  at  all 
uncommon  to  meet  with  biologists  who  openly  and  avowedly 
proclaim  their  contempt  for  collections  of  living  animals  in  aquaria, 
which  they  regard  as  being  "  well  enough  for  women  and  children,"  ^ 
but  for  inen  they  say  there  is  nothing  like  seeing  such  animals  in 
rows  of  glass  jars  of  alcohol  on  the  shelves  of  a  museum.  My 
last  contribution  of  any  length  to  Natu&s  was  made  so  long 
ago  as  October  12,  187 1,  when  I  gave  a  description  of  the  Crvstid 
Palace  Aquarium,  then  only  just  opened.  Since  then  we  have 
had  no  cause  to  complain  of  the  appreciation  of  the  world  of 
sightseers.  But  as  refiards  the  indifference  of  the  scientific 
world,  that  has  been  and  is  so  great  that  the  place  might  never 
have  existed.  William  Yarrell,  the  British  ichthyologbt  of  the 
generation  just  passed  away,  used  to  tell  me  how  glad  he  i«x>uld 
be  to  see  a  live  John  Dory  {Zeus  faber)^  and  how  much  he  would 
give  to  behold  one  swimming.  But  here,  at  Sydenham,  this  fish 
can  be  seen  alive  and  in  p^eqt  health  for  months  together,  in 
crystalline  sea-water.  Yet  no  Yarrell  ever  comes  to  see  them. 
Are  there  no  Yarrells,  and  Whites,  and  Watertons,  and  Newmans 
now  ?  or  has  their  very  spirit  passed  away  into  the  region  of 
apathy  where  the  affectation  of  caring  for  nothing,  and  of  being 
never  moved  to  zeal  in  anything,  in  this  observation  of  live 
animals,  seems  to  be  regarded  as  a  very  high  accompli^ment  ? 

W.  A.  Lloyd 
Crystal  Palaos  Aquarium,  December  15 


The  "Challenger"  E9timate8  of  the  Volume  of  the  Qulf 
Stream 

In  the  interesting  <<  Voyage  of  the  Oi«/^#r,"  just  published. 
Sir  Wyville  Thomson  states  (vol.  L  p.  371)  '*  that  the  Gulf  Stream 
in  its  restricted  sense  was,  early  in  May,  1873,  at  the  point  where 
we  crossed  it  smd  made  our  observations,  alxmt sixty  nriles  in  width, 
100  fathoms  deep,  and  its  rate  three  knots  an  hour."  I  was 
much  surprised  at  reading  this,  as  the  Admiralty  Report  on 
Ocean  Soundings,  No.  7,  p.  12,  estimates  it  at  the  same  point 
as  "  100  fathoms  deep,  and  running  at  the  rate  of  three  miles  an 
howcfor  a  width  ef  fifteen  mUes,  discharging  four  and  a  half  cubic 
miles  of  heated  water  per  hour." 

As  no  reference  is  made  by  Sir  Wyrille  Thomson  to  the  extra- 
ordinary discrepancy  in  these  two  estimates  of  the  same  Uiing  at 
the  same  tiine--one  being  four  times  t!ie  volume  of  the  other— 
and  as  he  says  he  makes  the  statement  "thus  guardedly"  I 
think,  in  the  interest  of  scientific  accuracy,  an  explanation  is 
required.  T.  MXLLAUD  Rkadb 

Liverpool,  December  8 


The  Fossil  Peronospofa  as  a  Primordial  Plant 

The  concluding  sentence  of  your  notice  (voL  xviL  p.  128)  of 
my  observations  on  a  fossil  fungus  is  so  important,  that  I  shall 
be  glad  of  a  word  of  reply.  You  say,  "  But  shoukl  not  this 
primordial  plant  have  led  a  non-parasitic  life  ?  for  if  parasitical* 
then  this  fact  points  to  some  pre-existing  plant." 

Althoyigh  the  specimen  I  have  figured  is  shown  as  growing 
within  the  decayed  tissues  of  a  Lepidodendron,  yet  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  same  fungus  could  not  perfect  itself  on  humus 
alone.  Recent  Species  ot  Peronospora  show  a  tendency  to  grow 
upon  the  ground,  as  several  vgtidt%y  including  the  fungus  of  the 
potato  disease,  will  grow  and  produce  fruit  on  the  naked  earth. 
A  truly  terrestrial  species  is  found  in  the  allied  Botrytis  terrestris^ 
Persoon,  and  many  of  the  Muoedines  grow  freely  in  cellars,  on 
damp  walls,  or  in  any  moist  place.  * 

WORTHINCTON  G.  SMITH 

15,  Mildmay  Grove,  N. 


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THE  "^ CHALLENGER"*  IN  THE  ATLANTIC' 

THE  Challenger  left  Portsmouth  on  December  21, 
1872,  and  on  the  evening  of  May  24,  1876,  she 
dropped  her  anchor  at  Spithcad  after  an  eventful  voya^, 
which  lasted  three  and  a  half  years.  Shortly  after 
her  arrival  we  gave  a  sketch  of  her  cruise  over  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  The  two  volumes  just 
pubUshed  consist  chiefly  of  an  abstract  of  the  less 
technical  portions  of  the  journal  kept  by  Sir  Wyville 
Thomson  during  the  first  year  of  the  Challengers 
voyage,  and  during  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  yeat's 
voyage,  when  she  was  on  her  way  home.  During  both 
these  periods  the  Challenger  was  in  the  Atlantic,  so  that 
we  now  obtain  the  record  of  her  survey  of  this  great 
ocean  in  a  very  complete  form,  and  are  led  to  look  forward 
to  several  additional  volumes,  in  which  the  account  of  her 
cruise  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  amongst  its  fair  islands 
will  appear.  A  great  deal  of  credit  must  be  given  to  the 
author  of  these  two  splendidly  illustrated  volumes  for  his 
so  speedily  publishing  them.  A  large  portion  of  one  of 
them  was  actually  passed  through  the  press  while  the 
Challenger  was  at  sea,  and  the  preparation  of  the  second 
volume  had  to  be  carried  on  amid  the  cares  not  only  of 
professional  duties,  but  also  of  getting  the  immense  col- 
lections made  into  order,  and  of  making  arrangements 
for  the  thorough  working  out  of  the  scientific  results  of 
the  voyage.  May  we  express  the  hope  that  his  energy 
will  enable  him  speedily  to  complete  the  popular  narrative 
of  this  cruise  thus  so  auspiciously  begun.  The  strictly 
scientific  records  of  the  Challenger  voyage  cannot 
be  pubhshed  for  some  time ;  the  working  out  of  old 
forms,  the  describing  and  illustrating  of  new  ones,  takes 
time ;  such  work,  to  be  done  well,  must  necessarily  be 
done  slowly,  and  hence  we  all  the  more  urge  on  Sir 
Wyville  Thomson  to  let  us  have,  as  soon  as  can  be,  the 
completion  of  the  popular  narrative  of  the  general  results 
of  his  four  years'  work.  This  preliminary  account  is 
indeed  not  solely  a  popular  one,  for  we  find  in  these  two 
volumes  a  mass  of  exact  scientific  details  that  will  make 
them  always  works  of  reference  to  the  scientific  student ; 
and  while  some  few  of  the  wondrous  new  species  of 
animals  and  planU  are  but  incidentally  introduced  to  us, 
their  descriptions  are  often  so  well  written,  and  their 
forms  are  so  exquisitely  portrayed,  as  to  leave  us  for  the 
time  somewhat  independent  of  their  more  exact  scientific 
diagnosis. 

In  our  previous  sketch  of  the  voyage  of  the  Challenger 
we  dwelt  somewhat  in  detail  on  th^  work  accomplished 
by  her  during  the  first  six  months  of  1873.  About  the 
middle  of  June  in  that  year  she  left  the  Bermudas  for  the 
Azores  and  Madeira,  establishing  twenty-five  sUtions  on 
her  way,  some  of  these  showing  ocean  depths  of  2,800 
fathoms.  A  few  pleasant  days  were  spent  (July  1873) 
at  Ponta  Delgada,  the  capital  of  San  Miguel  and  the 
chief  town  of  the  Azores.  On  acccount  of  the  presence 
of  an  epidemic  of  small-pox  no  delay  was  made  at 
Madeira,  but  the  vessel's  course  was  struck  for  the 
Canaries  and  Cape  de  Verde  Islands,  keeping  somewhat 

?arallel  to  the  Coast  of  Africa  until  nearly  opposite  Cape 
almas,  when  they  turned  westward  and  shaped  their 
course  to  Saint  Paul's  Rocks.  These  solitary  rocks  are 
nearly  under  the  equator,  midway  between  the  coasts  of 
Africa  and  of  South  America.  They  were  visited  in  1832 
by  the  Bea^le^  and  are  noticed  in  Darwin's  charming 
"  Voyage  of  a  Naturalist."  Merchant- vessels  usually 
give  them  a  wide  berth.  They  seem  to  have  struck  the 
travellers  by  thtir  small  dimensions ;  it  being  rather  under 

>  "  The  Voyage  of  the  CkalUnger.  The  Atlantic :  a  Preliaiioary  Account 
of  the  Gcreral  Kcsults  of  the  fcxploring  Voyage  of  H  M.S.  thaUrHger 
d.ring  the  Year  1871  and  the  Early  Part  of  the  Year  1876.  By  bir  C. 
Wyvi.le  Ihomsoj,  Ki.t  ,  LL.D..  F.R.SS.  L  and  E.,  Ac,  Regms  Professor 
of  Natural  History  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  Director  of  the 
Civilian  Scien  ific  Staff  of  ihe  ChnlUngrr  Kxplonng  Expedition.  I'wo 
volum  s.  Puhli-hed  by  /Authority  of  the  Lords  Coinmi-8»oners  of  the 
Admiralty.    (London :  MacmiUan  and  Co.,  X877.) 


a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  one  end  of  the  group  to  the 
other,  they  form  quite  little  specks  of  rocks  out  in  mid- 
ocean.  Landing  on  these  rocks  was  no  easy  matter.  A 
loop  of  eight  or  ten  ply  of  whale-line  was  passed  round  one 
of  the  rocks  ;  to  this  a  hawser  was  run  from  the  ship  lying 
about  seventy  yards  out,  with  her  bows  in  104  fathom 
water ;  the  hawser  was  made  fast  to  the  whale-line,  and 
the  ship  thus  moored  to  the  rocks.  Having  landed  on  the 
rocks  a  line  was  laid  across  the  mouth  of  the  cove,  which 
made  the  landing  easier  for  the  next  parties. 

Only  two  species  of  birds  were  found  on  the  rocks,  the 
"  booby"  {Sula  fusca)  and  the  "  noddy  "  {Sterna  stolida\ 
both  being  widely  distributed  birds  on  tropical  islands 
and  shores.  They  were  here  in  enormous  numbers,  were 
quite  tame,  even  allowing  themselves  to  be  taken  up  with 
the  hand.  The  bleeding  season  was  over.  No  land 
plants  were  found,  not  even  a  lichen.  The  terns  used  a 
green  alga  to  line  their  nests ;  all  the  crannies  of  the 
rock  were  crowded  with  an  amphibious  crab  (Grapsus 
strigosus\  which  was  much  more  wary  than  the  birds, 
though  '*  wherever  a  morsel  of  food  came  withm  their 
reach  there  was  instantly  a  struggle  for  it  among  the 
foremost  of  them,  and  they  ambled  away  with  their  prize 
wonderfully  quickly :  their  singular  sidelong  gait  and 
a  look  of  human  smartness  about  them  had  a  kind 
of  weirdness  from  its  being  exhibited  through  a  set  of 
organs  totally  different  in  aspect  from  those  to  which  one 
usually  looks  for  manifestations  of  intelligence." 

Leaving  these  desolate  rocks  on  August  29,  the  island 
of  Fernando  Noronha  was  in  sight  on  September  i,  rising 
like  most  of  the  ocean  islands,  abruptly  from  deep  water, 
the  depth  of  the  ocean  within  six  miles  of  the  island  being 
more  than  1,000  fathoms.  This  island  presents  a  most 
remarkable  appearance  ;  the  land  is  generally  not  very 
high,  but  there  is  an  irregular  cliff  which  rises  to  a 
height  of  about  100  feet  from  the  sea,  succeeded  by  undu- 
lating land  and  conical  hills,  usually  covered  with 
luxuriant  vegetation.  The  Peak  is  an  extraordinary- 
looking  mountain,  formed  of  a  column  of  rock  which  starts 
up  to  a  height  of  600  feet  from  a  more  or  less  level  plateau 
of  rock,  itself  some  400  feet  above  the  sea.  There  is  a 
village  and  a  citadel,  the  place  being  a  penal  setUement 
belonging  to  Brazil,  There  were  at  the  time  on  the 
island  nearly  1,400  convicts  and  a  garrison  of  200  soldiers. 
The  convicts  enjoyed  a  considerable  amount  of  liberty, 
each  of  them  occupying  a  hut,  and  being  aUowed  to 
cultivate  a  little  piece  6f  garden  ground,  though  their 
lime  and  labour  from  six  in  the  morning  until  four  m 
the  evening  belonged  to  the  Government.  Sur  Wyville 
Thomson  and  his  assistants  were  extremely  anxious  to 
investigate  thoroughly  the  flora  and  fauna  of  this  island, 
but  unfortunately  the  military  commandant  set  his  face 
against  this,  and  the  land  work  had  to  be  abandoned. 

"  The  coast  scenery  was  here  and  there  very  beautiful, 
little  sandy  bays  with  a  steep  cultivated  slope  above  them, 
or  a  dense  tangle  of  trees  absolutely  imbedded  m  one 
sheet  of  matted  dimbers,  separated  by  bold  headlands  of 
basalt  or  trap  stuff.  Besides  the  tropic  burds,  there  were 
to  be  seen  beautiful  little  terns,  snowy  white,  which 
usually  flew  in  pairs  a  foot  or  two  apart,  one  following  all 
the  motions  of  the  other,  like  a  pair  of  paper  butterflies 
obedient  to  the  fan  of  a  Japanese  juggler.  They  could  be 
seen  flying  over  the  land,  and  often  alighting  upon  the 
trees.  The  noddy  was  very  common,  and  the  t)ooby  was 
in  considerable  numbers.  High  upon  the  chffs  the 
nests  of  the  frigate  bird  {Tachy petes  aquila)  could  be 
seen,  and  from  time  to  time  thtse  splendid  birds  moved 
in  slow  and  graceful  circles  overhead."  No  wonder  that 
the  author  adds,  "  We  lay  for  some  time  below  the  cliffs 
admiring  the  wonderful  wealth  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life  ere  we  returned  slo«vly  to  the  ship." 

On  September  14,  as  they  neared  the  coast  of  Brazil, 
a  shower  of  butteiflies  ftll  on  the  ship,  fluttering  in 
multitudes  over  it  5  and  over  the  sea  as  far  as  the  eye 

I  2 


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could  reach  they  quivered  in  the  air.  Looking  up  into 
the  sky  where  they  were  thickest,  they  were  seen  to  be 
close  together  and  had  much  the  appearance  and  peculiar 
motion  of  large  flakes  of  snow.  Amidst  such  a  down- 
pour the  entrance  to  Bahia  was  seen.  It  is  very  beautiful ; 
the  coast  is  not  elevated  ;  it  is  neither  mountainous  nor 
hilly,  but  rises  from  the  sea-shore  in  even  terraces, 
broken  here  and  there  by  ravines  and  wooden  knolls, 
every  space  gloriously  clothed  with  vegetation,  and  the 
sky-line  broken  by  long  lines  of  palm  trees — from  the 
sea  it  reminded  one  of  Lisbon,  but  its  splendid  luxuriance 
of  vegetation  gives  it  a  character  of  its  own. 

The  scientific  work  of  the  Challenger  was  to  be  on  the 
ocean,  and  Sir  W.  Thomson  properly  discouraged  his 
staff  from  expending  too  much  of  their  time  or  energies 
on  investigating  the  natural  history  of  the  few  spots  of 
North  or  South  America  that  they  from  time  to  time 


landed  on.  We  therefore  in  these  volumes  meet  with 
very  few  references  to  the  glimpses  that  they  got  of  this 
continent,  but  some  time  had  to  be  spent  at  Bahia,  and 
we  cannot  avoid  giving  the  following  interesting  extract 
which  describes  a  visit  made  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  to 
Santo  Amaro. 

"  Mr.  Wilson  was  obliged  to  be  next  day  at  Sto.  Amaro, 
a  little  town  about  thirty  miles  distant,  across  one  of  the 
ridges  on  another  river  where  he  had  a  line  of  steamers 
plying,  and  he  asked  us  to  ride  there  with  him  ;  so  we  went 
back  to  his  house  and  dined,  and  spent  the  evening  at  his 
window  inhaling  the  soft  flower-perfumed  air  and  gazing 
at  the  stars  twinkling  in  their  crystal  dome  of  the  deepest 
blue,  and  their  travesties  in  a  galaxy  of  fire-flies  glittering 
and  dancing  over  the  powers  in  the  garden  beneath  us. 
It  was  late  when  we  tossed  ourselves  down  to  take  a  shore 
sleep,  for  two  o'clock  was  the  hour  fixed  to  be  in  the 


Fig.  1  —The  Chaltenger  at  St  Paul's  Rocks. 


saddle  in  the  morning.  We  rode  out  of  the  town  in  the 
starlight,  Mr.  Wilson,  Capt.  Maclear,  and  myself,  with  a 
native  guide  on  a  fast  mule.  We  were  now  obliged  to 
trust  entirely  to  the  instinct  of  our  horses,  for  if  a  path 
were  visible  in  the  daylight  there  was  certainly  none  in 
the  dark,  and  we  scrambled  for  a  couple  of  hours  right  up 
the  side  of  the  ridge.  When  we  reached  the  top  we  came 
out  upon  flat  open  ground  with  a  little  cultivation, 
bounded  in  front  of  us  by  the  dark  line  of  dense  forest.  Tlie 
night  was  almost  absolutely  silent,  only  now  and  then  a 
peculiar  shrill  cry  of  some  night-bird  reached  us  from  the 
woods.  As  we  got  into  the  skirt  of  the  forest  the  morn- 
ing broke,  but  the  riveil  in  a  Brazilian  forest  is  wonder- 
fully different  from  the  slow  creeping  on  of  the  dawn  of  a 
summer  morning  at  home,  to  the  music  of  the  thrushes 
answering  one  another's  full  rich  notes  from  neighbouring 
thorn-trees.    Suddenly  a  yellow  light  spreads  upwards  in 


the  east,  the  stars  quick«y  fade,  and  the  dark  fringes  of 
the  forest  and  the  tall  palms  show  out  black  against  the 
yellow  sky,  and  almost  before  one  has  time  to  observe 
the  change  the  sun  has  risen  straight  and  fierce,  and  the 
whole  landscape  is  bathed  in  the  full  light  of  day.  But 
the  morning  is  for  yet  another  hour  cool  and  fresh,  and  the 
scene  is  indescribably  beautiful.  The  woods,  so  absolutely 
silent  and  still  before,  break  at  once  into  noise  and  move- 
ment Flocks  of  toucans  flutter  and  scream  on  the  tops 
of  the  highest  forest  trees  hopelessly  out  of  shot,  the  ear 
is  pierced  by  the  strange  wild  screeches  of  a  little  band  of 
macaws  which  fly  past  you  like  the  wrapped-up  ghosts  of 
the  birds  on  some  gaudy  old  brocade.  There  is  no 
warbling,  no  song,  only  harsh  noises,  abrupt  calls  which 
those  who  haunt  the  forest  soon  learn  to  translate  by  two 
or  three  familiar  words  in  Portuguese  or  English.  Now 
and  then  a  set  of  cries  more  varied  and  dissonant  than 


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usual  tell  us  that  a  troop  of  monkeys  are  passing  across 
from  tree  to  tree  among  the  higher  branches  ;  and  lower 
sounds  to  which  one*s  attention  is  called  by  the  guide 
indicate  to  his  practised  ear  the  neighbourhood  of  a  sloth, 
or  some  other  of  the  few  mammals  which  inhabit  the 
forests  of  Brazil  And  the  insects  are  now  all  awake, 
and  add  their  various  notes  to  swell  the  general  din.  A 
butterfly  of  the  gorgeous  genus  Motpho  comes  fluttering 
along  the  path  like  a  loosely-folded  sheet  of  intensely  blue 
tinsel,  flashing  brilliant  reflections  in  the  sun  ;  great  dark 
blue  shining  bees  fly  past  with  a  loud  hum  ;  tree-bugs  of 
a  splendid  metallic  lustre,  and  in  the  most  extraordinury 
harlequin  colouring  of  scarlet  and  blue  and  yellow,  cluster 
round  a  branch  so  thickly  as  to  weigh  it  down,  and  make 
their  presence  perceptible  yards  off  by  their  peculiar  and 
sometimes  not  unpleasant  odour  ;  but  how  weak  it  is  to 
say  that  that  exquisitite  little  being,  whirring  and  flut- 


tering in  the  air  over  that  branch  of  Bignonia  bells,  and 
sucking  the  nectar  from  them  with  its  long  curved  bill, 
has  a  head  of  ruby^  and  a  throat  of  emerald,  and  wings  of 
sapphire — as  if  any  triumph  of  the  jeweller's  art  could  ever 
vie  m  brilliancy  with  that  sparkling  epitome  of  life  and 
light 

''  It  was  broad  day  when  we  passed  into  the  dense  forest 
through  which  the  greater  part  of  the  way  now  lay.  The  pat^  *- 
which  had  been  cut  through  the  vegetation  was  just  wide 
enough  for  use  to  ride  in  Indian  file,  and  with  some  care  to 
prevent  our  horses  from  bruising  our  legs  against  the  tree- 
trunks,  and  we  could  not  leave  the  path  for  a  single  foot 
on  either  side,  the  scrub  was  so  thick,  what  with  fsdlen 
tree-trunks,  covered  with  epiphytes  of  all  descriptions, 
and  cycads,  and  arums,  and  great  thorny  spikes  of  Bro- 
fneliUy  and  a  dense  undergrowth,  principally  of  melas- 
tomads,  many  of  them  richly  covered  with  blue  and 


Fig.  t. — Fernando  Koronha. 


purple  floorers.  Above  the  undergrowth  the  tall  forest 
trees  ran  up  straight  and  branchless  for  thirty  or  forty 
feet,  and  when  they  began  to  branch,  a  second  tier  of 
vegetation  spread  over  our  heads,  almost  shutting  out  the 
sky.  Great  climbing  Monsieras  and  other  arals  ;  and 
epiphytic  bromeliads;  and  orchids,  some  of  them  distilling 
from  their  long  trusses  of  lovely  flowers  a  fragrance  which 
was  almost  overpowering ;  and  mazes  of  Tillandsia  hang- 
ing down  like  tangled  hanks  of  grey  twine.  Every  available 
space  between  the  trees  was  occupied  by  lianas  twining 
together  or  running  up  singly,  in  size  varying  from  a 
whipcord  to  a  foot  in  diameter.  These  lianas  were  our 
chief  danger,  for  they  hung  down  in  long  loops  from  the 
trees  and  lay  upon  the  ground,  and  were  apt  to  entangle 
us  and  catch  the  horses'  feet  as  we  rode  on.  As  time 
wore  on  it  got  very  close  and  hot,  an  J  the  forest  relapsed 


into  silence,  most  of  the  creatures  retiring  for  their  noon- 
day siesta.  The  false  roof  of  epiphytes  and  parasites 
kept  off  the  glare  of  the  sun,  and  it  was  only  at  intervals 
that  a  sheaf  of  vertical  beams  struck  through  a  rift  in  the 
green  canopy,  and  afforded  us  a  passing  glimpse  of  the 
tops  of  the  forest  trees,  uniting Jn  a  delicate  open  tracery 
far  above  us. 

"  For  some  hours  our  brave  little  horses  struggled  on, 
sometimes  cantering  a  little  where  the  path  was  pretty 
clear,  and  more  usually  picking  their  way  carefully,  and 
sometimes  with  all  their  care  floundering  into  the  mud- 
holes,  imperfectly  bridged  o/er  with  trunks  of  trees. 

''  As  we  had  made  our  ascent  at  first,  all  this  time  we 
had  been  riding  nearly  on  a  level  on  the  plateau  between 
the  two  river  valleys.  Suddenly  the  wood  opened,  and 
we  rode  up  to  the  edge  of  a  long  irregular  cliff  bounding 


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NATURE 


\Pec.  20.  1877 


the  valley  of  Sto.  Aroaro.  The  path  ran  right  up  to  the 
edge  and  seemed  to  come  to  an  end  but  for  a  kind  of 
irregular  crack  full  of  loose  stones  which  went  zigzagging 
down  to  the  bottom  at  an  angle  of  about  70%  and  we 
could  see  the  path  down  below  winding  away  in  the  dis- 
tance towards  the  main  road  to  Sto.  Amaro.  We  looked 
over  this  cliff  and  told  Mr.  Wilson  firmly  that  we  would 
not  go  down  the  side  of  that  wall  on  horseback.  lie 
laughed,  and  said  that  the  horses  would  take  us  down  well 
enough  and  that  he  had  seen  it  done,  but  that  it  was  per- 
haps a  little  too  much  ;  so  we  all  dismounted,  and  put 
the  horses'  bridles  round  the  backs  of  the  saddles  and  led 
them  to  the  top  of  the  crack  and  whipped  them  up  as 
they  do  performing  horses  in  a  circus.  They  looked  over 
with  a  little  apparent  uneasiness,  but  I  suspect  they  bad 
made  that  precarious  descent  before,  and  they  soon  began 
to  pick  their  way  cautiously  down  one  after  the  other, 
and  in  a  few  minutes  we  saw  them  waiting  for  us  quietly 
at  the  bottom.  We  then  scrambled  down  as  best  we 
might,  and  it  was  not  till  we  had  reached  the  bottom, 
using  freely  all  the  natural  advantages  which  the  Primates 
have  over  the  Solidunguli  under  such  circumstances,  that 
we  fully  appreciated  the  feat  which  our  horses  bad 
performed. 

"  The  next  part  of  the  road  was  a  trial ;  the  horses  were 
often  up  nearly  to  the  girths  in  stiff  clay,  but  we  got 
through  it  somehow,  and  reached  Sto.  Amaro  in  time  to 
catch  the  regular  steamer  to  Bahia.*' 

And  here  is  an  uncommonly  good  anecdote  abont  a 
parrot : — 

"  At  Sto.  Amaro  a  line  of  tramways  had  lately  been 
laid  down  also  under  the  auspices  of  our  enterprising 
fiiend,  and  we  went  down  to  the  steamboat  wharfs  on 
one  of  the  trucks  on  a  kind  of  trial  trip.  The  waggon 
went  smoothly  and  well,  but  when  a  new  system  is  started 
there  is  always  a  risk  of  accidents.  As  the  truck  ran 
quickly  down  the  incline  the  swarthy  young  barbarians, 
attracted  by  the  novelty,  crowded  round  it,  and  suddenly 
the  agonised  cries  of  a  child,  followed  by  low  moanings, 
rang  out  from  under  the  wheels,  and  a  jerk  of  the  drag 
pulled  the  car  up  and  nearly  threw  us  out  of  our  seats. 
We  jumped  out  and  looked  nervously  under  the  wheels 
tD  see  what  had  happened,  but  there  was  no  child  there. 
The  young  barbarians  looked  at  us  vaguely  and  curiously, 
but  not  as  if  anything  tragical  had  occurred,  and  we  were 
just  getting  into  the  car  again,  feeling  a  little  bewildered, 
when  a  great  green  parrot  in  a  cage  close  beside  us  went 
through  no  doubt  another  of  his  best  performances  in  the 
shape  of  a  loud  mocking  laugh.  A  wave  of  relief  passed 
over  the  party,  but  we  were  rather  late,  and  the  drivers 
expressed  to  the  parrot  their  sense  of  his  conduct,  I 
fear  strongly,  but  in  terms  which,  being  in  Brazilian 
patois^  1  did  not  understand." 

In  another  notice  we  will  tell  of  the  Challenoers  doings 
between  Bahia  and  Cape  Town,  and  from  the  Falklands 
home,  and  we  will  also  more  particularly  allude  to  the 
general  resubs  of  the  scientific  work  she  has  so  successfully 
accomplished. 

(To  be  continued.) 


ON  THE  PRESENCE  OF  OX  YGEN  IN  THE  SUN 

T  HAVE  spent  the  greater  part  of  last  winter  and  the 
•■•  beginning  of  this  in  an  investigation  of  the  spectra 
of  oxygen.  My  experiments  will  be  published,  1  hope,  in 
another  place  ;  but  there  are  one  or  two  points  of  more 
immediate  interest,  and,  I  venture  to  think,  of  some  im- 
potUnce,  which  1  trust  you  will  allow  me  to  discuss  in 
}  our  columns. 

ProL  Draper  has  lately  announced  the  important  dis- 
covery that  the  lines  of  oxygen  are  found  to  be  present  in 
the  sun.  These  lines,  however,  are  bright,  and  not  dark, 
as  the  Fraunhofcr  lines.  I  had  found  that  at  a  certain 
temperature,  lower  than  that  at  which  oxygen  shows  its 


well-known  lines,  it  gives  another  spectrum,  and  it  oc- 
curred to  me,  when  I  heard  of  Prof.  Draper's  discovery, 
that  if  the  temperature  of  the  sun,  at  some  point  inter- 
mediate between  the  photosphere  and  the  reversing  layer 
was  the  same  as  that  at  which  the  spectrum  of  oxygen 
changes,  the  fact  that  the  known  spectrum  of  oxygen 
appears  bright  would  be  fully  explained.  The  spectrum 
of  lower  temperature,  which,  for  reasons  to  be  given,  I 
shall  call  the  compound  line  spectrum  of  oxygen,  ought 
in  that  case  to  be  found  reversed  in  the  solar  spectrum, 
like  the  remainder  of  the  Fraunhofer  lines. 

I  have  consequently  devoted  all  my  time  during  three 
weeks  to  the  exact  measurement  of  these  four  lines,  and 
I  do  not  think  that  the  evidence  which  I  am  about  to 
give  will  be  considered  to  fall  far  short  of  an  absolute 
proof  that  the  spectrum  is  really  reversed  in  the  sun. 

Two  difficulties  have  put  themselves  into  the  way  of  exact 
measurement.  The  first  is  due  to  the  extreme  weak- 
ness of  the  spectrum.  The  light  itself  is  not  stronger 
than  that  of  a  non-luminous  Bunseh  burner ;  and  after 
that  light  has  passed  through  four  prisms,  as  in  most 
of  my  experiments,  or  through  seven,  as  in  some  of 
them,  there  is  not  much  of  a  spectrum  left  to  be  mea- 
sured. It  is  only  after  having  been  in  the  dark  for  half- 
an-hour  that  the  eye  is  able  to  do  the  work,  and  there  are 
a  good  many  days  when  the  eye  never  obtains  sufficient 
sensitiveness  to  make  any  trustworthy  measurements. 
But  whenever  my  eyes  were  in  sufficiently  good  con- 
dition, my  measurements  agreed  so  well,  that  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying  that  they  are  as  accurate  as  the 
measurements  of  the  solar  lines  which  will  be  found 
by  their  side.  The  second  and  more  serious  diffi- 
culty is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  lines  in  question 
widen  to  a  great  extent  with  increased  pressure  and  in 
such  a  way  that  the  brightest  part,  and  still  more,  the 
centre  of  the  band,  is  displaced  towards  the  red.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  get  the  lines  perfectly  sharp,  and  the 
measurement  of  the  centre  of  the  band  will  give,  therefore, 
too  high  a  value  of  the  wave-length.  The  loUowing  table 
contains  the  numbers  which  I  have  obtained  : — 


Oxygen. 


a  6156  86 

/5  5435-S5 

7  5329-41 

8  4307  62 


Width. 


±03 
±03 
±06 


Solar  Lines. 


A. 
613670 

5435*44 
53^9  3 
4367  58 


S. 
6 1 56  69 
5435  S6 
5J29  10 


I 


The  first  column  contains  the  wave-length  of  the  com- 
pound line  spectrum  of  oxygen.  The  second  column 
contains  the  number  which  has  to  be  added  or  subtracted 
from  the  wave-length,  in  order  to  get  the  edge  of  the  lines, 
as  it  is  their  centres  which  are  given  in  the  first  column. 
The  third  and  fourth  columns  give  the  wave-lengths  of 
the  corresponding  solar  lines  as  observed  by  Angstrom 
(A )  or  myself  (S.).  The  greatest  difference  is  found  in 
the  line  y,  but  even  this  difference  only  amounts  to  the 
twentieth  part  of  the  distance  between  the  sodium  line*, 
and  it  would  require  a  spectroscope  of  very  good  dispersive 
power  and  definition  to  separate  two  lines  which  wotild 
be  that  distance  apart  from  each  other.  Nevertheless 
the  amount  in  question  is  greater  than  the  possible  errors 
of  observation,  and  I  believe  the  difference  to  be  due  to 
the  fact  mentioned  above,  that  the  lines  widen  unequally. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  table  that  the  solar  line  would 
fall  within  the  oxygen  line,  but  about  one-third  of  the  dis- 
tance between  its  most  refrangible  and  least  refrangible 
edj-e.  At  a  higher  pressure  the  biightest  part  of  the  band 
lies  about  5331.  None  of  the  other  lines  widen  nearly  as 
much,  and  d  is  aUays  perfectly  sharp.  Angstrdm  gives 
it  as  an  iron  line,  but  according  to  Kirchhotf,  the  solar 
line  is  composed  of  two  lines,  and  separated  by  a  dtstanoe 
of  about  0*1. 


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Dec.  20,  1877] 


NATURE 


149 


The  average  distance  between  the  solar  lines  in  the 
green,  which  have  not  yet  been  identified,  is  about  4*4,  or 
more  than  fourteen  times  the  difference  between  the 
centre  of  the  oxygen  line  and  the  corresponding  solar  line. 
The  average  distance  between  the  non-identified  lines 
near  O  a  is  4*9,  or  about  twenty-nine  times  the  correspond- 
ing difference.  In  judging,  however,  of  the  value  of  the 
evidence,  I  should  like  the  reader  to  leave  the  line  b  out 
of  account  Although  the  agreement  seems  perfect,  1 
have  not  the  same  confidence  in  the  correctness  of  the 
wave-length  as  I  have  with  the  other  lines.  The  line  0  is 
weaker  than  the  others,  and  the  error  of  observation  may 
be  a  little  larger  than  with  a  and  y,  which  will,  I  think,  be 
found  correct  to  the  decimal  place. 

Let  me  point  out  in  a  few  words  the  importance  of  the 
results  obtained.  The  compound  line  spectrum  of  oxygen 
can  only  exist  under  a  limited  range  of  physical  con- 
ditions. It  is  broken  up  at  a  higher  temperature  into  the 
elementary  line  spectrum,  and  at  a  lower  temperature  it 
tumbles  together  into  a  continuous  spectrum.  During  its 
existence  its  lines  may  be  subject  to  variations  owing  to 
pressure.  The  spectrum  of  oxygen  is  therefore  pre-emi- 
nently fitted  to  be  at  once  the  pressure  gauge  and  ther- 
mometer of  the  sun.  We  cannot  at  the  present  moment 
give  the  exact  temperature  of  the  points  at  which  the 
changes  take  place ;  but  we  can  say  with  certainty  why 
it  is  that  the  line  spectra  of  many  metalloids  are  not 
fotmd  reversed  in  the  sun,  for  the  temperature  which  gives 
these  line  spectra  is  higher  than  that  which  gives  the 
compound  line  spectrum  of  oxygen,  and  therefore  higher 
than  that  of  the  reversing  layer  of  the  sun.  Conse- 
quently we  must  look  for  their  band  spectra  and  not  for 
their  line  Sjpectra.  The  same  may  be  true  for  the  spectra 
of  some  of  the  heavier  elements  like  gold,  silver,  and 
platinum,  which  have  not  yet  been  discovered  in  the  sun. 
The  continuous  spectrum  of  the  base  of  the  corona  is 
most  likely  the  continuous  spectrum  of  the  cooler  oxygen. 

As  the  science  of  spectroscopy  advances  we  shadl  be 
able  to  determine  the  physical  conditions  which  exist  on 
the  surface  of  the  sun  with  as  great  a  degree  of  certainty 
and  a  much  smaller  degree  of  discomfort  than  if  we  were 
placed  there  ourselves.  I  hope  that  this  communica- 
tion will  prove  to  be  a  step  in  that  direction.  All  my 
experiments  were  made  in  the  Cavendish  Laboratory. 

Arthur  Schuster 

St  John's  College,  Cambridge,  November  30 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Jupiter's  Satellites.— -Amongst  the  recorded  pheno- 
mena connected  with  the  motions  of  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter  are  several  notices  of  observed  occultations  of  one 
satellite  by  another,  and  of  small  stars  by  one  or  other  of 
the  satellites.  The  following  cases  may  be  mentioned  :— 
On  the  night  of  November  i,  1693,  Christoph  Arnold, 
of  Sommerfeld;  near  Leipsic,  observed  an  occultation  of 
the  second  satellite  by  the  third  at  loh.  47m.  apparent 
time.  On  October  30,  1822,  Luthmer,  of  Hanover, 
witnessed  an  occultation  of  the  fourth  Satellite  by  the 
third  at  6h.  55m.  mean  time. 

Flaugergues,  writing  to  Baron  de  Zach,  from  Viviers, 
on  November  18,  1821,  says  :  "  I  begin  with  an  observa- 
tion, very  useless,  no  doubt,  but  extremely  rare,  for  J  have 
not  found  a  similar  one  in  the  collections  of  astronomical 
observations  which  I  have]  examined ;  /.tf.,  the  occultation 
of  a  very  small  star  by  the  third  satellite  of  Jupiter."  He 
proceeds  to  mention  that  on  August  14, 182 1,  he  repaired 
to  his  observatory  very  early  to  observe  an  eclipse  of  this 
satellite,  and  having  looked  at  Jupiter  with  the  telescope, 
he  remarked  a  very  small  star  near  the  third  satdhte. 
The  satellite  approached  this  star,  and  at  ilu  47nu 
sidereal  time,  it  appeared  to  touch  it,  and  at  ih.  56m.  52s. 
it  was  not  possible  to  distinguish  the  star— it  had  dis- 
appeared.   The  satellite  became  fainter  and  disappeared 


in  its  turn  at  ih.  59m. .  10$.  «i4ereal  tioie,  on  August  13, 
or  i6h.  30m.  8*5s.  mean  time  at  Viviers.  The,. sky  was 
perfectly  clear,  and  Flaugergues  considered  his  observa- 
tions very  exact  He  adds  that  he  continued  to  observe 
for  a  long  time  after  the  immersion  of  the  satelTite,  hoping 
to  seethe  star  reappear,  but  he  could  not  again  distin- 
guish it ;  the  twiligiit  had  much  inoreased,  and  small  stars 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jupiter  were  soon  effoced. 

There  is  a  similar  observation  by  Mr.  G.  W;  Hough,  at 
Cincinnati  Observatory,  communicated  in  a  letter  to  Dr. 
Brunnow,  when  Director  of  the  Observatory  at  Ann  Arbor, 
Michigan,  and  published  in  his  "Astronomical  Notices" 
Mr.  Hough  states  that  on  March  28,  i860,  he  witnessed 
the  end  of  an  expected  occultation  of  a  star  9*5  mag.,  by 
Jupiter,  and  the  occultation  of  the  same  star  by  the  first 
satellite.  When  first  ,seen  it  was*  distant  from  the  limb 
of  the  planet  about  one  diameter  of  the  satellite,  or  one 
second  of  arc,  so  that  the  real  separation  had  taken  place 
about  six  minutes  before  (or  about  8h.  9tn.  sidereal  tmie), 
though  he  was  not  able  to  see  it.  At  loh.  *^7m.  sidereal 
time  the  star  was  occulted  by  the  first  satellite  and  re- 
mamed  invisible  eight  minutes.  Mr.  Hough  further  says 
that  the  star  is  found  iri  the  "  Redhill  Catalogue,"  an 
obvious  oversight ;  it  would  appear  to  be  Na  1630  of 
Zone  -|-  22®  in  the  Durchmusierungy  a  star  of  9*3 m.  the 
approximate  place  of  which  for  1855  was  in  R./L  7h.  8m. 
5S.,  N.P.D.  (if  3'*3. 

DoNATi's  Comet  of  i858.-r-This  comet  which  attained 
so  great  a  celebrity  in  the  autumn  of  185^,  makes  a  very 
close  approximation  to  the  orbit  of  Venu^  near  the 
descending  node,  and  it  may  be  reasonably  inferred  that 
the  actual  form  of  its  path  roimd  the  sun  may  be  due  to  a 
very  near  approach  of  the  two  bodies  at  some  distant 
epoch.  The  discussion  of  the  totality  of  observations  was 
undertaken  some  years  since  by  Dr.  von  Asten,  who  has 
published  his  results  in  a  dissertation  entitled  ^  Deter- 
minatio  orbitae  grandis  cometse  anni  1858,  e  cunctis 
observationibns."  The  comet  was  discovered  by  Donati 
on  June  2,  and  was  observed  until  the  beginning  of  March, 
1859,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  at  Santiago  de 
Chile ;  consequently  the  observations  extended  over  a 
very  wide  arc  of  the  orbit,  and  there  have  been  very  few 
cases  where  careful  discussion  could  be  expected  to  lead  to 
more  reliable  results.  The  period  of  revolution  deduced 
by  Dr.  von  Asten  is  1,880  years,  and  there  is  a  high  pro- 
bability that  this  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  true 
one,  applying  to  the  time  of  the  comet's  appearance. 
Prof.  Hill,  of  Washington,  also  by  a  complete  inves- 
tigation, obtained  a  somewhat  longer  period,  but  the 
general  character  of  the  orbit  remains  the  same.  Em- 
ploying Dr.  von  Asten's  elements,  it  will  be  found  that  in 
heliocentric  longitude  343^7,  the  distance  of  the  comet 
from  the  orbit  of  Venus,  is  only  0*0047  of  the  mean  dis- 
tance of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  In  1858  the  two  bodies 
came  into  pretty  near  proximity,  their  mutual  distance  on 
October  17  being  0*088.  It  has  been  mentioned  above 
that  the  point  of  closest  approach  of  the  orbits  of  the 
planet  and  comet  is  situated  near  the  descending  node  ; 
the  opposite  node  falls  in  the  region  of  the  minor  planets. 

The  Observatory  of  Lyons.— The  Bulletin  Hebdo- 
madaire  of  the  French  Scientific  Association  reports  that 
M.  Andrd  is  actively  employed  in  the  establishment  of 
this  new  astronomical  institution  and  is  energetically 
supported  by  the  Government.  M.  Raphel  Bischoffsheim, 
the  munificent  donor  of  the  meridian  circle,  lately  mounted 
at  the  Observatory  of  Paris,  has  also  intimated  his  inten- 
tion to  present  the  Lyons  Observatory  with  its  funda- 
mental instrument,  a  raeridian-chrcle  of  dimensions  but 
slightly  inferior  to  those  of  the  circle,  for  which  the 
Observatory  at  Paris  is  indebted  to  him.'  It  will  also  be 
constructed  by  Eichens.  The  Paris  meridian-circle  is 
intended  to  replace  the  instruments  of  Gambey,'  which  are 
now  placed  in  one  of  the  saloons  of  the  institution  with 
other  instruments  which  have  seen  their  day.    M.  Wolf 


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[Dec.  20,  1877 


remarks  that  the  scientific  zeal  and  liberality  of  M. 
Bischoffsheim  ^inaugurates  in  France  a  path  long  fol- 
lowed in  England  by  wealthy  amateurs  of  astronomy." 

The  Metkoritk  of  June  14,  1877.— M,  Grucy  has 
caloilated  the  orbit  of  this  meteorite  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Observatory  of  the  Puy-de-Ddme,  and  accounU 
obtained  through  the  press  of  Clermont,  where  he  observed 
it  at  8h.  55m.  P.M.  local  time.  Observations  made  at 
Bordeaux  and  at  Angoul^me  were  combined  with  those  at 
Qermont.  He  obtained  for  the  velocity  of  the  meteor 
relatively  to  the  sun  93  kilometres  in  a  second,  in  the 
direction  -  heliocentric  longitude  is"*  17',  latitude  -  17**  3'» 
and  neglecting  the  insignificant  effect  of  the  earth's  at- 
traction upon  a  velocity  so  great,  and  the  unknown  effect 
of  atmospheric  resistance,  he  found  for  the  heliocentric 
motion  of  tl^e  meteor  the  following  elements  of  a  hyper- 
bolic orbit  Eccentricity,  7o79>  scmi-ajris,  0*137,  As- 
cending node,  83**  49',  inclination,  18®  14',  peribeUon  from 
node,  286®  $0',  longitude  at  appearance,  263*^  49' ;  the 
meteor  approaching  its  perihelion  was  thus  distant  23'' 
from  it 

This  adds  another  case  to  several  previous  ones  in 
which  hyperbolic  orbits  have  been  obtained  for  meteorites 
by  Petit,  Galle,  Tissot,  &c 

Prof.  Newcomb. — At  the  meeting  of  the  Royal 
Society  on  Thursday  last,  the  distinguished  mathematical 
astronomer,  Prof.  Simon  Newcomb,  of  Washington,  was 
elected  one  of  its  foreign  members.  There  was  previously 
on  the  list  only  a  single  American,  viz..  Prof.  Asa  Gray. 
Pro£  Newcomb's  important  contributions  to  astronomical 
science  will  be  admitted  to  have  richlv  entitled  him  to  an 
acknowledgment  at  the  hands  of  our  leading  society. 

CHEMICAL  NOTES 

Mineral  Oil  in  a  Lava  of  Mount  Etna.— In  the 
basaltic  zone  which  reaches  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna 
in  a  south-south-easterly  direction,  near  the  village  of 
Patemo  there  is  a  prehistoric  doleritic  lava  containing 
olivine,  which  surrounds  the  clay  deposits  of  a  mud 
volcano  and  which  has  been  examined  by  Sig.  Orazio 
.Silvestri.  Under  the  microscope  the  lava  shows  an 
augitic  principal  mass  with  a  quantity  of  olivine  and 
many  white  transparent  crystals  of  labradorite.  The 
lava  contains  numerous  round  or  irregular  cavities  which 
are  coated  with  arragonite  and  which  are  filled  with 
mineral  oiL  This  oil,  of  which  there  is  about  i  per  cent 
by  weight  in  the  whole  mass,  was  taken  from  one  of  the 
cavities  at  24*  C.  At  about  17°  C  it  begins  to  solidify 
and  is  of  a  yellowish  green  tint  by  transmitted  light, 
while  by  reflected  light  it  is  opalescent  and  light  greeo. 
Chemical  analysis  of  the  liquid  proved  it  to  contain : — 

Liquid  hydrocarbont  (boiling  point  79***28)  ...  17*97  per  ctnt. 
Hydrocarboni  solidifying  under  cP  (b.  p.  280^- 

«     ^400")         ...  ,     ... 3I-9S  ,.    » 

Paraftaoe,  melting  point  52°-57  4279  „    „ 

Asphalt  (leaving  12  per  cent,  of  ashes)  ...  2*90  „    „ 

Sulphur        4-32  „    „ 

99  93 
Formation  of  certain  Bodies  at  Temperatures 
above  that  of  their  decomposition.— mm.  troost 
and  Hautefeuille  have  lately  demonstrated  that  under 
certain  circumstances  it  is  incorrect  to  suppose  that 
bodies  imdergoing  decomposition  or  rather  dissociation 
at  a  low  temperature  may  not  exist  as  definite  compounds 
at  higher  temperatures.  Their  arguments  are  founded  on 
the  decomposition  of  silicon  sesquichloride  (SisClg)  at 
800**,  which  may  be  represented  as — 

2Si,Cla  =  3SiCl4  +  Si, 
if,  however,  the  reaction  be  carried  on  at  a  temperature 
above  1200*^  the  following  change  takes  place — 
3SiCl4  +  Si     2Si,a«. 


If  the  tube  in  which  this  reaction  takes  place  be  cooled 
suddenly  the  sesquichloride  is  found,  but  if  cooled  slowly 
it  undergoes  gradual  decomposition.  They  also  find  that 
although  ozone  is  converted  into  oxygen  at  250°,  if  a  silver 
tube  inclosed  in  a  porcelain  tube  be  kept  at  about  1300° 
a  deposit  of  dioxide  of  silver  is  produced  due  to  the  forma- 
tion of  ozone.  They  state  that  the  ozone  can  be  recogrnised 
by  the  usual  tests  if  the  gas  be  rapidly  drawn  off  and 
quickly  cooled.  They  have  also  examined  certain  similar 
phenomena  in  the  production  of  oxide  of  silver  at  1400^ 

lODATES    OF    CORALT    AND    NiCKEL.— Prof.     F.     W. 

Clarke  describes  these  salts,  which  were  prepared  by 
dissolving  the  carbonates  in  aqueous  iodic  acid,  and 
allowing  the  solution  to  evaporate  spontaneously  when 
salts  of  the  composition  Col,Oo.6H20  and  Nil,05.6H|0 
crystallise  out.  If  the  solution  of  the  carbonate  of 
cobalt  in  iodic  acid  is  evaporated  rapidly,  then  the  iodate 
of  Rammelsberg,  containing  1}  molecules  of  water  may 
be  obtained,  but  not  otherwise.  The  cobalt  iodate  loses 
four  molecules  of  water  at  100%  but  the  remaining  two 
molecules  cannot  be  driven  off  without  partial  decompo- 
sition of  the  salt  The  specific  gravities  of  the  two  salts 
are  almost  identical,  the  cobalt  iodate  at  21^  being  3*6893, 
the  nickel  iodate  at  22®  being  3*6954.  No  numbers  of  the 
solubilities  of  the  two  salts  are  given  by  Prof.  Clarke, 
but  these,  when  obtained,  will  be  of  some  interest 

Origin  and  Formation  of  Boracic  Acid.— M. 
Dieulafait  (Comfi,  Rend,  Ixxxv.  605)  finds  that  under 
certain  conditions  by  spectrum  analysis  it^Uyvt  grammes 
of  boron,  and  by  the  colour  imparted  to  a  hydrogen 
fiame  iv^irvir  grammes  may  be  detected.  He  considers 
boracic  acid  to  be  a  normal  constituent  of  sea-water  and 
salt  marshes  lying  above  beds  of  camallite.  M.  Dieulafait 
finds  that  this  acid  may  be  recognised  in  a  drop  of  sea- 
water  weighing  about  00378  grammes,  and  that  the 
minimum  quantity  found  in  the  Mediterranean  is  two 
decigrammes  per  cubic  metre  of  water.  He  arrives  by 
geological  reasoning  at  conclusions  differing  from  those  of 
Dumas  and  others  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  this  body 
in  the  lagoons  of  Tuscany,  and  thinks  that  the  source  of 
boracic  acid  in  this^district  may  be  found  in  a  relatively 
modem  formation. 

New  Modes  of  forming  Ethylen  Oxide.— In  the 
Compies  Rendus,  Ixxxv.  624,  Mr.  H.  Greene  mentions  the 
results  of  experiments  on  the  action  of  certain  metallic 
oxides  on  the  bromide,  iodide,  and  chloriodide  of  ethy- 
lene. Oxide  of  silver  has  a  rapid  action  on  ethylen 
iodide  at  a  temperature  of  150%  forming  etbyjcn  oxide ; 
its  action  on  ethylen  bromide  produces  the  same  result 
but  requires  a  higher  temperature.  Ethylen  bromide  and 
chloriodide  both  act  upon  sodium  oxide  at  180^,  the  latter 
of  the  ethylene  compounds  being  the  one  found  most 
advantageous  by  the  author  in  preparing  ethylen  oxide. 
He  has  also  studied  the  action  of  these  substances  on 
the  oxides  of  the  diatomic  metals  barium  and  lead. 
These  oxides  do  not  give  ethylen  oxide  when  heated  with 
bromide  or  chloriodide  of  ethylene.  These  experiments 
show,  on  the  one  hand,  the  analogy  between  the  silver 
and  sodium  oxides  confirmed  by  the  isomorphism  of  tbeir 
anhydrous  sulphates  and  chlorides,  and  on  the  other  their 
difference  from  the  group  of  diatomic  oxides. 

The  Action  of  certain  Antiseptic  Vapours  on 
THE  Ripening  of  Fruits.— MM.  Lechartier  and  Bel- 
lamy give  an  account  in  the  CompUs  Rendus^  Ixxxiv. 
1,035,  of  some  expeiiments  they  made  on  the  fermenta- 
tion of  apples  when  inclosed  in  vapours  such  as  carbolic 
acid,  camphor,  and  potassium  cyanide.  From  their 
results  it  appears  that  no  fermenting  action  took  place 
in  Uie  api>les  surrounded  by  vapour  of  carbolic  or  hydro- 
cyanic acids,  and  a  slight  action  only  in  the  one  sur- 
rounded by  camphor  vapour.  The  camphor  vapour,  in 
fact,  diminishes  without  entirely  destroying  the  vitality  of 
the  cells.     In  this  journal,  also,  there  is  an  accoimt  of 


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experiments  perfonned  in  the  same  direction  by  M* 
Gayon.  He  incloses  the  apples  in  vapours  of  chloroform, 
ether,  and  carbon  disulphide,  ahd  his  results  agree  with 
those  of  the  first  observers.  The  chloroform  and  ether 
act  in  the  same  manner  as  the  carbolic  and  hydrocyanic 
acids ;  the  carbon  disulphide  in  the  same  way  as  camphor, 
permitting  partial  fermentation  only. 

A  Problem  in  Chemical  Affinity.— In  his  work  on 
"Gasometric  Methods,"  Prof.  Bunsen  details  an  interesting 
series  of  experiments  on  the  phenomena  accompanying 
the  explosion  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  monoxide  with  a 
volume  of  oxygen  insufficient  for  its  complete  combustion. 
From  the  results  he  deduces  the  conclusion  that  the  ratio 
between  the  products  of  combustion  (HjO  :  COj)  can 
always  be  expressed  by  small  whole  numbiers  (i  :  2,  i  :  3, 
I  :  4,  &c,  and  that  it  alters  suddenly  from  one  figure  to 
the  next  by  gradually  increasing  the  amount  of  hydrogen. 
Deeming  the  nine  experiments    upon  which  the    con- 
clusion was  based  as  insufficient  for  the  establishment  of 
a  general   principle,   Prof.  Horstmann,  of   Heidelberg, 
describes  in  the  Verhandlungen  des  hetdelb,  naiurf.  med. 
Vereinsy  an  extensive  series  of  observations  designed  to 
test  the  truth  of  the  law.    Among  his  results  the  follow- 
ing facts  are  of  interest.   In  exploding  CO  with  gradually 
increasing  quantities  of  Hj  +  O,  while  the  ratio  between 
H  and  CO  increased  from  0*25  :  i  to  2*33  :  i,  the  ratio 
between  HgO  and  CO,  gradually  increased  from  0*8  :  i  to 
4*5 : 1,  with  no  evidence  of  a  predilection  for  rational 
numbers.     Experiments  on  a  mixture  of   CO  and  H, 
with  gradually  increasing  amounts  of  O,  led  to  the  same 
results,  showing  no  such  regularity  in  the  division  of  O 
between  the  two  combustible  gases  as  Bunsen's  law  would 
indicate.  When  aqueous  vapour  is  present  in  the  mixture 
less  H  and  more  CO  imites  with  O,  while  the  presence 
of  CO3  reverses  the  case.    By  gradually  increasing  the 
amount  of  O  in  the  explosive  mixture,  it  was  noticed 
that  the  ratio  between  the  resultant  HgO  and  COg  in- 
creased until  it  attained  a  maximum,  when  35  per  cent, 
of  the  combustible  gases  were  oxidised,  and  then  sank 
regularly  to  the  ratio  denoting  complete    combustion. 
The  oxygen  appears  to  be  divided  among  the  two  gases 
according  to  the  following  law : — The  ratio  between  the 
resultant  H^O  and  COg  is  equal  to  the  ratio  between  the 
residual  H  and  CO  multipliea  by  a  co- efficient  of  affinity 
which  is  independent  of  the  ratio  between  the  combustible 
gases  but  dependent  on  the  relative  quantity  of  O  present. 
This  CO- efficient  of  affinity  varied  between  4  and  64, 
showing  that  always  more  H  relatively  than  CO  is  con- 
sumed, and  hence  that  the  affinity  of  O  to  H  is  greater 
than  thaCt  to  CO. 

Halogen  Derivatives  of  Amines.— An  attempt  has 
frequently  been  made  by  chemists  to  replace  the  hydrogen 
in  the  hydrocarbon  group  present  in  amines,  by  CI,  Br, 
or  I.  These  effi)rts  have  hitherto  resulted  simply  in  the 
substitution  of  the  basic  H  atoms  of  the  amine  by 
halogens— as  CjHg.NClj— or  in  complete  decomposition. 
A.  Michael  {BerL  Ber,^  x.,  1644)  has  devised  a  method 
for  accomplishing  this  end,  which  consists  in  first  replacing 
these  basic  H  atoms  by  acid  residues,  and  then  exposing 
to  the  action  of  a  halogen  ethyl-phthaJimide, 

C6H4(CO)8N.C,H^ 
yields  in  this  way  with  Br  a  tribromo-ethyl-phthalimide. 

Double  Salts  with  Cyanide  of  Gold.— C.  G. 
Lindbom  publishes  in  the  Univ.  Arsskrift  of  Lund  an 
exhaustive  account  of  these  compounds,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  salts  of  the  two  acids,  HCy.CyAu  and 
HCy.C3jAu.Cy2  -I-  i^aq.,  neither  of  which,  however,  can 
be  obtained  pure  for  analysis  on  account  of  their  tendency 
to  decompose.  Most  of  the  auro  salts  unite  directly  with 
a  molecule  of  the  halogens  ;  for  example  aurocyanide  of 
sodium,  NaCy2Au,  forms  bromo-auricyanide  of  sodium, 
NaCy2AuBr2-t-2aq.  Aurocyanide  of  ammonium,  AmCyjAu, 
is  decomposed  at  loo^ 


The  Fourth  Nitrobenzoic  Acid.— Prof.  F.  Fittica 
has  discovered  lately  a  new  nitro-benzoic  acid,  making 
the  fourth  of  the  isomeric  acids,  which  has  been  contested 
by  other  chemists,  especially  as  it  fails  altogether  to 
harmonise  with  the  theories  at  present  accepted  in 
regard  to  the  structure  of  benzene  derivatives.  In  the 
October  session  of  the  Deutsche  chemische  Gesellschaf^, 
he  strengthens  his  position  by  announcing  the  discovery 
of  a  fourth  nitro-benzaldehyde,  obtained  by  the  action  of 
H2SO4  on  benzaldehyde  and  ethylic  nitrate,  which  on 
oxidation  is  changed  into  the  new  nitrobenzoic  acid, 
CflH4.NO2.COOH. 

Influence  of  Isomerism  on  the  Formation 
of  Ethers  between  Acids  and  Alcohols.— In 
the  September  session  of  the  Russian  Chemicsd 
Society,  Prof.  H.  N.  Menschutkin  presented  an  elabo- 
rate paper  on  this  subject  based  on  observations  of 
the  formation  of  acetic  ethers.  The  process  consisted  in 
inclosing  molecular  weights  of  an  alcohol  and  acetic  acid 
in  glass  tubes,  immersing  it  in  a  glycerine  bath  at  154°  for 
a  certain  time,  and  then  rapidly  cooling  it,  and  titrating 
the  unaffected  acetic  acid  with  baryta  water.  The  results 
show  that  in  regard  to  the  rapidity  and  limits  of  etherifi- 
cation,  the  primary  alcohols  are  sharply  divided  from  the 
secondary,  and  the  latter  from  the  tertiary  ;  and  the  satu- 
rated alcohols  from  the  non-saturated.  A  regular  decrease 
in  the  rapidity  coincides  with  an  increase  in  the  mole- 
cular weight  of  the  alcohol.  As  in  many  other  series  of 
experiments,  methylic  alcohol  shows  considerable  devia- 
tions from  the  laws  governing  its  higher  homologues.  In 
the  case  of  non-saturated  alcohols  the  rapidity  is  less  than 
that  of  the  corresponding  primary  alcohols,  but  greater 
than  that  of  the  corresponding  secondary  alcohols. 

Phosphides  of  Tin. — Since  the  introduction  of 
phosphorus  bronze,  the  compounds'of  phosphorus  and  the 
metals  are  receiving  more  attention.  S.  Natanson  and 
G.  Vortmenn  describe  {BerL,  Ber,y  x.  1459),  several 
methods  of  preparing  phosphides  of  tin,  viz.,  throwing  P 
on  molten  tin,  melting  a  mixture  of  vitreous  phosphoric 
acid,  charcoal,  and  tin,  and  passing  phosphorus  vapours 
over  molten  tin  in  a  hydrogen  stream.  These  processes 
all  yield  a  crystalline  silvery  white  comi>ound,  containing 
from  li  to  3  per  cent,  of  P,  and  leaving  on  treatment 
with  HKO  a  residue  of  pure  SnP. 

Chemical  Action  of  Light.— In  a  late  number  of 
the  AnnaUs  de  Chimie  et  Physi^ue^  M.  Chastaing  ad- 
vances, in  connection  with  a  variety  of  observations  on 
this  topic,  the  theory  that  the  chemical  action  of  the 
various  coloured  rays  on  inorganic  substances  is  depen- 
dent on  refrangibility,  blue  and  violet  acting  as  reducing 
agents,  red  and  yellow  causing  oxidation.  Prof.  H.  W. 
Vogel  attacks  this  opinion  vigorously  in  the  last  session 
of  the  German  Chemical  Society,  claiming  that  the  nature 
of  the  substance  causes  the  action  to  be  one  of  reduction 
or  oxidation.  The  union  of  H  and  Ci,  which  takes  place 
so  rapidly  in  violet  light,  is  regarded  as  purely  analogous 
to  oxidation,  and  he  alludes  to  Timiriazefl's  late  experi- 
ments, showing  that  the  reduction  of  CO2  by  plants, 
proceeds  more  rapidly  in  red  light  than  m.  green. 

NOTES 
At  the  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society,  on  Thursday  last,  the 
Times  states,  the  following  were  elected  foreign  memben : — 
Marcellin  Berthelot,  of  Paris ;  Joseph  Decaisne,  of  Paris ;  Emil 
Dubois  Reymond,  of  Berlia ;  Adolph  Wilhelm  Hermann  Kolbe, 
of  Leipsic ;  Rudolph  Lenckart,  of  Leipsic ;  Simon  Newcomb, 
of  Washington ;  and  Pafnutij  Tschebjtschow,  of  St.  Petersburg. 
By  this  election  the  foreign  list  of  the  society  is  made  up  to  its 
fidl  complement  of  fifty  members. 

Mr.  Alexander  Agassiz,  it  is  understood,  proposes  to  spend 
the  winter  in  the  prosecution  of  scientific  research  in  the  Florida 


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\Dec.  20,  1877 


lev,  and  will  carry  a  line  of  dredging!  and  trawlingi  from  Key 
West  to  Yncatan.  Bearing  in  mind  the  Tery  great  tnoocK  that 
has  been'experienced  by  the  use  of  steel  wire  in  taking  foundings, 
he  proposes  to  try  the  expeiiment  of  a  steel  rope  i^V  inches  in 
diameter  in  the  work  of  dredging  and  trawling.  This,  he  thinks, 
will  reduce  the  friction  to  such  an  extent  as  to  greatly  diminish 
the  time  and  power  necessary  in  making  a  cast  of  the  dredge. 

The  Emperor  of  Russia  has  conferred  the  order  of  St.  Anne 
on  Mr.  Carl  Bock,  F.G.S. 

The  Monthly  Microscopical  Journal  expires  with  the  number 
just  issued  fsr  the  last  two  months.  It  was  edited  from  the  com- 
mencement by  Dr.  Henry  Lawson — ^who,  after  a  long  period  of 
failing  health,  died  on  October  4  last — ^and  has  been  in  existence 
for  nine  years.  Many  valuable  papen  are  contained  in  it,  by 
f^istin^uished  authors,  including  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal 
Microscopical  Society,  which  will  in  future  be  published  inde* 
pendently. 

With  reference  to  the  brilliant  meteor  of  December  6,  we 
learn  from  Capt  Tupman  that  it  will  take  him  some  time  to 
determine  the  most  probable  path  from  the  immense  number  of 
observations,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  sent  to  him.  Mean- 
time he  thinks  that  Prof.  Herschel's  preliminary  calculation,  not 
yet  published,  that  it  began  fifty-three  miles  over  Wigan,  and 
burst  thirty-three  miles  over  a  point  half  way  between  Great 
Orme's  Head  and  Douglas  in  Man,  with  radiant  78*  •f  6** 
(7  Ononis),  agrees  better  with  the  observations  than  any  other 
path.  We  hope  to  publish  Capt.  Tupman's  conclusions  when 
his  calculations  are  completed. 

,  The  subject  of  Prof.  Tyndall's  six  Christmas  lectures  to 
juveniles  is  to  be  Heat,  Visible  and  Invisible.  They  oonunence 
on  Thursday  week. 

MM.  FxiL  and  Fremy,  at  last  week's  meeting  of  the  Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences,  read  a  paper  describing  a  new  process  for 
the  mannfacture  of  rubies  and  other  precious  stones.  The  sen- 
sation created  by  these  wonderful  experiments  has  been  so 
general  that  the  Association  of  Jewellers  have  written  to  some  of 
the  papers  stating  that  it  was  impossible  for  human  art  to  com- 
pete against  nature,  that  mysterious  maker  having  at  her  disposal 
an  indefinite  number  ol  centuries,  which  is  not  the  case  with  any 
human  worker.  M.  Daubr^,  the  Director  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  has  expressed  the  wish  to  open,  in  the  public  museum  of 
that  magnificent  establishment,  a  gallery  for  the  'exhibition  of 
minerab  produced  artificially.  M.  Feil  has  already  produced 
in  hb  glass  foundry,  and  by  the  same  process  as  mUes^  an  im- 
mense number  of  stones  which  can  be  compared  with  the  most 
admirable  crystalline  productions  of  nature.  Some  of  them  are 
so  inexpensive  that  they  may  be  used  for  ordinary  decorative 
purposes. 

An  extraordinary  but  hap|»ly  unsuccessful  attempt  was  recently 
made  upon  the  life  of  Mr.  Russell,  the  Government  Astronomer 
at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales.  On  September  8  a  lad  of  about 
nineteen  yean  of  age  left  a  box  at  the  observatory  for  Mr.  Russell, 
who,  under  the  impression  that  it  contained  instruments  of  some 
kind,  proceeded  to  open  it  He  found  the  lid  a  sliding  one, 
similar  to  those  adapted  to  ordinary  instrument  cases,  and  he 
had  not  drawn  it  fax  when  he  discovered  that  the  aflEair  partook 
more  of  the  character  of  an  infernal  machine  than  anything  else. 
The  movement  of  the  lid  became  rather  stifi^  and  upon  inspecting 
it  and  the  box  a  little  more  closely  he  discovered  at  one  end  of 
the  latter  several  grains  of  powder.  The  box  was  then  taken 
into  the  open  air,  where  it  was  investigated  with  special  care. 
The  lid  was  released,  and  there  were  found  in  the  box  at  least 
4i  lbs.  of  blasting-powder.  In  it  were  no  lest  than  sixteen 
matches^  stuck  with  their  sulphurous  points  in  dangerons  proxi- 
mity to  a  sheet  of  land-paper  fastened  to  the.  under-side  of  the 


lid,  the  design  being  evklently  to  cause  an  exploeion  by  the 
friction  of  the  sand-paper  against  the  matches ;  and  diere  can  be 
little  doubt  that  this  would  have  been  effected  had  not  great  care 
been  exercised  in  handling  the  affiur.  Besides  the  matches  aikd 
powder,  dangerous  enough  in  themselves,  a  ginger-beer  bottle, 
filled  with  gunpowder,  and  evidently  intoided  to  act  as  a  shell, 
was  found  in  the  box  ;  Mr.  Russell  has  expressed  his  belief  that 
altogether  there  was  a  sufficient  quantity  of  explosive  material 
present  in  the  bcx  not  only  to  destroy  life,  but  to  blow  the 
building  down.  One  of  the  workmen  at  the  observatory  was 
arrested  on  suspicion. 

The  first  number  is  annoimced  to  appear  on  January  3  of  a 
new  weekly  Rome  JtUematwnaU  da  Sciences,  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Dr.  De  T.«anessan,  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the 
Medical  Faculty  of  Paris.  The  publisher  is  Doin,  of  the  Place 
de  rOd^n,  Paris.  Among  the  collaboratmrs  are  several  well- 
known  names  in  France  and  Germany,  England  being  repre- 
sented by  Mr.  Francis  Darwin. 

The  expected  change  has  taken  place  in  the  French  Ministry, 
M.  Faye  has  resumed  his  place  as  one  of  the  Inspectors  ol 
Public  Instruction,  and  Member  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes. 
M.  Bardoux,  one  of  the  most  able  members  of  the  republican 
party,  has  been  appointed  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  M. 
Bardoux  is  the  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Puy  de 
Ddme,  who  constructed,  at  the  expense  of  the  department,  the 
observatory  built  on  the  top  of  the  mountain  of  the  same  name. 

M.  Bardoux  is  preparing  a  bill  granting  to  the  rectors  of  the 
several  French  academies  (there  is  one  in  each  of  the  eighty- 
two  departments)  the  right  to  appoint  the  teachers  in  the  public 
schools.  Up  to  the  present  time  these  nominations  were  made 
by  the  prefects  and.too  often.the  choice  was  influenced  by  poh'tical 
considerations. 

The  enlarged  council  of  the  Paris  Observatory  held  last  Satur- 
day  a  very  interesting  meeting.  M.  Faye  has  not  resumed  his 
seat  at  councillor.  Several  reclamations  were  read  against  the 
resolutions  which  had  been  adopted  in  the  previous  sitting.  One 
of  them  was  on  behalf  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes,  asking  to  be 
allowed  to  have  a  voice  in  the  presentation  of  the  Director  of  the 
Observatory,  as  well  as  the  Council  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
From  the  fotmdation  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes  up  to  1854, 
when  M.  Leverrier  was  appointed  director  for  life  by  Napoleon 
III.,  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes  had  the  control  of  the  observa- 
tory. Each  year  the  Bureau  appointed  one  of  its  members  to 
superintend  the  observations,  and  the  custom  was  to  reappoint 
the  same  member  up  to  his  death.  Arago  thus  held  his  office  by 
yearly  tenure  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century.  The  discus- 
sion of  meteorological  matters  was  begun,  and  the  meeting 
adjourned  till  to-day.  No  formal  proposition  will  be  nuuie  to 
sever  the  International  Bureau  firom  the  Observatory,  the  aim  of 
certain  members  being  confined  to  the  establishment  of  a  Central 
Board  for  Meteorology,  which  will  give  its  advice  on  the 
organisation  of  the  ^lotemational  Bureau,  the  Montsouris 
Central  Observatory,  the  Puy  de  Ddme,  the  Pic  du  Midi,  and 
any  other  establishment  which  may  be  founded  for  meteorological 
purposes. 

We  are  happy  to  state  that  the  rumour  widely  spread  in  Paria 
of  the  death  of  Dronyn  de  Lhuys  is  unfounded,  the  learned 
gentleman  having  recovered,  against  almost  all  hopes.  He  will 
very  likely  resume  his  place  in  the  several  scientific  societies 
which  he  had  resigned. 

M.  Milne  Edwards  has  been  appointed  president  of  the 
French  Scientific  Association,  which  was  founded  by  M. 
Leverrier  thirteen  years  ago.  Under  the  direction  of  M. 
Leverrier  the  association  spent  not  less  than  250,000  francs  for 
scientific  purposes,  and  has  accumulated  a  sum  of  about  400^000 


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francs.  The  association  is  supported  solely  by  volimtary  contri- 
butions, and  meets  yearly  at  Paris.  Many  improvements  are 
contemplated  by  the  new  president 

A  CHIMPANZEE,  about  7,\  years  old,  has  been  recently  placed 
on  view  at  the  Westminster  Aquarium  by  Mr.  FarinL  It  is  very 
gentle  indisposition,  and(is*undergoingan  education  in  the  usages 
of  civilised  life  at  the  hands  of  its  keeper,  Mr.  Zack  Coup.  For 
some  time  it  has  been  in  one  of  the  private  houses  at  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  and  there  it  caught  cold.  On  its  removal  to  the  room 
at  the  Aquarium,  where  a  temperature  of  about  70*  is  maintained, 
it  improved,  but  the  fog  of  yesterday  (Wednesday)  seemed  to 
oppress  it  very  much.  It  is  suffering  both  in  head  and  lungs, 
though  it  still  struggles  very  successfully  to  be  cheerful  and  enter- 
taining. It  is  curious  that  Pongo's  lungs  were  found  all  sound, 
though  the  few  chimpanzees  that  have  been  exhibited  in  Europe 
have  succumbed  to  lung  disease.  With  the  chimpanzee  are  also 
a  very  fine  cynocephalu?,  a  "sacred"  monkey  from  India,  and 
a  number  of  monkeys  less  rare.  There  are  close  by  a  python,  a 
boa,  and  two  anacondas,  and  in  order  to  insure  that  they  shall 
not  be  hidden  in  rugs  when  visitors  want  to  see  them,  they  are  at 
intervals  exhibited  by  an  Abyssinian  girl,  who  goes  through  the 
ceremony  of  an  incantation  oich  time. 

In  his  introductory  address  at  the  opening  meetmg  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  Sir  Alexander  Grant  stated  that  the 
society  was  an  emanation  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
from  which  it  sprang  on  the  suggestion  of  Principal  Robertson 
in  the  latter  part  of  1782.  Thus,  in  the  same  year  that  the  Uni- 
versity would  celebrate  its  tercentenary  the  society  would  be  able, 
perhaps  conjointly,  to  celebrate  its  looth  birthday.  In  one 
essential  particular  it  diifered  from  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
From  the  first  the  promotion  of  literature  as  well  as  science  was 
the  object  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  But  it  had  been 
observed  that  the  literary  element  in  their  proceedings  had  been 
gradually  dwindling  away.  Sir  Alexander  had  inquired  as  to 
the  number  of  papers  not  connected  with  philosophical  sciznce 
which  had  been  contributed  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  and  it 
appeared  to  be  considerably  less  than  forty,  or  little  more  than 
two  per  annum.  In  the  last  fifteen  years,  out  of  about  370 
ordinary  Fellows  of  the  Society,  only  about  twenty  had  come 
forward  to  contribute  papers  other  than  philosophical  or 
mathematical  The  Council  of  the  Society  have  awarded  the 
Macdougall-Brisbane  prize,  consisting  of  a  gold  medal  and 
15/.  14J.  7<£,  to  Mr.  Alex.  Buchan,  for  his  paper  on  "The 
Diurnal  Oscillations  of  the  Barometer.'*  Pro£  Balfour  reported 
that  the  membership  of  the  Society  at  present  was  427,  con- 
sisting of  373  ordinary  and  fifty-four  honorary  or  non-resident 
FeUows. 

Adtices  from  the  Howgate  Arctic  Expedition  have  been 
received  up  to  the  date  of  October  2,  at  which  time  the  vessel 
had  reached  Niantitik  Harbour,  in  Cumberland  GuUl  The 
passage  of  forty-three  days  from  New  London  had  been  very 
stormy,  but,  as  far  as  reported,  without  any  disaster.  Mr.  L. 
Kumlien,  the  naturalist  of  the  party,  had  gathered  some  speci- 
mens, but  did  not  find  the  promise  of  suitable  collecting  ground 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  very  good.  He  hoped,  however,  to 
change  his  quarters  to  a  better  location. 

We  learn  from  the  Isvestia  of  the  Russian  Geographical 
Society,  that  at  the  beginning  of  September  M.  Prshevabky 
had  already  started  for  Tit)et.  He  is  accompanied  by  an  aid,  M. 
Ecklon,  four  cossacks,  and  two  soldiers.  Having  arrived  at 
the  conclusion  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  reach  Tibet  by  way 
of  Lake  Lob-Nor,  he  will  try  the  route  through  Guchen  and 
Hami,  and  thence  to  Zaidam  and  the  upper  parts  of  the  Blue 
River.  He  expects  to  be  at  Lassa  next  year,  about  May  or 
June,  and  if  he  succeeds,  he  will  remain  in  Tibet  for  a  year. 

After  having  penetrated  last  year  for  160  miles  up  the  Amu 
Daria,  the  Russian  steamer  Samarkand  has  penetrated  this  year 


as  far  as  the  [fortified  town  ChardjuL  A  complete  survey  of 
the  river  was  made,  and  considerable  botanical  [and  zoological 
collections  were  brought  back  by  the  officers  on  board. 

Russian  newspapers  announce  that  the  Morning  Dawn 
reached  St  Peteraburg  on  December  i,  having  left  the  mouth  of 
the  Yenissei  on  August  21.  This  ship,  or  rather  boat,  56  feet 
long,  14  feet  wide,  and  drawing  only  6  feet  water,  was  built  for 
the  transport  of  wares  up  the  Yenissei  from  Kure'ika.  It  was 
never  intended  to  go  to  sea,  and  "never,''  Prof.  Nordenskjdld 
says,  "  so  wretched  a  boat  dared  to  enter  the  waters  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean.''  Nevertheless  Capt.  S  wanenberg,  with  a  crew  of  four  men, 
safely  crossed  on  board  this  boat  the  Kara  Sea,  and  reached  the 
Russian  capital  after  a  hundred  days'  cruise.  With  a  com- 
pass almost  useless  because  of  the  deviation  occasioned  by  the 
iron  on  board,  and  struggling  with  ice,  he  reached,  on  August 
30^  the  Kara  strait,  where  he  experienced  a  heavy  gale.  On 
September  1 1  he  was  at  Vardo.  Thence,  after  a  fortnight's  stay, 
the  Morning  Dawn  went  in  tow  of  a  Norwegian  steamer  to 
Christiania,  and  further,  in  the  same  manner,  to  Goteborg,  which 
was  reached  on  November  3,  and  to  Helsingfors,  and  finally  to 
St.  Petersburg  The  reception  the  gallant  crew  met  with  in  the 
Norwegian  towns  was  everywhere  the  most  enthusiastic 

At  the  last  meeting,  December  7,  of  the  Russian  Geographical 
Society,  Col.  Tillo  read  a  report  on  the  magnetical  measurements 
made  by  M.  Smimoff  in  Russia.  These  measurements,  accom- 
plished with  the  utmost  accuracy,  embrace  no  less  than  548 
places,  the  declinations  and  inclinations  having  been  measured 
at  287  places,  and  the  former  alone  at  261.  At  the  same  meeting 
the  Society  resolved  to  enter  into  relations  with  different  govern- 
ments in  refetence  to  the  establishment  of  polar  meteorological 
stations,  and  to  submit  an  elaborate  Kheme  in  connection  with 
that  subject  to  the  next  International  Meteorological  Congress. 

Germany  is  still  waging  war  against  the  illegal  use  of  the 
doctor's  title.  A  "  Dr."  Harmuth  in  Berlin  who  received  his 
diploma  from  Philadelphia,  was  lately  sentenced  to  pay  300 
marks  for  using  the  prefix  publicly. 

M.  PoLYAKOFF,  who  was  sent  by  the  St.  Petersburg  Academy 
of  Sciences  for  the  exploration  of  the  mammoth  remains  in  the 
Government  of  Tomsk,  has  now  returned  to  St.  Petersburg  after 
having  made  a  journey  in  the  Western  Altai,  the  Kiigbiz 
Steppe,  and  in  the  Seven  Rivers*  Province,  where  he  visited  the 
lakes  Alakul  and  Balkash.  He  brings  back  (very  rich  collec- 
tions of  animals  and  plants,  and  the  results  ,of  his  varied  obser- 
vations will  appear  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy. 

The  scheme  for  telegraphing  without  wirei^  the  New  York 
Tribune  states,  by  means  of  aerial  currents  of  electricity,  has 
been  revived  by  Prof.  Loomis.  He  has  met  with  success  in 
using  kites  for  this  purpose,  a  copper  wire  being  substituted  for 
the  usual  kite  string.  Signals  were  transmitted  thus  between 
kites  ten  miles  apart  His  new  experiments  are  made  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  West  Virginia,  between  lofty  peaks. 
Continuous  aerial  currents  are  found  at  these  altitudes,  which 
will  serve  the  purposes  of  the  telegraph,  except  when  rarely  inter- 
rupted by  violent  disturbances  of  the  atmosphere.  A  scheme  is 
now  on  foot  to  test  the  merits  of  aerial  tel^raphy  in  the  Alps. 

The  youmal  of  Forestry ^  which  started  in  the  month  of  May 
last,  in  the  interest  of  forest  conservancy  and  management  gene- 
rally, maintains  the  reputation  which  the  early  numbers  indi- 
cated. In  recent  numbers.  Prof.  Boulger,  F.LS.,  has  con- 
tributed some  papers,  which  are  being  continued,  on  ''Cul- 
tural First  Principles,"  m  which  he  considers  (i)  "climate," 
(2)  the  "nature  of  the  soil,"  and  (3)/*  theoretical  considerations 
(as  to  the  treatment  of  the  soil"  In  this  latter  portion  of  the 
subject  drainage  forms  of  course  no  inconsiderable  part.  Sloping 
plantations,  it  is  shown,  will  seldom  require  artificial  drainage. 


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[Dec.  20,  1877 


for  such  a  sitnation  on  high  ^oils  is  qnite  stated  for  conifers,  and 
if  on  heavy  soils  sufficient  for^oak  and  other  hard-wooded  trees. 
Mr.  Boulger  points^ut,  what  ought  to  be  apparent  to  aU,  that 
the  growth  of  rushes,  the  wood  rush  {Lutu/a),  the  bog  asphodel 
{J^arfAfcium),  a  yellow  star-like  plant,  the  tufted  hair-grass 
{Aira  caspUosa\  or  of  mosses  on  the  surface,  are  sure  indications 
of  the  absolute  necessity  of  drainage.  Though  these  are  facts 
with  which  a  practical  forester  is  well  acquainted,  it  is  never- 
theless necessary  to  impress  them  upon  the  minds  of  all  interested 
in  forest  produce.  Some  useful  hints  as  to  the  preservation  of 
timber  for  fencing,  or  in  damp  underground  situations,  are  given 
in  the  number  of  the  youmaHoi  the  current  month. 

R.  PiCTET  descrit>es  some  interesting  experiments  {Arch.  Sc, 
PAys»,  lix.)  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  conditions 
under  which  transparent  or  non-transparent  ice  is  formed.  It 
was  ascertained  that  water  frozen  in  a  vessel  dipped  in  a  cold 
glycerine  solution  formed  perfectly  transparent  ice  as  long  as  the 
temperature  ranged  between  o^  and  —  i  '$**>  If  the  solution  was 
cooled  below  —  3^  the  ice  was  whitish  and  of  a  less  specific 
gravity,  these  properties  being  intensified  with  the  lowering  of 
the  temperature.  No  difference  in  the  melting-point  or  amount 
of  warmth  required  for  melting  was  observable  among  the 
various  varieties  of  ice.  The  opacity  of  ice  results  from  an 
irregular  arrangement  of  the  ice-crystal,  as  well  as  from  the 
presence  of  small  bubbles  of  air-4ess  than  i  mm.  in  diameter — 
which  are  mechanically  inclosed.  They  can  be  removed  by 
slowly  conducting  through  freezing  water  large  bubbles  of  air 
which  carry  with  them  the  small  babbles. 

At  a  public  meeting  held  in  the  Cheltenham  Masonic  Hall  on 
December  15,  Sir  F.  Abbott  in  the  chair,  it  was  resolved  to 
institute  a  "Cheltenham  Philosophic  Society,"  which  should 
hold  its  meetings  during  the  winter  months.  Upwards  of  fifty 
gentlemen  signified  their  desire  to  become  members,  and  a  com- 
mittee was  formed  to  draw  up  rules  to  be  submitted  at  a  future 
date  to  a  general  meeting  for  their  sanction. 

Dr.  John  Rak  asks  as  to  state  that  in  his  paper  on  Eskimo 
skulls  read  at  the  Anthropological  Institute  on  May  8  last,  and 
published  in  the  newly4ssned  number  of  the  youmal  of  the 
Institute,  lie  by  mistake  called  the  Western  Eskimo  Brachy. 
cephalic,  whereas  they  are  Mesocephalic. 

In  the  letter  on  the  meteor  last  week,  p.  124,  *\%  (±  2)  x 
Lyrse,''  should  be  8  (db  2)  times  Lyrse. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  pair  of  Musk  Deer  (Moschus  moschiferui\ 
from  Central  Asia,  presented  by  Sir]  Richard  Pollock ;  a  pair 
of  Axis  Deer  {Cervus  axis),  from  India,  presented  .by  Dr.  Carl 
Siemens;  a  Diana  Monkey  {Cercopitk^cm  diana),  from];West 
Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  P.  Spink ;  a  Bonnet  'i/Lovk.ty XMmocus 
r€Matus\  from  India,  presented  hj  Mr.  T.  H.  Evans ;  a  Patas 
Monkey  (CercopUMecus  ruUr),  from  West  Africa,. a  Red-backed 
Saki  (PiiJUda  chiropoUs),  a  Red-faced  Spider  Monkey  {Ateles 
pamscus\  two  Kinkajons  (Cercoleptes\  caudwohmlus\  >  Coati 
{Noma  nadca\  an  Azara'f  Fox  {Canis  asara),  a  Black  Vulture 
{CatAartis  atrmius),  from  Soath  America,  deposited  two  Schle- 
gel's  Doves  (Chalcopeiia  puella),  from  West  Africa,  two  Lesser 
Razor-billed  Curassows  {MUua  tormentosa)^ (rom  South  America ; 
two  Waxwings  (Ampelis  garrulus),  four  Bullfinches  (Pyrrhula 
rubialia\  European,  purchased;  four  Common  Waxbills 
(Estrdda  cifurta),  two  Cinereous^  Waxbills  (Estrdda  ccrru- 
Usrens),  six  Orange-cheeked  Waxbills  (EstreUa  melpoda\  two 
African  Silver  Bills  {Afunia  cantons)  seven  Yellow-rumped  Seed 
Eaters  (Criihagra  chrysopyga),  from  West  Africa,  received  in 
exchange ;  a  Chinchilla  [Chinchilla  lanigera),  bom  in  the 
Gardens. 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

Cambridge.— The  Syndicate,  appointed  in  May,  1875,  to 
consider  the  requirements  of  the  university  in  different  depart- 
ments of  study,  have  just  issued  their  fourth  report  on^the  subject 
After  stating  that  in  their  opinion  the  inter-collegiate  S3rstem 
should  be  further  stimulated  and  supplemented  by  the  institutkm 
of  university  readerships,  and  that  by  a  more  complete  organisa- 
tion the  requisite  provision  for  teaching  and  the  encouragement 
of  research  might  oe  to  a  considerable  extent  made,  they  never- 
theless are  of  opinion  that  certain  subjects  of  great  importance 
are  not  now  represented  in  the  professoriate,  the  absence  of 
which  from  such  representation  constitutes  a  serious  defect  in  the 
Cambridge  system,  and  they  recommend  that  professorships 
amongst  other  subjects  should  be  created  as  soon  as  the  re- 
sources of  the  university  permit,  in  comparative  phUoiogy, 
mental  philosophy  and  logic,  physiology,  English  language  and 
literature. 

The  Syndicate,  with  regard  to  existing  professorships,  suggest 
that  the  Professorship  of  Mineralogy  should  be  for  the  future  a 
Professorship  of  Mineralogy  and  Mineral  Chemistry. 

There  are  other  subjects  of  scarcely  less  importance  of  which 
there  ought  always  to  be  recognised  teachers  in  the  University, 
although  the  Syndicate  are  not  prepared  to  say  that  the  teacher 
ought  always  to  have  the  status  of  a  professor.  Such  are  analy« 
tical  chemistry,  morphological  and  physiological  botany  (as  dis- 
ting^uished  from  systematic  botany),  comparative  anatomy  (as 
distinguished  from  zoology),  pathological  anatomy. 

In  other  subjects,  again,  it  is  desirable  that  the  University, 
without  establishing  permanent  offices,  should  have  the  means  of 
appointing  professors  or  other  teachers  from  time  to  time  when 
there  is  the  opportunity  of  securing  the  services  of  a  specially 
competent  person.  Such  arc  the  theory  and{history  of  education, 
as  also  some  special  departments  of  natural  science. 

The  following  is  the  Natural  Science  Tripos'  list  for  this 
year :— Class  I.— (2)  Ds.  Bower,  Trinity  ;  (4)  Cullen,  Christ's ; 
(I)  Fenton,  Christ's ;  (i)  Greaves,  Christ's ;  (2  and  3)  Hill, 
Downing ;  (i)  Ohm,  Emmanuel ;  (3)  Sedi^wick,  Trinity.  Class 
II. — Ds.  Harrison,  Christ's ;  HoUhouse,  Trinity  ;  Houghton, 
St.  John's;  Murton,  St.  John's  ;  North,  Sidney;  Taylor,  E.  F. 
Vinter,  Sidney.  Class  III.— Ds.  Allen,  St  John's  ;  Buckmaster, 
Downing ;  Foster,  Trinity  ;  Wallis,  St  John's ;  Weldon,  Cains. 
The  numbers  indicate  the  subjects  for  knowledge  of  which  the 
candidates  are  placed  in  the  first  class  as  follows : — i.  Physics, 
chemistry,  and  mineralogy.  2.  Botany.  3.  Zoology  and  com- 
parative anatomy,  human  anatomy,  and  physiology.  4.  Cveolpgy. 

Edinburgh.— The  second  meeting  of  the  session  of  the  Edin- 
burgh University  Chemical  Society,  was  held  on  the  12th  instant, 
John  Gibson,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair.  J. 
S.  Thomson  communicated  a  paper  on  solutions  of  litmus,  in 
which  he  explained  the  preservation  of  the  colour  of  such  solu- 
tions on  exposure  to  the  air  by  the  action  of  the  air  preventing 
fermentation.  He  also  read  a  paper  on  the  Determination  of 
Melting  Points. 

Technical  UNiVERsrry. — It  may  be  remembered  that  a 
Committee  of  the  City  Companies  has  been  for  some  time  at 
work  elaborating  a  scheme  for  founding  a  technical  university  in 
London.  The  last  step  taken  by  the  Committee  was  to  procure 
reports  and  suggestions  from  six  specially  nominated  referees, 
vis..  Prof.  Hujdey,  Col.  Donnelly  (of  the  Science  and  Art  De- 
partment), Capt  Douglas  Galton,  Mr.  H.  T.  Wood  (Assistant- 
Secretary  of  the  Society  of  Arts),  and  Mr.  BarUey  (of  the  Science 
and  Art  Department).  After  having  decided  on  these  names, 
the  Committee  adjourned  to  allow  time  for  the  preparation  of 
the  reports.  On  Thursday  last  week  they  met  again,  and  the 
reports  were  laid  before  them.  After  some  discussion  the  further 
consideration  of  the  subject  was  adjourned  till  January  17. 

Taunton  College  School.— The  Science  Scholarship  at 
Keble  College,  Oxford,  is  awarded  to  Mr.  R.  G.  Durrant,  of  the 
Taunton  CoUege  School.  This  is  the  fourth  brilliant  success 
that  the  school  has  gained  in  the  last  five  months,  and  it  is  pro- 
bably the  last.  The  able  science  master,  Mr.  Shenstone,  leaves 
at  Christmas  to  take  a  Science  Mastership  at  the  revived  Exeter 
Grammar  SchooL  He  will  not  be  replaced  at  Taunton,  and  the 
science  teaching,  which,  after  years  of  toil  against  obstacles,  b  just 
beginning  to  bear  firuit,  will  become  a  thing  of  the  past 


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Austria.— The  Austiian  Government  has  for  a  nnrnber  of 
years  been  accustomed  to  bestow  liberal  grants  to  the  more 
promising  students  in  the  universitieff,  under  the  condition  that 
the  recipients  shall  make  use  of  them  to  undertake  a  course  of 
study  in  the  German  universities.  The  results  of  this  plan  seem 
to  be  satisfactory,  for  we  notice  that  this  virinter  an  unususdly 
laiffe  number  of  students  in  all  brandies  have  been  sent  to  the 
yanous  universities  in  Germany. 

A  Berlin  PoLYTECHNia— Berlin,  with  all  her  numerous 
educational  establishments,  has  lacked  hitherto  a  polytechnic 
such  as  is  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  German  industrial  centres 
at  the  present  day.  This  want  will  soon  be  repaired,  a  com- 
mission having  completed  the  plans  for  an  extensive  institution 
which  will  embrace  nearly  ever^  branch  of  technical  education. 
The  plans  for  the  necessary  buildings  have  already  been  prepared, 
and  as  there  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  Prussian  Chamber  of 
Deputies  will  grant  the  9,300,000  marks  required,  the  work  of 
erection  will  commence  next  spring.*^ On  account  of  the  exten- 
sive character  of  the  proposed  edifices,  five  years  will  be  required 
for  completion. 

SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

London 

Mathematical  Society,  December  13.— C.  W.  Merrifield, 
F.R.S.,  vice-president,  in  the  chair.— The  Rev.  W.  Ellis  vras 
elected  a  member. — Mr.  S.  Roberts  read  a  paper  on  normals, 
which  contained  theorems  depending  on  the  mvariants  and  co- 
variants  of  the  quartic  equation  representing  a  pencil  of  four 
normals  to  a  conic,  and  drew  attention  to  the  remarkable  cubic 
locus  of  the  points  of  possible  concurrence  of  these  normals  at 
the  vertices  of  a  given  inscribed  triangle. — Dr.  Hirst  and  Mr. 
J.  J.  Walker  spoke  on  the  sub^  Prof.  Cayley,  F.R.S.,  read 
a  paper  on  "the  geometrical  representation  of  imaginary 
quantities  and  the  real  (iy»,  n)  correspondence  of  two  planes." 

Lixmean  Society,  November  15. — Dr.  Gwyn  Jeffreys,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  J .  Jenner  Weir  exhibited  a  case 
of  Alpine  butterflies,  interesting  for  their  similarity  to,  though  not 
specifically  identical  with,  those  obtained  by  the  naturalists  of  the 
Polar  Expedidon. — ^Three  papers  on  the  Arctic  fauna  followed. 
I.  Report  on  the  Insecta  including  Arachnida,  collected  by 
Capt  Feilden  and  Mr.  Hart  during  the  recent  Arctic  expedition, 
by  R.  McLachlan.  It  seems  there  were  obtained  of  Hymenop- 
tera  5,  Coleoptera  i,  Lepidoptera  13,  Diptera  15,  Hemiptera 
I,  Mallophaga  7,  CoUembola  3,  Araneida  6,  and  of  Acarida  6 
species,;^namely,  a  total  of  57  species.  Bearing  in  mind  these 
are  from  localities  between  78^  and  83**  N.  lat.,  that  among  them 
are  thirty-five  specimens  of  gaily-coloured  butterflies  and  two 
species  of  humble-bees,  and  it  becomes  evident  the  insect-fauna 
cu  this  so-called  *'  land  of  desolation  "  is,  after  all,  not  so  meagre 
as  anticipated.  The  paucity  of  beetles  and  abundance  of  butter- 
flies are  each  striking  features.  From  variations  in  certain  well- 
known  species  obtained,  Mr.  McLachlan  suspects  theylrepresent 
a  local  uuna,  and  he  regards  the  latter  as  having  affinitr  to  the 
Lapland  fauna,  inclining  to  think  both  are  but  lingermg  rem- 
nants of  a  once  former  and  extensive  drcumpolar  fauna. — II. 
Preliminaiy  notice  on  the  surface  fauna  of  the  Arctic  Seas 
as  observed  in  the  recent  Arctic  expedition,  by  Dr.  Edw.  L. 
Moss  (late  suigeon,  H.M.S.  Alert),  The  author  observes  that 
the  seas  north  of  the  Greenland  settlements  are  subject  to  such 
varying  conditions  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  that  their 
surface-fauna  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  very  constant.  Never- 
theless, judging  from  what  fell  under  his  observation  during  the 
voyage,  he  divides  the  watery  area  into  three  zoological  regions  : 
{a)  A  district  in  the  latitude  of  Melville  Bay,  temporarily  mono- 
polised by  infusoria,  Peridinea :  (6)  a  north-water  region  inhabited 
by  Pteropods,  Tunicates,  and  Hydrozoa ;  and  {c)  a  sub-glacial 
region  comparatively  lifeless,  so  far  as  sea-surface  implies. — III. 
On  the  annelids  of  the  British  North  PoUr  Expedition  (1875-76), 
by  Dr.  W.  C  Mcintosh.  This  collection,  dredged  between  70* 
and  82^  N.,  was  not  so  rich  in  numbers  or  s^aes  as  that  pro- 
cured by  the  storeship  Vaior<ms  in  Davis  Straits,  but  some  eight 
species  were  got  which  were  not  among  the  latter's  collection. 
None  are  new,  but  notwithstanding  they  help  to  render  clear 
some  points  in  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  marine  worms, 
so  far  as  the  drcumpoliur  area  is  concerned. — Dr.  H.  Trimen 
exhibited  specimens  of  the  Olibanum,  or  Frankincense  tree 
{BosweUia  carterU^  Birdw.),  gathered  by  Mr.  J.  Collins  from  the 
trees  planted  at  Aden.    Dr.  Trimen,  in  malung  some  remarks 


on  the  variability  of  the  foliage  of  the  species  of  Bonuellia,  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  iSnsXB,  BhaU'Dajianta^  Birdw.,  was  not  speci- 
fically separable  from  B.  Carterii,  B,  Frereana^  which  yields  the 
fragrant  resin  called  "  Luban  Metyi,"  and  which  Hanbury  con- 
sidered to  be  the  African  "Elemi/'  is  much  chewed  by  Orientals, 
but  rarely  imported  into  England.  It  is  found  in  the  Somali 
land,  where  rlildebrandt  recently  collected  it  ^The  following 
gentlemen  were  dected  Fellows  of  the  Sodety :  Mr.  W.  S. 
Lawson,  Mr.  W.  Joshua,  and  the  Rev.  M.  A.  Mactherd. 

Geological  Society,  December  5. — Pro£  P.  Martin  Duncan. 
F.R.  S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  Isaac  Bayley  Balfoar,  David 
Bums,  Samuel  Cooke,  Henry  Drummond,  Sandford  Fleming, 
Rev.  John  Hodgson,  WiUiam  Etheldred  Jennin^  Henry  Merry- 
weatlier,  Robert  Robinson,  Martin  Stewart,  George  Eastlake 
Thoms,  Robert  F.  Tomes,  and  Irwine  J.  Whit^,  were  dected  Fel- 
lows of  the  Society.— A  portrait  of  Mr.  J.  Evans,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
V.P.G.S.,  was  presented  by  the  President. — The  following  com- 
munications were  read :— On  the  building-up  of  the  White  Sinter 
Terraces  of  Roto-M^hkni^  New  Zealand,  by  the  Rev.  Richard 
Abbay,  M.A.,  F.G.S.— Additional  notes  on  the  Dimetianand 
Pebidian  Rodcs  of  Pembrokeshire,  by  Henry  Hicks,  F.G.S. 
The  additional  facts  communicated  by  the  author  show  that  at  a 
distance  of  about  ten  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Dimetian  axis  of 
St  David's  there  is  another  rid^  of  these  rocks,  which  also  runs 
nearly  parallel  with  it  This  is  also  flanked  by  Pebidian  and 
Cambrian  rocks,  and  made  up  of  rocks  like  those  in  the  St 
David's  axis.  The  Dimetian  formation,  so  fJBur  as  it  u  at  present 
known,  consists  chiefly  of  the  following  rocks  : — i.  Quartz  por* 
phyriea,  containing  firequently  perfect  quartz  crystals  (double 
pyramids),  subangmar  masses  of  quartz,  and  crystals  of  felspar 
m  a  felspathic  matrix.  2.  Fine-grained  greyish  quartz-rodcs, 
very  compact,  and  interstratified  with  the  above.  3.  Ashy- 
looking  shales  of  a  dull  green  colour,  sometimes  highly  indur- 
ated, but  usually  showing  lines  of  lamination.  Microscopically 
these  show  basaltic  characters,  and  are  probably  greatly  altered 
interbedded  basaltic  lavas.  4.  Compact  granitic-looking  rocks. 
5.  Quartziferous  breccias.  6.  A  scries  of  compact  quartzites 
and  crystalline  schists,  interstratified  by  green  and  purple  altered 
basaltic  lavas,  with  a  slaty  and  schistose  foliation,  and  by  some 
dolomitic  bands.  Of  the  Pebiduin  formation  new  areas  were 
added,  and  the  portions  described  in  the  author's  previous  paper 
were  further  extended,  and  details  as  to  the  chief  mineralogical 
characters  added.  At  the  base  of  the  series  resting  unconform- 
ably  on  the  Dimetian  is  seen  on  agglomerate  composed  of  large 
angular  masses  of  a  spherulitic  felstone,  pieces  of  quartz  and 
quartzites,  indurated  snales,  crystalline  schists,  &c,  cemented 
together  by  a  sea-green  matrix  of  fektone.  These  are  followed 
by  conglomerates  of  the  same  materials,  which  are  again  suc- 
ceeded by  indurated  shales,  often  highly  porcellanitic  in  charac- 
ter, with  a  conchoidal  fracture.  These  are  followed  by  a  thick 
series  of  silvery  white  and  purplish  shales  gad  green  slates,  alter- 
nating with  fine  and  rough  ashes,  often  conglomeritic,  homstone 
breccias,  felstone  lavas,  &c.  The  series,  as  exhibited  at  St 
David's,  has  a  thickness  of  over  8,000  feet ;  and  as  it  is  every- 
where, so  far  as  yet  seen,  overlapped  unoonformably  by  the 
Cambrians,  it  may  probably  be  of  much  greater  thickness.  It 
evidently  consists  very  largely  of  volcamc  materials,  at  first 
derived  from  subaerial,  but  sifterwards  from  submarine,  volca- 
noes. These  materials,  however,  were  also  undoubtedly  con- 
siderablv  aided  by  sediments  of  a  detrital  origin.  The  whole 
series  shows  that  the  sediments  have  undergone  considerable 
changes,  but  yet  not  suffident  to  obliterate  the  original  charac- 
ters, and  the  lines  of  lamination  and  bedding  are  usually  very 
distinct.  That  they  were  altered  neariy  into  their  present  state 
before  the  Cambrian  sediments  were  deposited  upon  ti^em,  is 
clear  from  the  fact  that  the  pebbles  of  the  Cambrian  conglome- 
rates which  rest  immediatelj  on  any  portion  of  the  series  are 
almost  invariably  made  up  of  masses  of  the  rodcs  below,  cemented 
by  gritty  materials  on  an  unaltered  matrix,  and  60m  which  the 
pebbles  maybe  easily  removed.  The  great  conglomerates  at 
the  base  of  the  Cambrians,  everywhere  in  Wales,  indicate  that 
there  were  beach-  and  shallow-water  conditions  over  those  areas 
at  the  time,  and  that  the  sea  was  then  encroaching  on  an  uneven 
land,  becoming  gradually  depressed  to  receive  the  subsequent 
Cambrian  secument^-On  some  pre-Cambrian  (Dimetian  and 
Pebidian)  rocks  in  Caernarvonshire,  l^  Henry  Hicks,  F.G.S. 
In  this  paper  the  author  gave  an  account  of  the  special  examina- 
tion of  the  grc«t  ribs  of  so^alled  iatrasive  felspathic  and  quartz 
porphyries  which  are  found  associated  with  the  Cambrian  rocks 
m  Caernarvonshire^  made  by  hini  in  company  with  ProC  Hughes^ 


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[Dec.  20,  1877 


Mr.  HodlestoOy  and  Mr.  Homfray  last  sammer. — On  the  pre- 
Cambrian  rocks  of  Bangor,  by  Pro£  T.  McKenny  Hugnes, 
F.G.S.  The  author  described  a  series  of  slates,  a^lomerates, 
and  porphyritic  rocks  which,  near  Bangor,  are  seen  to  pass  under 
the  Cambrian  and  seem  to  rest  conformably  upon  the  quartz 
fclsites  and  granitoid  rocks  of  Caernarvon.  He  considered  that 
in  the  main  the  Bangor  beds  were  the  equivalents  of  the  Pebidian 
of  Dr.  Hicks,  while  the  Caernarvon  beds  nearly  represented  his 
Dimedan.  But  he  thought  there  was  as  yet  no  proof  of  an  un- 
conformity between  these  formations. — An  appHcndix  by  Prof. 
Bonney,  on  the  microscopical  examination  of  Uie  rocks  referred 
to,  accompanied  this  paper. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  December  5. — Mr.  H.  C. 
Sorby,  president,  in  the  chair. — ^The  president  announced  that 
in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Dr.  Lawson  it  had  become  neces- 
sary to  reconsider  the  subject  of  publication,  and  the  Council 
had,  after  careful  attention  to  the  matter,  decided  in  future  to 
publish  their  own  proceedings. — A  paper  by  Hcrr  Zeiss  on 
Abba's  apertometer  was  read  by  Mr.  Ingpen,  who  exhibited  the 
apparatus  to  the  meeting  and  farther  explained  its  construction 
and  method  of  application  by  means  m  black-board  diagrams. 
Mr.  Ingpen  also  described  Uie  method  of  measuring  angular 
apertures  last  adopted  by  Mr.  F.  H.  Wenham. — A  paper  by 
Mr.  F.  A.  Bed  well  on  Cephalosyphon  was  read  by  Mr.  Slack, 
who  afterwards  explained  the  structure  of  this  rotifer,  and 
pointed  out  the  special  features  to  which  attention  was  drawn  by 
the  author  of  the  paper. — Another  paper  by  the  same  author  on 
a  new  method  of  examining  Actinia  mesembryanthemum^  was 
read  by  Mr.  Chas.  Stewart ;  it  was  illustrated  by  drawings,  some 
of  which  were  enlarged  upon  the  black-board. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  December  11. — Mr.  George 
Robert  Stephenson,  president,  in  the  chair. — A  description  of 
Cofferdams  used  at  Dublin,  Birkenhead,  and  HuU,  by  Mr. 
Wmiam  James  Doherty,  Assoc.  Inst  C.E.,  was  read. 

GdTTINGEM 

Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  August  24. — ^The  division  of 
a  language  into  several  different  languages,  by  M.  Benferv. — On 
the  earthquake  of  Iqnique  on  May  9,  1877,  isA  the  tidal  move- 
ments thereby  produced  in  the  ocean,  by  M.  Geinitz. 

November  7. — Report  on  the  Physical  Institute  (department 
of  experimental  physics),  from  1871  to  1877,  by  M.  Riecke. 

November  14. — D  instead  of  N,  by  M.  Benfery. — Contribu- 
tions to  physiography  of  rock-forming  minerals,  \xf  M.  Lang. 

November  21. — Antiouities  in  the  south-west  01  Switzerland, 
and  in  Turin,  by  M.  Wieseler. — On  the  secondary  intestine  of 
the  ediinoideae,  l^  M.Ludwig. — Obituary  notices  of  M.  Hartmann 
and  M.  Marx« 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  December  io.~M.  Pcligot  in  the 
chair : — The  following  ^pers  were  read  : — On  some  appli- 
cations of  elliptical  functions  (continued),  by  M.  Hermite. — On 
invariants,  by  Prof.  Sylvester. — On  the  arrangements  which,  in 
the  system  of  a  navigation  sluice  with  single  oscillation,  conduce 
to  the  maximum  of  production  and  the  minimum  of  expense  of 
construction,  by  M.  be  Caligny. — On  the  development  of  eggs 
of  the  phylloxera  of  the  oak,  and  the  phylloxera  of  the  vine,  by 
M.  Boitean. — M.  Volpicelli  sent  a  note  tending  to  prove,  by  means 
of  potential,  that  induced  electricity  of  the  first  species  has  no  ten- 
sion.— Application  of  Leyden  jars  of  large  surface  for  disthbutbg, 
at  various  points,  the  effect  of  the  current  from  a  single  source  of 
electrid^,  with  strengthening  of  the  effect,  by  M.  Jablochkoff. 
Connecting  one  surface  of  such  an  apparatus  (called  in  this  case 
an  exciter)  with  one  of  the  conductors  of  a  machine  which  gives 
alternate  currents,  an  alternating  current  is  got  by  the  other  sur- 
fece  of  the  exciter  and  the  second  conductor  (or  the  earth),  more 
powerful  than  the  current  given  directly  by  the  machine.  If  a 
series  of  exciters  with  surfaces  of  nearly  500  square  metres  be 
thus  connected  with  a  machine  which  gives  a  spark  equivalent 
to  that  of  six  or  eifht  Bunsen  elements,  a  voltaic  arc  of  15  to 
20  nun.  is  obtained,  and  carbons  of  5  mm.  diameter  are  red- 
dened to  an  extent  of  6  to  10  mm.  from  their  extremity.  Such 
effects  are  utilised  in  electric  lighting. — On  the  law  of  absorption 
of  radiations  through  bodies,  uid  its  employment  in  quantitative 
spectrum  sudysis  (continned),  by  M.  GoVi.  He  shows  how  XMr- 
faca  0/  ckromatu  abufrftion  may  be  obtained  by  means  of  the 
analysing  photometer,  messnring  the  various  simple  radiations 
which  tfuce  part  in  a  oomplex  radiation. — On  some  properties 
of  chloride  A  caldumy  by  M.  Ditte.    He  deals  with  the  calorific 


phenomena  accompanying  the  reaction  of  water  with  this  chloride  • 
If  the  latter  be  anhydrous,  a  heating  is  observed,  and  fresh  addi- 
tions of  water  cause  successive  heatmgs  ;  but  if  the  chloride  be 
hydrated,  its  mixture  with  water  produces  at  first  a  considerable 
cooling  followed  by  heating  if  some  more  of  the  solvent  be  added. 
— Application  of  palladium  wire  to  determination  of  the  hjrdro- 
carbons  mixed  in  a  small  proportion  with  air,  by  M.  Coqaillion. 
It  is  necessary  to  operate  with  a  cherry-red,  near  white-red.  The 
results  agreed  with  theory. — On  the  development  of  the  functions 
of  M.  Weierstrass  according  to  the  increasing  powers  of  the 
variable,  by  M.  Andrd — On  the  lesions  of  the  nervous  system  in 
diphtheritic  paralysis,  by  M.  Dejerine.  There  is  aa  atrophy  of 
the  anterior  roots,  which  follows  destruction  of  the  cells  of  the 
anterior  horns  of  the  spinal  cord,  by  a  process  similar  to  that  of 
myelitis. — Orography,  by  M.  Schrader.  The  author  presented 
a  geographical  map  of  Mont  Perdu,  made  with  his  orography 
which  consists  of  a  circular  paper-covered  plate  with  central 
vertical  axis  carrying  a  sleeve  which  can  turn  round  freely.  Oa 
the  top  of  the  sleeve  is  a  telescope,  the  movements  of  whose 
frame  in  the  vertical  direction  are  communicated  to  a  pencil,  and 
transformed  by  gearing  into  to  and  fro  movements.  If  the  tele- 
scope describes  a  circle  round  the  horizon,  the  style  describes  a 
corresponding  circle  on  the  plate ;  if  the  telescope  goes  up  or 
down,  the  trace  produced  is  further  from  or  nearer  to  the  central 
axis.  A  spirit  level  being  fixed  to  the  telescope,  the  circle  made 
when  it  is  even, 'gives  a  means  of  estimating  the  heights  and 
depressions.— On  the  folding  of  the  lacustrian  strata  of  Auvergne 
in  Central  Limagne,  and  its  consequences,  by  M.  Olivier. — 
Influence  of  soil  and  forests  on  climate ;  temperatures  of  air 
layers  over  woods ;  consequences  as  regards  vegetation ;  effects  of 
currents  arising  from  differences  of  temperature  under  wood  and 
beyond  wood,  by  M.  Fautrat.  The  fngorific  action  of  the  forest 
is  very  manifest  in  the  hot  season.  Under  pines  in  September  the 
temperature  is  lowered  I  '60°.  Pure  sand  raises  the  temperature 
of  a  place.  Leafy  woods,  during  v^etation,  produce  a  slight 
lowering  of  temperature  in  the  atmosphere  above.  Above  pines, 
in  the  daytime,  there  is  always  a  rise  of  temperature,  from  the 
solar  heat  being  retained  by  the  vapours  enveloping  the  tree-tops. 
From  the  differences  of  temperature  within  and  without  woods, 
a  current  arises  in  the  wood  from  below  upwards,  and  round  the 
woods  course  lateral  currents  from  the  wood  to  the  plsdn. — On 
the  disinfecting  properties  of  ceUulosic  substances  carbonised  by 
concentrated  ralphuric  add,  by  M.  Gardn. 

CONTENTS                               pa;b 
Thb ''Inplsxiblb" xyi 

HVDtOPHOBIA,    II 139 

Dibn's  **  Cblbstial  Atlas  " 141 

OuB  Book  bHBi.F  :— 

Burbidge's  "  HoiUcuIture " 14a 

Meyer*  " Mittheilungen  aus  dem  k.    zoologischen  Museum  zu 

Dresden"    .     .    .    .    « 149 

Lbttbbs  to  thb  Editob  >- 

The  Radiometer  amd  its   Less<nis  — Prof.  G.    Cabby    Fostbb, 

F.R.S. ;  Dr  Arthur  Schuster 14a 

The  Proposed  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Station.  Aquarium,  and 

Pisdcultural  Institute — W.  A.  Lloyd    .    .     .    .    .    .    .  '  .    .  143 

The  '*  Challenger  "  Estimates  of  the  Volume  of  the  Gulf  Stream  — 

T.  Mkllaro  Reads 114 

The  Fossil  Perooospora  as  a  Primordial*  Plant.— Worthington 

G  Smith 144 

Thb  "Challengbr"  IN  THB  Atlantic  (^iM///M/ns/M(«f)  .    .    .  145 
On  thb  Prbsbncb   of  Oxygen   i^   the  Sun.     By  Dr.  Arthur 

Schuster 148 

ovb  astbonomical  column  \^ 

Jupiter^s  Satellites 149 

IXmati's  Comet  of  1858 149 

The  Obeervatory  of  Lyons 149 

The  Meteorite  of  June  14,  1877 150 

Prof.  Newomb 250 

Chbmical  Notes  :— 

Mineral  Oil  in  a  Lava  of  Mount  Etna 150 

Formation  of  Certain  Bodies  at  Temperatures  above  that  of  their 

Decomposition 150 

lodatcs  of  Cobalt  and  Nidcel 150 

Origin  and  Formation  of  Boradc  Add 150 

New  Modes  of  Forming  Ethylen  Ovygen 150 

The  Action  of  certain  Antiseptic  Vapours  on  the  Ripening  of 

Fruits 150 

A  Problem  in  Chemical  Affinity 151 

Halogen  Derivatives  of  Amines 15c 

Double  Saitt  with  Cyanide  of  Gold 151 

The  Fourth  Nitroboizoic  Add 151 

Influence  of  Isomerism  00  the  Formation  of  JUhen  between  Adds 

and  Alcohols 151 

Phosphides  of  Tin 151 

Chemical  Action  of  Light 151 

NoTM 15K 

UmrBBsmr  and  Educational  Intblligbncb 154 

SOCOrmS  AMD  ACADBMIBt 155 


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THURSDAY,   DECEMBER   27,  1S77 


THE  METROPOLITAN  SEWAGE 

THE  question  of  the  effect  of  the  main  outfall  sewers 
of  the  metropolis  on  the  reaches  of  the  Thames 
below  London  has  occupied  the  attention  of  engineers 
not  only  since  the  completion  of  the  works,  but  through- 
out the  long  series  of  years  when  those  works  were  under 
consideration.  Some  persons  qualified  to  make  accurate 
observations  and  draw  correct  deductions  from  them, 
asserted  that  large  masses  of  deposit  were  directly  due  to 
these  outfalls,  and  were  daily  increasing  in  magnitude, 
while  others,  demanding  equal  confidence  in  their  state- 
ments, asserted  that  no  such  deposits  existed— -in  fact, 
that  the  sewage  outfalls  tended  to  improve  the  bed  of  the 
river  by  increased  scour ;  thus  the  bulk  of  engineers  for 
a  long  time  held  diverse  views  or  suspended  judgment  on 
the  subject,  while  the  general  public,  not  knowing  whom 
to  believe,  trusted  it  would  turn  out  all  right  in  the  end. 
Inasmuch  as  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  is  bound, 
under  the  Thames  Navigation  Act  of  1870,  to  keep  the 
Thames  free  from  banks  and  other  obstructions  to  the 
navigation  due  to  the  flow  of  sewage  from  their  outfalls, 
and  to  carry  on  all  dredgin  g  operations  required  for  that 
purpose,  at  their  own  expense,  the  vision  of  the  possible 
cost  of  these  works  to  the  London  ratepayer  is  unlikely 
to  be  pleasing  ;  still  less  could  any  interference  with  the 
highway  to  the  most  important  port  in  the  world  be 
tolerated  by  the  Board  who  were  looked  to  for  its  preser- 
vation. In  1869,  the  metropolitan  main  outfalls  having 
been  opened  in  1863-64,  the  Home  Secretary  appointed 
Mr.  Rawlinson  to  hold  an  inquiry  on  the  reported  silting 
up  of  the  Thames,  which  was  then  causing  great  alarm  ; 
such,  however,  was  the  contradictory  nature  of  the  evi- 
dence, that  the  result  was  almost  nugatory,  and  the  ques- 
tion still  remained  in  abeyance.  In  the  course  of  the  last 
summer  the  Thames  Conservators  requested  Capt.  Calver, 
R.N.,  F.R.S.,  to  direct  his  attention  to  the  subject,  and 
report  to  them  thereon.  Before  pointing  out  the  conclu- 
sions arrived  at  by  Capt.  Calver,^  it  will  be  as  well  to 
direct  attention  to  the  part  of  the  river  under  considera- 
tion. The  northern  outfall  is  situated  immediately  above 
Barking  Creek,  which  forms  the  embouchure  of  the  river 
Roding,  and  is  about  two  miles  below  Woolwich ;  the 
southern  outfall  is  about  2}  miles  lower,  or  4^  miles  below 
Woolwich. 

In  the  face  of  the  fact  that  this  special  inquiry  was  held  and 
many  competent  witnesses  examined  with  the  sole  object 
of  determining  whether  or  no  the  sewage  outfalls  have 
caused  a  silting  up  of  the  river  in  their  neighbourhood,  or 
the  formation  of  shoals  and  mudbanks,  and  that  so  many 
observations  and  statements  have  since  been  made  with 
the  same  view,  it  seems  perfectly  monstrous  that  the 
question  should  still  remain  unsettled.  In  the  report  now 
before  us  we  have  the  last  contribution  on  the  subject,  or 
perhaps,  with  more  fairness  it  might  he  said  the  last  but 
one,  as  since  its  publication  Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette  has 
addressed  to  the  daily  press  a  letter  containing  a  direct 

>  "  Report  upon  the  Discharge  of  Metropolitan  SewiM  bto  the  Rhrcr 
ThaiMs  at  Barking  Creek  and  Cro«»ne»»."  By  Capt.  E.  R.  Calver,  R.N., 
'•R>& 

VOU  XTIL^NOli  416 


denial  of  many  of  the  conclusions  there  arrived  at  When 
professional  experts  differ  so  entirely  not  only  in  their 
conclusions,  but  also  in  the  facts  upon  which  these  con- 
dusions  are  based,  we  see  no  other  course  open  but  to 
appeal  to  the  cooler  and  more  unbiased  judgments  of 
pure  science. 

In  comparing  the  analyses  of  Thames  mud  from  various 
parts  of  the  river,  given  in  Capt  Calver's  report,  em- 
bodying a  series  taken  in  1867,  and  another  in  1868,  by 
the  late  Dr.  Letheby,  with  those  given  by  Dr.  W.  A. 
Miller,  and  Dr.  W.  Odling  in  1869,  so  close  an  agreement 
is  manifest  that  a  safe  conclusion  can  be  drawn  from 
them.    The  analyses  are  as  follows  :— 

Average  Percentage  Composition, 

Organic  matter    15*00        14*19        1867        Dr.  Letheby. 
Mineral      „        85xx>       85*81        1868  „ 

100-00      100*00 

On  these  analyses  Dr.  Letheby  remarks  that  the  above 
percentage  proportions  did  not  differ  materially  from  the 
quantities  of  organic  and  sewage  matters  which  he  found 
suspended  in  water  at  London  Bridge,  and  in  the  mud  at 
London  Bridge,  Chelsea,  and  Westminster,  when  the 
sewage  was  discharged  at  low  water.  The  next  table 
gives  nearly  identical  results  from  the  analysis  of  the  mud 
at  the  outfalls  in  1867,  and  those  of  the  suspended  matter 
in  the  Thames  water  at  Greenwich,  Woolwich,  and 
London  Bridge  in  1862,  by  the  same  chemist  Now,  Dr. 
W.  A.  Miller  so  far  agrees  with  these  results  that  in  his 
evidence,  given  at  the  inquiry  before  referred  to  in  1869, 
he  states  the  percentage  of  organic  matter  in  the  mud 
taken  from  Barking  Creek  to  be  16*2,  from  the  Thames 
between  Chiswick  and  Westminster,  15  8,  and  &irther, 
that  of  these  two  quantities  3*1  and  3*05  respectively  con- 
sists of  nitrogen,  and  finally,  in  answer  to  the  question  : 
*'  But  there  is  nothing  special  and  differing  in  the  mud 
at  Barking  from  the  ordinary  mud  of  the  River  Thames  ?  ^ 
he  says :  No,  the  composition  is  as  nearly  the  same  as 
may  be.  With  these  observations  Dr.  OdUng's  evidence 
closely  agrees. 

Here,  then,  we  have  an  agreement  which  nobody 
appears  to  dispute,  and  which  leads  inevitably  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  great  bulk  of  noxious  putrescible  matter 
left  uncovered  at  low  water  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
tidal  portion  of  the  Thames  owes  its  deleterious  character 
mainly,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  presence  of  sewage  matters. 

Having  carefully  pointed  out  and  established  this 
identity  of  composition,  Capt  Calver  proceeds  :  "  It  is, 
however,  equally  necessary  to  prove  that  there  is  enough 
of  this  material  in  the  sewage  discharged  from  the  out- 
falls to  account  for  the  large  accumulations  of  it  which 
have  found  a  resting-place  in  the  Thames  channel.*'  Here 
we  are  met  by  estimates  differing  in  the  wildest  manner, 
and  varying  from  35  to  100  grains  per  gallon,  and  again 
to  nearly  double  that  amount,  but  fortunately  we  are  here 
even  given  material  for  a  trustworthy  estimate.  In  the 
table  of  analysis  given  by  Prof.  WilHamson  of  samples 
taken  from  the  northern  outfall  in  September  of  this  year 
we  find  108 'oi  and  151*45  grains  per  gallon  as  the  actual 
amount  of  suspended  solid  matter  at  different  times, 
the  samples  being  collected  in  fine  weather.  Now 
abundant  evidence  has  been  given  at  various  times,  show- 
ing that  after  heavy  rain  the  sewage  contains  an  amount 


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{Dec.  27,  1877 


of  solid  impurity  equal  to,  if  not  greater  than,  that  in  the 
fine-weather  flow  ;  thus  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
lower  of  these  two  figures  is  not  in  excess  of  the  average. 
Capt  Calver  takes  the  amount  at  100  grains  per  gallon, 
and  multiplying  by  the  daily  discharge  quoted  as  120 
million  gaUons,  he  obtains  a  result  of  279,225  tons  per 
annum.    This  probably  does  not  exceed  one-half  the  true 
amount,  as  the  water  supply  of  the  metropolis  alone 
reaches  the  amount  assumed  for  the  daily  discharge,  and 
the  rainfall  over  the  drainage  area  gives  nearly  an  equal 
amount,  which,  for  the  reason  just  stated,  must  be  taken 
into  account    We  thus  appear  to  have  at  command 
upwards  of  half  a  million  tons  of  suspended  matter  dis- 
charged into  the  Thames  in  each  year,  which  is  amply 
stifficient  to  account  for  the  deposits  observed.    Thus  we 
read  in  the  report  that  ''  Mr.  Leach  (the  engineer  of  the 
Thames  Conservancy  Board)  reported  in  December  (1871) 
that  a  deposition  of  7  feet  9  inches  of  mud  had  formed 
between  the  upper  end  of  the  southern  embankment  and 
the  White  Hart  Draw  Dock,  Lambeth ;  that  another 
bank  100  feet  wide  and  6  feet  thick  occupied  the  river- 
frontage  of  St  Thomas's  Hospital,  &c    By  July  of  last 
year  a  material  portion  of  these  masses  had  been  cleared 
away  by  excessive  rainfiEdls."    Are  we  to  be  left  to  the 
mercy  of  such  an  unpleasant  remedy  as  the  floods  of  last 
autumn  to  abate  a  nuisance  of  such  magnitude,  threaten- 
ing, as  it  does,  the  existence  of  such  an  institution  as  St 
Thomas's  Hospital,  and  showing  how  soon  we  may  return 
to  the  unsanitary  state  of  aflairs  that  existed  twenty-five 
years  ago  ?    We  have  purposely  avoided  dealing  with  an 
equally  important  part  of  Capt  Calver's  report,  in  which 
he  points  out  the  danger  of  the  silting  up  of  the  navigable 
channel  of  the  Thames  below  London,  as  he  has  not 
shown  that  the  sectional  area,    though  varying   from 
year  to  year,  has  at  any  point  permanently  diminished, 
still   the    destructive    elements   have    been   shown  to 
exist,  and    the  forces  which  now  hold  them  in  equi- 
librium may  at  any  time  be  thrown  out  of  balance  and 
the  evil  creep  on  imperceptibly  if  once  the  eyes  of  the 
public  are  closed  to  its  existence.    Without  going  into  the 
question  of  the  value  of  the  sewage  estimated  by  the 
highest  authorities  at  1,000,000/.  per  annum,  thus  not 
only  wasted  but  employed  as  a  powerful  obnoxious  agent, 
enough  has  been  shown  from  the  report  before  us  to,  we 
hope,  show  the  suicidal  folly  of  discharging  sewage  whole- 
sale and  unpurified  into  tidal  rivers.    Yet  even  now  a 
scheme  is  under  consideration  for  the  collection  of  the 
sewage  from  a  large  area  in  the  Thames  Valley  and  for 
its  discharge  into  the  tidal  waters  of  the  Thames.    We 
believe  that  a  careful  perusal  of  Capt  Calver's  Report 
will  dispel  from  the  minds  of  the  Thames  Valley  Joint 
Board  all  hopes  of  a  satisfactory  though  expensive  solu- 
tion of  their  diflicult  problem  being  arrived  at  in  this 
manner.     As  a  remedy  for  the  state  of  things  he  has 
shown  to  exist  Capt  Calver  recommends  that  in  pur- 
suance   of  the   powers  they  possess  the  Conservancy 
Board  call  upon  the  Metropolitan  Board  to  dredge  away 
the  obstructions  they  have  caused;  this  may  be  indis- 
pensable at  present  and  may  be  an  unavoidable  and  con- 
stantly recurring  expense  until  some  profitable  scheme  is 
devised  for  utilising  the  metropolitan  sewage ;   in  the 
meanwhile  the  example  of  the  inhabitants  of  Abingdon, 
as  shown  by  the  letter  of  their  medical  officer  of  health 


in  the  Sanitary  Record  of  November  30,  shows  the 
inutility  of  other  towns  in  the  valley  of  the  Thames 
striving  to  follow  the  example  of  London,  and  further 
increasing  its  difhculties.  We  learn  from  Dr.  Woodforde's 
letter  that  the  whole  of  the  sewage  of  the  town  of 
Abingdon  is  purified  by  filtration  through  natural  soil 
being  frequently  absorbed  by  one  acre  of  land,  and  that 
the  amount  of  organic  and  inorganic  impurity  contained 
in  the  effluent  water  after  passing  through  the  land  is  far 
less,  in  some  cases  less  than  one  half  that  contained  in 
the  well  water  used  for  drinking  purposes  in  the  town. 
As  this  unprecedented  result  has  been  obtained  on  land 
of  a  character  which  exists  in  abundance  throughout  the 
Valley  of  the  Thames  we  think  that  the  towns  situated 
therein  have  not  far  to  look  for  the  solution  of  their 
difficulties. 


BOTANY  IN  GERMANY 

JahrbucherfUr  wissenschafUiclu  Botanik.  Heransgegeben 
von  Dr.  A.  Pringsheim.  Elfter  Band.  Erstes  und 
Zweites  Heft.    (Leipzig  :  W.  Engelmann,  1877.) 

THE  second  decade  of  volumes  of  the  Jahrbiicher  is 
now  begun,  and  up  to  the  present  shows  no  sign  of 
any  falling  off  from  the  high  standard  of  excellence 
attained  by  tlie  former  parts  It  is  somewhat  remarkable 
that  such  a  work  can  be  carried  on  successfully. 
Profusely  illustrated  (having  about  500  plates  in  the 
ten  vols.),  and  containing  papers  of  great  merit,  it  is  at 
once  evidence  of  the  marvellous  botanical  activity  of  the 
Germans,  and  the  energy  of  their  publishers.  A  glance 
at  the  list  of  papers  in  the  ten  volumes  shows  that  the 
Jahrbiicher  contain  papers  that  have  become  classical, 
and  have  been  contributed  by  men  who  have  risen  to  the 
highest  eminence  in  botanical  science.  Comparatively 
few  of  the  papers  are  contributed  by  Russians  or  Italians, 
hence  this  one  work  may  be  looked  ^on  as  almost  wholly 
the  result  of  German  research.  The  papers  contributed 
are  chiefly  morphological  and  physiological,  although 
occasionally  one  having  immediate  bearings  on  taxonomy 
is  introduced.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  German 
university  system  tends  greatly  to  foster  original  research, 
not  only  in  botany,  but  in  all  other  departments.  The 
botanical  institutes,  with  laboratory,  garden,  and  her- 
barium attached,1  the  way  in  which  the  students  are 
induced  not  only  to  learn  but  to  work  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  professor,  the  whole  system  of  private 
teachers  and  mode  of  promotion  of  the  professors  fosters 
research,  and  gives  a  thoroughness  and  heartiness  to  the 
work.  In  certain  departments  of  botany,  Britain  is 
second  to  none  with  her  Hooker,  Bentham,  and  Darwin, 
but  when  we  consider  the  enormous  "  microscope  "  power 
of  Britain,  we  cannot  help  thinking  that  much  of  it  goes 
to  waste.  There  must  be  himdreds  of  microscopists 
residing  near  our  coasts,  yet  what  do  we  know  of  the 
reproduction  of  our  algae  ?  A  glance  at  the  "  Botanischer 
Jahresbericht "  shows  how  few  British  botanists  there  are, 
and  also  that  each  contributes  comparatively  few  papers 
per  year.  But  quality  is  belter  than  quantity — work 
slowly  and  welL  The  time  is  no  doubt  coming  when  we 
may  look  for  increased  botanical  activity,  perhaps  the 
union  of  botanical  studies  to  medicine  has  had  something 
to  do  with  the  comparative  depression,  and  if  botany  b^ 


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comes  a  preliminary  instead  of  a  purely  professional  study 
by  becoming  more  diffused,  a  greater  taste  for  the  subject 
may  arise. 

Prof.  Pringsheim  contributes  the  first  paper,  one  part 
dealing  with  the  interesting  subject  of  the  budding  of  the 
fruit  of  mosses,  the  second  on  the  alternation  of  genera- 
tion in  the  Thallophytes,  a  subject  suggested  by  the  first 
part.  If  the  seta  of  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  moss  be  cut  into 
pieces,  and  the  pieces  cultivated  on  wet  sand,  protonema 
threads  will  grow  from  the  cut  portions,  and  produce  the 
usual  buds,  exactly  like  protonema  threads  developed 
from  the  spores  or  stem  and  leaves  of  mosses.  The 
anatomical  connection  of  the  protonema  with  the  tissue 
of  the  seta  can  be  observed  in  good  longitudinal  sections. 
Not  all  the  cells  can  give  rise  to  protonema, butonly  those 
of  the  middle  zone,  situated  between  the  peripheral 
cortical  cells  and  the  central  bundle.  These  cells  contain 
abundance  of  reserve  matter,  such  matter  being  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  moss-fruit.  The  product  of  protonema 
by  the  seta  of  the  moss  is  to  be  compared  to  the  budding 
of  the  prothallium  of  ferns  described  by  Farlow.  Prings- 
heim figures  in  the  two  plates  illustrating  the  paper,  the 
protonema  developing  from  the  seta  of  Hypnum  serpens^ 
H.  cupressiforme^  and  Bryum  caespitosum^  and  he  shows 
the  stem  and  seta  to  be  identical  structures. 

The  second  part  of  the  paper,  on  the  alternation  of 
generation  in  Thallophytes,  is  difficult  to  follow  without 
illustrations,  as  it  takes  for  granted  that  the  reader  is 
acquainted  with  all  the  recent  researches  on  the  lower 
plants.  Pringsheim  distinguishes  between  sexual  altema* 
tion  of  generations  and  vegetative  alternation  of  genera- 
tions (sprosswechsel),  the  fructification  and  vegetative 
propagation.  All  the  generations  of  Thallophytes  (as 
well  as  of  the  Cormophytes)  begin  with  one  free  cell  (the 
spore).  The  generations  in  the  Thallophytes  represent 
free  individual  plants,  while  in  the  Cormophytes  the 
generations  remain  in  organic  connection  and  in  their 
individual  sequence  appear  only  as  two  portions  of  one 
series  of  developments.  From  this  it  follows  that  the 
"fruits"  of  Thallophytes  never  have  the  value  of  a 
"  generation,"  and  also  that  where  the  development  is  due 
to  sexual  influence,  they  are  only  sexually  influenced 
organs  of  the  female  plant  Such  parts  are  the  fruits  of 
FloricUct^  also  apparently  the  Perithecia  and  Apothecia  of 
Ascomycetes,  which  do  not  behave  differently  from  the 
calyptra  of  the  moss  or  the  thickened  tissue  (gewebe- 
polster)  of  the  prothallum,  in  which  the  embryo  of  the 
vascular  cryptogams  is  developed.  Pringsheim  believes 
that  in  the  trichogyne  and  ascogon  the  influence  of 
fertilisation  is  spread  from  cell  to  cell  until  it  reaches  the 
spores,  just  as  in  mosses  and  ferns  the  reverse  process 
occurs,  and  the  influence  spreads  from  the  fertilised 
germinal  cell  to  the  archegonium.  Carpospores  and  asco- 
spores  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  not  as  sexually- 
produced  spores  of  a  sexually-produced  generation,  but 
as  truly  sexually-produced  spores,  developing  in  the 
sexually*  influenced  organ  of  the  mother  plant. 

The  second  paper,  illustrated  by  two  plates  of  diagrams 
and  occupying  nearly  half  the  part,  is  by  F.  G.  Stebler, 
"  Researches  on  Leaf-growth."  The  numerous  obser- 
vations made  on  A  Ilium  Cepa,  SecaU  cereale^  Triticum  vul- 
^are,  Cucurbita  melanosperma^  are  detailed  at  full  lengthy 
and  the  following  summary  of  the  result  of  the  paper  is 


given  at  the  conclusion.  The  leaf  begins  to  grow  very 
slowly,  then  growth  becomes  more  rapid  until  a  maximum 
of  rapidity  is  reached  ;  then  growth  becomes  slower  and 
slower  until  at  last  it  ceases.  The  leaf  thus  behaves  like 
other  growing  parts  of  plants.  The  growth  of  the  linear 
monocotyledonous  leaf  is  basipetal.  The  apex  zone  of 
the  leaf  ceases  earliest  to  grow,  then  succeeding  zones  in 
basipetal  order,  imtil  lastly  the  growth  of  the  basal  zone 
terminates  the  growth  of  the  entire  leaf.  Most  produc- 
tive of  increase  in  length  is  the  growth  in  the  basal  zone, 
but  at  different  times  the  maximum  activity  is  in  different 
zones,  the  absolutely  greatest  zone  of  growth  proceeding 
in  succession  from  the  upper  part  of  the  leaf  to  the  lower. 
The  maximum  period  of  growth  of  the  whole  leaf  is  the 
sum  of  the  maximum  periods  of  all  the  zones. 

The  linear  monocotyledonous  leaves  examined  in 
reference  to  alternations  of  growth  by  day  and  night 
showed  a  daily  periodicity  of  growth,  the  growth  dimi- 
nishing as  the  intensity  of  the  light  diminishes.  The 
maximum  of  growth  corresponds  to  the  greatest  intensity 
of  light ;  the  minimum  is  observed  to  occur  shortly  before 
sunrise.  The  cause  of  the  daily  periodicity  of  growth  is 
assimilation ;  as  assimilation  increases  the  growth  in- 
creases ;  as  it  diminishes  the  growth  diminishes. 

The  same  daily  periods  of  growth  were  observed  in 
etiolated  linear  monocotyledonous  leaves  in  the  dark,  the 
external  conditions  being  constant.  The  periodicity  has 
thus  been  transmitted. 

In  the  dicotyledonous  leaves  observed  the  daily  periods 
were  modified,'  so  that  after  the  maximum  of  growth  was 
reached  in  the  forenoon  a  retardation  took  place,  and  a 
gradual  diminution  of  the  growth  till  the  following  morn- 
ing before  sunrise.  At  daybreak  the  growth  rapidly 
increases  again  to  reach  a  maximum  in  the  forenoon.  If 
the  intensity  o(  the  light  is  small  the  maximum  is  later  of 
occurring  than  if  the  light  be  very  intense. 

The  maximum  of  the  day  periods  of  growth  of  the 
dicotyledonous  leaf  is  due  to  the  assimilation.  The  retard- 
ation during  the  day  occurring  after  the  maximum  of 
growth  (but  not  the  maximum  of  light)  has  been  reachedi 
is  due  to  the  action  of  the  light 

The  third  paper  occupying  the  remadnder  of  the  part  is 
by  Dr.  Celakovsky,  and  is  entitled,  "  Teratological  Con- 
tributions to  the  Morphological  Import  of  the  Stamens." 
It  is  illustrated  by  three  plates.  Considerable  uncertainty 
still  exists  as  to  the  morphological  value  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  stamen,  but  more  especially  of  the  anther. 
The  difficulty  does  not  exist  in  regard  to  the  pollen- 
bearing  caulomes,  but  there  are  still  difficulties  in  those 
cases  where  the  stamens  are  modified  leaves.  Whether 
the  question  can  be  settled  by  the  study  of  the  develop- 
ment alone  is  a  matter  of  doubt,  even  after  the  valuable 
researches  of  Warming  and  Engler  on  the  subject ;  and 
it  appears  likely  that  the  most  important  results  may  be 
expected  from  the  careful  study  of  the  numerous  abnor- 
malities of  stamens  so  constantly  met  with.  The  scien 
tific  study  of  the  teratological  developments  of  stamens 
must  therefore  be  looked  upon  as  of  the  highest  import- 
ance, and  Celakovsky — already  well  known  by  his  tera- 
tological researches,  here  describes  and  figures  the 
changes  (phyllody)  of  the  stamens  of  Rosa  chinetisis^ 
Dictamnus  albus^  and  in  the  double  flower  of  Camellia 
japonica. 


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There  are  two  important  questions  to  be  answered. 
I.  Are  the  pollen-sacs  mere  enlargements  of  the  leaf- 
substance  of  the  staminal  leaf,  or  are  they  special  deve- 
lopments somewhat  like  ''emergences''?  2.  Do  these 
sacs  belong  to  the  under  side,  upper  side,  or  both  sides 
of  the  leaf ;  or  are  there  differences  of  position  in  different 
plants  ? 

Cassini  and  Roeper  held  that  the  pollen-sacs  were 
cavities  in  the  leaf-parenchyma,  two  forming  on  each  side 
of  the  leaf,  so  that  the  margin  of  the  leaf  corresponded  to 
the  suture  between  the  sacs.  Mohl  considered  this  view 
only  to  hold  for  certain  cases,  as  the  Euphorbiaceae,  and 
found,  what  Bischoff  had  already  pointed  out,  that  in  all 
examples  examined,  as  in  poppy,  rose,  and  nigella,  the 
four  pollen  sacs  were  placed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf, 
and  that  the  margin  of  the  leaf  ran  along  the  two  posterior 
or  lower  loculaments.  Mohl  did  not  consider  the  sacs  as 
"emergences,"  and  differing  morphologically  from  the 
true  leaf,  as  he  says  that  the  connective  represents  the 
central  portion  of  the  modified  leaf,  while  the  loculaments 
are  the  thick  swollen  lateral  halves,  which  become  con- 
tracted in  length  and  breadth.  Mohl  considered  that  in 
the  plants  with  extrorse  anthers  both  the  loculaments  of 
each  anther  lobe  were  developed  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaf.  Alexander  Braun  pointed  out  in  1851  that  the 
anthers  were  produced  by  doubling  of  the  lamina  (Ueber- 
spreitung).  This  view  was  confirmed  by  Wydler  in  1852, 
who  compared  the  anther  to  the  abnormal  double  lamina 
in  the  leaf  of  Bignonia. 

Sachs  considers  the  anthers  to  be  appendages  of  the 
leaf.  He  compares  each  loculament  in  the  anther  of 
Cycads  and  Cupressineas  to  Sporangia  ;  the  four  pollen- 
sacs  in  the  Metaspcrms  being  "emergences"  from  the 
upper  side  of  the  leaf,  those  of  the  Archisperms  from  the 
lower  side.  Braun  still  further  examined  the  subject  and 
confirmed  his  original  views,  namely,  that  the  pollen-sacs 
do  not  belong  to  a  simple  leaf,  but  to  one  with  a  double 
lamina,  the  doubling  due  to  the  formation  of  an  "  emer- 
gence "  (in  Karl  Schiroper's,  not  in  Warming  and  Sachs' 
sense).  The  two  upper  anther  sacs  belong  to  the 
"  emergence,"  the  two  posterior  to  the  original  lamina  of 
the  leaf.  Celakovsky  in  the  paper  now  before  us  departs 
from  the  views  published  by  him  in  Flora  for  18741 
and  fully  confirms  the  views  of  Braun  and  Wydler. 

The  second  part  of  voL  xi.  contains  five  papers  by 
Pfitzer,  Koch,  Reinke,  and  Reinsch.  Dr.  Pfitzer's  paper 
is  on  the  rapidity  of  the  current  of  water  in  the  plants. 
It  contains  an  elaborate  series  of  researches,  the  first  on 
the  movement  of  leaves  due  to  the  absorption  of  water  by 
the  stem  and  root ;  the  second  by  means  of  solution  of 
lithium.  Dr.  McNab's  experiments  are  extended  and 
confirmed,  but  the  astonishing  rapidity  of  22  metres  per 
hour  was  observed  in  Helianthus  annus^  the  greatest 
rapidity  observed  by  Dr.  McNab  being  40  inches  per 
hour  in  Primus  Lauro-cerasus,  PfiUer  also  uses  a  solu- 
tion of  soluble  indigo  carmine  4  parts  to  1,000,  and  finds 
that  it  is  superior  to  solution  of  lithium,  as  it  can  be 
detected  at  once  instead  of  using  the  spectroscope. 

The  second  paper  is  by  Dr.  Ludwig  Koch,  on  the 
development  of  the  seeds  of  Orobanchaceae.  The  deve- 
lopment of  the  anatropal  ovule,  with  one  integument  is 
described,  and  the  development  of  the  embryo.  This 
agrees  with  the  description  given  by  Hanstein,  of  the 


embryo  of  Capsella.  The  endosperm  is  formed  of  divi- 
sions of  embryo-sac,  which  contains  antipodal  vesicles 
before  fertilisation.  The  third  and  fourth  papers  are  by 
Prof.  Reinke,  both  on  the  development  and  reproduction 
of  algae,  of  the  genera  Phyllitis,  Scytosiphon,  Asperococcus, 
and  Bangia,  the  observations  having  been  made  at  the 
2^ological  Station  at  Naples,  during  the  winters  of  1875 
and  1876. 

The  last  paper  is  by  Reinsch  :  "  Observations  on  new 
Saprolegnieae,  on  parasites  in  cells  of  Desmedica?,  and 
on  the  *  Spinous  Spheres '  in  Achyla."  A  number  of  new 
species  and  genera  are  described  and  fully  illustrated. 

W.  R.  M'Nab 

MOVING  DIAGRAMS  OF  MACHINERY 

PatefU  Working  Drawings.    By  H.  and  T.  C.  Batchelor. 

(London  :  Macmillan  and  Ca) 

ALL  who  are  engaged  in  the  teaching  of  kinematics 
and  of  applied  mechanics  must  often  have  ic  brought 
forcibly  before  them  the  difficulty  that  exists  in  making 
even  comparatively  simple  mechanical  motions  intelli- 
gible to  students  by  means  of  ordinary  drawings  and 
diagrams,  while  the  more  complex  motions  and  com- 
binations can  hardly  be  treated  of  at  all  profitably  with- 
out the  aid  of  working  models,  which  are  very  expensive, 
and  take  up  a  great  deal  of  space.  Again,  inventors  and  the 
proprietors  of  patented  mechanical  inventions,  are  often  at 
a  loss  to  explain  to  unscientific  or  uninitiated  persons  the 
advantages  of  their  systems,  and  costly  working  models 
have  to  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  avoid  the  mystification 
which  ordinary  mechanical  drawings  often  produce  in  the 
minds  of  those  not  accustomed  to  them,  or  who  are  not 
versed  in  the  principles  of  mechanics. 

To  supply  this  recognised  need  of  teachers  and  others, 
Messrs.  H.  and  T.  C  Batchelor  have  designed  and  worked 
out  a  most  ingenious  system  which  combines  the  mechanical 
movements  of  a  model  with  the  flatness  and  clearness  of  a 
diagram.  The  name  "Working  Drawings"  applied  to  these 
diagrams  is  somewhat  misleading,  especially  to  engineers 
and  others  accustomed  to  this  term  as  having  a  distinct  and 
special  meaning,  namely,  drawings  made  for  and  used  by 
the  workmen  employed  upon  the  construction  of  machinery 
to  work  from.  Working  drawings  are  essentially  drawings 
for  the  workshop,  and  that  is  the  universal  acceptation 
of  the  word.  The  meaning  attached  to  it  by  Messrs. 
Batchelor  is,  however,  very  ditferent ;  it  is  drawings 
which  will  work  moving  diagrams.  This  sense  is, 
perhaps,  more  critically  correct,  but  as  another  meaning 
is  the  generally  accepted  one,  we  cannot  but  think  that  it 
would  have  bc^sn  wise  if  a  name  had  been  given  to  these 
diagrams  more  descriptive  of  what  they  are.  They  are, 
in  fact,  moving  diagrams  or  sectional  working  models  of 
machines,  the  fixed  parts  being  lithographed  as  a  back- 
ground upon  a  firm  cardboard  mount,  and  the  moving 
parts  being  also  lithographed  on  card,  but  cut  out  and 
jointed  together  by  most  ingenious  mechanical  contri- 
vances ;  the  whole  being  no  thicker  than  a  sheet  of  stout 
cardboard. 

The  perfection  of  the  centres  upon  which  the  various 
parts  revolve  or  are  pivoted  together  must  be  seen  to  be 
adequately  appreciated,  for  while  these  centres  aJlow 
perfect  ease  of  motion  to  all  the  parts,  they  are  absolutely 


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steady  and  without  the  slightest  shake.  It  is  this  system 
of  centring  that  constitutes  the  patent  by  which  Messrs. 
Batchelor's  drawings  are  protected.  The  pivots  are  made 
entirely  of  card  and  paper  cut  in  a  most  ingenious  manner, 
by  which  both  freedom  and  steadiness  are  insured. 
Nor  are  the  centres  the  only  parts  of  these  drawings 
interesting  for  their  ingenuity ;  the  contrivance  for  holding 
down  the  sliding  parts  is  equally  good.  It  consists  of  a 
band  of  thin  paper  passing  over  the  sliding  part,  and 
printed  exactly  like  the  part  it  covers,  so  that  it  is  invisible 
except  on  dose  examination. 

The  first  of  these  drawings  which  is  before  us  is  a 
diagram  in  illustration  of  the  action  of  the  "  trunk  engine,** 
the  characteristic  feature  of  which  consists  in  making  the 
piston-rod  hollow  and  of  sufficient  internal  diameter  to 
allow  the  connecting-rod  to  be  attached  at  one  end  direct 
to  the  piston,  and  to  oscillate  within  the  trunk,  the  other 
end  embracing  the  crank-pin.  By  this  means  the  crank 
shaft  can  be  brought  nearer  to  the  cylinder,  considerable 
space  thereby  being  saved,  and  the  alternative  system  by 
which  direct  connection  between  the  piston  and  crank  is 
effected,  viz.,  the  oscillating  cylinder,  is  avoided,  with  its 
more  complicated  valve  gear  and  expensive  construction. 
The  double  trunk  system  represented  in  the  drawing  was 
the  invention  of  the  late  Mr.  John  Matthew,  who  for  many 
years  was  a  partner  in  the  eminent  firm  of  Messrs.  John 
Penn  and  Sons,  and  it  is  the  system  upon  which,  almost 
without  exception,  the  large  screw  engines  of  Messrs. 
Penn  are  constructed,  with  which  so  many  of  the  ships  in 
her  Majesty's  navy  are  fitted. 

There  is  nothing  to  be  desired  in  the  execution  of  the 
diagram  before  us,  of  which  the  name  of  Messrs.  Maclure 
and  Macdonald  is  a  sufficient  guarantee.  It  is  litho- 
graphed in  white  upon  a  blue  ground,  and  all  the  parts 
come  out  with  singular  distinctness.  We  could  have 
frished  that,  in  the  choice  of  an  example  for  illustration, 
a  more  modem  design  of  engine  had  been  selected. 
The  eccentric  rod,  with  its  lattice  bracing,  is  that  em- 
ployed in  the  old  beam  engines,  and  a  trunk  engine  made 
to  the  drawing  before  us  could  hardly  work,  for  the  crank 
pin  is  evidently  inserted  into  one  of  the  spokes  of  the 
fly-wheel,  and  unless  projecting  to  an  impossible  extent, 
the  trunk  could  not  clear  the  wheel ;  this  could  very 
easily  have  been  remedied  by  showing  the  '*  throw  "  of  a 
crank  behind  the  connecting-rod,  which  would  have 
aided  rather  than  detracted  from  the  clearness  of  the 
diagram. 

While  thus  criticising  the  particular  design  of  engine 
selected  for  representation,  we  can  only  express  admira- 
tion of  this  most  ingenious  system  of  illustrating  mecha- 
nical motions  and  the  action  of  machines.  For  educational 
purposes  it  will  be  of  the  highest  value,  and  there  are 
many  of  the  examples  in  Reuleaux's  masterly  work  upon 
the  "  Kinematics  of  Machinery,"  1  so  ably  translated  by 
Prof.  Kennedy,  to  which  it  might  with  great  advantage  be 
applied. 

We  feel  sure  that  Messrs.  Batchelor's  drawings  will  be 
a  great  boon  to  inventors  for  explaining  their  inventions 
to  others ;  and  as  supplementary  to  scientific  evidence  in 
disputed  patent  cases  and  other  litigation,  they  will  be 
found  of  value. 

C  W.  C. 

»  **Thcoreluche  Ki-.emattk." 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

\7%i  Editor  doa  noi  hold himsdf  responsible  for  opiniom  expressed 
by  JUs  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  0/,  rejected  manuscripts, 
N0  notice  is  tahen  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com- 
wmnications  containing  interesting  and  novel  /acts.} 

Oxygen  in  the  Sun 

From  the  time  of  the  discovery  by  Prof.  Draper  of  the 
presence  of  oxygen  in  the  sun  do«rn  to  the  present  moment  I 
have  devoted  most  of  my  leisure  time  to  the  consideration  of  the 
ouestion  as  to  why  tlie  oxygen  lines  should  appear  bright  while 
the  metallic  lines  should  appear  dark  In  the  solar  spectrum.  I 
was  led  into  this  inquir?  under  the  firm  belief  that  the  new  fact 
made  known  by  Dr.  Draper  might  lead  to  a  modificatioa  of 
existing  views  of  the  sun's  atmospnere,  and  it  was  consequently 
with  the  greatest  pleasure  that  I  read  in  last  week's  Nature  a 
communication  from  Dr.  Schu&ter  on  this  subject. 

The  views  which  I  have  arrived  at  being  in  my  opinion  hardly 
matured  enough  for  publication,  I  reserve  further  statement  at 
present,  but  will  so  far  anticipate  as  to  say  that  the  explanation 
which  I  am  disposed  to  maintain  necessitates  the  assumption  that 
oxygen  possesses  two  different  spectra — a  low  temperature  hand- 
spectmm  and  the  well-known  line-spectrum  of  high  temperatures. 
This  assumption  I  thought  warranted  by  the  behaviour  of  other 
non-metals  as  made  known  by  the  researches  of  many  spectro- 
scopists,  but  more  particularly  by  those  of  Salet  and  Lockyer, 
and  endorsed  by  the  low  temperature  absorotion  spectra  of  the 
metals  discovered  by  Koscoeaad  Schuster,  Lock>erand  Robert?. 
The  recent  research  of  Dr.  Schuster,  however,  has  now  placed 
this  assumption  in  the  position  of  a  fact,  and  all  who  have  fol- 
lowed recent  spectroscopic  advancement  will  recognise  the  value 
and  importance  ot  this  last  discovery. 

As  Dr.  Schuster's  explanation  of  the  brightness  of  the  oxygen 
lines  differs  fundamentally  from  that  wnich  I  am  inclined  to  hold, 
and  as  he  considers  this  view  warranted  by  the  result  of  his 
investigation,  I  will  beg  permission  to  make  a  few  brief  remarks 
upon  tbe  chief  points  ot  difference  between  us,  being  convinced 
that  their  discussion  cannot  fail  to  elicit  opinions  ot  interest  to 
all  concerned  in  the  progress  of  solar  physics.  This  ventilation 
of  op  nion  is  the  more  necessary  as  views  very  similar  to,  if  not 
identical  with,  those  of  Dr  Schuster's  had  occurred  to  me  and 
had  been  abandoned  for  reasons  which  I  will  now  explain. 

According  to  Dr.  Schuster,  "the  temperature  of  the  sun, 
at  some  point  intermediate  between  the  photosphere  and 
the  reversing  layer''  is  the  same  as  that  at  which  the 
spectrum  of  oxygen  changes  ;  that  is  to  say,  if  I  rightly 
interpret  these  words,  aiove  the  photosphere  the  temperature  is 
such  that  we  get  the  line  spectrum  of  oxygen  and  above  the 
reversing  layer  the  temperature  is  such  that  we  get  the  band 
(*' compound  line")  spectruoi.  This  state  of  affairs  would 
doubtless  account  for  the  reversal  of  the  **  compound  line  "  spec- 
tram  which  Dr.  Schuster  has  now  shown  to  he  present  in  the 
solar  spectrum,  but  I  fail  to  see  at  present  how  it  is  to  be 
reconciled  with  the  bright  line  oxygen  spectrum.  Let  us 
consider  the  conditions  more  closely.  All  observers  agree  in 
I^adng  the  reversing  layer  at  the  base  of  the  chromosphere— the 
pre»eot  hypothesis  necessitates  a  space  between  the  photosphere 
and  the  reversing  layer — 1>.,  a  space  sufficiently  extended  to 
contain  the  incandescent  oxygen  giving  the  line  speciruuL 
Neglecting  for  the  present  the  antagonism  between  these  views, 
let  us  assume  that  such  a  space  exbts,  and  for  the  sake  of 
simplicity  let  us  also  neglect  the  other  elements  which  may  be 
present.  Now  it  cannot  be  assumed  that  the  supposed  zone  is 
hiqher  in  temperature  than  the  photosphere — it  might  be  of  the 
same  temperature,  but,  being  ai>ove  the  photosphere  it  would 
more  probably  be  at  a  lower  temperature.  Let  us,  however, 
make  the  assumption  most  favourable  to  Dr.  Schuster's  view, 
viz.,  that  the  hypothetical  zone  is  of  the  same  temperature  as  the 
photosphere.  Then  we  have  a  zone  of  oxygen  exterior  to  the 
photosphere  and  of  the  same  temperature  as  this  last  region,  and 
above  the  oxygen  the  cooler  reversing  layer.  Thus  the  light  of 
the  photosphere  passes  unchanged  through  the  oxygen  zone,  and 
we  should  see  no  dark  lines  corresponding  to  the  une-spectrum 
of  this  gas.— As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  oxygen  hnes  are 
^f^^— hence  it  must  be  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the  photo- 
sphere, or  we  must  be  looking  through  an  enormous  stratum  of 


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it,  a  stntom  thick  enough  for  the  radiation  of  the  gas  to  over- 
power the  6erce  glare  of  the  photosphere  behind  it,  and  both 
these  views  have  been  shown  to  be  untenable. 
December  21  R«  Mbldola. 

Oxygen  in  Sea-water 
At  p.  267  of  the  second  volnme  of  the  **  Voyage  of  the 
Challenger^*'  Sir  Wy  ville  Thomson  writes : — 

"Mr.  Buchanan  drew  the  conclusion  in  explanation  of  the 
small  amount  of  oxygen  at  depths  of  300  fathoms  and  upwards, 
*  that  animal  life  must  be  particularly  abundant  and  active  at  this 
depth,  or  at  least  more  abundant  than  at  greater  depths.*  In 
other  words,  that  a  permanent  condition,  probably  of  all  con- 
ditions the  most  unfavourable  to  animal  life,  is  produced  .and 
maintained  by  its  excess." 

**  This  is  entirely  contrary  to  experience." 
The  words  in  inverted  commas  are  part  of  a  sentence  in  a 
short  report  in  Nature  (vol.  xvi.  p.  255),  of  a  paper  which  I 
read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  results  of 
the  analysis  of  so  many  of  the  samples  of  air  extracted  during 
the  cruise,  from  eea-water  of  different  sources,  as  I  was  able  to 
accomplish  before  my  connection  with  the  work  of  the  expedition 
ceased.  I  will  not  encroach  on  your  valuable  space .  by  antici- 
pating the  discussion  of  the  bearing  of  my  observations  and  those 
of  others  on  the  question  of  the  greater  or  less  abundance  of 
animal  life  at  different  depths  in  the  sea ;  but  as  the  above 
quotation,  from  its  fragmentary  character,  is  somewhat  mislead- 
ing, both  as  to  the  nature  of  the  belief  which  I  expressed  and 
my  grounds  for  holding  it,  I  must  ask  you  to  give  place  to  the 
concluding  sentences  of  the  above  report : — 

*'It  is  evident  from  these  figures  ^  that  between  200  and  400 
fathoms  there  is  a  great  consumption  of  oxygen  going  on,  and, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  its  being  consumed  otherwise  than  bv 
living  creatures,  the  conclusion  is  forced  on  us  that  animal  life 
must  be  particularly  abundant  and  active  at  this  depth,  or,  at 
least,  more  abundant  than  at  greater  depths  ;  for  at  less  depths 
there  is  more  opportunity  for  renewal  of  the  oxygen  by  reason 
both  of  the  greater  proximity  to  the  surface  and  of  the  existence 
of  vegetable  life.  This  conclusion  was  borne  out  by  the  nume- 
rous experiments  made  by  Mr.  Murray  with  the  tow-net  at 
intermediate  depths,  which  went  to  prove  the  existence  of  abun- 
dance of  animal  life  down  to  400  fathoms,  vegetable  life  never 
extending  to  much  below  100  fathoms.  Below  400  fathoms  life 
is  sparingly  met  with." 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  only  independent  experience  which 
exists,  namely,  Mr.  Murray's  observations  with  the  tow-net  at 
different  depths,  is  in  favour  of  the  conclusion  at  which  I 
arrived.  J.  Y.  Buchanan 

10,  Moray  Place^  Edinburgh,  December  13 


On  some  Peculiar  Points  in  the  Insect-Fauna  of  Chili 

For  some  years  past  I  have  been  particularly  interested  in 
some  points  in  the  entomology  of  Chili  and  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  South  America,  which,  although  known  to  most 
entomologists  who  have  made  special  groups  their  study,  have 
rever  yet  been,  so  far  as  I  know,  even  more  than  casually  alluded 
to  in  works  on  geographical  distribution,  and  are  ignored  in  the 
principal  ones.  I  allude  to  the  occurrence  in  that  part  of  the 
world  of  Well-marked  palaearctic  or  nearctic  forms  not  found 
otherwise  in  America  south  of  Mexico,  and  utterly  unknown  in 
the  southern  hemisphere  in  the  Old  World. 

I  have  collected  a  not  inconsiderable  amount  of  data  con- 
cerning this  subject,  and  have  the  intention  of  addressing  a 
circular  to  zoologists  and  also  to  botanists,  .asking  for  further 
information. 

I  will  here  allude  to  such  familiar  genera  as  Carabus  amongst 
beetles  and  Argynms  and  Colias  amongst  butterflies.  Carabus 
\i  ytry  abundant  in  species  in  the  palaearctic  region,  poor  in  the 
nearctic,  and  reappears  (for  the  whole  world)  ontv  in  ChilL 
The  distribution  ol  Argynnis  and  Colias  is  similar,  only  that  they 
are  about  equally  abundant  in  the  two  northern  regions,  and  of 
Colias  it  appears  probable  that  a  single  species  occurs  in  Peru, 
but  this  exception  only  proves  the  rule. 

In  the  Trichoptera,  or  Caddis-flies,  a  group  of  insects  in  which 
I  am  especially  interested,  there  is  even  a  still  more  striking 
case.  The  typical  family,  Limnophilida^  comprising  those  insects 
the  larvse  of  which  manufacture  the  cases  of  twigs  and  straws,  so 


I  A  table  of  the  mean  amousts  of  oxycen  in  a  hundred  parts  of  oxygen 
and  nitrogen  contsined  in  waters  from  different  depths 


abundant  in  our  ponds  and  ditches,  and -which  is  so  rich  in 
species  in  northern  regions,  is  not,  with  the  exception  stated 
below,  known  south  of  Mexico  in  the  New  World  nor  south  of 
the  Himalayas  in  the  Old ;  but  I  have  several  species  from  Chili, 
Araucania,  and  the  FalkLuid  Isles. 

I  could  already  multiply  parallel  instances,  but  have  said 
enough  to  prove  my  case. 

Confessedly  I  have,  at  present,  only  crude  theoretical  notions 
on  the  causes  of  this  anomalous  distribution.  It  might  be  said  that 
these  insects  are  the  remains  of  a  former  Antarctic  glacial  epoch. 
But  if  this  be  so,  then  we  must  presuppose  the  existence  of 
former  Arctic  and  Antarctic  faunas  similar  in  details  ;  all 
other  evidence  tends,  I  think,  to  disprove  this.  It  may  truly  be 
said  that,  owing  ^to  the  non-existence  of  hirge  tracts  of  land 
towartls  the  south  pole  at  all  comparable  wiui  those  that  exist 
towards  the  north,  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  acquire  sufficient 
data,  yet  we  have  Uie  continent  of  Australia  and  the  large 
islands  of  New  Zealand  extending  somewhat  far  south,  and  they 
furnish  us  with  no  indication  whatever  of  forms  parallel  with 
those  found  in  ChilL 

It  has  occtured  to  me  as  iust  possible,  that  at  the  condusion. 
of  the  northern  glacial  epoch  a  few  stragglers,  instead  of  wend- 
ing their  way  northward,  mistook  the  points  of  the  compass  and 
went  southward.  But  there  remains  this  great  difficulty,  viz.,  that, 
with  one  possible  exception,  there  are  no  indications  of  these 
forms  on  the  northern  portions  of  the  Andes  of  South  America. 

I  call  attention  to  this  subject  as  one  deserving  i»x  more 
consideration  than  it  has  hitherto  received,  and  with  the  idea 
that,  by  ventilating  it  in  Nature,  I  may  receive  additional 
information  on  a  point  that  greatly  interests  me. 

39,  Limes  Grove,  Lewisham  R.  McLachlan 

Arctic  Aurorso 

It  will  probably  interest  some  of  your  readers  to  know  that 
in  reply  to  a  communication  lately  addressed  by  me  to  the 
Admiralty  I  am  informed  that  Captain  Sir  George  Narei 
reports  that  although  the  auroral  glow  was  observed  on  several 
occasions  between  October  25,  1575,  <^<^  February  26,  1 876, 
true  auroras  were  seldom  obsored,  and  the  displays  were  so 
faint  and  lasted  so  short  a  time  that  the  spectroscopic  resulu  were 
not  considered  worthy  of  a  special  report.  Although  the  citron 
line  was  seen  occasionally,  on  only  two  occasions  was  it  well 
defined,  and  then  for  so  short  a  time  that  no  measnre  could  bo 
obtained.  A  report  is  preparing  with  a  view  to  compare  the 
auroral  displays  with  magnetic  disturbance,  meteorological 
changes,  and  other  phenomena  which  will  include  the  few 
spectroscopic  observations  obtained.  J.  Rand  Cap&on 

Gnildown,  December  24 

Insects  and  Artificial  Flowers 

In  a  late  number  of  Naturb  a  short  account  is  given  of 
some  experiments  recently  made  by  Prof.  J.  Plateau,  of  Ghent, 
as  to  insects  being  deceived  by  artificial  flowers.     The  nature  of 
these  experiments  is  not  given,  but  the  result  would  appear  to 
have  been  of  a  somewhat  negative  character.     In  coimection 
with  the  subject  the  following  mcident  will  not,  I  thinly  be  oan« 
sidered  uninteresting.    I  was  coming  by  one  of  the  lake  steamers 
from  Como  to  Menaggio,  in  September,  1875,  and  saw  a  hum- 
ming-bird hawk  moth,  Macroglossa  steilatarum^   fly  to  some 
bright-coloured  flowers  on  a  lady's  hat  on  deck,   and  hang, 
poised  over  them  for  a  short  time,  and  then  fly  away.    During 
the  process  it  made  one  of  those  short  familiar  darts  off,  for  a 
moment,  and  then  returned,  after  the  manner  of  the  moth  when 
disturbed,  and  it  remained  long  enough  to  convince  me  that  it 
had  tested  the  flowers  and  found  them  wanting.    Another  inci- 
dent comes  across  my  mind  while  writing  this,  which,  though  it 
does  not  exactly  bear  upon  the  point,  yet  is  of  a  somewhat 
kindred  nature.     I  was  crossing  from  Harwich  to  Antwerp  in 
August  of  the  same  year,  and  as  the  weather  was  fine,  and  the 
boat  crowded,  I  remained  <m  deck  all  night   About  4  o'clock  in 
the  morning  I  saw  what  appeared  to  be  a  bird  or  a  bat  flying 
rapidly  about  the  rigging.     As  I  was  watching  it  the  funnel  of 
the  steamer  poured  forth  a  thick  colunm  of  blade  smoke,  owing 
to  the  fresh  coaling  it  had  just  received.     Ofl  went  the  creature 
as  soon  as  it  perceived  the  change,  or,  at  all  events,  as  soon  as 
the  change  took  place,  and  flew  for  some  time  in  and  about  the 
smoke,  now  darting  through  it,  close  to  the  funnel  mouth,  and 
then  letting  itself  be  borne  along  with  it,  for  some  distance,  as  if 
in  sport,  boking  very  strange  and  weirdlike  in  the  process. 


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After  awhile,  as  the  fall  daylight  broke,  it  left  the  smoky  region 
above  and  came  down  towards  the  dcdc,  and  1  then  discovered 
it  to  be  neither  bird  nor  bat,  bot  a  specimen  of  the  death Vhe^d 
moth,  Sphinx  Atropos^  whose  flight  1  then  witnessed  tor  the  firs: 
time.  After  runniog  the  gauntlet  of  several  ot  the  passengers, 
who  tried  to  catch  it  with  thtir  hats,  it  settled  somewhere  on 
the  spars  or  woe  d  work  of  the  \  oat  and  escaped,  p  rhaps  to  renew 
its  flight  in  a  similar  manner  the  following  day. 

Hijihfield,  Gainsborough,  December  21        F.  M.  Burton 

The  Selective  Discrimination  of  Insects 

May  I  be  permitted  to  remirk  on  Mr.  Bridgman's  com- 
munication in  Nature  (vol.  xviL  p.  102)?  He  says  he  has 
collected  pollen  grains  of  different  kinds  washed  from  the  thigh 
of  an  Andrena  ni^o-ctnea^  and  varying  in  colour  from  orange-red 
to  white.  The  true  inquiry  as  to  the  discrimination  of  insects 
is  not^s  to  the  colour  on  distinct  kinds  of  pollen,  but  their  homo* 
geneity  in  respect  of  fertilisation. 

The  remark  1  made  implied,  rather  than  expressed,  that  bef  s 
and  butterflies  visited  only  thofe  plants  the  admixture  of  the 
pollens  of  which  induced  fertili»ation.  In  this  respect  and  in 
this  only,  it  appears  to  me,  the  investigation  of  the  subject 
b^omes  of  importance.  No  fact  of  natural  phenomena  is  with- 
out use  and  without  instruction ;  there  are  no  hap^hazards  in 
nature.  If  Mr.  B  it^gman,  or  other  naturalists,  can  show  the 
admixture  of  the  d  v«  ise  grains  of  pollen  collected  by  him  from 
the  thighs  of  the  creature  named  would  n  it  induce  the  fertilisation 
of  the  plants  from  i^hxh  they  were  collected,  then  the  dis- 
criminatmy  fact  assumed  is  dispelled  and  the  peculiarity  observed 
by  Mr.  Forbes  and  myself,  and  duubtle^s  by  others,  becomes  of 
little  value.  The  colour  of  the  pollen  grains  is  of  no  importance 
in  the  inquiry,  as  observation  shows  ;  the  discriminatory  i9JC\  if 
it  has  any  importance,  is  not  as  to  variations  in  colour,  but  the 
collection  of  the  pollen  from  dtstinct  species  of  plants  the  admix- 
ture of  which  loould  not  induce  fertilisoHon,  If  it  be  proved  that 
the  admixture  of  the  collected  pollens  are  only  such  as  induce 
fertilisation,  then  a  natural  phenomenon  is  disclosed  of  great  im- 
portance. This  is  the  fact  I  imagine  Sir  John  Lubbock  meant 
when  he  advised  the  pursuit  of  the  inquiry. 

I  am  still  of  opinion  that  it  is  odour^  not  colour,  which  is  the 
attractive  element,  it  is  so  with  carrion  birds  and  the  blow-flies 
which  collect  on  the  foetid  arum.  In  phenomena  one  particular 
law  appears  to  be  repeated  in  all  the  natural  kingdoms.  The 
same  rule  is  also  to  be  observed  in  physics.  S.  B. 

Sunbury-on-Thames 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  a.d.  418,  July  19.— 
Philostorgius,  in  his  *'  Epitome  of  Ecclesiastical  History," 
relates  that  while  Theodosius  the  Second  was  a  youth, 
on  July  19,  at  the  eighth  hour  of  the  day,  the  sun  was  so 
greatly  eclipsed  that  the  stars  were  seen,  and  while  the 
sun  was  thus  hidden  there  was  seen  in  the  sky  a  light  in 
the  form  of  a  cone, ''  which  some  ignorant  people  called 
a  comet "  ;  and  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  supposed  dif- 
ferences in  the  appearance  of  the  phenomenon  from  that 
of  a  comet,  particularly  remarking  that  it  resembled  the 
flame  of  a  torch,  subsisting  of  itself,  without  any  star  to 
serve  as  a  base,  and  adding  partictilars  of  its  track  and 
duration.  That  the  object  thus  singularly  discovered 
during  a  total,  or  nearly  total,  eclipse  of  the  sun,  was 
really  a  comet  as  the  *' ignorant  people"  supposed,  is 
proved  by  the  records  in  the  Chinese  Annals.  The  eclipse 
to  which  reference  is  made  by  Philostorgius  took  place  on 
July  19,  A. D.  418.  The  comet  of  that  year  is  stated  in 
Pingr^'s  Cometop^aphie  to  have  been  discovered  in  the 
loth  moon,  commencing  November  15,  in  which  he  fol- 
lows the  Jesuit,  Couplet,  but  the  account  given  by  Mr. 
Williams,  on  the  authority  of  the  She  Ke  and  Ma  Twan 
Lin,  dates  the  appearance  of  the  comet  on  day  Kang 
Tsze  of  the  5th  moon,  when  it  was  situate  in  Ursa  Major; 
on  September  15  it  was  on  the  confines  of  Leo  and 
Virgo  ;  "  it  was  bright,  and  gradually  lengthened  until  it 
was  100  cubits  in  length."  Philostorgius  also  refers  to 
the  passage  of  the  comet  through  Ursa  Major,  and  says 
it  continued  visible  until  the  end  of  the  autumn. 

t  may  interest  some  readers  to  have  particulars  of  the 


eclipse,  during  which  it  is  recorded  that  a  large  comet  was 
first  discovered.    The  following  figures  depend  upon  a 
very  simiUr  system  of  calculation  to  that  applied  to  other 
ancient  eclipses,  described  in  this  column  : — 
G.M.T.  of  Conjunction  in  R.  A.  418,  July  18,  at  23h*  3m.  171. 


Right  Ascension 

Moon's  hourly  motion  in  R.  A.  ... 
Sun's        „  „  ,, 

M  oon's  decimation  

Sun's  „  

Moon's  hourly  motion  in  decL    . . . 
Sun's         „          „             „     ... 
Moon's  horizontal  parallax 
Sun's            „             „ 
Moon's  true  semi-diameter 
Sun's      „  , 


.     1 18  30  48 

3834 
23a 

21  23  10  N. 

21  2  41  N. 
3  40  S. 
028  S. 

59  3» 

o   9 

16  15 

1548 

At  Constantinople  these  elements  give   a  very  large 

eclipse,  commencing  at  oh.  5m.  and  ending  at  2h.  5001. 

local  mean  time,  magnitude,  095  ;  at  a  short  distance  to 

the  south  the  eclipse  would  be  total. 

Variable  Stars. — The  following  are  geocentric 
minima  of  Algol  and  S.  Cancri  during  the  ensuing  two 
months,  so  far  as  they  are  visible  in  this  country.  They 
are  expressed  in  Greenwich  mean  time,  and  are  calculated 
from  Prof.  Schonfeld's  elements  : — 


Dec 

31. 

Jan. 

2.. 

5.. 

16.. 

19.. 

22.. 

25.. 

Dec. 

31- 

Jan. 

19.. 

ALGOL 
h.    m. 
12  29 

9  18 

6  7 
17  23 
14  13 
ii    2 

7  52 

S.  CANCRI 

h.   m.    I 


Jan.   ?8... 

^t  I;:: 


II  ... 
14... 
17... 
28... 


10    20 

9  35 


Feb. 


7... 
26... 


h.    a. 

♦*1 
19    8 

IS  58 

1247 
6  36 

17  43 

h.    B. 

8    7 

Astronomical  Phenomena  in  1878.— The  principal 
astronomical  occurrence  of  the  next  year  is  the  total  solar 
eclipse  of  July  29,  which  traverses  British  Columbia  and 
the  United  States  ;  the  American  astronomers  will  doubt- 
less give  a  good  account  of  it,  and  it  is  reported  they  are 
likely  to  have  coadjutors  from  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
There  will  be  a  transit  of  the  planet  Mercury  on  May  6, 
visible  in  this  country  to  pa!>t  the  time  of  the  nearest 
approach  of  centres,  and  a  lunar  eclipse  on  August  12, 
magnitude  0*6,  wholly  visible  here.  Mars  will  be  occulted 
by  the  moon  on  the  evening  of  June  3,  and  the  second- 
magnitude  star  cr  Sagittarii  on  the  afternoon  of  October 
30  ;  on  November  lo  the  moon  traverses  the  Pleiades.  A 
return  of  Encke's  comet  to  perihelion  also  takes  place  in 
the  summer,  but  not  under  fa^^ourable  circumstances  for 
observation,  and  the  comet  of  short  period  detected  by 
Tempel  on  July  3,  1873,  will  again  arrive  at  perihelion 
late  in  the  spring.  Saturn's  rings  disappear  on  February 
6,  but  reappear  on  March  i,  according  to  Bes:>ers 
elements. 

FERTILISATION  OF  OLOSSOSTIGMA 

THE  following  letter  to  Mr.  Darwin  has  been  forwarded 
to  us  by  him  for  publication  : — 

"  Museum,  Auckland,  October  23,  1877 
"  My  Dear  Sir,— I  forward  to  you  a  copy  of  a  paper  on 
the  fertilisation  of  Sellieray  one  of  the  Gooaeniacea^  which 
perhaps  you  may  care  to  glance  over.  When  I  wrote  it 
I  did  not  know  of  your  notes  on  Leschenauliia^  published 
in  the  Gardener^ s  Chronicle  for  1871.  In  both  plants  the 
pollen  is  shed  before  the  expan^tion  of  the  flower,  and 
neatly  collected  in  the  indu&ium,  but  in  Selltera  the 
stigma  is  situated  within  the  indusium,  and  by  its  gradual 
upward  growth  after  the  flower  expands  slowly  forces  out 
the  pollen,  which  is  then  transferred  by  insects  to  older 


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flowers.  When  mature,  the  stigma  protrudes  consider- 
ably beyond  the  indusium.  This  appears  to  differ  entirely 
from  whar  takes  place  in  Leschenaultia, 

'*  I  have  rerei  tly  been  much  interested  with  the  curious 
irritability  di^^played  by  the  stigma  of  Glossostigma  elati* 
ftoidesy  one  of  the  Scrophularineae.  The  style  is  dilated 
towards  its  apex  into  a  broad  spoon-shaped  stigma,  which, 
when  the  flower  expands,  is  closely  doubled  over  the  four 
stamens,  entirely  concealing  them  from  view.  If  the  front 
of  the  bent  part  of  the  style  is  touched  it  at  once  springs 
up,  uncovering  the  stamens,  and  moves  back  to  the  upper 
lobe  of  the  corolla,  to  w^hich  it  becomes  closely  applied. 
In  this  po<>ition  it  remains  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then 
slowly  moves  back  to  the  stamens  and  curves  over  them 
as  at  flr^t.  h  appears  to  me  that  this  irritability  of  the 
stigma  is  simply  a  contrivarce  to  insure  cross-fertilisation, 
for  an  insect  crawling  into  the  flower  must  inevitably 
touch  the  btigma.  which  would  then  uncover  the  stamens. 
On  withdrawmg,  the  insect  would  be  certain  to  dust  itself 
with  pollen,  but  it  would  not  by  this  effect  the  fertilisation 
of  the  flower,  for  the  stigma  would  be  then  closely  applied 
to  the  upper  lobe  of  the  corolla,  entirely  out  of  its  way. 
If  the  insect  were,  however,  to  visit  another  flower  it  is 
evident  that  it  must  come  into  contact  with  the  stigma  at 
its  first  entrance  and  would  doubtless  leave  some  pollen 
thereon.  The  movement  of  the  stigma  is  remarkably 
rapid,  and  its  apex  must  pass  through  an  angle  of  at  least 
180".  I  have  been  unable  to  find  a  record  of  a  similar 
case,  or  of  so  pronounced  a  degree  of  irritability  in  the 
stigma  of  any  plant.  The  movement  of  the  lobes  of  the 
stigma  m  Mimulus  is  much  weaker,  and  is  through  a 
much  less  angle.  Yours  faithfully, 

"  T.  F.  CHEESEMAN 

"  Charles  Darwin  Esq.,  F.R.S." 

A  TELEPHONIC  ALARUM 

THE  speaking  of  the  telephone  is  admittedly  so  weak 
that  it  can  only  be  caught  by  keeping  the  instrument 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  ear.  Hence  there  is 
transmitted  through  the  telephone  in  its  present  form  no 
sound  which  would  be  intense  enoueh  to  announce  to 
any  one  who  was  in  a  large  room  and  who  did  not  hold 
the  telephone  close  to  his  ear,  that  a  message  was  about 
to  be  sent  from  the  transmitting  station.  The  consequence 
is  that  a  warning  apparatus  must  be  attached  to  the 
telephone,  so  that  there  may  be  no  fear  of  missing  a 
projected  telephonic  conversation. 

It  is  clear  that  the  conducting  wire  of  a  telephone  can 
be  used  to  sotmd  a  bell  as  an  alarum  by  means  of  a 
current  from  a  galvanic  battery,  and  thereby  the  defect 
referred  to  would  be  supplied.  But  the  necessary  appa- 
ratus would  considerably  raise  the  price  of  fitting  up  a 
telephone  apparatus,  and  besides,  one  most  important 
property  of  the  telephone,  viz.,  producing  the  required 
electric  current  automatically,  would  be  partly  lost.  I 
have,  then,  invented  another  warning  apparatus,  which,  I 
believe,  is  quite  workable. 

Hitherto  telephones  have  been  so  constructed  that  only 
one  pole  (N  in  the  figure)  of  the  magnet  is  effective  ;  I 
now  use  also  the  second  pole  S,  by  providing  it  with  a 
coil  of  wire,  which  is  simply  inserted  in  the  circuit  behind 
the  first  coiL  (The  dotted  lines  in  the  figure  will  explain 
this  connection  ;  the  two  ends  a  and  fi  are  connected  with 
the  binding  screws  fastened  to  the  telephone ;  from  this 
the  circuit  goes  to  the  second  telephone.)  Before  this 
pole  of  the  magnet  may  be  very  easily  set  up  a  tuning- 
fork,  A,  which,  with  the  telephone,  is  simply  fixed  on  a 
resonance  case,  B  ;  this  arrangement  should  be  made 
bo  h  at  the  transmitting  and  receiving  stations,  and  both 
forks  bhould  be  in  umson.  If  now  the  sending  station 
\vi!»h  to  stgnal  that  a  conversation  is  to  be  begun,  the 
fork  of  that  place  will  be  sounded  with  a  fiddle-bow  ;  the 
currents  thereby  induced  in  the  coil  are  poweiful  enough 
to  set  the  fork  of  the  receiving  station  in  such  intense 


vibration  that  the  sound  may  be  distinctly  heard  in  a  large 
room  ;  warned  by  this  signal  a  person  can  in  the  usual 
way  put  the  telephone  to  his  ear  and  listen  to  the  words 
fiom  the  transmitting  station.     And  so  vice  vend, 

I  have  made  an  experiment  in  a  large  room,  when 
about  100  people  were  present,  and  all  could  hear  the 
sotmds  of  the  fork,  which  in  the  manner  described  was 
set  in  vibration  by  a  second  fork  in  a  distant  room. 
The  two  forks  were  Konig  Ut^  ;  lower  forks  give  less 
clearly  heard  tones  ;  with  higher  forks  I  was  unable  to 
make  any  experiment,  since  I  had  not  two  similar  ones 
at  my  disposaL 

Let  me  mention  two  other  experiments  which  I  have 
made.  The  first  is  of  importance  in  connection  with  the 
Question  as  to  how  the  clang- tints  of  tones  are  reproduced 
through  the  telephone.  In  one  of  the  two  telephones 
described  substitute  for  the  Ut4  fork  a  higher  one,  and 
sound  this  by  means  of  a  fiddle-bow,  and  there  will  be 
heard  with  another  inserted  telephone  of  the  ordinary 
construction  tones  of  even  12,000  double  vibrations  per 
second,  a  sign  that  the  variations  of  the  magnetic  condition 
of  a  magnet  perceptibly  occur,  even  when  the  forces  pro- 
ducing these  variations  change  their  size  24,000  times  in 


a  second.  This  result  moreover  was  not  to  be  expected, 
since,  as  is  known,  magnetic  polarisation  requires  time 
to  accomplish.  Whether  these  higher  tones  are  com- 
paratively weaker  than  the  deeper  cannot  be  determined, 
but  probably  this  is  the  case. 

In  another  experiment  I  used  the  telephone  to  test  the 
electric  vibrations  indicated  by  Helmholtz  and  others, 
which  are  produced  by  the  opening  of  the  primary  cur- 
rent of  an  induction  apparatus  in  the  induced  coil,  when 
the  ends  of  the  latter  are  connected  with  the  armatures 
of  a  condenser.  For  this  purpose  I  inserted  the  telephone 
in  the  circuit  between  coil  and  condenser,  and  observed 
the  effect  when  the  current  in  the  inducing  spiral  was 
opened. 

When  the  ends  of  the  induced  spiral  were  not  con- 
nected with  the  condenser,  I  heard  a  dull  report  in  the 
telephone ;  when,  again,  these  ends  were  connected  with 
the  condenser,  this  report  was  accompanied  by  a  shorter, 
higher  sound,  whose  vibration-number  might  perhaps  be 
determined  by  a  musical  ear  ;  a  proof  of  £e  existence  of 
the  vibrations  mtntioned  in  the  last  case.  The  ob!»erva« 
tions  were  made  wuh  a  telephone,  the  iron  membrane  of 
which  was  very  ibin,a;id  had  a  very  deep  tone. 

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165 


THE  NEW  PARIS  TRANSIT  CIRCLE » 

OF  the  numerous  instruments  with  which  Leverrier 
enriched  the  Paris  Observatory  during  the  twenty 
years  of  his  direction,  the  last  which  he  was  able  to  see 
completely  installed  was  the  new  transit  circle.  This 
instrument  was  not,  like  all  the  others,  constructed  at  the 
expense  of  the  State ;  an  inscription  on  the  marble  pillars 
that  support  it  informs  the  visitor  that  it  was  presented 
to  the  Observatory  by  the  generous  munificence  of  M. 
Raphael  Bischoffsheim.  This  is  not  the  only  gift  of  M. 
BischofTsheim  to  astronomy ;  the  Observatory  of  Lyons 
is  also  indebted  to  him  for  its  fundamental  instrument. 

The  project  of  erecting  a  new  meridian  circle  at  the 
observatory  goes  back  to  the  time  of  the  debate  raised 
before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  on  the  subject  of  the 
transfer  of  the  observatory  to  a  site  outside  Paris. 
Those  who  would  not  admit  the  legitimacy  of  the 
complaints  made  by  the  adversaries  of  die  present  situa- 
tion of  the  observatory,  were  obliged  to  admit  that  the 
great  meridian  room,  constructed  in  1830  by  Arago, 
did  not  offer  any  of  the  guarantees  necessary  to  observa- 
tions of  great  precision.  The  thickness  of  the  walls  and 
of  the  double  roof  of  that  room,  the  small  breadth  of  the 
openings,  the  nearness  of  the  observatory  buildings,  the 
difference  of  level  between  the  two  faces  north  and  south, 
must  necessarily  affect  the  equilibrium  of  the  neighbouring 
layers  of  the  atmosphere  and  hinder  them  from  taking 
that  horizontality  which  admits  of  the  correction  of  the 
observations  from  the  influence  of  refraction. 

Since  the  astronomer  cannot  get  rid  of  this  troublesome 
influence,  his  first  business  ought  then  to  be  to  reduce  it  to 
conditions  in  which  it  may  be  possible  to  calculate  the 
effect  Thus  what  strikes  the  visitor  admitted  to  the  new 
meridian  circle  of  the  Observatory  is  the  small  building 
in  which  it  is  placed.  In  the  middle  of  a  green  lawn  rises 
a  hut  made  entirely  of  sheet-iron,  the  roof  formed  of  two 
plates  which,  by  sliding  upon  rollers,  may  be  separated 
from  each  other,  and  leave  all  the  upper  part  of  the  build- 
ing open.  The  walls  are  formed  of  two  envelopes  of  thin 
iron,  between  which  the  air  freely  circulates,  thus  main- 
taining the  whole  structure  at  the  temperature  of  the  air 
itself.  Large  windows  may  also  be  opened,  and  the 
observer  and  the  instrument  be  thus  placed  in  the  same 
conditions  as  if  the  observations  were  made  in  the  open 
air.  All  these  conditions  are  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible 
the  disturbances  arising  from  atmospheric  refraction,  the 
greatest  source  of  inaccuracy  in  astronomical  observation. 
The  only  obstacle  which  may  yet  be  a  hindrance  to  per- 
fection in  the  conditions  of  observation  is  the  presence  of 
those  beautiful  trees  which  make  the  terrace  of  the  obser- 
vatory a  magnificent  garden,  but  which  store  up  the  warm 
air  during  the  day  and  slowly  distribute  it  during  the 
night  No  doubt  some  day  the  astronomers  will  be 
obliged  to  sacrifice  to  the  precision  of  their  observations 
the  enjoyment  of  this  beautiful  foliage. 

The  meridian  circle  is  composed,  as  its  name  indicates, 
of  two  instruments  :  the  meridian  telescope,  intended,  by 
its  association  with  an  astronomical  clock,  to  fix  the 
moment  of  the  passage  of  a  star  across  the  meridian  of 
the  place  of  observation,  and  the  mural  circle,  .which 
gives  the  measure  of  the  angular  distance  of  this  same 
star  from  the  pole  or  the  zenith.  When,  forty  years  ago, 
Gambey  constructed  the  two  meridian  instruments  of  the 
Paris  Observatory,  so  justly  celebrated  and  on  the  model 
of  which  those  of  most  other  observatories  have  been 
designed,  he  had  to  reconcile,  by  prodigies  of  skill,  the 
hghtness  resulting  from  the  means  of  construction  then  in 
use,  with  the  rigidity  of  the  parts  necessary  for  precision 
of  observation.  It  is  the  alliance  of  these  two  almost 
contradictory  qualities  which  renders  so  interesting  the 
instruments  of  that  celebrated  artist  and  especially  his 
machine  for  dividing  the  circles,  which  the  Baron  Siguier 

From  an  article  in  La  Nature  by  M.  C.  Wolf. 


has  restored  in  the  galleries  of  the  Conservatoire. .  But 
there  resulted  from  this  at  first  the  necessity  of  separating 
the  measure  of  the  two  co  ordinates  of  the  stars — the 
instant  of  the  meridian  passage  and  the  polar  distance. 
There  also  resulted  the  necessity  which  Gambey  was  under 
to  fix  on  his  mural  circle  of  two  metres  in  diameter,  a  tele- 
scope altogether  insufficient  in  optical  power.  ^ 

A  simple  glance  at  the  great  meridian  circle  of  the 
observatory,  the  western  equatorial,  the  great  telescope, 
the  new  instrument  of  M.  BischofTsheim,  all  from  the 
workshop  of  the  great  mechanician,  M.  Eichens,  shows 
the  revolution  which  has  been  effected  in  the  processes  of 
construction.  In  place  of  instruments  formed  of  pieces 
of  sheet  brass  connected  by  simple  screws  or  even  soldered 
together,  we  have  the  bodies  of  the  telescope  of  cast-iron 
bolted  on  axes  of  cast-iron  and  steel,  strong  and  elegant 
in  appearance  ;  circles  of  bronze  cast  in  a  single  piece  and 
protected  against  all  deformation  by  numerous. cross-bars. 
It  is  the  art  of  the  engineer  applied  to  the  construction  of 
astronomical  instruments,  with  the  power  given  by  the 
choice  of  metals  and  the  thickness  of  pieces,  and  the 
precision  which  the  employment  of  engineering^  tools 
secures. 

This  revolution  was  begun  in  England  about  1847  ^Y 
the  Astronomer- Royal,  Sir  George  Airy.  In  1863,  M. 
Leverrier  successfully  installed  a  meridian  circle  greater 
still  than  that  of  Greenwich,  and  intended,  Uke  it,  for  the 
observation  of  the  small  planets.  But  these  gigantic 
instruments,  veritable  siege-guns  of  long  range,  since  they 
reach  the  farthest  depths  of  the  heavens,  want,  simply  on 
account  of  their  weight,  one  essential  quality — they  are 
not  reversible.  Whatever  be  the  rigidity  of  the  pieces, 
the  instrument  is  subject,  in  each  successive  position,  to 
flexions  necessarily  unequal,  which  the  astronomer  must 
investigate  and  measure  in  order  to  correct  his  observa- 
tions. But  this  investigation  and  this  measurement  can 
only  be  made  by  turning  round  the  instrument.  It  will 
be  understood,  in  fact,  that  the  apparatus,  directed  suc- 
cessively to  the  same  point  of  the  sky,  first  with  one  of 
its  faces  up,  then  the  same  face  below,  gives,  if  it  is  really 
perfectly  rigid  but  elastic,  two  results  differing  equally 
from  the  truth,  one  minus  and  the  other  plusy  so  that  the 
mean  of  the  two  observations  gives  the  exact  position  of 
the  star.  It  is  this  which  may  be  expected  from  the  new 
meridian  circle  of  M.  BischofTsheim.  Fig.  i  represents 
the  telescope  upon  its  car,  which  serves  to  raise  it  above 
its  pillars  and  to  turn  it  right  round  by  a  movement  of 
rotation  around  a  vertical  axis. 

Since  1852  M.  Brunner  has  constructed  small  portable 
instruments  answering  to  these  conditions.  Improved  by 
his  sons,  by  M.  Rigaud,  and  by  M.  Eichens,  these  meri- 
dian circles  are  now  only  used  in  geodesic  expeditions. 
In  1868  M.  Eichens  constructed  for  the  observatory  of 
Lima  a  reversible  meridian  circle,  the  telescope  of  which 
was  230  m.  in  length,  and  the  object-glass  20  cm.  in  free 
opening.  It  is  this  model,  successively  improved,  which 
has  become,  in  the  hands  of  the  able  constructor,  the 
meridian  circle  of  Marseilles  (1876),  and  the  circle  given 
by  M.  BischofTsheim  (1877).  The  object-glass  of  the  first 
was  made  by  Ldon  Foucault,the  two  others  are  by  M.  Ad. 
Martin.  The  new  observatory  of  Lyons,  in  the  establish- 
ment of  which  M.  Andrd  took  an  active  part  energeti- 
cally sustained  by  the  Administration,  will  soon  possess 
a  similar  meridian  circle,  a  little  smaller  (telescope  of 
2  m.,  object-glass  of  14  cm.  aperture,  by  M.  Praczmowzki), 
the  expense  of  which  is  borne  by  M.  Bischoffsheim. 

The  illustrations  which  we  give  then  show  the  per- 
fected model  meridian  circle  employed  in  observatories 
for  the  determination  of  the  celestial  co-ordinates  of  the 
stars.  To  be  able  to  understand  the  use  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  instrument,  it  will  suffice  to  describe  a  com- 
plete observation  of  a  star. 

Some  minutes  before  the  passage  of  the  star  across  the 
meridian,  the  astronomer  gives  to  the  telescope  such 


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an  indtaation  that  the  star,  carried  on  by  the  daily 
movement,  will  cross  the  field  of  the  instrument.  For 
this  purpose  the  interior  circles  fixed  on  the  axis  of  the 
telescope  carry  a  rough  scale  which  may  be  seen  by 
means  of  a  pointer  telescope  fixed  on  the  east  wall.  A 
clamp  which  clasps  the  edge  of  this  circle  serves  to  fix 
the  instrument.  The  observer  then  places  himself  on  the 
observiiig  chair  in  the  position  indicated  on  Fig.  2.  The 
.  star  soon  appears,  enters  the  field  of  vie«r  on  the  west 


and  procteds  towards  the  east  side.  With  the  star 
the  observer  sees  in  the  field  of  view  a  network  of 
spider  threads  stretched  vertically  and  traversed  by  a 
horizontal  thread.  Listening  to  the  beats  of  the  clock, 
he  notes  the  second  and  the  fraction  of  a  second  at 
which  the  star  passes  under  each  of  the  vertical 
threads  ;  the  mean  of  these  times  is  the  precise  moment 
of  the  passage  across  the  middle  thread.  At  this 
same  moment  he  slightly  displaces  the  telescope  by   a 


ersing  Appiratu;.. 


movement  given  to  the  clamp  and  brings  the  star  under 
the  horizontal  thread.  The  direction  of  a  line  deter- 
mined by  the  crossing  of  this  thread  and  the  middle 
vertical  one  and  the  optical  centre  of  the  object- 
glass  is  that  along  which  the  star  is  seen  at  the 
moment  of  its  passage  across  the  middle  thread. 
To  fix  this  direction  it  is  necessary  to  connect  it 
with  two  points  of  an  absolute  fixity.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  telescope  is  provided  j  with  a  circle  of  a  metre 


in  diameter,  the  limb  of  which  is  very  finely  and  very 
exactly  divided  ;  this  turns  with  the  telescope  in  front  of 
six  microscopes  permanently  fixed  to  the  east  pillar.  M. 
Eichens  has  adopted  for  these  microscopes  the  arrange- 
ment devised  by  Sir  George  Airy  for  the  meridian  circle 
of  Greenwich.  The  tube  of  each  of  these  is  formed  by 
the  side  of  a  hole  pierced  in  the  block  of  marble  which 
forms  the  upper  part  of  the  pillar  ;  the  positions  of  these 
microscopes  is  then  permanently  fixed  to  that  of  the  wall. 


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Fig.  a.— Taking  an  Olserratioii* 


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[Dec.  27,  1877 


and  can  only  change  by  a  displacement  of  the  wall  itself. 
Other  orifices  admit  to  the  circle  the  light  of  a  lamp  and 
enable  the  divisions  to  be  read.  These  are  drawn  at 
every  fiTt  minutes  of  the  circle,  which  then  bears  4,320 
ec^uidistant  marks ;  each  microscope  is  provided  with  a 
micrometer  which  enables  the  tenths  of  a  second  of  arc 
to  be  observed. 

If  now,  by  observations  of  the  pole  star  at  its  upper 
and  lower  transits,  the  observer  determines  in  the  same 
way  the  direction  of  the  telescope  looking  to  the  pole, 
the  angle  comprised  between  that  direction  and  that  of 
the  telescope  directed  to  the  star  will  give  the  polar 
distance  of  the  star.  If  by  means  of  a  mercury  bath  he 
determines  the  direction  of  the  telescope  when  its  optical 
axis  is  vertical,  he  will  ascertain  in  the  same  way  the 
distance  of  the  star  from  the  zenith. 

These  observations  may  be  made  in  the  two  positions 
which  the  telescope  takes  before  and  after  being  turned 
round.  This  is  why  it  carries  two  cast-iron  circles  roughly 
graduated  and  two  brass  circles  finely  graduated  on  silver, 
which  on  the  reversal  of  the  instrument  are  substituted  for 
each  other  before  the  pointer- telescope  and  the  fixed 
microscopes.  The  arrangement  of  these  circles  insures 
a  perfect  symmetry  to  the  instrument,  an  essential  condi- 
tion if  we  wish  to  prevent  irregular  deformations. 

But  these  operations  will  only  give  the  co-ordinates  of 
the  star  if  they  are  made  with  an  instrument  set  in  the 
meridian  of  the  place.  It  is  necessary  then  that  the 
telescope  should  turn  round  a  horizontal  axis,  that  it 
should  be  perpendicular  to  that  axis,  and  that  the  plane 
which  it  describes  in  turning  should  pass  through  the 
pole  of  the  earth.  A  level,  which  the  illustration  repre- 
sents resting  by  two  forks  upon  the  pivots  of  the  tele- 
scope, but  which  during  the  observations  is  raised  by 
means  of  a  crane  fixed  to  the  ceDing,  serves  to  measure 
and  correct  the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  rotation.  By 
turning  it  upon  a  long  support  the  perpendicularity  of  the 
optical  axis  on  the  axis  of  the  pivots  can  be  assured.  Two 
supports  are  to  be  constructed,  one  on  the  north,  the  other 
on  the  south  ;  the  latter  only  has  been  made.  Finally  the 
astronomical  observation  of  the  pole  star  indicate  if  the 
last  of  the  three  conditions  is  fulfilled. 

A  word  on  the  illumination  of  the  system  of  cross  wires 
visible  in  the  eye-piece.  During  the  day  they  stand  out 
on  the  clear  background  of  the  sky  ;  at  night  the  same 
effect  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  ray  of  light  proceeding 
from  a  gas-lamp  fixed  on  the  west  pillar,  the  rays  of 
which  are  sent  towards  the  eye-piece  by  a  small  prism 
fixed  in  the  middle  of  the  telescope.  A  screen  with  a 
variable  opening,  or  catVeye,  permits  the  intensity  of  the 
light  to  be  proportioned  to  the  brightness  of  the  star 
observed.  Finally,  for  very  weak  stars  a  very  simple 
mechanical  arrangement  suppresses  all  light  in  the  field, 
and  brings  it  to  bear  on  the  wires,  which  appear  as 
luminous  lines  on  a  background  absolutely  dark. 

The  long  illness  of  M.  Leverrier  did  not  permit  him 
to  push  on,  so  actively  as  he  would  have  wished,  the 
preliminary  investigations  of  this  beautiful  instrument, 
among  which  we  must  mention  one,  long  and  difficult 
—the  divisions  of  the  two  circles.  It  will,  without  doubt, 
be  facilitated  by  this  circumstance,  that,  traced  by  means 
of  the  dividing  machine  constructed  by  M.  Eichens, 
the  lines  present  a  regularity  and  a  finish  altogether 
favourable  to  precision. 

The  astronomers  of  the  observatory  will  hold  it  a  point 
of  honour  to  take  advantage  as  soon  as  possible  of  the 
magnificent  apparatus  which  they  owe  to  the  generosity 
of  M.  Bischofifdheim. 


FETICHISM  IN  ANIMALS 

MR.   HERBERT  SPENCER,  in  his  recently  pub- 
lished work  on  the  '*  Principles  of  Sociology,"  treats 
of  the  above  subject.    He  says :  "  I  believe  M,  Comte 


expressed  the  opinion  that  fctichistio  conceptions  are 
formed  by  the  higher  animals.  Holding,  as  1  have  given 
reasons  fordoing,  that  fetichism  is  not  original  but  derived, 
I  cannot,  of  course,  coincide  in  this  view.  Nevertheless, 
I  think  the  behaviour  of  intt^lligent  animals  elucidates  the 
genesis  of  it.  1  have  myself  witnessed,  in  dogs,  two 
illustrative  cases."  One  of  these  cases  consisted  in  a 
large  dog,  which,  while  playing  with  a  stick,  accidentally 
thrust  one  end  of  it  against  his  palate,  when,  ••  giving  a 
)elp,  he  dropped  the  stick,  rushed  to  a  distance  from  it, 
and  betrayed  a  consternation  which  was  particularly 
laughable  in  so  ferocious-looking  a  creature.  Only  after 
cautious  approaches  and  much  hesitation  was  he  induced 
again  to  lay  hold  of  the  stick.  This  behaviour  showed 
very  clearly  the  fact  that  he  stick,  while  displaying  none 
but  the  properties  he  was  familiar  with,  was  not  regarded 
by  him  as  an  active  agent,  but  that  when  it  suddenly 
inflicted  a  pain  in  a  way  never  before  experienced  from 
an  inanimate  object,  he  was  led  for  the  moment  to  class  it 
with  animate  objects,  and  to  regard  it  as  capable  of  again 
doing  him  injury.  Similarly  in  the  mind  of  the  primitive 
man,  knowing  scarcely  more  of  natural  causation  than  a 
dog,  the  anomalous  behaviour  of  an  object  previously 
classed  as  inanimate,  suggests  animation.  The  idea  of 
voluntary  action  is  made  nascent ;  and  there  arises  a 
tendency  to  regard  the  object  with  alarm,  lest  it  should 
act  in  some  other  unexpected  and  perhaps  mischievous 
way.  The  vag^e  notion  of  animation  thus  aroused  will 
obviously  become  a  more  definite  notion,  as  fast  as 
development  of  the  ghost-theory  furnishes  a  specific 
agency  to  which  the  anomalous  behaviour  can  be 
ascribed." 

The  other  case  observed  by  Mr.  Spencer  was  that  of 
an  intelligent  retriever.  Being  by  her  duties  as  a  retriever 
led  to  associate  the  fetching  of  game  with  the  pleasure  of 
the  person  to  whom  she  brought  it,  this  had  become  in 
her  mind  an  act  of  propitiation  ;  and  so,  "  after  wagging 
her  tail  and  grinning,  she  would  perform  this  act  of 
propitiation  as  nearly  as  practicable  in  the  absence  of  a 
dead  bird.  Seeking  about,  she  would  pick  up  a  dead  leaf 
or  other  small  object,  and  would  bring  it  with  renewed 
manifestations  of  friendliness.  Some  kindred  state  of 
mind  it  is  which,  I  believe,  prompts  the  savage  to  certain 
fetichistic  observances  of  an  anomalous  kind." 

These  observations  remind  me  of  several  experiments 
which  I  made  some  years  ago  on  this  subject,  and  which 
are  perhaps  worth  publishing.  I  was  led  to  make  the 
experiments  by  reading  the  instance  given  in  the  *'  Descent 
of  Man,**  of  the  large  dog  which  Mr.  Darwin  observed  to 
bark  at  a  parasol  as  it  was  moved  along  a  lawn  by  the 
wind — so  presenting  the  appearance  of  animation.  The 
dog  on  which  I  experimented  was  a  Skye  terrier — a 
remarkably  intelligent  animal,  whose  psychological  facul- 
ties have  already  formed  the  subject  of  several  com- 
munications to  this  and  other  periodicals. '  As  all  my 
experiments  yielded  the  same  results  I  will  only  mention 
one.  The  terrier  in  question,  like  many  other  dogs,  used 
to  play  with  dry  bones  by  tossing  them  in  the  air,  throw- 
ing them  to  a  distance,  and  generally  giving  them  the 
appearance  of  animation,  in  order  to  give  himself  the 
ideal  pleasure  of  worrying  them.  On  one  occasion, 
therefore,  I  tied  a  long  and  fine  thread  to  a  dry  bone  and 
gave  him  the  latter  to  play  with.  After  he  had  tossed  it 
about  for  a  short  time  I  took  an  opportunity  when  it  had 
fallen  at  a  distance  from  him  and  while  he  was  following 
it  up,  of  gently  drawing  it  away  from  him  by  means  of 
the  long  and  invisible  thread.  Instantly  his  whole 
demeanour  changed.  The  bone  which  he  had  previously 
pretended  to  be  alive  now  began  to  look  as  if  it  really 
were  alive,  and  his  astonishment  knew  no  bounds.  He 
first  approached  it  with  nervous  caution,  as  Mr.  Spencer 
describes,  but  as  the  slow  receding  motion  continued,  and 

'  See  cspecUlIy  an  article  on  '*  Coosdence  in  Animalf,*'  in  QuarUrljr 
Jonmal  of  Scierue  for  April,  1876. 


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be  became  quite  certain  that  the  movement  could  not  be 
accounted  for  by  any  residuum  of  the  force  which  he  h  id 
himself  communicated,  his  astonishment  developed  into 
dread,  and  he  ran  to  conceal  himself  undrr  some  articles 
of  furniture,  there  to  behold  at  a  distance  the  "  uncanny  " 
spectacle  of  a  dry  bone  coming  to  life. 

Now  in  this,  and  in  all  my  other  experiments,  I  have  no 
doubt  that  the  behaviour  of  the  terrier  arose  from  his 
sense  of  the  mysterious ^  for  he  was  of  a  highly  pugnacious 
disposition,  and  never  hesitated  to  fight  an  animal  of  any 
size  or  ferocity  ;  but  apparent  symptoms  of  spontaneity 
in  an  inanimate  object  which  he  knew  so  well,  gave  rise 
to  feelings  of  awe  and  horror  which  quite  enervated  him. 
And  that  there  was  nothing  fetichisiic  in  these  feelings 
may  be  safely  concluded  if  we  reflect,  with  Mr.  Spencer, 
that  the  dog's  knowledge  of  causation,  for  all  immediate 
purposes,  b^ing  quite  as  correct  and  no  less  stereotyped 
than  is  that  of  *'  primitive  man,''  when  an  object  of  a  class 
which  he  knew  from  uniform  past  experience  to  be  inani- 
mate suddenly  began  to  move,  he  must  have  felt  the 
same  oppressive  and  alarming  sense  of  the  mysterious 
which  uncultured  persons  feel  under  similar  circum- 
stances. But  further,  in  the  case  of  this  terrier  we  are 
not  left  with  dpriofi  inferences  alone  to  settle  this  point, 
for  another  experiment  proved  that  the  sense  of  the  mvs- 
terious  was  in  this  animal  sufficiently  strong  of  itself  to 
account  for  his  behaviour.  Taking  him  into  a  carpeted 
room  I  blew  a  soap-bubble,  and  by  means  of  a  fitful 
draught  made  it  intermittently  glide  along  the  floor.  He 
became  at  once  intensely  interested,  but  seemed  unable  to 
decide  whether  or  not  the  filmy  object  was  alive.  At  first  he 
was  very  cautious  and  followed  it  only  at  a  distance,  but 
as  I  encouraged  him  to  examine  the  bubble  more  closely, 
he  approached  it  with  ears  erect  and  tail  down,  evidently 
with  much  misgiving ;  and  the  moment  it  happened  to 
move  he  again  retreated.  After  a  time,  however,  during 
which  I  always  kept  at  least  one  bubble  on  the  carpet,  he 
began  to  gain  more  courage,  and  the  scientific  spirit  over- 
coming his  sense  of  the  mysterious,  he  eventually  became 
bold  enough  slowly  to  approach  one  of  the  bubbles  and 
nervously  to  touch  it  with  his  paw.  The  bubble,  of  course, 
immediately  vanished ;  and  I  certainly  never  saw  astonish- 
ment more  strongly  depicted.  On  then  blowing  another 
bubble,  I  could  not  persuade  him  to  approach  it  for  a  good 
while ;  but  at  last  he  came  and  carefully  extended  his  paw 
as  before  with  the  same  result.  But  after  this  second  trial 
nothing  would  induce  him  again  to  approach  a  bubble, 
and  on  pressing  him  he  ran  out  of  the  room,  which  no 
coaxing  would  persuade  him  to  re-enter. 

One  other  example  will  suffice  to  show  how  strongly 
developed  was  the  sense  of  the  mysterious  in  this  animal 
When  alone  with  him  in  a  room  I  once  purposely  tried 
the  effect  on  him  of  making  a  series  of  horrible  grimaces. 
At  first  he  thought  I  was  only  making  fun  ;  but  as  I  per- 
sistently disregarded  his  caresses  and  whining  while  I 
continued  unnaturally  to  distort  my  features,  he  became 
alarmed  and  slunk  away  under  some  furniture,  shivering  like 
a  frightened  child.  He  remained  in  this  condition  till  some 
other  member  of  the  family  happened  to  enter  the  room, 
when  he  emerged  from  his  hiding-place  in  great  joy  at 
seeing  me  again  in  my  right  mind.  In  this  experiment, 
of  course,  I  refrained  from  making  any  sounds  or  gesticu- 
lations, lest  he  might  think  I  was  angry.  His  actions, 
therefore,  can  only  be  explained  by  his  horrified  surprise 
at  my  apparently  irrational  behaviour — <>.,  by  the  violation 
of  his  ideas  of  uniformity  in  matters  psychological.  It 
must  be  added,  however,  that  I  have  tried  the  same  expe- 
riment on  less  intelligent  and  less  sensitive  terriers  with 
no  other  effect  than  causing  them  to  bark  at  me. 

I  will  only  add  that  I  believe  the  sense  of  the  mysterious 
to  be  the  cause  of  the  dread  which  many  animals  show  of 
thunder.  I  am  led  to  think  this,  because  I  once  had  a 
setter  which  never  heard  thunder  till  he  was  eighteen 
months  old,  and  on  then  first  bearing  it  I  thought  he  was 


about  to  die  of  fright,  as  I  have  seen  other  animals  do 
under  various  circumstances.  And  so  strong  was  the 
impression  which  his  extreme  terror  left  behind,  that 
whenever  afterwards  he  heard  the  boom  of  distant  artillery 
practice,  mistaking  it  for  thunder,  he  became  a  pitiable 
object  to  look  at,  and,  if  out  shooting,  would  immediately 
bolt  home — or,  if  at  a  great  distance  from  home,  would 
endeavour  to  buiy  himself.  After  having  heard  real 
thunder  on  two  or  three  subsequent  occasions,  his  dread 
of  the  distant  cannons  became  ^jreater  than  ever  ;  so  that 
eventually,  though  he  keenly  enjoyed  sport,  nothing  would 
induce  him  to  leave  his  kennel,  lest  the  practice  might 
begin  when  he  was  at  a  distance  from  home.  But  the 
keeper,  who  had  a  large  experience  in  the  training  of 
dogs,  assured  me  that  if  I  allowed  this  one  to  be  taken  to 
the  battery,  in  order  that  he  might  learn  the  true  cause  of 
the  thunder-like  noise,  he  would  again  become  service- 
able in  the  field.  The  animal,  however,  died  before  the 
experiment  was  made.  George  J.  Romanes 

RUHHKORFF 

\17'E  regret  to  record  the  sudden  death  on  December 
'  *  20,  at  Paris,  of  Henry  Daniel  RuhmkorfF,  whose 
name  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  history  of  magneto- 
electricity.  He  was  bom  in  Hanover,  Germany,  in  1803, 
and  but  little  is  known  of  his  early  life.  In  18 19  he 
wandered  to  Paris,  and  obtained  a  position  as  porter  in 
the  laboratory  of  Prof.  Charles  Chevalier,  at  that  time  one 
of  the  leading  French  physicists.  Here  he  displayed  a 
remarkable  fondness  for  electrical  apparatus,  as  well  as 
ingenuity  in  its  arrangement,  and  was  enabled  shortly 
after  to  start  a  niodest  manufactory  of  physical  apparatus. 
Through  the  efforts  of  Chevalier  and  the  excellence  of  the 
work  performed,  the  business  was  rapidly  extended.  In 
1844  Ruhmkorff  brought  out  his  first  invention,  a  con- 
venient thermo-electric  battery.  Soon  after  he  turned  his 
attention  to  magneto-electricity,  especially  the  production 
of  the  induced  currents,  discovered  by  Faraday  in 
1832.  A  long  series  of  experiments  resulted  in  the 
appearance,  in  185 1,  of  the  famous  "  Ruhmkorff 
coil,"  with  its  later  modifications,  the  most  important 
piece  of  apparatus  in  this  branch  of  physics.  With 
this  powerful  adjunct  the  electrician  was  enabled 
to  obtain  sparks  18  inches  in  length,  pierce  thick  plates 
of  glass,  and  carry  out  a  vast  variety  of  experiments. 
The  invention  was  rewarded  by  a  decoration  and  medal 
at  the  Ex>^ibition  of  1855,  while  in  1858  it  received  the 
first  prize  of  50,000  francs  at  the  French  Exhibition  of 
Electrical  Apparatus.  Since  then  the  manufacture  of  the 
coils  and  of  electrical  machines  in  general  has  assumed 
enormous  dimensions,  and  the  leading  physicists  of 
Europe  are  well  acquainted  with  the  dingy  little  bureau 
in  the  Rue  ChampoUion,  near  the  University.  Personally 
M.  RuhmkorfF  was  of  a  quiet,  dignified  appearance,  and 
despite  the  disadvantages  of  his  early  life,  he  enjoyed  the 
friendship  of  the  leading  Parisian  savants^  and  was  an 
honoured  member  of  the  French  Physical  Society.  M. 
Jamin  delivered  an  address  over  the  grave,  in  which  he 
stated  that  Ruhmkorff  died  almost  a  poor  man,  because 
he  had  spent  all  his  earnings  on  behalf  of  science  and  in 
works  of  benevolence. 


UQUEFACTION  OF  OXYGEN 

'X^HE  number  of  the  permanent  gases  is  rapidly 
•L  diminishing.  We  have  had  occasion  recently  to 
refer  to  M.  Cailletet's  successful  attempts  to  compress 
nitric  oxide,  NjOj,  methyl  hydride,  CH^  and  acetylene, 
C2H2,  to  the  liquia  form.  The  list  of  non-compressible 
gases  was  thus  reduced  to  three,  viz.,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
and  oxygen.  Within  the  past  week  M.  Raoul  Pictet  has 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  last-mentioned  gas  in  the 
liquid  state,  an  event  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  most 


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{Dec.  27,  1877 


novel  and  interesting  in  the  chemical  progress  of  the 
expiring  year. 

The  Journal  de  Geneve  of  December  23I  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  experiments :~ 

One  of  the  most  interesting  physical  experiments  of  our 
time  has  just  been  made  at  Geneva  with  rare  success  in 
the  laboratory  of  the  Society  for  the  Manufacture  of 
Physical  Instruments.  M.  Raoul  Pictet  has  succeeded  in 
obtaining,  by  means  of  ingeniously  combined  apparatus, 
the  liquefaction  of  oxygen  gas.  The  following  is  the 
process  by  which  the  curious  result  was  obtained : — 

By  a  double  circulation  of  sulphurous  acid  and  carbonic 
acid,  the  latter  gas  is  liquefied  at  a  temperature  of  65^  of 
cold,  under  a  pressure  of  from  four  to  six  atmospheres. 
The  liquefied  carbonic  acid  if  conducted  into  a  tube  four 
metres  long ;  two  combined  pumps  produce  a  barometric 
vacuum  over  the  acid  which  is  solidified  in  consequence 
of  the  difference  of  pressure.  Into  the  interior  of  this  first 
tube  containing  solidified  carbonic  acid  is  passed  a  tube 
of  a  slightly  less  diameter,  in  which  circulates  a  current  of 
oxygen  produced  in  a  generator  containing  chlorate  of 
potash  and  the  form  ot  which  is  that  of  a  large  shell 
thick  enough  to  prevent  all  danger  of  explosion.  The 
pi  essure  may  thus  be  carried  to  800  atmospheres. 

Yesterday  morning  (December  22),  all  the  apparatus 
being  arranged  as  described,  and  under  a  pressure  which 
did  not  exceed  300  atmospheres,  a  liquid  jet  of  oxygen 
issued  from  the  extremity  of  the  tube,  at  the  moment 
when  this  compressed  and  refrigerated  gas  passed  from 
that  high  pressure  to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  great  scientific  interest  of  this  experiment  is  that  it 
demonstrates  experimentally  the  truth  of  the  mechanical 
theory  of  heat,  by  establishing  that  all  gases  are  vapours 
capable  of  passing  through  the  three  states — solid,  liquid, 
and  gaseous.  Only  twenty  da}  s  ago  M.  Cailletet,  as  we 
have  said,  succeeded  in  liquefying  the  bioxide  of  nitrogen, 
under  a  pressure  of  146  atmospheres  and  at  a  temperature 
of  11°  of  cold.  After  the  experiment  of  M.  Raoul  Pictet 
there  remain  not  more  than  two  elemental  gases  which 
have  hitherto  escaped  the  attempt  at  liquefaction — 
hydrogen  and  nitrogen. 

The  experiment  above  described  was  to  be  repeated  on 
Monday  and  subsequent  days,  with  some  slight  changes 
in  the  processes  and  the  arrangement  of  the  apparatus. 


NOTES 

Some  intere Si ing  experiments  with  the  telephone  have  been 
made  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Preece  between  Dablin  and  Holyhead 
through  the  submarine  cable.  Conversation  was  freely  main* 
tained  and  songs  were  snog  on  each  siJe  and  heard  and 
appreciated  on  the  other.  The  articulation  was  excellent, 
but  muffled,  as  though  the  speakers  spoke  through  respirators. 
This  is  what  might  have  been  expected  from  the  static  induction 
of  the  cable.  It  is  the  longest  actual  cable  yet  spoken  through, 
its  length  being  sixty-seven  miles. 

At  their  Ust  sitting  the  enlarged  Council  of  the  Paris  Obser- 
vatory  were  occupied  in  considering  the  que sticn  of  the  position 
of  French  meteorology.  M.  Damesnil,  the  representative  of 
the  minister,  was  obliged  to  silence  some  members  of  the  mi- 
nority who  were  atsaiHng  the  character  of  some  of  the  physicists 
having  the  control  of  the  Observatory  and  the  transmission  of 
the  warnings  to  the  sea-port?.  A  large  majority  rendering 
justice  to  the  ingenuity  displayed  and  to  the  highly  scientific 
nature  of  the  warnings,  passed  a  vote  recommending  the 
administration  not  to  alter  the  present  condition  of  things  at 
the  observatory. 

Dr.  Carlo  Ghinozzi,  Professor  of  Medical  Clinic  at  the 
Istitnto  Superiore  of  Florence,  for  many  years  colleague  and 
afterwmrdi  successor  of  ProC  Bufalini,  died  on  Saturday,  the 
15th  instant,  at  the  age  of  66  years. 


In  Bonn  a  committee  has  been  formed  consisting  of  leading 
citizens  and  Professors  Banerbaod,  Kekule,  and  Proschel,  of  the 
University,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a  monument  to  the  late 
Prof.  Jacob  Noeggerath,  whose  death  last  September  we  briefly 
alluded  to  at  the  time.  Prof.  Noeggerath  was  bom  in  Bonn 
October  10,  1 788,  and  since  the  foundation  of  the  university  in 
1818  had  been  connected  with  it  as  Professor  of  Mineralogy.  As 
asuccessful  teacher  of  the  natural  sciences  he  acquired  an  unusually 
widespread  fame,  and  the  majority  of  the  present  Prussian 
mining  officials  pursued  their  studies  under  his  direction.  His 
general  scientific  researches  touch  on  a  number  of  interesting 
geological  questions,  such  as  the  formation  of  basalt,  &c. ;  but 
his  chief  efforti  were  directed  to  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
mineralogy  and  geology  of  Rhenish  Westphalia,  the  results  of 
which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  magnificent  mineralogical  collection 
at  Bonn,  and  the  rapid  development  of  the  mining  interests  in 
this  distiict.  As  a  favourite  writer  of  popular  works  on  scientific 
subjects,  he  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the  general  taste 
for  this  class  of  literature  now  prevalent  in  Germany. 

The  expedition  sent  out  by  the  Dutch  Geographical  Society  for 
the  exploration  of  Sumatra  has  met  with  a  severe  check  by  the 
sudden  death  of  its  leader,  M.  Schouw  Landvort.  His  extensive 
knowledge,  indomitable  perseverance,  and  great  powers  of  en- 
durance, fitted  him  eminently  for  the  position,  these  qualitie 
being  notably  evidenced  by  the  bold  journey  across  the  middle 
of  the  island,  through  hitherto  unknown  regions,  in  the  company 
of  natives  only,  which  we  had  occasion  lately  to  chronicle. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  Zoological  Society  on 
Wednesday  last  week,  the  president,  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale, 
proposed  that  the  silver  medal  of  the  Society  should  be  awarded 
to  Mr.  Robert  Hudson,  F.R.S.,  in  acknowledgment  of  the 
valuable  services  he  had  rendered  to  the  Society  for  the  fifty 
years  that  he  had  been  a  Fellow  thereof.  The  motion  was  carried 
unanimously  at  the  full  meeting  of  the  Council. 

The  organisation  of  public  instruction  in  France  is  undt  ri;oing  > 
an  exceedingly  beneficial  change.  A  decree,  published  in  the 
Journal  OffUicl  of  December  17,  establishes  a  representative 
Council  of  Public  Instruction  under  the  title  of  *'  Comit^  Con* 
sultatif."  The  committee  is  divided  into  three  different  sections 
corresponding  to  the  three  divisions  of  public  instruction  in 
France,  primary,  secondary  (grammar  schools),  and  superior 
(universities).  Each  sec*  ion  is  to  appoint  its  president  and 
secretary.  The  three  sections  in  general  session  are  to  be  pre- 
sided over  by  the  minister.  Some  of  the  members  are  appointed 
by  the  minister  to  serve  during  a  period  of  five  years,  others  are 
members  ex  officio.  The  minister  cannot  elect  any  who  are  not 
members  of  the  teaching  body  or  of  the  Institut.  The  director! 
of  the  a  Iminlstration  ot  primary,  secondary,  or  superior  instruc- 
tion are  ex  officio  members  of  their  respecdve  sections.  They 
meet  yearly  at  a  certain  fixed  petiod.  The  opinion  of  the  com* 
mittee  is  not  binding,  but  it  must  be  taken  on  a  number  of 
matters,  such  as  bills  which  are  to  be  presented  to  Parliament, 
modification  of  programmes,  &c.  Another  decree  appoints  the 
members  of  the  three  committees.  Among  these  are  many 
names  well-known  to  science,  as  MM.  Laboulaye,  Wiirtz,  Claude 
Bernard,  Vulpian,  Gavarret,  Chevreul,  Faye,^Berthelot,  Milne- 
Edwards,  Puiseux,  and  Desains. 

The  following  are  the  probable  arrangements  for  the  Friday 
Evening  Meetings  at  the  Royal  Institution,  before  Easter^ 
1878 :— January  25,  Prof:  Huxley,  F.R.S  ,  '*  WUliaai  Harvey ; " 
February  i,  Wm.  Henry  Preece,  C.E.,  "The  Telephone;" 
February  8,  Matthew  Arnold,  •*  Equality  ;  *'  February  15,  P.  L. 
Sdater,  F.R.S.,  "2U>ological  Dtsiribution  and  some  of  its  Dif- 
ficulties;" February  22,  ProC  Roscoe,  F.R.S.  ;  March  i, 
Richard  liebreich,  M.D.,  "  The  Deterioration  of  Oil  Paint- 
ing^;"   March  8,   Prof.    Goklwin  Smith,   "The  Influence  o 


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171 


Geographical  Circumstances  on  Political  Character; "  March  15, 
Lord  Raylcigh,  F.R.S.  ;  March  22,  Prof.  Tyndall,  F.R.S.  ; 
March  29,  Prof.  Dcwar,  F.R.S. ;  April  5,  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
Bart.,  M.P.,  F.RS.  ;  April  12,  Sir  Joseph  Dalton  Hooker, 
C.B.,  Prcs.  R.S.,  "The  Distribution  of  Plant!  in  North 
America." 

Prof.  Barff  begins  his  juvenile  lectures  at  the  Society  of 
Arts  next  Wednesday.  His  subject  if  ''Coal  and  its  Com« 
ponents." 

Volcanic  eruptions  are  threatening  Iceland  again.  The  last 
number  of  the  Skuld,  published  in  Ki-kifjodur,  states  that  on  the 
evening  previous  an  unprecedented  heat  was  suddenly  felt,  so 
strong  tha^t  the  inhabitants  thought  themselves  in  the  vicinity  of 
.  vast  conflagration.  The  phenomenon  was  followed  by  alter- 
nate gusts  of  rain  and  showers  of  volcanic  ashes  accompanied 
by  subterranean  rumblings. 

Ths  German  Government  has  lately  named  a  tiew  steamer 
after  the  well-known  meteorologist.  Prof.  Dove^  of  Berlin,  iin 
recognition  of  the  advantages  accruing  to  navigation  from  his 
many  observations  and  discovsries. 

The  Italian  Geographical  Society  has  received  news  from 
Signori  Martini  and  Cecchi,  who  have  penetrated  into  Shoa. 
There  is  no  intelligence  of  the  Marquess  Antinori  and  the 
engineer  Chiarini,  whose  fate  causes  grave  anxiety. 

Th£  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  held  a  banquet  last 
Saturday  to  commemorate  the  fifty-seventh  anniversary  of  Its 
foundation.  Among  the  toasts  which  were  given  we  must  notice 
that  of  Mr.  Gordon  Bennett,  the  enterprising  director  of  the 
New  York  Herald^  who  originated  Stanley's  fruitful  mission,  and 
the  King  of  the  Belgians,  by  MM.  Levasseur  and  de  Lesseps. 

New  halls  of  exhibition  for  antiquities  have  been  opened  in 
•He  Louvre.  An  interesting  anthropological  exhibition  will  be 
>opened  on  January  15  at  the  Palais  de  Tlndnstrie.  It  will  be 
confined  to  the  discoveries  made  in  South  America  by  the 
several  scientific  missionaries  sent  to  that  region  by  the  French 
government.    The  exhibition  will  be  open  only  till  March  i. 

Ws  have  received  from  Messrs.  De  la  Rue  and  Co.  some 
specimens  of  their  exquisitely-printed  Indelible  Diaries,  Pocket 
Diaries,  Memorandum  Books,  and  Calendars  for  the  coming 
year.  Our  readers  have  doubtless  already  supplied  themselves 
with  one  or  other  of  these.  If  not,  the  following  statement  will 
recommend  the  Pocket  Diary  to  every  lover  of  science  : — ^We 
not  only  find  everything  that  one  finds  generally  in  such  a  pocket 
companion,  but,  under  the  careful  editorship  of  Mr.  Godward, 
the  amateur  astronomer  is  supplied  with  information  as  to  astro- 
nomical phenomens^  including  the  times  of  rising,  southings  and 
setting  of  the  five  principal  planets,  and  the  illuminated  discs  of 
Venus  and  Mars,  and  occultations  visible  at  Greenwich.  The 
physiographer  finds  meteorological  averages  of  mean  tempe- 
rature, rainfall,  and  barometer,  hints  as  to  weather  forecasts, 
and  the  magnetic  elements.  Physical  daU  are  not  foigotten,  and 
the  conversion  of  metric  measures  into  British  inches  and  centi- 
grade readings  into  Fahrenheit  are 'given.  The  geographer  and 
statistician  have  also  facts  stored  up  for  them  whidi  will  certainly 
be  often  refened  to  in  the  course  of  the  8,000  odd  hours  which 
make  up  the  year.  One  thing,  and  one  thing  only,  we  miss — 
the  old  three-page  article  and  exquisitersted  engraving  which 
brought  home  to  everybody  the  latest  thing  of  mark  in  the 
progress  of  the  sciences  of  observation. 

We  learn  with  pleasure  in  perusing  the  last  pamphlets  sent  to 
us  by  Capt  Howgate  on  his  intended  Polar  Colony,  that  the  use 
of  small  pilot  balloons  has  been  recommended  to  Mr.  Sherman, 
the  meteorologist  of  the  preliminary  Florence  expedition.    The 


method  practised.by  M.  de  FonvieUe  in  the  beginning  of  1877 
at  Secretan's  workshop  for  ascertaining  the  altitude  of  clouds 
and  the  direction  of  the  winds  by  throwing  ballonett  Into  the  air, 
has  been  improved  upon  in  America  and  will  be  used  regularly 
in  arctic  work.  This  success  has  led  MM  de  FonvieUe  and 
Secretan  to  prepare  instructions  for  the  above  purposes,  in  the 
hope  of  extending  the  use  of  these  ballonett  to  the  bringing  of 
news  firom  ships  in  danger  or  expeditions  severed  firom  the  civilised 
world  either  by  sandy  wastes  or  icy  solitudes.  A  number  of 
examples  cited  in  recent  works  on  ballooning  may  be  regarded  as 
an  indication  that  the  old  mode  of  throwing  bottles  into  the  sea 
may  be  replaced  by  a  new  method  equally  simple  and  having  at 
least  a  thousand  more  chances  of  suooeis. 

Capt.  Howgatb's  scheme  for  Polar  colonisation  has  been 
brought  before  the  Council  of  the  Paris  Geographical  Society, 
and  it  is  expected  that  a  resolution  favourable  to  the  contemplated 
expedition  will  be  adopted  in  time  to  be  sent  to  America  before 
Congress  has  come  to  a  final  decision  on  that  important  object 

An  interesting  discussion  arose  at  the  last  meeting  of  the 
Anthropological  Institute,  on  the  contents  of  the  small  oval  pits 
which  have  been  discovered  in  the  neighbourhood  of  some  of  the 
shafts  at  Cissbury.  The  president,  Mr.  John  Evans,  pointed 
out  marks  on  the  bone  of  a  small  ruminant,  probably  a  roebuck, 
which  indicated  that  it  had  been  used  in  the  process  of  weavmg. 
A  carding-comb,  a  terra-cotta  bead,  large  enough  to  serve  as  a 
spindle-whorl,  and  a  loom- weight  ot  chalk  were  found  in  the 
same  pit  Lord  Rosehill  mentioned  that  chalk  weights  were  also 
met  with  in  Mr.  Tindale's  pit  at  Cissbury,  and  some  were  noy^ 
in  his  museum.  Mr.  Park  Harrison  was  of  ophiion  that  the  little 
pits  were  graves,  but  they  appeared  to  have  been  disturbed  at  a 
remoter  period  and  used  for  more  than  one  interment  The 
potsherds  found  in  them  were  of  various  dates,  some  being  of  a 
type  more  common  on  the  Continent  than  In  this  coimtiy. 

Wb  notice  the  appearance  of  the  first  two  of  the  three  divisions 
of  the  JahraberUkt  f&r  Ckemu  for  1876^  which  completes  the 
report  of  physical,  inorganic,  organic,  vegetable^  and  physio- 
logical chemistry,  leaving  the  analjrtical,  technical,  nodneralogical, 
and  geological  portions  for  the  closing  number.  Prof;  Fittica  , 
of  Marburg,  is  still  editor-in-chief,  and  he  is  assisted  by  C  • 
Bottinger,  C.  Hell,  H..Klinger,  A.  Laubenheimer,  £.  Ludwig, 
A.  Naumann,  F.  Nies,  H.  Salkowski,  Z.  H.  Skraup^  K.  Zopprits, 
G.  Schults,  and  W.  Weyl,  the  latter  two  replacing  K.  Bimbaum 
and  A.  Michaelis  in  the  editorial  corps  of  the  preceding  year. 
The  publication  of  the  Jdhrmbericht  has  been  much  more  prompt 
•ince  the  appearance  of  Prof.  Staedel's  Jahresbericht  fiir  die  reine 
Chemie  in  1873,  which  although  confined  exclusively  to  pure 
chemistry,  renders  a  tolerably  complete  report  for  each  year  in 
the  following  September. 

The  two  last  numbers  of  the  Isvestia  of  the  Russian  Geo  • 
graphical  Society  contain  a  very  interesting  account,  by  Dr. 
Wojeikoff,  of  his  travels  in  Japan,  made  during  the  summer  of 
last  year.  Besides  a  vivid  description  of  the  country  visited,  and  • 
of  its  inhabitants,  the  reader  will  find  in  these  papers  many 
interesting  data  as  to  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  land, 
with  many  determinations  of  heights,  the  dimate^  the  products, 
&c  Two  separate  papers  are  devoted,  one  to  the  exterior  trade 
of  Japan,  and  the  other  to  the  population  and  its  dependence 
upon  agriculture,  as  compared  with  other  countries. 

The  Moscow  Society  of  Friends  of  Natural  Science  has 
undertaken  various  anthropological  researches  for  the  exhibition 
which  will  take  place  at  Moscow  in  1879.  One  of  them  was 
made  in  the  Ryazan  government  by  M  N^f(£do£^  who  has  already 
discovered  and  excavated  ten  unknown  and  very .  interesting 
ko^anes  (mounds)  in  Kasimov  district     He  has  found  there 


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[Dec.  27,  1877 


eleven  baman  ikel«^oiis  with  many  ornaments,  some  of  them  in 
bronze,  representing  snake%  bea<)s  of  Various  animals,  &c. ;  and 
a  comparison  of  the  Rvazan  skulls  and  ornaments  with  those 
excavated  in  the  Moscow  and  Meriaks  koor^ams,  proves  that 
they  belong  to  quite  a  different  people.  Altogether  the  discovery 
promises  to  be  of  great  importance.  Another  gentleman  sent 
by  the  same  society,  M.  Bensengr  is  busily  engaged  in  making 
anthropological  measurements  and  ethnographical  descriptions  of 
the  Ryazan  Tartars. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  St  Petersburg  Society  of  Naturalists 
on  December  9,  M.  PoiyikofT— returned  from  a  journey  to 
Western  Siberia,  the  Altai,  and  Alatan  Mountains — ^read  a  report 
on  the  interesting  question  as  to  the  state  of  Central  Asia  during 
the  glacial  period.  After  having  described  the  boulder-clays, 
boulders,  and  morainic  deposits  he  met  with  during  his  journey, 
as  well  as  the  present  characters  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the 
country,  he  concluded  in  favour  of  a  complete  gladation  of 
Central  Aria  during  the  ]ast  ice-period. 

Wb  notice  a  valuable  Russian  work,  just  published  by  M. 
MushketofT,  **  Materials  for  a  Knowledge  of  the  Geology  and 
of  the  Mines  of  the  Zlatoust  Mine  District  in  Southern  UraL*' 
It  is  the  result  of  careful  study,  contains  many  new  and  valuable 
data,  and  is  accompanied  by  an  elaborate  geological  map. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society  on 
December  8,  Prof.  Ujfalvy,  of  the  Paris  High  School  of  Eastern 
Languages,  who  was  sent  by  the  French  Government  on  an 
anthropological  mission  to  Central  Asia,  made  a  very  interesting 
communication  on  his  work  in  the  Russian  provinces  of  Orenburg, 
Fergana,  and  Turkistan.  After  a  careful  study  of  the  Bashkirs, 
he  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  this  people  are  the  original 
stock  of  the  Madjars  ;  that  the  Mescheryacks  are  intermediate 
between  Bashkirs  and  Ostyacks,  and  that  the  Tepteri  are  true 
Tartars.  The  conclusions  arrived  at  as  to  1  he  various  peoples  of 
Turkistan  are  more  comphcated  and  could  not  be  briefly  stated  ; 
but  the  learned  professor  has  collected  many  important  data^ 
and  has  obtained  valuable  photographs,  collections  of  old  coins 
from  Turkistan,  of  stone  implements  from  Siberia,  &c. — At  the 
same  meeting  M.  Minaieff  referred  to  the  work  he  has  compiled, 
by  order  of  the  society,  on  the  tracts  of  Central  Asia  occupjring 
the  upper  paru  oi  the  Amu-daria.  The  work  is  dirided  into 
three  parts :  geographical,  ethnographical,  and  lingubtic,  the 
former  being  the  richest,  and  sums  up  all  we  know  at  present 
about  those  lands. 

Cou  Gordon  ha^  lately  entered  into  a  contract  with  Messrs. 
Yarrow  and  Co.,  uf  Poplar,  for  four  steel  steamers  of  small 
draught  He  intends  exploring  the  Albert  Nyanza  and  the 
rivers  flowing  into  it  The  steamers  are  to  be  carried  as  far  as 
pos'^ible  by  water,  aad  are  to  be  composed  of  several  portable 
p  eces  o'  abou'  200  lbs.  each,  to  be  put  together  on  arrival  at  their 
destination.  Col.  Gordon  and  his  party  are  reported  to  be  in 
good  health. 

SiNCB  the  beginning  of  last  year  a  new  scientiSc  journal  has 
appeared  at  Cbristiania  (Cammermeyer)  under  the  title  Anhiv 
for  MtUhtmatik  0%  Natunndtnskub.  It  is  edited  by  Herrer 
Sophus  Lie,  Jakob  Worm  Miiller,  and  G.  O.  Sars.  The  journal 
is  published  in  four  yearly  parts  which  form  a  volume  of  about 
500  pages.  We  have  received  the  first  seven  parts,  and  may 
congratulate  the  ediuirs  and  publishers  on  the  decided  step  of 
\  rogress  which  the  appearance  of  this  journal  evidently  marks 
in  the  history  of  Norwegi4n  science.  Amongst  a  number  of 
mai  hemaiical  papers  by  Herr  Sophus  Lie,  and  others  of  minor 
iucere»t,  there  are  some  interesting  geological,  treatises  by  Herr 
Karl  Pettersen,  viz.,  on  the  orography  of  Norway,  on  the  geology 
of  the  Salten  fjord,  on  the  giant's  cave  near  the  Lavangen  fjord 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sandvort,  and  on  the  fjords  of  Northern 


N» 


Norway.  Herr  S.  A.  Sexe  has  contributed  two  papers  on  some 
old  coast-lines  and  on  the  direction  of  the  winds  m  the  so-called 
"stUle  Belt"  Herr  Amund  Helland  is  the  author  of  a  treatise 
on  the  ice-filled  fjords  of  Northern  Greenland,  and  of  an  elabo- 
rate accotmt  of  the  varying  quantities  of  chlorine  present  in  the 
sea-water  of  the  German  Ocean,  the  Atlantic,  and  Davis*  Straits. 
Herr  G.  O.  Sars  contributes  an  interesting  note  on  the  sdeniific 
expeditions  in  the  Atlantic  during  1876,  and  some  dctaileil 
researches  on  the  invertebrate  fauna  of  the  Mediterranean  (wi^ 
plates. )  Herr  J.  Worm  Miiller  gives  some  notes  on  Malasses*! 
method  of  estimating  the  number  of  red  corpuscles  in  blood  as 
well  as  on  the  relation  between  the  number  of  red  corpuscles 
and  the  colouring  power  of  blood.  Of  the  remaining  papers  we 
note — ^a  metallurgical  paper  by  El.  Miinster  :  on  the  influence  of 
the  eccentricity  of  the  orbits  of  heavenly  bodies  upon  the  quan*' 
tity  of  heat  they  receive  from  the  sun,  by  H.  Geelmnyden  ;  and 
two  zoological  notes,  one  by  J.  Koren  and  D.  C  Danielssen,  the 
other  by  Herman  Friele. 

Ths  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Greater  Sulphur- Crested  Cockatoo  {Caeatua 
galerita)  from  Australia,  presented  by  Miss  Rosetta  Cohen ;  a 
Grey-breasted  Parrakeet  {Bolborhynchus  monaehus)  from  Monte 
Video^  presented  by  Mr.  Alex.  F.  Baillie ;  a  Mocassin  Snake 
( Tropidonotus  jasciaiMs),  bom  in  the  Gardens. 

CERTAIN  MOVEMENTS  OF  RADIOMETERS^ 

EARLY  two  years  ago  Mr.  Crookes  was  so  good  as  to  present 
me  «^ith  two  of  his  beautiful  radiometers  of  difierent  construc- 
tions, the  discs  of  one  being  made  of  pith,  and  those  of  the  other  ol 
roasted  mica,  in  each  case  blackened  with  lampblack  on  one  face. 
With  these  I  was  enabled  to  make  some  experiments,  having 
relation  to  their  apparently  anomalous  movements  under  certain 
circumstances,  which  were  very  interesting  to  myself,  although 
the  facts  are  only  such  as  have  already  presented  themselves  to 
Mr.  Crookes,  either  in  the  actual  form  in  which  I  witnessed  them.  ^ 
or  in  one  closely  analogous,  and  have  mostly  been  described  b^  ^  > 
him.     Although  it  will  be  necessary  for  me  to  describe  the  actual  ^ 
experiments,  which  have  all  been  repeated  over  and  over  again 
so  as  to  make  sure  of  the  results,  I  do  not  bring  forward  the  tacts 
as  new.    My  object  is  rather  to  endeavour  to  co-ordinate  them, 
and  point  to  the  conclusions  to  which  they  appear  to  lead. 

I  do  not  pretend  that  these  conclusions  are  established  ;  I  am 
well  aware  that  they  need  to  be  further  confronted  with  otserva- 
tion  ;  but  as  I  have  not  leisure  to  engage  in  a  series  of  experi- 
ments which  would  demand  the  expenditure  of  a  good  deal  of 
time,  and  have  lately  been  urged  by  a  friend  to  publ^  my  views, 
I  venture  to  lay  them  before  the  Royal  Society,  in  hopes  that 
they  may^be  of  some  use,  even  if  only  in  the  way  of  stimulating 
inquiry. 

in  describing  my  experiments  I  will  designate  that  direction  ol 
rotation  in  which  the  white  face  precedes  as  positive,  and  the 
reverse  as  negative.  It  will  be  remembered  that,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  radiation  towards  either  radiometer  produces 
positive  rotation. 

1.  If  a  glass  tumbler  be  heated  to  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water,  and  inverted  over  the  mica  radiometer,  there  is  littV  or 
no  immtdiate  motion  of  the  fly,  but  quickly  a  mgatwe  lOlatian 
sets  in,  feeble  at  first,  but  rapidly  becoming  lively,  and  pte>cutly 
dying  away. 

2.  If  after  the  fly  has  come  to  rest  the  hot  tumbler  be  remov^ 
9.  positive  rotation  soon  sets  in,  which  becomes  pretty  lively^  aAd 
then  gradually  dies  away  as  the  apparatus  cools. 

3.  If  the  tumbler  be  heated  to  a  somewhat  higher  temperature, 
on  first  inverting  it  over  the  radiometer  there  is  a  slight  posithn 
rotation,  commencing  with  the  promptimde  usual  in  the  case  of 
a  feeble  luminous  radiation,  but  quickly  succeeded  by  the  negative 
rotation  already  described.  It  the  tumbler  be  heated  still  mora 
highly,  the  initial  po^^itive  rotati  m  is  stronger,  and  la^ts  longer, 
and  the  subsequent  negative  rotation  is  tardy  and  feeble. 

4.  If  the  pith  radiometer  be  treated  as  in  §  i,  the  result  is  the 
same,  with  the  remarkable  difference  that  the  rotation  is  positive 
instead  of  negative ;  it  is  also  less  lively. 

•  Paper  read  at  the  Royal  Society,  December  20,  by  Prof.  G.  G.  Stokes, 
Sec  R.S. 


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5.  But  if  the  tumbler  be  removed  when  the  fly  has  come  to 
rest,  it  remains  at  rest,  or  nearly  sa 

6.  If  the  tumbler  be  more  strongly  heated,  nositive  rotation 
begins  as  promptly  as  with  li^ht.  In  this  case  tne  tumbler  must 
not  be  left  long  over  the  radiometer,  for  fear  the  vacuum  should 
be  spoiled  by  the  evolution  of  gMS  from  the  pith. 

7.  If  the  tumbler  be  heated  by  holding  it  over  the  spout  of  a 
kettle  from  which  steam  is  issuing,  and  held  there  till  the  con- 
densation of  water  has  approximately  ceased,  and  be  then 
inverted  over  the  pith  radiometer,  the  bulb  is  immediately 
bcdeipied,  and  a  negative  rotation  is  almost  immediately  set  up, 
though  sometimes,  just  at  the  very  first  moment,  there  is  a  trace 
of  positive  rotation.  The  negative  rotation  is  lively,  but  not 
lastirg  ;  and  after  fifteen  seconds  or  so,  is  exchanged  for  a  posi- 
tive rotation,  which  is  not  lively,  but  lasts  longer. 

8.  If  the  tumbler  be  lilted  when  the  negative  rotation  has 
ceased,  and  the  dewed  surface  be  strongly  blown  upon,  a  lively 
but  brief  positive  rotation  is  set  up. 

9.  To  produce  positive  rotation  by  blowing  it  is  not  essential 
that  tie  bulb  be  wet.  If  it  be  merely  warm,  and  the  circum- 
stances are  such  that  the  fly  is  at  rest  for  the  moment,  or  nearly 
so,  blowing  produces  positive  rotation,  though  much  less  strongly 
than  when  the  bulb  is  wet. 

10.  If  the  tumbler  be  heated  as  in  §  7,  and  inverted  over  the  mica 
radiometer,  the  rotation  is  positive,  as  when  the  tumbler  is  dry. 

11.  If  the  tumbltr  or  a  cup  be  smoked  mside  (to  facilitate 
radiation),  heated  to  a  little  beyond  the  temperature  of  boi'ing 
water,  and  inverted  over  the  pith  radiometer,  a  positive  rotation 
is  produced  ;  and  if,  when  this  has  ceased,  which  takes  place  in 
a  couple  of  minutes  or  so,  the  heated  vessel  be  removed,  a 
negative,  though  not  lively,  rotation  is  produced  as  the  apparatus 
coolf. 

12.  These  results  do  not  seem  diflicult  to  co-ordinate  so  far  as 
to  reduce  them  to  their  proximate  cause. 

As  regards  the  small  quantity,  if  any,  of  heat  radiated  directly 
across  the  glass  of  the  bulb,  the  action  of  which  was  experi- 
mentally distinguishable  by  its  promptitude,  both  radiometers 
behaved  in  the  ordinary  way. 

13.  As  regards  the  mica  radiometer,  when  the  bulb  gets  heated 
and  radiates  towards  the  fly  the  fly  is  impelled  in  the  negative 
direction  as  ifxht  white  pearly  mica  wete  black  and  the  lamp- 
black were  white.  And  there  is  nothing  opposed  to  what  we 
know  in  supposing  that  such  is  realiy  their  relative  oider  of 
darkness  as  regards  the  heat  of  low  refrangibility  absorbed  and 
radiated  by  the  glass  ;  for  the  researches  of  Melloni  and  others 
have  shown  that  lampblack  is,  if  not  absolutely  white,  at  any 
rate  very  far  from  black  as  regards  heat  of  low  refrangibility.  On 
the  other  hand,  glass  and  mica  are  both  silicates,  not  so  very  dis- 
similar in  chemical  composition,  and  it  would  not  therefore  be 
very  wonderful,  but  rather  the  reverse,  if  there  were  a  general 
similarity  in  their  mode  of  absorption  of  radiant  heat,  so  that  the 
heat  mostfieely  radiated  by  glass  and  accordingly  abounding  in 
the  radiation  from  thin  gl^s  such  as  that  of  the  bulb,  were 
greedily  absorbed  by  mica.  The  explanation  of  the  reversal  of 
the  action  when  heat  and  cold  were  interchanged  is  too  well 
known  to  require  mention. 

14.  'With  the  pith  radiometer,  when  the  bulb  as  a  whole  is 
heated,  and  radiates  towards  the  fly,  the  impulse  is  positive, 
though  less  strong  than  in  the  case  of  the  mica  (§  4) ;  and  when 
the  bulb  as  a  whole  is  cooler  than  the  fly  the  impulse  b  negative 

(§11). 

But  to  explain  all  the  phenomena  we  must  dissect  the  total 
radiation  from  or  towards  the  bulb.  When  I  first  noticed  the 
negative  rotation  produced  by  a  heated  wet  tumbler,  I  was  dis- 
posed to  attribute  it  to  radiation  fiom  the  water,  which  possibly 
the  glass  of  the  bulb  might  be  thin  enough  to  let  pass  ;  but  when 
I  found  that  hot  water  in  a  glass  vessel  outside,  even  though  the 
glass  of  it  were  thin,  produced  no  fensible  effect,  and  that 
blowirg  on  the  heattd  bulb  when  it  was  dry  produced  a  similar 
effect  to  blowing  on  it  when  dewed,  though  of  much  less  amount, 
I  perceived  that  the  moisture  acted,  not  by  direct  radiation  from 
it,  and  in  consequence  of  a  difference  of  quality  between  the 
radiations  from  glass  and  water,  but  by  causing  a  rapid  suptr- 
ficiat  healing  ol  the  bulb;  and,  similarly,  the  blowing  on  the 
dewed  surface  acted  by  causing  a  rapid  superficial  cooling. 
When  the  dry  tumbler  radiatts  to  the  bulb,  the  radiation  is 
absorbed  at  various  depths ;  the  absorption  is  most  copious,  it  is 
true,  at  the  outer  strata,  but  still  the  change  of  temperature  is 
not  by  any  means  so  much  confined  to  the  immediate  surface  as 
when  we  have  to  deal  with  the  latent  heat  of  vapour  condensed 
on  ir,  c»r  obtained  from  it  \ij  rapid  evaporation. 


Hence,  thin  as  b  the  glass  of  the  bulb  (about  003  in.  thick), 
we  must  still,  in  imagination,  divide  it  into  an  outer  and  inner 
stratum,  and  examine  the  eflects  of  these  ceparately.  The  heat 
radiated  by  either  stratum  depends  only  on  its  temperature,  but 
the  radiation  from  the  outer,  on  its  way  to  the  fly,  is  sifted  by 
passing  through  the  inner,  and  the  portion  for  which  glass  is 
most  excessively  opaque  is  in  great  part  stopped.  It  appears 
from  the  observed  results  that  the  residue  acts  decidedly  nega- 
tively, while  when  the  bulb  is  pretty  uniformly  heated  there  is 
positive  action.  We  may  in^er  that  if  it  were  possible  to  heat  the 
inner  stratum  alone  it  would  manifest  a  very  decided  positive 
action. 

1 5.  In  the  struggle  between  the  opposing  actions  of  the  outer 
and  inner  strata  we  see  the  explanation  of  the  strange  behaviour 
of  the  pith  radiometer.  In  the  experiment  of  §  7  the  outer 
stratum  at  fust  shows  its  negative  action,  but  quickly  the  inner 
also  gets  heated,  paitly  by  conduction  from  the  outer,  partly  by 
direct  radiation  from  the  tumbler,  and  then  the  inner  prevails. 
In  the  experiment  of  §  5  the  whole  bulb  cooIf,  partly  by  radia- 
tion, partly  by  convection,  while  the  fly  remains  warmer  ;  and 
the  slightly  greater  coolmss  of  the  outer  thanot  the  inner  stratum 
makes  up  for  the  superiority  of  the  inner  when  the  two  are  equally 
cool,  so  that  the  antagonistic  actions  nearly  balance,  and  slight 
causes,  ^uch  as  greater  or  less  agitation  of  the  air,  sumceto  mfdce 
the  balance  incline  one  way  or  other.  That  the  inner  stratum 
would  prevail  if  the  two  were  about  equaly  cooled  may  be 
inferred  from  the  behaviour  of  the  radiometer  when  the  btdb  is 
pretty  uniformly  heated  (§§  4,  11),  or  shown  more  directly  by 
cooling  the  btilb  with  snow,  when  a  negative  rotation  may  be 
obtained. 

16.  The  complete  definition  of  a  radiation  would  involve  the 
expression  of  the  intensity  of  each  component  of  it  as  a  function 
of  some  quantity  serving  to  define  the  quality  of  the  component, 
such  as  its  refractive  index  in  a  standard  medium,  or  its  wave- 
length, or  the  squared  reciprocal  of  the  wave-length.  ^  The 
experimental  determination  of  the  character,  as  thus  defined,  of 
a  radiation  consisting  of  invisible  heat- rays  is  beset  with  diflicul- 
ties,  at  least  in  the  case  of  heat  of  extremely  low  refrangibility  ; 
and  in  general  we  can  do  little  more  than  speak  in  a  rough  way 
of  the  radiation  as  being  of  such  or  such  a  kind.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  behaviour  of  radiometers  by  itself  alone  affords  no  indi- 
cation of  the  refrangibilities  of  the  kinds  of  heat  with  which  we 
have  to  deal ;  neveitbclt&s,  by  combining  what  we  know  of  the 
behaviour  of  bodies  in  lespect  to  radiations  in  general  (especially 
luminous  radiations,  which  are  the  most  easily  studied)  with 
what  we  observe  as  to  the  motions  of  radiometers,  we  may  arrive 
at  some  probable  conclusions. 

1 7.  We  may  evidently  comeive  a  series  of  ethereal  vibrations 
of  ai)y  periodic  time,  however  great,  to  be  incident  on  a  homo- 
geneous medium  such  as  glass,  and  inquire  in  what  manner  the 
rate  cf  absorption  would  change  with  the  period ;  though 
whether  we  can  actually  produce  etheteal  vibrations  of  a  very 
long  period  is  another  question,  seeing  that  we  can  only  act  on 
the  ether  by  the  intervention  of  matter,  and  are  limited  to  such 
periods  of  vibration  as  matter  can  assume  when  vibrating  mole- 
cularly,  in  a  manner  communicable  to  the  ether,  and  not  as  a 
continuous  mass,  in  the  manner  of  the  vibrations  which  produce 
sound.  We  may  inquire  whether,  on  continually  increasing  the 
period  of  vibration,  the  glass  (or  other  medium)  wouW  ultimately 
becone  and  remain  very  opaque,  or  whether,  after  passing 
through  a  range  of  opacity,  it  would  becotue  transparent  again, 
on  still  further  increasing  the  period  of  the  incident  vibrations. 

iS.  This  is  a  question  the  experimental  answer  to  which,  as 
it  seems  to  me,  could  only  be  given,  in  so  tar  as  it  could  be 
given  at  all,  as  a  result  of  a  long  series  of  experiments,  of  a 
kind  that  Melloni  has  barely  touched  on.  A  variety  of  consider- 
ations, which  I  could  not  explain  in  short  compass,  lead  me  to 
regard  the  second  alternative  as  the  more  ].robable,  namely, 
that,  on  increasing  the  periodic  time,  homogeneous  substances 
in  general  (perhaps  even  metals,  though  this  is  doubtful)  become 
at  last  transparent,  or  at  least  comparatively  so.  The  limit  of 
opacity,  in  all  probabdity,  vaiies  from  one  substance  to  another; 
and  the  lower  it  is,  the  lower  would  be  the  lowest  reSrangibility 
ol  the  radiation  which  the  same  substance  is  capat  le  of  emitting. 

19.  In  what  iaimediattly  follows  I  shall  suppose  accordingly 
that  glass  is  strongly  absorbing  through  a  certain  range  of  lew 

'  A  map  of  the  st)ectniin,  construaed  with  the  squared  reciprocals  of  the 
wave-lengihs  for  abscissae,  would  be  referred  to  a  natural  standard,  no  less 
than  that  of  Angi>trdm,  wkch  is  constructed  according  to  wave-lengths ; 
while  it  would  have  the  great  advantage  of  adm^tt^ng  of  ready  coinp<ur.&on 
with  refractioD  spectra,  the  land  almoct  always  used. 


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[Dec.  17,  1877 


refrangibility,  on  3ofJk  sides 'of  which  it  gradually  becomes  trans- 
parent again.  ^  Imagine  a  spectrum  containing  radiations  of  all 
refrangibilities  with  which  we  have  to  deal ;  let  portions  of  th*s 
spectrum  on  the  two  sides  of  the  region  of  powerfiu  absorption  for 
glass  be  called  witt^s  of  that  region,  and  let  left  to  right  be  the 
order  of  increasing  refrangibility.  Then  the  spectrum  of  the 
radiation  from  a  thm  plate  of  glass,  if  it  could  be  observed,  would 
be  seen  to  occupy  the  region  of  chief  absorbing  (and  therefore 
emitting)  power  and  its  wings.  The  spectrum  of  the  radiation 
from  the  outer  stratum  of  the  bulb  of  the  pith  radiometer,  after 
transmission  through  the  inner,  would  consist  of  two  wings,  with 
a  blank,  or  nearly  blank,  space  between  ;  it  would  resemble,  in 
fact,  a  widened  bright  spectral  line,  with  a  dark  band  of  reversal 
in  its  middle,  save  that,  instead  of  being  confined  to  extremely 
narrow  limits  of  refrangibility,  the  central  space  and  its  wings 
would  be  of  wide  extent.  It  follows  from  the  experiments  that, 
in  the  complete  radiation  from  glass,  the  portions  of  the  spectrum 
called  the  wings  together  act  negatively,  the  portion  between 
positively.  It  does  not,  of  course,  follow  that  each  wing  acts 
negatively,  but  only  that  the  balance  of  the  two  is  negative. 
When  the  tumbler  is  heated  a  little  over  2x2^  there  is  a  slight 
positive  action  from  radiation  which  passes  directly  through  the 
bulb.  The  circumstances  lead  us  to  regard  this  as  an  extension 
of  the  right  wing ;  for  it  comes  from  a  depth,  measured  from  the 
inner  suriace  of  the  bulb  in  glass,  «>.,  not  counting  the  interven- 
ing  air,  somewhat  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the 
bulb ;  and  we  know  that  the  more  a  solid  body  is  heated,  the 
higher,  as  a  rule,  does  the  refrangibility  of  the  radiation  which  it 
emits  extend,  and  the  greater  the  proportion  of  nys  of  high  to 
those  of  low  refrangibility.  It  is  simplest,  therefore,  to  suppose 
that  the  action  of  the  right  wing,  like  that  of  the  space  between 
the  wings,  is  positive,  and  that  the  observed  negative  action  in 
the  experiment  of  §  7  is  due  to  the  excess  of  negative  action  of 
the  left  wing  over  positive  action  of  the  right  In  the  mica 
radiometer  the  experiments  indicate  no  such  difference  of  action 
in  the  different  layers  of  the  bulb  as  in  the  case  of  the  pith  radio- 
meter. Hence  taking,  in  accordance  with  what  now  appears  to 
be  made  out  to  be  the  theory  of  the  motion  of  the  radiometer, 
the  direction  in  which  the  fly  is  impelled  as  an  indication  which 
is  the  warmer  of  the  two  faces  of  the  discs,  and  that  again  as  an 
indication  which  is  the  darker  with  respect  to  the  radiation  to 
which  it  is  exposed,  we  arrive  at  the  following  results  as  regards 
the  order  of  darkness  of  the  substances  for  the  three  regions  into 
which  the  spectrum  of  the  incident  radiation  has  been  supposed 
to  be  divid^,  the  name  of  the  lighter  substance  being  in  each 
case  placed  above  that  of  the  darker  : — 

Reeton  of  intense 
Left  MfiDg.  aDsori)t<on  by        Right  wing. 

From  pUh  radiometer  ...{Jirr'''"''-         [i%«lc.         E2.pbUck. 

Hence,  on  descending  in  refrangibility,  the  order  of  darkness 
of  the  two  substances  o  either  pair  is  at  first  the  same  as  for  the 
visible  spectrum,  and  at  last  the  opposite  ;  and  the  reversal  of 
the  order  takes  place  sooner  with  mica  and  lampblack  than  with 
pith  and  lampblack.  The  order  falls  in  very  well  with  that  of 
the  chemi<aLl  complexity  of  the  three  substances. 

20.  The  whole  subject  of  the  behaviour  of  bodies  with  respect 
to  radiant  heat  of  the  lowest  degrees  of  refrangibility  seems  to 
me  to  need  a  thorough  experimental  investigation.  The  inves- 
tigation, however,  is  one  involving  considerable  diflficulty.  We 
can  do  little  towards  classifying  the  rays  with  which  we  are 
working  unless  we  can  form  a  pure  spectrum.  A  refraction 
spectrum  is  the  most  convenient ;  but  the  only  substance  known 
which  would  be  approximately  suitable  for  forming  the  prism, 
lens,  &c.,  required  for  such  a  spectrum,  and  for  confining 
liquids,  isrock-salt,  of  which  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  procure 
perfectly  limpid  specimens  of  any  size;  and  even  rock-salt 
itself,  as  Prof.  Balfour  Stewart  has  shown,  is  defective  in  trans- 
parency for  certain  kinds  of  radiant  heat.  Then,  again,  the  only 
suitable  measuring-instrument  for  such  researches,  the  ther- 
mopile, demands  a  thorough  examination  with  reference  to  the 
coating  to  be  employed  for  absorbing  the  incident  radiation. 
Hitherto  lampblack  has  been  used  almost  exclusively  for  the 
purpose  ;  and  it  is  commonly  assumed,  in  accordance  with  cer- 
tain of  Melloni's  results,  that  lamplack  absorbs  equally  hcat- 

'  It  may  be  notic<d  that  this  supposition,  which,  ?s  Appearing  the  more 
probable,  is  adopted  for  clearness  of  conception,  is  not  essentially  involved 
in  the  explanation  that  follows,  which  would  hardly  be  changed  it  the  "left 
wing  "  were  not  terminated  on  the  led. 


rays  of  all  kinds.  But  the  experiments  by  which  Melloni 
established  the  partial  diathermancy  of  lampblack  prove  that 
rays  exist  for  the  absorption  of  which  that  substance  is  un- 
suitable. 

On  calling  on  Mr.  Crookes  after  the  above  was  written,  I  was 
surprised  to  find  that  all  his  mica  radiometers  behaved  towards 
a  heated  glass  shade  in  the  opposite  way  to  that  he  had  given 
me,  going  round  positively  instead  of  negatively.  Mr.  Crookes 
showed  me  and  gave  me  a  specimen  of  the  kind  of  mica  he 
employs  as  eminently  convenient  for  manipulation.  It  is  found 
naturally  in  a  condition  resembling  artificially  roasted  mica.  It 
is  not,  however,  quite  so  opaque  for  transmitted  light,  nor  of 
quite  such  a  pearly  whiteness  for  reflected  light  as  that  which  has 
been  anificiaily  roasted  at  a  high  temperature.  The  mica  radio- 
meter that  Mr.  Crookes  first  gave  me,  which  I  will  call  M^,  was, 
Mr.  Gimingham  told  me,  the  only  one  they  had  made  with 
roasted  mica. 

Mr.  Crookes  was  so  kind  as  to  give  me,  for  comparative  ex- 
periment, a  mica  radiometer,  which  I  will  call  M,,  made  from 
the  natural  foliated  mica.  It  revolves  a  good  deal  more  quickly 
than  M-i  under  the  influence  of  light ;  it  also  gets  more  quickly 
under  way,  indicating  that  the  mica  is  thinner.  When  covered 
with  a  hot  glass  it  revolves  positively,  as  already  remarked  ; 
there  is,  however,  but  little  negative  rotation  when  the  glass  is 
removed. 

The  difference  in  the  thickness  and  condition  of  the  mica  suf- 
ficiently explains  the  difference  of  behaviour  of  M^  and  M^ 
Any  radiant  heat  incident  on  the  white  face  that  reaches  the 
middle  of  the  mica,  whether  it  afterwards  is  absorbed  by  the 
mica  or  reaches  and  is  absorbed  by  the  lampblack,  tends  to  heat 
the  second  or  blackened  face  more  than  the  6rst,  and  therefore 
conspires  with  the  heat  incident  on  the  lampblack,  and  absorbed 
by  it,  to  produce  positive  rotation ;  and  the  smaller  thickness 
and  less  fine  foliation  of  the  natural  mica  are  favourable  to  the 
transmission  of  radiant  heat  to  such  a  depth. 

P.S. — It  might  be  supposed  at  first  sight  that  the  change  of 
rotation  from  negative  to  positive  (in  §  7)  was  due,  not  to  a 
change  in  the  conditions  of  absorption,  but  to  the  circumstance 
that  Uie  inner  surface  of  the  bulb  had  become  warm  by  conduc- 
tion, so  as  to  be  warmer  than  the  surfaces  of  the  fly  instead  of 
colder.  For  we  now  know  that  the  "  repulsion  resulting  from 
radiation,"  as  in  some  way  or  other  it  undoubtedly  does  result, 
is  an  indirect  effect,  in  which  radiation  acts  only  through  the 
alterations  it  occasions  in  the  superficial  tem(>eratures  of  the 
solids  in  contact  with  the  rarefied  gas ;  and  it  might  be  sup- 
posed that  when  the  inner  surface  of  the  bulb  passed  from  colder 
than  the  fly  to  warmer,  the  direction  of  rotation  would,  on  that 
account  alone,  be  reversed.  This,  however,  is  not  so.  If  bulb 
and  fly  are  at  a  common  temperature,  and  the  instrument  is  pro- 
tected from  radiation,  the  fly  remains  at  rest  whether  the  com- 
mon temperature  be  high  or  low.  If  a  small  pordon  of 
the  total  surface  in  contact  with  the  rarefied  gas  be 
warmed  by  any  means,  repulsion  takes  place,  through  the 
intervention  of  the  rarefied  gas,  between  the  warmed  sur- 
face and  the  opposed  surfaces,  if  not  too  distant ;  if  it  be 
cooled,  the  result  is  attraction.  It  does  not  matter  whether  the 
surface  at  the  exceptional  temperature  belong  to  the  fly  or  the 
bulb.  The  former  takes  place  in  the  ordinary  case  of  a  radio- 
meter exposed  to  radiation,  the  latter  in  that  of  a  radiometer  at 
a  uniform  temperature  and  protected  from  radiation  when  a 
small  portion  of  the  bulb  is  warmed  or  cooled,  in  which  case  the 
part  at  the  exceptional  temperature  repels  or  attracts  the  disc 
irrespectively  of  its  colour  or  the  natiure  of  its  coating.  ^  Sup- 
pose now  that  the  fly  is  being  warmed  by  radiation  from  without, 
the  bulb  being  cool,  at  least  at  its  inner  surface.  Let  A,  B  be 
the  two  kinds  of  faces  of  the  discs,  and  suppose  A  to  be  the 
better  absorber  of  the  total  radiation.  Then  A  will  be  the 
warmer,  and  therefore  will  be  more  strongly  repelled  than  B. 
Suppose  now  that  the  bulb  is  heated  till  its  inner  surface  be- 
comes warmer  than  the  fly.  Then  the  fly  will  still  be  receiving 
heat  by  radiation,  to  some  extent  also  by  communication 
from  the  gas;  but  this  will  be  the  same  for  both  faces. 
Hence  if  A  be  still  the  better  absorber  of  the  two  (A,  B), 
A    will   be   the    wsrmer,    and    being   less    below    the    tern- 

*  Theoretically  there  would  be  a  minute  difference  of  temperature,  pro 
duced,  other  circumstances  being  alike,  by  ihe  diflTerence  in  the  absorbing  or 
emitting  power  of  ihe  two  faces  of  a  disc,  as  regards  the  rad-aiion  which  is 
the  difference  between  the  radialions  from  or  towards  the  affected  portion  of 
the  bulb  and  the  same  portion  at  the  normal  temperature.  But  this,  and  the 
repulsion  or  attraction  correspondinf^  to  it.  would  be  only  a  sinall  quanti^  of 
the  second  order,  the  main  effect  bcug  deemed  one  of  the  irU  Ofdeb 


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peniture  of  the  interior  surface  of  the  fiy  will  be  less  at- 
tracted, or,  which  is  the  same,  more  repelled.  Hence,  whether 
the  imier  surface  of  the  bulb  be  cooler  or  hotter  than  the 
fly,  a  reversal  in  the  direction  of  rotation  while  the  fly  is  being 
heated,  indicates  a  rerersal  in  the  order  of  absorbing  power  of 
the  two  faces,  and  that,  again,  shows  that  the  order  is  different 
for  different  components  of  the  total  radiation,  and  that  the  ratio 
of  the  intensity  of  those  components  has  been  changed. 

It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  the  radiometers 
mentioned  in  this  paper  are  of  the  usual  form— that  is  to  say,  that 
their  arms  are  symmetrical,  so  far  as  figure  is  concerned,  wiih 
respect  to  a  veriical  plane  passing  through  the  point  of  support. 
Accordingly  the  rotation  which  is  atuined,  for  instance,  with  a 
radiometer  with  concave  disks  of  aluminium,  alike  as  to  material 
on  both  faces  (of  which  kind,  again,  I  owe  a  beautiful  specimen 
to  Mr.  Crookes's  kindness),  has  not  been  referred  ta  This  rota- 
tion, depending  on  the  more  favourable  presentation  to  the  bulb 
of  the  outer  (and  therefore  nearer  and  more  efficient)  portions  of 
the  fly  on  the  convex  than  on  the  concave  side,  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  one  isolated  subject  to  which  the  present  paper 
relates,  namely,  the  elucidation  of  the  peculiar  behaviour  in 
certain  cases  of  certain  kinds  of  radiometers,  by  a  consideration 
of  the  heterogeneous  character  of  the  total  heat-radiation. 
(To  be  conHnued.) 

UNIVERSITY    AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

Leeds. — By  the  liberality  of  the  Worshipful  the  Drapers' 
Company,  the  Council  of  the  Yorkshire  College  are  prepared  to 
appoint  an  instructor  in  coal  mining  at  the  stipend  of  100/.  per 
annum  and  half  the  students'  fees.  A  portion  only  of  the 
instructor's  time  will  be  required.  The  fuller  conditions  and 
duties  of  the  office  may  be  learned  from  the  secretary.  Applica* 
tions  and  testimonials  must  be  received  on  or  before  January  18. 

Lexington,  U.S. — In  connection  with  the  Centennial,  efforts 
have  been  made  in  the  United  States  to  raise  an  endowment  fund 
for  Washington  and  Lee  University,  at  Lexington,  Va.  The  in- 
stitution dates  from  colonial  times,  and  was  endowed,  while  it 
was  still  only  an  academy,  bv  Washington  and  other  soldiers  of 
the  Revolution.  Among  otner  recent  benefactors  of  the  Uni- 
versity is  Mr.  L.  J.  McCormick,  of  Chicago,  who  has  offered 
to  give  his  magnificent  telescope,  made  by  Alvan  Clark,  of 
Cambridge,  U.S.,  at  a  cost  of  50,000  dots.,  provided  the  insti- 
tution would  raise  the  necessary  funds  to  equip  and  maintain  it. 
The  trustees  have  not  yet  been  able  to  do  anything  towards  the 
acceptance  of  this  proposal  It  would  be  a  great  misfortune  if 
the  conditions  could  not  be  complied  with,  and  we  hope  that  the 
suggestion  that  the  ladies  in  various  parts  of  the  States  should 
take  the  matter  up  will  be  complied  with  ;  there  is  no  doubt  if 
they  make  up  their  minds  to  success  they  will  succeed. 

Berlin. — The  great  Prussian  university  is  closely  competing 
now  with  the  Leipsic  University  in  point  of  attendance.  In  the 
calendar  which  has  just  appeared  we  notice  that  the  number  of 
matriculated  students  during  the  present  winter  amounts  to  2,839, 
an  increase  of  600  on  the  summer  semester.  They  are  divided 
among  the  faculties  as  follows:  theological  168,  legal  1,163, 
medioil  345,  philosophical  1,163.  There  are  210  foreigners  in 
the  list,  including  42  from  America.  Besides  these  matriculated 
students,  there  are  2,200  other  persons  in  attendance  on  the 
lectnres,  belonging  to  the  various  technical  and  art  schools  of  the 
city.  The  corps  of  instructors  numbers  210,  nearly  half  of  whom 
are  in  the  philosophical  faculty. 

Bonn.— The  whiter  attendance  at  the  University  is  859,  an 
increase  of  sixty-two  on  the  preceding  semester.  The  philo- 
sophical faculty  includes  375,  the  legal  219,  the  mediod  126^ 
the  Catholic  theological,  89,  and  the  Evangeliod,  5a 

SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
Linnean  Society,  December  6.— Prof.  AUman,  president, 
in  the  chair.— Messrs.  J.  N.  Fitch,  J.  S.  Gamble,  F.  S.  Piggott, 
A.  B.  Stewart,  and  Prof.  Macoun  were  elected  Fellows. — Mr. 
Thiselton  Dyer  exhibited  portions  of  the  "Nam-mu"  tree, 
which  grows  in  Yunnan,  250-26®  N.  lat  The  Chinese  nobility 
greatly  prize  its  wood  for  building  purposes  and  for  making 
coffins^  and  enormous  columns  in  tomku  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  300 
years  old,  are  still  extant.    Supposed  to  be  teak,  it  probably 


rather  belongs  to  the  Lauraces,  the  leaves  closely  resembling 
those  of  PAabe  pallida,  Mr.  Dyer  also  exhibited  a  seed  of 
Entada  scandens,  and  another  of  an  anonaceous  plant  {Cyatho- 
calyx  Maxngayi  ?)  found  in  the  coecum  of  Rhinoceros  mmatreniti 
from  Chittagong,  and  dissected  at  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
Regent's  Park;  and  he  likewise  showed  fruits  of  Oncocarpus 
vitiensis  from  the  crop  of  a  fruit-pigeon  {Carpophaga  lalrans),  — 
Attention  was  afterwards  called  by  Mr.  Dyer  to  the  fratt-head 
of  an  Indian  Pandanns  made  into  a  brush,  the  fibrous  tissue  of 
the  drupes  forming  the  bristles,  and  this  instrument  was  siid  to 
be  used  to  scrape  cloth,  like  ourtearle(Z)//>x<7f//x). — Flowers  and 
foliage  of  Cinchona  (C  calisaya,  vars.,  Josepktana  and  Anglica) 
grown  in  the  garden  of  Mr.  J.  Elliot,  at  Tottenham,  were  ex- 
hibited by  that  gentleman,  whose  researches  among  the  quinine- 
bearing  trees  are  already  well  known  ani  appreciated. — Mr. 
Mo^gridge  read  a  note  on  the  occurrence  at  Wallis  Down,  a 
heath  near  Bournemouth,  of  Dabeocia  poli/olia,-^ K  paper  ou 
certain  organs  of  the  Cidaridse  was  communicated  by  Mr.  Chas. 
Stewart,  who  illustrated,  amongst  others,  the  subjoined  points  of 
his  recent  investigations.  Among  the  sea-urchins  the  families 
Diadematidae,  Echinometridae,  and  Echinidae,  have  long  been 
known  to  possess  external  branchiae;  but  the  existence  of 
such  in  the  Cidaridae  has  been  denied  by  Miiller,  though  insisted 
on  by  Alex.  Agassis.  Mr.  Stewart  finds  in  Dorocidaris  pa/dllata 
five  organs  corresponding  to  branchiae,  but  situated  internally. 
The  water  bathing  these  interior  gills  finds  ingress  and  egress  by 
a  crevice  near  the  "  compasses,"  the  peculiar  mcMihanism  of  the 
teeth  and  j  aws  producing  the  temporary  opening  in  question.  As 
respects  the  pedicellariae  of  Cidaridae,  where  the  jaw  ends  in  a  ter- 
minal hollow  fang,  there  is  an  additional  orifice  to  that  at  the  tip, 
besides  two  glands  in  the  vicinity  ;  he  suggests  this  to  be  a 
poison  apparatus,  comparable  to  the  falces  of  the  spider,  and 
poison  sac  and  tooth  of  venomous  serpents.— The  Secretary  read 
a  paper  by  Dr.  I.  Bayley  Balfour,  •*  Observations  on  the  genus 
Pandanus,"  Few  families  of  plants  present  more  difficulty  in 
their  elucidation  than  the  Pandanaceae ;  this  by  variability  of 
species,  difficulty  of  procuring  the  male  flower,  with  little  cha- 
racter in  the  leaves,  while  the  fruit  loses  its  distinctive  features  in 
drying.  The  Screw-pines  had  attracted  the  notice  of  the  early 
voyagers,  but  their  descriptions  are  confused.  To  Rumphius 
we  owe  the  name  Pandanus,  though  his  account  and  figures  are 
poor  compared  with  Reede's  of  a  century  before.  Linnaeus,  though 
indicating  a  plant  under  the  name  Brormlia  sylvestris,  omitted  the 
genus  Pandanus^  a  want  supplied  by  his  son.  Afterwards, 
as  species  increased,  many  new  genera  were  unnecessarily  intro- 
duced, which  Dr.  Balfour  is  now  inclined  to  reject ;  even  Brong- 
niart's  New  Caledonia  genera  do  not  claim  acceptance.  Panda- 
nus runs  over  a  great  breadth  of  longitude,  viz.,  firom  east 
tropical  Africa  through  the  Mascarene  Islands,  India,  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  Australia,  to  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The 
East  Archipelago  and  the  Mascarenes  are  centres  whose  species 
do  not  commingle.  There  succeeds  in  this  paper  other  facts  and 
an  extensive  list  of  names  and  references  to  all  the  Pandani 
known. — The  substance  was  given  of  a  report  on  a  small  col- 
lection of  insects  obtained  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Ploeaa,  in  Java,  with 
description  of  a  new  species  of  Hoplta,  by  Chas.  O.  Waterhouse, 
of  the  British  Museum. — The  Secretary  read  a  communication 
by  Dr.  J.  Stirton,  viz.,  "Notes  on  the  Rev,  Mr.  Crombie's  paper 
on  the  Lichens  of  the  CVW/m/^^Expedition,"  and  another  note  by 
Dr.  R.  C.  A.  Prior,  relative  to  the  migration  of  wild  geese,  pur- 
ported to  have  passed  from  North  America  to  the  African  coast. 

Physical  Society,  December  15.— Prof.  G.  C.  Foster,  pre- 
sident, in  the  chair. — ^The  following  candidates  were  elected 
Members  of  the  Society :— W.  E.  Ayrton,  J.  M.  Cameron,  T.  W. 
Clark,  J.  E.  Judson,  B.A.,  H.  N.  Moseley,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
Lord  Ravleigh,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  W.  N.  Stocker,  M.A.,  and 
H.  T.  Wood.— Mr.  C.  W.  Cooke  read  for  the  author.  Prof. 
S.  P.  Thompson,  a  paper  on  permanent  Plateau  films,  and 
exhibited  the  process  of  their  formation.  After  a  brief  enumera- 
tion of  the  variotis  attempts  made  bv  Plateau  himself,  Schwartz, 
Mach,  Rottier,  and  others,  most  of  which  are  described  in  the 
work  of  Plateau,  the  author  described  his  own  experiment  on 
the  subject.  As  the  result  of  these  he  concludes  that  the  best 
films  are  obtained  by  using  a  mucture  of  46  per  cent  of  pure 
amber-coloured  resin,  and  54  of  Canada  balsam,  which  should 
be  heated  to  from  93*  to  95**  C.  The  frames  for  forming  the 
films  are  made  of  brass  wire  0*3  mm.  in  diameter,  and  when 
thicker  wire  is  employed  th^  are  found  to  be  irregular  in 
consequence  of  the  retention  of'^heat  by  the  metal  Tne  films 
are  obtained  by  simply  introducing  these  firames  into  the  heated 


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{Dec.  27,  1877 


mixturei  and  they  harden  almost  immediately  on  expotnre  tojthe 
air ;  bat  better  results  are  obtained  by  slow  drying  in  an  air 
bath  heated  up  to  80°  C,  and  allowed  to  cooL  In  proof  of  the 
tooghness  of  the  61ms  it  was  mentioned  that  a  flat  drcalar  film 
4  cm.  in  diameter,  had  supported  a  50-gramme  brass  weight  at 
its  centre. — Mr.  Sedley  Taylor  then  exhibited  some  experiments 
in  illastration  of  a  paper  on  the  colours  exhibited  by  vibratine 
liquid  films  which  he  ha?  recently  communicated  to  the  Royiu 
Society. — Dr.  Guthrie  exhibited  a  simple  lecture  illastration  of 
the  action  of  the  telephone.  Two  similar  coils  of  wire  are 
placed  one  on  the  end  of  a  bar  magnet,  and  the  other  on  a  soft 
iron  core.  A  tin  disc  about  three  inches  in  diameter  is  sus- 
pended by  two  threads  almost  in  contact  with  one  end  of  this 
latter,  and  when  a  similar  disc  is  brought,  at  regular  intervals, 
against  the  end  of  the  magnet  which  is  prorided  with  the  coil,  a 
distinct  movement  of  the  first*named  disc  is  observed  which  can 
be  easily  increased  by  properly  timing  the  movement  of  the 
inducing  disc. 

Anthropological  Institute,  November  27. — Mr.  John 
Evans,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— The  elec- 
tion of  five  new  membem  was  announced. — Major-Gen.  A. 
Lane  Fox,  F.R.S.,  exhibited  variou;  objects  from  Istria  and 
Sdnde. — The  Director  read  some  notes  on  Socotra,  by  Capt 
Hunter,  R.N.,  in  which  some  of  Lieut  Wellstead's  statements 
about  that  island  were  criticised.  — A  paper  on  the  Ziparos,  by 
Mr.  A.  Simpson,  was  then  read,  in  which  many  interesting 
observations  of  these  tribes  of  "Equador"  were  recorded. 
Their  wonderful  tracking  powers,  abstention  from  heavy  meat*, 
such  as  tapir  and  peccari,  curious  mode  of  training  hunting-dogs, 
were  described.  Their  enjoyment  in  the  destruction  of  life, 
human  or  animal,  with  the  exception  of  the  alligator,  which  they 
will  not  touch  themselves,  was  very  marked.  The  Napos  do 
not  resemble  them  in  this  respect.  The  Ziparos  are  very  dis- 
united, and  wander  about  in  separate  hordes,  the  worst  of  which 
are  the  Supinus.  Couttship  is  sometimes  carried  on  by  a  silent 
invitation  by  the  suitor  to  his  elect  to  cook  his  food.  If  rejected, 
he  tries  elsswhere.  The  Ziparos  are  describei  as  of  a  happy 
and  cheerful  disposition,  very  superstitious,  believing  in  an  evil 
spirit,  and  very  poor  and  almost  nude.  ~  A  paper  on  the  Malayo 
Polynesians,  by  Rev.  S.  J.  Whitmce,  was  then  rea-*,  in  which 
the  author  noted  the  high  social  position  of  women  in  the 
Samoan  group,  as  compared  with  their  place  among  the  black 
Poljmesians.  The  existence  of  hereditary  ranks  and  titles  among 
the  Invwn  Poljrnesians  seems  to  the  author  to  indicate  a  former 
higher  condition.  The  author  re^'erred  to  the  difficulties  expe- 
rienced by  missionaries  in  obtaining  the  true  versions  of  the 
native  poems  and  myths,  and  noted  the  custom  of  preserving  the 
myths  in  poetry  as  well  as  prose,  the  two  versions  acting  one  as 
a  check  on  the  other,  and  so  preserving  the  correctness  one  of 
the  other.  In  the  discussion,  Major-Gen.  A.  Lane  Fox,  Mr. 
Blackmore,  Mr.  Hyde  Clarke,  and  others,  took  part 

Entomological  Society,  Decembers.— J.  W.  Dunning,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  W.  L.  Distant  exhibited  specimens  of 
the  rare  species  of  Heroiptera-Heteroptera,  Tetroxli  btauvoisii^ 
and  Oncocephalus  subspinosus,  firom  the  West  Coast  of  Africa. — 
Mr.  F.  Smith  exhibited  a  fine  series  oi  Macrop  s  iabiata^  male  and 
female,  captured  near  Norwich  by  Mr.  I.  B.  Bridgman.— Mr. 
Smith  also  exhibited  a  specimen  of  Rophites  quinquespinosus,^  a 
genus  and  species  new  to  the  British  Hymenoptera,  captured  near 
Hastings  by  the  Rev.  E.  H.  Bloomfield. — Mr.  Mcldola  exhibited 
three  fine  photographic  enlargements  of  micro-photographs 
(two  being  of  parts  of  insects)  taken  by  Mr.  Edward  Viles,  of 
Pendryl  Hall,  Wolverhampton.  The  photographs,  which  had 
been  exhibited  at  the  recent  exhibition  of  the  Photographic 
Society  were  30  x  24  in.,  while  the  original  negatives  were  3  in. 
square. — Mr.  Meldola  Ukewise  perfoimed  an  acoustical  expe- 
riment illustrating  the  action  of  the  stridulating  apparatus  in  the 
Phasma  (PUrinojylus),  an  account  of  which  lud  been  given  to 
the  society  by  Mr.  Wood  Mason  at  the  Isut  meeting. — Mr.  Wood 
Mason  made  further  remarks  on  the  structure  of  the  stridulating 
organ  in  scorpions. — Mr.  F.  Smith  mentioned  a  case  of  stridu- 
lation  occurring  in  a  Briti»h  species  of  CuraUionida  (Acalles). — 
Mr.  Dunning  called  attention  to  a  striking  ca^e  of  mimicry 
recorded  by  Mr.  Neville  Goodman  in  the  Procftdmgs  of  the 
Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  for  February,  1877,  the  mimic 
being  a  species  01^  Laphrii,  and  the  model,  the  »ell*known 
Egyptian  hornet,  Vapa  orienialis,  — Mr.  F.  Smith  read  a  paper 
containing  descriptions  of  new  species  of  hymenopterous  insects 
£pom  New  Zealand,  collected  by  Prof.  Hutton  at  Otago.— Mr.  | 


A.  G.  Bntler  communicated  a  paper  on  the  Lepidoptera  of  the 
Amazons,  collected  by  Dr.  James  W.  H.  Trail  during  the  yean 
1873  to  1875. — Dr.  Sharp  communicated  the  following  papers  :^ 
Descriptions  of  eight  new  s{>ecies  and  anew  genus  of  Cots  midesp 
from  New  Zealanid,  and  descriptions  of  aome  new  species  and  a 
new  gentis  of  Rhyncophorous  Coleoptera,  from  the  Hawmiiaa 
Islands. 

Manchbstul 

Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  October  16.— Mr. 
E.  W.  Bmney,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.-— The  Pre- 
sident  exhi^jited  to  the  meeting  some  coal-measure  plants 
and  other  organic  remains  from  Spain.  From  the  cha- 
racter of  the  fossil  organic  remains  and  the  nature  of  the  strata 
he  was  led  to  believe  that  the  coal-field  of  PuertoUano  was  of  the 
same  geological  age  as  our  true  English  coal-measures. — Mr. 
M.  P.  Pattison  Muir,  F.R.S.E.,  exhibited  and  gave  a  descnp-  } 
tion  of  a  modified  form  of  Hofmaim's  apparatus  for  determining 
vapour  densities.— Note  on  an  edible  day  from  New  Zealand, 
by  M.  M.  Pattison  Muir,  F.R.S.E.  The  author  Utely  received 
from  Mr.  R.  E.  Day,  a  small  specimen  of  a  clay  which  is  eiMdily 
eaten  by  the  sheep  in  a  certain  district  in  New  Zealand.  The 
clay  was  brought  by  Mr.  Day  from  Simon's  Pa«s  Station, 
Mackenzie  Country,  South  Island.  It  there  forms  a  range  of 
low  bare  hills  :  the  sheep  (merino  sheep)  eat  very  considerable 
(quantities  of  the  clay  without  appearing  to  be  any  the  worse  for 
it.  It  is  supposed  by  the  shepherds  that  the  clay  must  conuin 
salt,  and  that  it  is  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  this  article  of  food 
that  the  sheep  resort  to  the  earth.  The  analysis  shows  that  very 
probably  the  shepherds  are  right :— Silica,  61*25;  alumina, 
1797;  ferric  oxide,  572;  calcium  oxide,  1*91;  magnesium 
oxide,  087  ;  alkalies  (as  chlorides),  3  69  ;  organic  matter,  1 77  ; 
water,  7*31  «■  100*49.— On  the  decomposition  of  calcium  sul- 
phate by  alkaline  chlorides ;  a  contribution  to  agricultural 
chemistry,  by  M.  M.  Pattison  Muir,  F.R.S.E.--On  some 
thionates,  by  H.  Baker,  student  in  the  Owens  Collie.  Com- 
municited  by  Prof.  C.  Schorlemmer,  F.R.S. 

Vienna 

Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  October  18. — On  the 
chemicil  nature  of  peptone  and  its  relation  to  albumen,  by  M.  '^w 
Herth.— On  the  addition  of  prussic  add  to  urea,  and  on  the  1 
action  of  trichloric  lactic  acid  on  urea,  by  M.  Cech. — Trans- 
formation of  cyanamide  into  ammelide,  by  M  M.  Cech  and  DehoaeL 
— New  discoveries  on  the  negative  heliotropism  of  above-ground 
parts  of  plants,  by  M.  Wiesner. — On  Fraunhofer's  rings, 
Quet  let's  stripes,  and  allied  phenomena,  by  M.  Exner. 

October  25. — On  the  connection  of  n  straight  lines  in  the  plane, 
and  on  properties  of  the  triangle  and  two  propositions  of  Sreiner 
therewith  connected,  by  M.  Kantor. — On  the  structure  and  the 
growth  of  some  forms  of  mould-fungus,  by  M.  Hassloch.^Oa 
the  development  of  the  small  pollen-plants  of  Colckicum  autum- 
nale  L.,  by  M.  Tom&schek. — On  the  secular  acceleration  of  the 
mean  moticn  of  the  moon,  by  M.  v.  Littrow. 


CONTENTS  PAit 

The  Mbtropolitak  Sbwagk iw 

Botany  in  Gbrmanv.     By  Prof  W.  R  McNab 158 

Moving  DiAGMAMS  OP  Machinkhy xto 

LSTTBKS  TO  THE  EDITOR  :— 

Oxygen  in  the  Sun. — R.  Mbldola i6i 

Oxygen  in  Sea-water. — J  Y  Buchanan i6t 

On    some    PecuKar   Points   in   the    Insect-Fauni  of  Chili  — R. 

McLachlan.  F  R.S 162 

Arctic  Aurorse.— J.  Rand  Caproh i6i 

Insicts  and  Artificial  Flower». — F.  M.  Burton       x6t 

The  Selective  Dischminaiion  of  Insects. — S.  B •  163 

Oua  Astronomical  Column  :  — 

The  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  ad.  418,  July  19 163 

Variable  Stars 163 

Astronomical  Pheoomena  in  1878 163 

Frrtilisation  OP  Glossostigma.     By  T.  F.  Chkvseman  ....  163 
A  Tblp^honic  Alarum.    By  Or.  W.  C  RSmtgkn  i^^itk  tUustra' 

tion) 164 

Bischoppshbim's  Meridian  Circle  {With  lUmstratiotu)     ....  163 

Fbtichism  in  Animals.    By  George  J.  Romanes iM 

RuHMKORPP .  169 

LiQUBPACTioN  OP  Oxygen ,    • 169 

N  'TEa  .    .                               170 

Ckrtain  Movements  op  Radiometers.    By  Prof.  G.  G,  Stokes, 

SecRS i7» 

Umivbesitv  and  Educational  Intblugencb •    •  17s 

SOCttTIBS  AMD  ACADBMIBS tJS 

Digitized  by  VrrOOQ IC 


NATURE 


177 


THURSDAY,  JANUARY   3,  1878 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  GASES 

THE  year  1877  will  ever  be  memorable  in  the  history 
of  scientific  progress,  its  close  having  been  marked 
by  a  brilliant  series  of  researches  which  have  ended  in  an 
absolute  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  molecular  cohesion 
is  a  property  of  all  bodies  without  any  exception  whatever. 

This  magnificent  work  divides  itself  into  two  stages, 
which  we  shall  refer  to  separately :  first  the  liquefaction 
of  oxygen,  arid  then,  following  close  upon  this,  the 
liquefaction  of  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  atmospheric  air. 

In  the  liquefaction  of  oxygen,  which  we  announced  last 
week  as  having  been  accomplished  by  M.  Pictet  of 
Geneva,  we  have  not  only  an  instance  of  the  long  time 
we  may  have  to  wait,  and  of  the  great  difficulties  which 
have  to  be  overcome,  before  a  theoretical  conclusion  is 
changed  into  a  concrete  fact — something  definite  acquired 
to  science ;  but  also  another  instance  of  a  double  dis- 
covery, showing  that  along  all  the  great  lines  of  thought 
opened  up  by  modem  investigation  and  modem  methods, 
students  of  science  are  marching  at  least  two  abreast. 

It  appears  that  as  early  as  December  2  M.  Cailletet 
had  succeeded  in  liquefying  oxygen  and  carbonic  oxide  at 
a  pressure  of  300  atmospheres  and  at  a  temperature  of 
—  29°  C.  This  result  was  not  conmiunicated  to  the 
Academy  at  once,  but  was  consigned  to  a  sealed  packet 
on  account  of  M.  Cailletet  being  then  a  candidate  for  a 
seat  in  the  Section  of  Mineralogy.  Hence,  then,  the 
question  of  priority  has  been  raised,  but  it  is  certain  that 
in  the  future  the  work  will  be  credited  to  both,  on  the 
ground  that  the  researches  of  each  were  absolutely  inde- 
pendent, both  pursuing  the  same  object,  creating  methods 
and  instruments  of  great  complexity.  We  regret,  there- 
fore, that  M.  Jamin,  at  the  sitting  of  the  Academy  to 
which  we  have  referred,  seemed  to  strain  the  claims 
of  M.  Cailletet  by  stating  that  to  obtain  the  gas  non- 
transparent  was  the  same  as  to  obtain  it  liquefied.  We 
are  beginning  to  know  enough  of  the  various  states  of 
vapour  now  not  to  hazard  such  an  assertion  as  this. 
This  remark,  however,  rather  anticipates  matters,  and 
indeed,  as  we  shall  show  afterwards,  M.  Cailletet  need 
not  himself  be  very  careful  of  the  question  of  priority — 
even  if  it  were  ever  worth  caring  for  except  to  keep  oUier 
people  honest 

Owing  to  the  double  discovery  and  the  curious  incident 
to  which  we  have  referred,  the.meeting  of  the  Academy  on 
the  24th  ult  was  a  very  lively  one,  as  not  only  was  the 
sealed  packet  and  a  subsequent  communication  from  M. 
Cailletet  read,  but  M.  Pictet  had  sent  a  long  letter  to 
M.  Dumas  giving  full  details  of  his  arrangements.  MM. 
Dumas,  H.  St  Claire  Deville,  Jamin,  Regnault  and 
Berthelot  all  took  part  in  the  discussion,  the  former 
admirably  putting  the  work  in  its  proper  place  by  the 
following  quotation  from  Lavoisier  : — 

"...  Consid^rons  un  moment  ce  qui  arriverait  aux 
diffi^rentes  substances  qui  composent  le  globe,  si  la  tem- 
perature en  dtait  brusquement  chang^e.  Supposons,  par 
exemple,  que  la  terre  se  trouvit  transport^e  tout  ^  coup 
dans  une  region  beaucoup  plus  chaude  du  syst^me  solaire, 
dans  une  region,  par  exemple,  ou  la  chaleur  habituelle 

You  xviL— No.  427 


serait  fort  supdrieure  k  celle  de  Feau  bouillante  ;  bient6t 
Teau,  tous  les  liquides  susceptibles  de  se  vaporiser  k  des 
degr^s  voisins  de  Teau  bouillante,  et  plusieurs  substances 
metalliques  m^me,  entreraient  en  expansion  et  se  trans- 
formeraient  en  fluides  a^riformes,  qui  deviendraient  par- 
ties de  Tatmosph^re. 

"  Par  un  effet  contraire,  si  la  terre  se  trouvait  tout  k 
coup  plac^e  dans  des  r^ons  tr^s  froides,  par  exemple  de 
Jupiter  et  de  Satume,  I'eau  qui  forme  aujourd'hui  nos 
tleuves  et  nos  mers,  et  probablement  le  plus  grand 
nombre  de  liquides  que  nous  connaissons,  se  transforme- 
raient  en  montagnes  soli  des. 

"  L'air  dans  cette  supposition,  ou  du  moins  une  partie 
des  substances  adriformes  qui  le  composent,  cesserait, 
sans  doute,  d'exister  dans  T^tat  de  fiuide  invisible,  faute 
d'un  de^r^  de  chaleur  suffisant ;  il  reviendrait  done  k  T^tat 
de  liquidity,  et  ce  changement  produirait  de  nouveaux 
liquides  dont  nous  n'avons  aucime  id^e.** 

When  Faraday  in  the  year  1823  (at  the  age  of  31) 
began  the  researches  indicated  in  the  last  paragraph 
quoted  by  M.  Dumas,  and  first  liquefied  chlorine  and 
then  several  other  gases,  he  had  no  idea  that  he  had  been 
anticipated,  as  he  had  been,  by  Monge  and  Qouet,  who 
condensed  sulphurous  acid  before  the  year  1800,  and  by 
Northmore,  who  liquefied  chlorine  in  1805.  If  the  great 
experimenter  were  among  us  now  how  delighted  he  would 
be  to  see  one  of  the  greatest  ironmasters  of  France 
employing  the  enormous  resources  at  his  disposal  at 
Chitillon-sur- Seine,  and  a  descendant  of  the  Pictet,  the 
firm  friend  of  his  great  friend  De  la  Rive  (who  was 
the  first  to  whom  he  communicated  his  liquefaction  of 
chlorine),  thus  engaged  in  carrying  on  the  work  which 
he  made  his  own. 

The  methods  employed  by  MM.  Pictet  and  Cailletet  are 
quite  distinct  and  are  die'result  of  many  years'  preparatory 
study,  as  testified  by  M.  H.  St  Claire  Deville  and  M. 
Regnault.  It  is  difficult  to  know  which  to  admire  most, 
the  scientific  perfection  of  Pictet's  method  or  the  wonder- 
ful simplicity  of  Cailletet* s.  It  is  quite  certain  that  the 
one  employed  by  the  latter  will  find  frequent  use  in  future 
experiments.  We  may  briefly  refer  to  both  these  methods. 

M.  Cailletet's  apparatus  has  already  been  briefly 
alluded  to  in  these  columns.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 
massive  steel  cylinder  with  two  openings;  through  one 
hydraulic  pressure  is  communicated.  A  small  tube  passes 
through  the  other,  the  sides  of  which  are  strong  enough 
to  withstand  a  pressure  of  several  hundred  atmospheres, 
and  which  can  be  inclosed  in  a  freezing  mixture.  It  opens 
within  the  cylinder  into  a  second  smaller  cylinder  serving 
as  a  reservoir  for  the  gas  to  be  compressed.  The  remain- 
der of  the  space  in  the  large  cylinder  is  occupied  by 
mercury.  M.  Cailletet's  process  consists  in  compressing 
a  gas  into  the  small  tube,  and  then  by  suddenly  placing  it 
in  communication  with  the  outer  air,  producing  such  a 
degree  of  cold  by  the  sudden  distention  of  the  confined 
gas  that  a  large  portion  of  it  is  condensed,  a  process 
perfectly  analagous  to  that  used  to  prepare  solid  carbonic 
acid  by  the  rapid  evaporation  of  the  liquefied  gas. 

In  M.  Cailletefs  experiment  with  oxygen  it  was  brought 
to  a  temperature  of  -  29*  C  by  the  employment  of  sul- 
phurous acid  and  a  pressure  of  300  atmospheres ;  the  gas 
was  still  a  gas.  But  when  allowed  to  expand  suddenly, 
which,  according  to  Poisson's  formula,  brings  it  down  to 
200  degrees  below  its  starting-point,  a  cloud  was  at  once 
formed.  The  same  result  has  since  been  obtained  without 


Digitized  by 


Googfe 


178 


NATURE 


\yan,  3,  1878 


the  employment  of  sulphurous  acid,  by  giving  the  gas  time 
to  cool  after  compression.  M.  CaiUetet  has  not  yet  ob- 
tainied,  at  all  events,  so  far  as  we  yet  know,  oxygen  in  a 
liquid  form,  as  M.  Pictet  has  done ;  on  being  separated 
from  its  enormous  pressure  it  has  merely  put  on  the 
appearance  of  a  cloud. 

M.  Pictefs  arrangements  are  more  elaborate.  He  uses 
four  vacuum-  and  force-pumps,  similar  to  those  which 
were  recently  exhibited  in  the  Loan  Collection  of  Scien- 
tific Apparatus  for  makmg  ice,  driven  by  an  engine  of 
i5-horse  power.  Two  of  these  are  employed  in  procuring 
a  reduction  of  temperature  in  a  tube  about  four  feet  long 
containing  sulphurous  acid.  This  is  done  in  the  follow- 
ing way  :  the  vacuum  pump  withdraws  the  vapour  from 
above  the  surface  of  the  liquid  sulphurous  acid  in  the 
tube,  which,  like  all  the  others  subsequently  to  be  men- 
tioned, is  slightly  indined  so  as  to  give  the  maximum  of 
evaporating  surface.  The  force-pump  then  compresses 
this  vapour,  and  sends  it  into  a  separate  reservoir,  where 
it  is  again  cooled  and  liquefied  ;  the  freshly-formed 
liquid  is  allowed  to  return  under  control  to  the  tube  first 
referred  to,  so  that  a  complete  circulation  is  maintained. 
With  the  pumps  at  full  work  there  is  a  nearly  perfect 
vacuum  over  the  liquid  and  the  temperature  falls  to  —  65^* 
or  -  70**  C. 

M.  Pictet  uses  this  sulphurous  acid  as  a  cold-water 
jacket,  as  we  shall  see.  It  is  used  to  cool  the  carbonic  acid 
after  compression,  as  water  is  used  to  cool  the  sulphurous 
acid  after  compression. 

This  is  managed  as  follows  : — In  the  tube  thus  filled 
with  liquid  sulphurous  acid  at  a  temperature  of  -  60**  C. 
there  is  another  central  one  of  the  same  length  but 
naturally  of  sntaller  diameter.  This  central  tube  M. 
Pictet  fills  with  liquid  carbonic  acid  at  a  pressure 
of  four  or  six  atmospheres.  This  is  then  let  into 
another  tube  four  metres  long  and  four  centimetres  in 
diameter.  When  thus  filled  the  liquid  is  next  reduced 
to  the  solid  form  and  a  temperature  of  —  140**  C,  the 
extraction  of  heat  being  effected  as  before  by  the  pump, 
which  extracts  three  litres  of  'gas  per  stroke  and  makes 
100  strokes  a  minute. 

Now  it  is  the  turn  of  the  oxygen. 

Just  as  the  tube  containing  carbonic  acid  was  placed 
in  the  tube  containing  sulphurous  acid,  so  is  a  tube  con- 
taining^ oxygen  inserted  in  the  long  tube  containing  the 
now  solidified  carbonic  acid.  This  tube  is  five  metres 
long,  fourteen  millimetres  in  exterior  diameter,  and  only 
four  in  interior  diameter— the  glass  is  very  thick.  The 
whole  surface  of  this  tube,  except  the  ends  which  project 
beyond  the  ends  of  the  carbonic  acid  tube,  is  surrounded 
l^  the  frozen  carbonic  acid. 

One  end  of  this  tube  is  connected  with  a  strong  shell 
containing  chlorate  of  potash,  the  other  end  is  furnished 
with  a  stop-cock. 

When  the  tube  was  as  cold  as  its  surroundings, 
heat  was  applied  to  the  chlorate,  and  a  pressure  of 
500  atmospheres  was  registered ;  this  descended  to  320. 
The  stop-cock  was  then  opened,  and  a  liquid  shot  out 
with  such  violence  that  none  could  be  secured^  though  we 
shall  hear  of  this  soon. 

Pieces  of  lighted  wood  held  in  this  stream  sponta- 
neously inflamed  with  tremendous  violence. 

In  this  way,  then,  has  oxygen  been  liquefied  at  last. 


But  this  result  has  no  sooner  filled  us  with  surprise  than 
it  has  been  completely  eclipsed.  On  the  last  day  of 
December,  a  week  after  the  meeting  of  the  Academy  to 
which  we  have  referred,  M.  Cailletet  performed  a  series  of 
experiments  in  the  laboratory  of  the  £cole  Normale  at 
Paris,  in  the  presence  of  Berthelot,  Boussingault,  St. 
Claire  Deville,  Mascart,  and  other  leading  French 
chemists  and  physicists,  using  the  same  method  as  that 
formerly  employed  for  oxygen  and  he  then  and  there 
liquefied  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  air  ! 

M.  Cailletet  first  introduced  pure  nitrogen  gas  into  the 
apparatus.  Under  a  pressure  of  200  atmospheres  the  tabe 
was  opened,  and  a  number  of  drops  of  liquid  nitrogen  were 
formed.  Hydrogen  was  next  experimented  with,  and  this, 
the  lightest  and  most  difficult  of  all  gases,  was  reduced  to 
the  form  of  a  mist  at  280  atmospheres.  The  degree  of 
cold  attained  by  the  sudden  release  of  these  compressed 
gases  is  scarcdy  conceivable.  The  physicists  present  at 
the  experiment  estimated  it  at  ~  300"^  C. 

Although  oxygen  and  nitrogen  had  both  been  liquefied, 
it  was  deemed  of  interest  to  carry  out  the  process  with 
air,  and  the  apparatus  was  filled  with  the  latter,  carefully 
dried  and  freed  from  carbonic  add.  The  experiment 
yielded  the  same  result.  On  opening  the  tube  a  stream 
of  liquid  air  issued  from  it  resembling  the  fine  jets  forced 
from  our  modem  perfume  bottles. 

These  more  recent  results  are  all  the  more  surprising 
as,  at  an  earlier  stage,  hydrogen,  at  a  pressure  of  300 
atmospheres,  has  shown  no  signs  of  giving  way. 

These  brilliant  and  important  results,  though,  as  we 
have  said,  they  give  us  no  new  idea  on  the  constitution  of 
matter,  open  out  a  magnificent  vista  for  future  experi- 
ment. First,  we  shall  doubtless  be  able  to  study  solid 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  air,  and  if  MM.  Pictet  and  Caille- 
tet succeed  in  this  there  will  then  be  the  history  to  write 
of  the  changes  of  molecular  state,  probably  accompanied 
by  changes  of  colour,  through  which  these  elemental 
substances  pass  in  their  new  transformations. 

There,  is  a  distinct  lesson  to  be  learnt  from  the  sources 
whence  these  startling  tours  de  force  have  originated. 
The  means  at  the  command  of  both  MM.  Cailletet  and 
Pictet  arise  from  the  industrial  requirements  of  these 
gentlemen,  one  for  making  iron,  the  other  for  making  ice. 

Why  then  in  England,  the  land  of  practical  science, 
have  we  not  more  men  like  MM.  Cailletet  and  Pictet  to 
utilise  for  purposes  of  research  the  vast  means  at  their 
disposal,  or  at  all  events  to  allow  others  to  use  them? 

It  is  also  dear  that  to  cope  with  modem  requirements 
our  laboratories  must  no  longer  contain  merdy  an  anti- 
quated air-pump,  a  Leyden  jar,  and  a  few  bottles,  as  mimy 
of  them  do.  The  professor  should  be  in  charge  of  a 
work-  instead  of  an  old  curiosity-shop,  and  the  scale  of 
his  operations  must  be  large  if  he  is  to  march  with  the 
times — times  which,  with  the  liquefaction  of  the  most 
refractory  gases,  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  science. 


HUXLEY'S   PHYSIOGRAPHY 
Physiography:  an  Introduction  to  the  Sutdy  0/  Naure. 
By  T.  H.  Huxley,  F.R.S.    (London :    Macmillan  and 
Ca,  1877.) 

AMONG  educational  works  which  are  calculated  to 
afibrd  real  assistance  to  the  teacher  in  his  all-import- 
ant labours,  we  may  recognise  two  distinct  classes.    One 


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of  these  inclades  the  ''  text-books,'^  which  shoald  aim  at 
presenting  only  the  accurate  and  well-proportioned  outlines 
of  a  system  of  instruction,  leaving  it  to  the  teacher  himself 
so  to  fill  in  these  outlines  with  explanation  and  illustration, 
as  to  cause  the  new  facts  and  reasonings  to  produce  the 
most  vivid  and  abiding  impressions  upon  the  minds  of  his 
pupils.  But  inasmuch  as  the  attainment  of  such  a  result 
demands  much  practical  skill  and  educational  tact^a 
skill  and  tact  which  arc  by  no  means  easy  of  acquirement 
—the  necessity  and  value  of  another  class  of  works  be- 
comes manifest.  This  second  class  of  educational  works 
comprises  such  as  aim  at  instructing  the  teacher  how 
best  to  perform  his  difficult  task  *;  which  exemplify  the 
work  of  explanation,  illustrate  the  art  of  illustration,  and 
show  how  the  dry  bones  of  barren  facts  may,  by  clear 
arrangement  and  logical  connection,  be  compacted  into 
a  body  of  real  knowledge,  and  this  body  by  being  infused 
with  the  earnest  intelligence  of  the  teacher,  may  be 
quickened  into  active  and  fruitful  life  in  the  minds  of 
the  scholars. 

It  is  to  this  latter  very  important  class  of  educational 
works  that  we  should  be  inclined  to  refer  the  book  before 
u«,  and  we  cannot  therefore  regard  the  designation  of  it 
as  a  '^  manual  for  students,"  which  is  borne  upon  its  cover 
— one  for  which  we  suspect  that  the  author  is  not  himself 
responsible — as  either  happy  or  judicious.  That  some 
instruction  in  the  physical  laws  of  that  universe  in  which 
we  are  placed  ought  to  form  a  recognised  part  of  our 
system  of  elementary  education  has  been  again  and  again 
maintained  and  strongly  insisted  upon  by  scientific  men, 
and  by  none  more  persistently  or  more  urgently  than 
by  the  author  of  the  present  work.  When  we  reflect  on 
the  fact  that  to  the  man  who  has  learnt  to  recognise,  obey 
and  apply  these  laws,  Nature  reveals  herself  as  a  helpful 
and  bountiful  mother,  ever  ready  to  aid  him  n  his  in- 
dustry, his  arts,  and  his  commerce ;  while  to  him  who 
ignores  or  violates  these  laws  she  is  known  only  as  a 
terribly  relentless  and  avenging  goddess,  ever  thwarting 
his  most  earnest  endeavours,  and  scourging  him  with 
plagues,  pestilences,  and  famines — it  is  hard  to  realise 
how  slowly  the  necessity  for  this  instruction  in  natural 
knowledge  has  forced  itself  upon  the  minds  of  those  who 
are  responsible  for  the  scheme  of  elementary  education 
adopted  in  this  country.  But  society — the  machinery  of 
which  is  every  day  becoming  more  complicated  and  more 
susceptible  to  those  painful  consequences  which  follow 
from  the  infiringement  of  the  laws  of  nature— will  doubt- 
less in  the  end  demand,  as  indeed  it  has  a  right  to  do, 
that  every  unit  in  her  organisation  should  be  fitted  so  to 
play  his  part,  as  to  avoid  the  danger  to  himself  and  others 
which  the  neglect  or  violation  of  natural  laws  invariably 
entails. 

Almost  every  demand  that  the  .principles  of  physical 
science  should  be  taught  in  our  elementary  schools,  has 
been  met  with  the  objection  that  our  knowledge  of  nature 
and  her  laws  has  in  recent  years  grown  to  such  an  ex- 
tent, and  ramified  into  so  vast  a  number  of  channels  as  to 
make  any  attempt  to  teach  it  to  the  young  quite  hopeless. 
As  well  might  we  point  to  the  number  of  volumes  in  the 
library  of  the  British  Museum,  and  declare  that  their 
existence  demonstrates  the  uselessness  of  teaching  the  art 
of  reading.  No  one,  of  course,  would  desire  that  an  epitome 
all  the  sciences  should  be  taught  to  children ;  but  what 


I  is  demanded  is  that  the  methods  of  modern  scientific 
'  thought  should  be  made  familiar  to  every  mind,  th«M» 
few  leading  and  necessary  truths  should  be  taught  con» 
'  ceming  the  world  in  which  wc  live  and  the  laws  which 
control  its  potent  forces  (seeing  that  upon  our  knowledge 
or  ignorance  of  thes^  depends  much  of  our  happiness  and 
success  or  our  misery  and  failure  in  the  adventure  of  life), 
and  that,  last  but  not  least,  the  minds  of  all  young  people 
should  be  conducted  within  the  threshold  of  the  temple 
of  natural  knowledge,  so  that  any  among  them  that  may 
be  endowed  with  the  necessary  capabilities  may  learn 
there  to  dedicate  themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  science. 

How  can  this  elementary  instruction  in  science  be  best 
imparted  to  the  young  ?  This  is  Ae  important  question 
which  Prof.  Huxley  applies  himself  to  answer  in  the  work 
before  us ;  and  he  accomplishes  his  object  much  better 
by  means  of  example  than  he  could  by  any  amount  of 
discussion  of  the  general  principles  of  the  art  of  teaching. 
On  several  other  occasions  the  author  has  indicated  the 
importance  of  making  a  knowledge  of  the  more  striking 
phenomena  of  nature,  those  with  which  we  come  into 
contact  in  our  every-day  life,  and  which  exercise  the 
greatest  influence  on  our  daily  occupations  and  experi- 
ences, the  starting-point  of  our  introduction  to  the  world 
of  scientific  thought ;  and  it  is  to  this  vestibule  of  the 
temple  of  natural  science  that  he  applies  the  name  of 
"  Physiography." 

The  authpr  of  the  present  work  of  course  recognises 
that  first  principle  of  good  teaching  which  consists  in 
fastening  at  first  on  facts  and  ideas  which  are  known  and 
familiar,  and  from  thence  leading  the  minds  of  the 
student  by  a  succession  of  steps,  no  one  of  which  shall 
present  any  serious  difficulties,  up  to  those  more  unfa- 
miliar observations  and  those  less  obvious  deductions 
from  them,  which  if  presented  in  the  first  instance  might 
startle  and  repel  rather  than  attract  the  scholar.  We 
must  ask  the  reader  himself  to  trace  in  the  work  before 
us  how,  setting  out  from  the  most  striking  and  easily 
observed  facts  about  the  River  Thames,  Prof.  Huxley 
shows  his  admirable  skill  in  teaching  by  leading  his 
readers  tlirough  a  series  of  reasonings  couched  in 
simple  and  untechnical,  but  always  accurate  and  ele- 
gant, language,  up  to  the  grandest  truths  in  physics, 
biology,  geology,  and  astronomy;  how, throughout,  happy 
analogies  and  telling  illustrations  msJce  the  path  of  the 
scholar,  light,  easy,  and  pleasant;  and  how  in  all  this 
nothing  of  the  exactness  and  dignity  of  science  is  sacri- 
ficed to  a  desire  to  say  those  fine  or  funny  things  which 
are  too  often  supposed  to  convert  a  prosy  book  into  a 
"  popular  "  one. 

The  teacher  who  takes  these  easy  lessons  in  elementary 
science  and  simply  repeats  them  to  his  scholars  can 
scarcely  fail  to  communicate  some  sound  and  useful 
instruction  to  them  But  every  competent  and  judicious 
teacher  will  prize  Prof.  Huxley's  book  rather  as  a  model 
than  as  a  "  crib  "—and  this  is  the  light  in  which  the  author, 
we  are  persuaded,  would  desire  that  his  work  should  be 
regarded  by  them.  It  is  as  easy,  for  example,  to  make  the 
Mersey,  the  Severn,  the  Forth,  or  the  Clyde  the  starting 
point  of  our  studies  of  nature,  as  the  Thames,  and  in  Man- 
chester, Bristol,  Edinburgh, or  Glasgow  respectively,  it  is  far 
better  to  do  so ;  nor  will  any  well-instructed  teacher  find 
the  smallest  difficulty  in  thus  adapting  his  lessons  to  his 


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auditory.  To  such  teachers  as  have  never  studied  or 
thought  on  scientific  questions  themselves,  our  advice 
would  be  to  content  themselves  with  placing  Prof. 
Huxley's  book  in  their  school-libraries,  and  not  to  run 
the  risk  of  spoiling  its  teachings  by  filtering  them  through 
their  own  minds. 

We  have  spoken  at  such  length  on  the  value  of  this 
work  to  the  teacher,  as  to  leave  but  little  space  for  refer- 
ence to  its  interest  to  the  general  reader,  yet  this  is  by  no 
means  small ;  to  those  who  seek  an  ''  introduction  to  the 
study  of  nature,**  which  shall  be  at  the  same  time  both 
sound  and  readable,  exact  and  untechnical,  we  most 
heartily  commend  the  work  before  us. 

We  are  informed  in  the  preface  that  the  idea  of 
this  work  has  long  been  entertained,  and  its  plan 
and  methods  frequently  revolved  in  the  mind  of  the 
author.  It  is  probable  that  not  a  little  of  its  present 
excellence  is  due  to  this  slow  maturation  of  its  plan, 
assisted,  as  we  learn  that  its  development  has  been,  by 
its  embodiment  in  two  successive  courses  of  lectures — on 
the  shorthand  notes  of  one  of  which  the  present  book  is 
based.  In  seeking  for  an  editor  to  relieve  him  of  the 
more  trying  labour  of  book-making,  Prof.  Huxley  has  been 
fortunate  in  securing  the  services  of  Mr.  Rudier,  whose 
knowledge  of  a  great  number  of  branches  of  >cience 
is  combined  with  much  literary  skilL  To  this  cause 
we  may  attnbute  the  small  number  of  inaccuracies  in 
either  fact  or  expression  which  a  careful  penjsal  of  the 
work  has  revealed.  Such  as  do  occur  may  be  easily 
remedied  in  the  new  edition,  which  we  have  no  doubt  will 
soon  be  called  for. 

In  concluding  this  notice  we  cannot  refrain  from  con- 
gratulating its  author  upon  the  production  of  the  work, 
and  at  the  same  time  of  assuring  him  that  among  all  the 
labours  he  has  undergone,  and  the  sacrifices  he  has  made 
on  behalf  of  elementary  education  in  this  country,  none  is 
likely  to  produce  more  valuable  and  more  enduring  fruit 
than  this  much-needed  model  of  the  art  of  teaching  the 
fundamental  truths  of  natmal  science,  the  appearance  of 
which  at  the  present  time  we  cannot  but  regard  as  being 
most  opportune.  J.  W.  J. 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 
Myths  and  Marvels  of   Astronomy.      By  Richard  A. 

Proctor.  (London  :  Chatto  and  Windus,  1878.) 
The  author  observes  in  his  preface  that  *'  the  chief  charm 
of  astronomy  with  many  does  not  reside  in  the  wonders 
revealed  to  us  by  the  science,  but  in  the  lore  and  legends 
connected  with  its  history,  the  strange  fancies  with  which 
in  old  times  it  has  been  associated,  the  half-forgotten 
myths  to  which  it  has  given  birth,"  and  further  remarking 
that  in  our  own  times  myths  and  fancies,  startling  inven- 
tions and  paradoxes  have  also  found  place,  he  has  framed 
the  present  volume  to  meet  the  tastes  of  the  class  of 
readers  which  he  believes.to  be  specially  interested  in 
such  matters. 

In  a  work  confessedly  written  with  this  object  in  view, 
perhaps  it  (will  hardly  be  expected  that  there  can  be 
much  to  require  notice  in  a  scientific  joumaL  An  im- 
portant point  will  be  accuracy  of  detail,  and  in  this 
respect,  except  in^two  or  three  cases,  we  remark  little  to 
which  exception  can  be  taken.  Amongst  other  subjects, 
the  author  enters  upon  ^  the  religion  "  and  the  mysteries 
of  the  Great  Pyramid,  "Suns  m  flames,"  the  rings  of 
Saturn,  comets  as  portents,  the  notorious  lunar-hoax  of 
1835-36,  and  the  origin  of  the  constellation- figures.    He 


is  unlucky  in  his  notice  of  the  first  discovery  of  the 
famous  star  of  Tycho  Brahe  in  1572,'reproducing  from 
Sir  John  HerschePs  "Outlines,"  the  story  of  Tycho's 
attention  having  been  first  directed  to  the  object  on  the 
evening  of  November  11,  by  seeing  "a  group  of  country 
people  gazing  at  a  star  which  he  was  sure  did  not  exist 
an  hour  before."  This  story  is  as  much  a  myth  as  any- 
thing in  the  volume  before  us,  as  will  be  evident  to  the 
reader  who  consults  the  account  of  his  first  observation 
and  of  the  observations  of  others  g^ven  by  Tycho  himself 
and  it  is  strange  that  the  statement  which  has  misled 
Mr.  Proctor  should  have  been  continued  in  the  various 
editions  of  Sir  John  HerschePs  "Astronomy"  since 
the  year  1833.  The  account  given  in  the  chapter  "On 
some  Astronomical  Myths"  of  the  actual  position 
of  the  intra- Mercurial  planet  question  is  too  incomplete 
to  enable  the  reader  to  form  a  competent  judgment  there- 
upon, though  it  may  leave  him  under  the  impression  that 
there  is  something  mythical  about  it.  Mr.  Proctor  appears 
to  reject "  the  idea  of  wilful  deception  "  on  the  part  of 
astronomical  observers — in  which  case  the  mere  expres- 
sion of  disbelief  in  the  existence  of  an  intra  Mercurial 
body  or  bodies  does  not  assist  explanation  of  recorded 
observations,  more  particularly  where  motion  has  been 
remarked.  There  are  a  few  numerical  errors  in  the 
volume,  as  in  the  note  on  p.  235,  where  it  is  stated  that 
the  comet  of  the  August  meteors  has  "  a  period  of  at  least 
150  years ;"  so  long  a  period  would  be  irreconcilable  with 
the  observations,  and  the  very  complete  investigation  by 
Prof.  Oppolzer  assigns  121 J  years  as  the  most  probable 
length  of  the  revolution.  But  as  already  stated  there  is 
general  accuracy  of  detail,  and  the  volume  will  doubtless 
be  found  acceptable  to  the  particular  class  of  readers  for 
whom  it  has  been  prepared. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

\Th€  Editor  doa  not  hold  himsdf  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents,  NeUher  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of^  refected  numuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  CLS  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  ef  com* 
munications  containitig  interesting  and  navd  facts,] 

Electrical  Experiment 

The  inclosed  letter  gives  an  account  of  an  experiment  in  which 
an  electric  current  appears  to  be  produced  by  the  direct  action 
of  gravity,  a  result  which,  if  clearly  established,  would  be  new 
and  of  considerable  scientific  interest. 

In  trying  to  repeat  the  experiment  yesterday  I  observed  a  con- 
siderable deSexion  of  the  galvanometer  in  the  direction  described 
by  Mr.  Pirani,  bat  as  this  deflexion  seemed  to  occur  some 
seconds  a/^er  the  Inversion  of  the  tube,  I  examined  the  tube  and 
found  a  small  bubble  of  air  working  its  way  up  through  the 
solution,  and  as  soon  as  it  came  to  the  top  of  the  tube  the 
deflexion  occurred. 

I  have  not  yet  had  time  to  repeat]  the  experiment  without  the 
babble,  bat  I  mention  this  to  show  that  care  must  be  taken  to 
secure  that  the  electrolyte  is  homogeneous,  and  thit  it  does  not 
contain  anything  which  will  either  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube 
or  float  to  the  top,  so  as  to  act  alternately  on  the  two  electrodes. 

The  fact  that  the  deflexion  continaed  for  some  time  after  the 
tube  was  placard  horizontally  $c«mi  10  indicate  the  posilbiKty  of 
something  which  wtts  shificd  from  en  J  to  en<i  when  the  tube  was 
inverted,  imt  remilned  where  it  was  when  ihe  tube  was  only  kid 
on  its  tide,  J.  Clkrk  Max  WILL 

Cavendi:ih  Laboratory,  Cambridge,  Decern  tier  1%  1S77 

**  University  of  Mclboarnc,  OcL  30,  1877 
"My  D«ar  Sis,"Oti  page  317  of  vol  L  of  you?  *Occtridty 
and  MagDeii»m  '  it  U  pointed  out  th^i  a  greater  elect romo tire 
force  is  re r quired  to  protlucc  a  j^tven  current  betfipeen  fine  ele^ 
trodes  in  a  solution  of  sulphmte  uf  tine  wb«n  ainc  ti  earrictl  {xp* 
wards  than  when  ii  is  »iri«d  dowaitmnU. 
'*  I  aoa  not  «wafie  that  it  hoi  beett  notletit  that  hf  thf  same 


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reasoning  as  that  by  which  the  indaction  of  corrents  Is  deduced 
from  the  force  exerted  between  a  circuit  and  a  magnet  and  the 
existence  of  contact  electromotive  force  from  the  Peltier  effect, 
it  follows  that  a  current  should  exist  if  two  zinc  electrodes  con- 
nected by  a  wire  are  immersed  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
the  direction  of  the  current  being  (in  the  solution)  from  the  upper 
to  the  lower  electrode. 

"I  tested  this  a  few  days  ago,  usinp;  a  glass  tube  e'ghteen 
inches  long,  filled  with  a  saturated  solution  of 
solphate  of  copper  and  closed  by  copper  caps 
witn  wires  attached. 

"On  connecting  the  wires  with  a  very 
delicate  Thomson's  astatic  galvanometer  be- 
longing to  Prof.  Halford,  a  very  considerable 
deflection  was  produced  (200  divisions)  when 
the  tube  was  held  vertically,  the  direction  of 
the  deflection  being  reversed  when  the  tube  was  reversed. 

"  If  the  tube,  after  bein^  held  verticallv,  was  placed  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  the  deflection  diminished,  but  several  minutes 
elapsed  before  the  index  came  to  zero,  which  it  eventually  did. 
I  cannot  explain  the  time  taken.  I  am  now  preparing  to  test  the 
actual  loss  of  weight  of  the  upper  electrode. 
**  I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 

"  Your  obedient  servant, 

"F.J.  PiRANI, 

"  Lecturer  on  Natural  Philosophy  and  Logic, 
University  of  Melbourne. 

"  P.S.— If  the  phenomenon  has  not  been  noticed  before  I  shall 
be  obliged  if  you  will  kindly  communicate  it  to  Nature. 

"  F.  J.  P." 

The  Telephone 

I  HAVB  been  much  interested  in  the  communication  by  Dr. 
Rontgen  on  a  telephonic  alarum.  Darine  the  past  six  or  seven 
weeks,  in  investigating  the  phenomena  of  the  telephone,  chiefly  as 
to  the  suggestions  they  offer  regarding  the  mechanism  of  nervous 
transmission,  I  have  frequently  shown  to  friends  the  striking 
experiment  described  by  Dr.  Rontgen,  and,  amongst  others, 
to  Sir  William  Thomson.  It  has  succeeded  with  Ut^ 
Ui^t  and  with  numerous  forks  up  to  67g,  but,  as  stated  by 
Dr.  Rontgen,  the  best  result  was  obtained  with  Ut^.  Witn 
those  below  this  pitch  the  tone  was  feeble,  whilst  with  those 
above  it  it  was  transient,  in  consequence  of  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  the  small  fork  going.  With  6?,,  worked  continuously 
by  an  electro-maenet,  another  fork  of  the  same  pitch  sounded 
loudly  and  steadily.  I  have  also  been  engaged  in  some  endea- 
vours to  record  on  a  moving  surface  the  vibrations  of  the  plate. 
Tliese  have  been  so  successral  as  to  show  that  it  is  only  a  question 
of  delicate  adjustment  In  endeavouring  to  utilise  one  telephone 
by  making  several  friends  listen  at  once,  I  hive  found  that  by 
fixing  the  metal  disc  to  a  thin  membrane  over  a  small  cavity 
filled  with  air,  like  a  Koenig's  capsule,  and  having  a  number  of 
flexible  leaden  tubes  connected  with  it,  an  ear  pli^ed  at  the  end 
of  each  tube  will  hear  distinctly.         John  G.  McKendrick 

Physiological  Laboratory,  Universi^  of  Glasgow, 
December  31,  1877 

Tht  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  (vol  xviiL  p.  121)  appears  to 
have  done  himself  less  than  justice  in  the  extracts  he  has  sent 
you  from  his  earlier  papers,  as  representing  his  published  views 
on  the  action  of  residual  gas  in  radiometers.  For  the  extracts  do 
not  suffice  to  constitute  an  explanation  of  this  action,  whereas 
the  papers  from  which  he  makes  the  extracts  contained  what, 
if  true,  might  have  been  an  explanation  of  the  action  of  residual 
gas,  along  with  much  else  that  is  admittedly  erroneous ;  and 
although  those  papers  (the  only  ones  published  before  mine)  con- 
clude with  Prof.  Reynolds's  own  expression  of  opinion  that 
residual  gas  is  not  the  cause  of  the  force  observed  by  Mr.  Crookes. 

He  quotes  three  paragraphs.  In  two  of  these  he  recited  the 
fundanxental  principle  in  the  kinetic  theory  of  eases  which  he 
sought  to  apply.  To  obtain  an  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
from  this  prmciple  according  to  tne  method  pursued  by  Prof. 
Reynolds,  it  was  necessary  for  him  (a)  to  establish  a  law  con- 
necting an  excess  of  force  perpendicular  to  the  disc  with 
a  flow  of  heat  in  radiometers,  and  (b)  to  indicate  agencies 
which  could  occasion  a  sufficient  flow  of  heat.  He  quotes 
the  passage  in  which  he  announced  the  result  of  his,  as  I 


believe,  unsuccessful  attempt  to  accomplish  the  former  of 
these,  but  he  omits  the  equallv  necessary  passage  in  which  he 
dealt  with  the  latter.  It  will  be  found  at  page  407  of  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  voL  xxii.,  and  is  couched  in 
the  following  terms  : — "  It  must  be  remembered  that  c  [which 
measures  the  outflow  of  heat]  depends  on  the  rate  at  which 
cold  particles  will  come  up  to  the  hot  surfiice,  which  is  verr  slow 
when  it  depends  only  on  the  diffusion  of  the  particles  of  the  gas 
inter  se,  and  the  diffusion  of  the  heat  among  them.  It  will  be 
much  increased  by  convection  currents."  If  thb  passage,  as  was 
requisite,  had  been  added  to  the  extracts  made  by  Prof.  Reynolds, 
it  would  have  brought  his  recent  account  of  the  views  he  had 
announced  into  conformity  with  my  account  of  them. 

In  connection  with  this  subject  it  should  be  observed  that 
Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  has  in  express  terms  excluded  from  his 
explanation  that  which  I  believe  to  be  the  real  agency  which 
brings  a  sufficient  supply  of  cold  molecules  up  to  the  hot  surface, 
for  he  states,  in  his  letter  to  Nature  (vol  xvii.,  p.  27),  that  "  it 
is  incompatible  with  his  explanation  that  the  increase  resulting 
from  rarefaction  in  the  mean  length  of  the  path  of  the  gaseous 
molecules  would  favour  the  action."  N^w  the  polarisation  of 
the  gas  depends  on  the  ratio  which  this  mean  length  bears  to  the 
interval  between  heater  and  cooler. 

I  cannot  find  anywhere  in  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds's  writings 
an  explanation  of  the  Uiing  to  be  explained,  viz.,  that  the  stress 
in  a  Crookes's  layer  is  different  in  one  direction  from  what  it  is 
at  right  angles  to  that  direction.  Let  z/  be  the  component  of  the 
momenta  of  the  molecules  striking  a  square  unit  of  the  heater  in 
the  unit  of  time,  resolved  perpendicularlv  towards  the  heater ; 
and  let  1^  be  the  corresponding  normal  component  of  their 
momenta  from  the  heater,  when  they  are  thrown  off".  Then 
u  +  vis  the  pressure  on  the  heater.  Now  if  u  and  v  could 
result  respectively  from  unpoiarised  motions  in  the  gv,  the 
momentum  resolved  parallel  to  the  heater  would  be  ii»  +  iv 
from  left  to  right,  with  an  equal  momentum  from  right  to  leit 
Adding  these  we  find  u  •¥  vw  pressure  of  the  gas  parallel  to 
the  heater.  This  is  equal  to  the  normal  pressure,  and,  therefore, 
under  these  circumstances,  there  would  be  no  Crookes's  force 
whatever.  It  is  only  when  we  take  the  polarisation  of  the  gas 
into  account  that  the  momenta  resolved^  parallel  to  the  heater 
become  different  from  \  u  and  }  v. 

Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  says  that  my  views  are  at  variance 
with  results  arrived  at  by  Clausius  and  other  discoverers  in 
this  branch  of  physicf.  I  do  not  myself  value  appeals  to 
authority  in  matters  of  science.  But  it  so  happens  that  here 
again  it  appears  to  be  Prof.  Reynolds  who  makes  the  mistake. 
Qausius,  in  his  great  memoir  on  the  conduction  of  heat  by 
gases,  published  In  1862  (Phil,  Mag.,  voL  xxilL  p.  529),  warns 
his  readers  against  the  very  error  into  which  Prof.  Reynolds  seems 
to  fall,  and  points  out  that  there  "are  obvious  limits"  beyond 
which  the  laws  he  had  discovered  for  the  conduction  of  heat  do 
not  prevail,  one  of  which  limits  is  that  the  gas  "  must  not  be  so 
expanded  that  the  mean  length  of  excursion  of  the  molecules 
becomes  so  great  that  its  higher  powers  cannot  be  neglected." 
Now  it  is  just  to  this  excepted  case,  to  the  Sprrngel  vacua  ex- 
perimented on  by  Mr.  Crookes,  that  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds 
applies  the  laws  of  conduction,  and  he  then  objects  to  mr  theory 
that  it  does  not  agree  with  the  laws  so  misapplied.  The 
phenomenon  of  Crookes's  stress  appears  to  come  into  exist- 
ence precisely  in  Clausius's  excepted  case,  viz.,  so  soon  as  the 
ratio  which  the  mean  length  ot  excursion  of  the  molecules 
bears  to  the  interval  between  heater  and  cooler,  is  such,  that 
when  multiplied  by  a  function  of  the  temperatures  of  the  heater 
and  cooler,  its  square  is  of  appreciable  magnitude  in  Clausius's 
equations.  This  may  be  experimentally  secured  either  by  placing 
the  heater  and  cooler  very  close  together,  as  in  experiments  upon 
spheroidal  drops,  or  by  excessively  attenuating  the  gas  so  as  to 
lengthen  the  free  paths  of  the  molecules  sufficiently,  as  in 
radiometers.  G.  Johnstone  Stonby 

Dublin,  December  20 

Postscript,  December  22.— I  have  just  seen  Prof.  Schuster's 
letter  (Nature,  vol.  xviL  p.  143).  Dr.  Schuster  will  pardon 
me  if  I  say  that  he  has  adopted  a  scarcely  legitimate  course  in 
introducing  into  a  discussion  on  priority  his  present  reminiscence 
of  one  of  the  conversations  ^)Out  the  radiometer  which  he  held 
with  his  friend.  Prof.  Osborne  Reynokls,  t«ro  and  a  half  years 
ago.  The  language  in  which  he  reports  it  is  foreign  to  Prof. 
Reynolds's  style  of  composition,  so  that  we  may  conclude  we 
are  dealing  with  Dr.  Schuster's  words,  and  the  words  which 
occurred  to  him  after  he  had  read  much  else  en  the  subject    No 


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judicially-mindcd  person  would  attach  much  weight  even  to  a 
report  of  his  own,  drawn  up  under  such  circumstances,  and  all 
judicwlly-minded  persons  will  regret  its  introduction  here.  ProC 
Osborne  Reynolds's  reasoning  proceeds  on  the  hypothesis  that 
the  gas  is  not  polarised.  The  only  real  question  here  ii,  Is 
Prof.  Schuster  prepared  to  maintain  that  thb  reasoning  is 
correct  ? 

Prof.  Schuster,  in  reporting  his  reminiscences,  first  recites  a 
kinetic  principle  which  is  quite  consistent  with  there  being  as 
niuch  force  sideways  as  perpendicularly  to  the  disc,  and  which 
therefore  contains  no  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  ;  and  when 
he  comes  to  the  first  essential  point,  viz.,  that  which  requires  him 
to  show  that  "  an  increased  pressure  on  the  cold  side  of  the  vanes 
of  a  radiometer  will  not  counterbalance  the  force  acting  on  the 
blackened  side?,'*  all  that  he  has  to  say  on  the  subject  is  that 
•'  he  does  not  think  that  such  is  the  case  !  "  This  is  the  essen- 
tial thing  to  be  pr(rjed  before  the  explanation  can  be  accepted, 
and  he  recites  experiments  which  show  that  it  is  essential. 

Prof.  Schuster  concludes  this  part  of  his  letter  with  the  admis- 
sion that  •*  he  does  not  see  how  [on  his  theory]  an  increase  in 
the  force  can  take  placa"  as  the  exhaustion  proceeds.  So  much 
the  worie  for  the  theory,  since  experiment  indicates  that  such  an 
increase  in  the  force  does  take  place.  In  proof  of  this  I  may  allege, 
in  addition  to  Mr.  Crookes*s  experiments,  several  series  of  experi- 
ments made  by  Mr.  Moss,  one  of  the  most  judicially-minded, 
patient,  and  dexterous  manipulators  I  have  met  with.  The  ex^rl-^ . 
ments  were  made  with  the  apparatus  described  in  a  communica- 
tion from  him  and  myself,  published  last  spring  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Society,  and  the  effect  of  the  convection  current  was 
with  extreme  care  excluded  in  two  ways — by  placing  the  swinging 
disc  where  the  influence  of  the  convection  current  on  it  before 
and  behind  was  balanced,  and  by  observing  the  motions  that  arose 
before  the  convection  current  had  time  to  reach  the  disc.  Both 
methods  concurred  in  showing  that,  as  in  Mr.  Crookes's  experi- 
ments, the  force  on  the  disc  uniformly  increased  with  increasing 
attenuation  of  the  gas  up  to  the  limit  to  which  we  pushed  the 
exhauftion.  Mr.  Crookes  has  shown  that  beyond  that  limit  it 
begins  to  decrease.  Prof.  Schuster  will  do  a  real  service  to 
science  if  he  will  devote  h*s  great  skill  for  some  months  to 
repeating  these  and  other  concurrent  experiments,  and  either 
confirm  them  or  point  out  why  they  should  be  set  aside. 

Prof.  Schuster  thinks  that  ''any  theory  of  the  radiometer 
which  makes  the  action  depend  on  the  comparatively  large 
[?  small]  ratio  of  the  mean  free  path  to  the  dimensions  of  the 
vessel,  must  necessarily  be  wrong."  Has  not  Prof.  Schuster 
here  overlooked  the  minuteness  of  the  phenomenon  which  has  to 
be  accounted  for?  Spheroidal  drops  of  less  than  a  millimetre 
diameter  are  easily  formed  of  several  light  liquids.  The 
Crookes's  stress  which  supports  these  is  an  excess  of  vertical 
stress  over  horizontal  stress  m  the  supporting  layer  of  polarised 
gas,  amounting  to  about  the  12-  or  15-thousandth  ]}art  of  the 
whole  stress.  This  compares  favourably  with  theminute  ratio 
to  which  Prof.  Schuster  refers. 

I  will  not  at  present  enter  on  that  part  of  Prof.  Schuster's 
letter  in  which  he  criticises  my  published  views  on  penetration, 
as  he  refers  me  to  the  researches  of  Messrs.  Kundt  and  Warburg, 
which  1  have  not  yet  seen.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney 

Glaciation  of  Orkney 

Last  spring  Prof.  Geikie  informed  me  of  a  correspondence 
which  was  going  on  ia  the  columns  of  Nature  as  to  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  Orkney  Islands  bore  evidence  of  having  been 
glaciated.  It  was  with  much  surprise  that  I  heard  that  there 
could  be  any  question  on  this  point  at  all,  but  I  refrained  from 
submitting  my  opinion  to  the  public — unhesitating  though  that 
opinion  was— on  account  of  my  being  then  just  about  starting 
for  my  native  county,  and  thus  having  an  opportunity  of  very 
specially  directing  my  attention  anew  to  the  matter.  As  the 
observations  I  then  made  wUhout  exception  tended  to  confirm 
me  in  what  really  required  no  confirmation,  I  think  I  may  now 
come  forward  as  one  who  has  for  long  known  those  islands,  and 
who  has  made  a  very  special  geognostic  survey  of  them,  during 
many  years.  And  I  would  nrst  say,  as  regards  the  question, 
**  whether  Orkney  does  or  does  not  give  proof  of  havmg  been 
covered  by  a  great  ice-sheet?"  that  I  t>elieve  that  no  one  who 
has  educated  his  eye — ^not  by  looking  at  pictures  in  books, 
but  among  the  rocks  themselves — to  the  apprehension  and  recog- 
nition of  the  hill-contours  of  an  ice-scalped  country,  would  hesi- 
tate to  declare  Orkney  to  be  such.  Let  such  a  one  take  his 
stind,  at  a  luflficient  aUitudr,  anywhere  a'ong  the  north  cca^t  of 


Sutherland,  with  a  scratched  and  polished  boss  under  bis  feet» 
rolling  up  into  rounded  hillocks  on  every  side,  and  sweep  his 
eye  from  the  two  Ben  Griams  over  to  Hoy,  and  he  could  not 
but  exclaim,  *•  There  is  a  country  which  has  suffered  sore." 

In  having  to  differ  from  Mr.  Laing,  I  join  issue  with  him  on 
two'points — boulders  and  foreign  stones,  and  boulder-clay.  I  have 
also  to  corroborate  Prof.  Geikie  as  to  glaciation  near  Stronmess'; 
for  I,  during  last  summer,  saw  to  the  immediate  north-west  of 
Stromness  a  surface  of  gnei;s,  say  ten  feet  by  three,  most  unmis- 
takably  glaciated — both  scratches  and  polishing  being  shown. 

Now  as  regards  "  t>oulders  and  foreign  stones."  Mr.  Lalng 
will  find — I  wonder  at  his  not  knowing  of  it — about  100  yards  to 
the  west  of  the  House  of  Saval,  in  Sanday,  one  of  the  finest  boul- 
do-s  in  Scotland.  This  boulder,  of  great  size,  consists  of  horn- 
blendic  gneiss ;  for  long  I  was  unable  to  identify  it  with  any 
variety  of  the  hornblendic  gneiss  of  Sutherland  ;  but  this  very 
year's  work  enables  me  to  say  that  it  is  very  similar  to  that  of  a 
locality  near  Dulmess.  In  all  probability,  however,  its  parent 
rock  lay  east,  not  west. 

Another  boulder  I  have  heard  of,  but  not  seen ;  it  was  de- 
scribed to  me  under  the  name  of  the  "  Eagle  Stone  " ;  it  lies  upon 
the  side  of  a  hill  in  Westray,  near  Pierowall,  and  is  said  to  be 
peculiar  as  a  loose  stone,  both  on  account  of  its  toppling  posi- 
tion, ita  being  different  from  any  rock  in  Orkney,  and  from  there 
being  no  rock  near  it. 

As  to  there  being  "  foreign  stones "  in  Orkney,  I  shall  only 
say  that  I  have  at  present  in  my  collection  polished  jaspers, 
picked  up  in  rolled  masses  in  Orkney ;  and  that  fragments 
of  broken  agates  are  found  not  unfrequently,  on  the  hill  tops  and 
sides,  in  Hoy.     These  are  quotations,  ex  grege. 

Mr.  Laing's  very  precise  observations  on  the  clay  beds — let  ns 
call  them— do  call  for  special  investigation. 

If  the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  other  observers  are  found  to 
coincide  with  his — while  they  could  not  affect  the  ultimate 
decision  as  regards  the  ice-clad  country— they  certainly  would 
strike  these  day  beds  out  of  the  category  of  boulder-clays. 
But,  s'r,  I  have  seen  these  clays,  and  I  did  not  see  what  Mr. 
Laing  saw ;  and  what  I  did  observe  leads  me  to  doubt  the 
correctness  of  his  conclusions.  For  I  found  it  to  be  a  notable 
circumstance  as  regards  these  Orkney  clay-beds  that  they  are 
very  markedly  r/o^^-beds  ;  #./.,  that  the  amount  of  clay  rdatively 
to  that  of  the  stoney  matter  therein  is  very  much  greater  than 
that  of  most  boulder-days. 

Now  this  is  a  fact  which  saps  the  very  foundation  of  Mr» 
Laing's  observation— an  abnormally  argillaceous  clay  bed  being 
the  result  of  the  disinte^ation  of  a  normally  siliceous  sandstone 
is  difficult  to  conceive.  Nay  more,  although  the  cemeat  of  certain 
of  the  Orkney  beds  is  silicate  of  alumina,  forming  the  blue  argil- 
laceous flag.  It  is  an  unquestionable  fact,  that  these  flags  do  not 
disintegrate  by  the  action  of  the  weather.  Even  the  Picts  knew 
that  when  they  built  their  Broughs  thereof.  Silicate  of  aiamtna 
is  not  affected  by  carbonated  waters. 

Upon— nearly  all  along— the  west  shore  of  Sbapinsha  there 
are  diffs— sea-diffs  of  these  day  beds,  which  lie  betwixt  the  rocks^ 
or  the  last  visible  rock,  avul  the  sea ;  that  last  rock  is  a  red 
ftrrruginous  loose-grained  sandstone,  with  little  or  no  cement, 
what  there  is  being  micaceous  ;  the  clay  beds  are  ochre  yellow. 
The  disintegration  of  this  rock  never  could  have  yielded  these 
clay  beds. 

But  Mr.  Laing  may  argue  that  they  resulted  from  the  decay 
of  an  overlying  argillaceous  bed.  The  argument  will  not  stand. 
Firstly,  because  the  dip  is  the  wrong  way ;  the  rock  dips  at  a 
high  angle  to  the  east ;  the  clay  slightly  caps  it,  and  stands  as  a 
bank  between  its  escarpment  and  the  sea.  Secondly,  because  a 
friable  yellow  freestone,  destitute  of  argillaceous  cement,  should 
overlie  the  red  beds.  Thirdly,  because  on  the  other  tide  of  the 
bay  where  the  argillaceous  flags  do  appear  they  are  quite  per- 
manent. Ice  might  grind  them  «/— the  "  weather  "  does  not  rot 
them  down.    But  here  no  day  beds  are  seen. 

Finally,  sir,  I  would  request  my  talented  countryman— whom 
I  have  great  pleasure  in  breaking  a  lance  with  in  this  field— to 
consider  how  or  why  it  is  that  these  day  beds  are  found  only  on 
one  side  of  the  long  depression  which  runs  up  the  centre  of  the 
islands?  M.  Forster  Heddle 

University,  St  Andrews,  December  19, 1877 


Northern  AfiEinities  of  Chilian  Insects 

I  think  I  may  be  allowed  to  express  my  surprise  at  Mr. 
Mc-Lachlan's  statement  that  this  subject  has  never  yet  been 


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"  even  more  than  casually  alluded  to  in  works  on  geograpliical 
distxibution,"  and  it  "  ignored  in  the  principal  ones  ^  *"  when  I 
have  devoted  no  less  than  six  pages  ot  mT  book  on  "  The  Geo- 
graphical Distribution  of  Animals "  (vol.  ii.*  pp.  42-48)  to  a 
discussion  of  the  main  facts — quite  as  much  as  could  be  pro- 
perly given  to  it  in  a  general  work.  It  is,  however,  well  worthy 
of  a  detailed  study,  which  I  am  very  clad  is  being  undertaken 
by  so  competent  an  entomologist.  I  hope  Mr.  McLachlan  will 
endeavour  to  obtain  collections  of  coleoptera  and  other  orders 
of  insects  horn  the  higher  tropical  Andes,  where,  I  feel  con- 
fident, some  northern  forms  will  also  be  found. 

Alfred  R.  Wallace 


Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay 

A  FEW  words  from  myself  seem  to  be  called  for  by  the  recent 
letter  of  Mr.  Crookes  in  reply  to  Prof.  Carpenter,  published  in 
your  journal.  As  far  as  I  am  concerned,  the  breach  of  etiquette 
complained  of  can  only  apply  to  my  obtaining  the  publication  of 
the  letter  Mr.  Crookes  addressed  to  me  in  the  Banner  of  Light, 
The  subsequent  facsimile  that  appeared  I  am  not  in  any  way 
responsible  for. 

The  part  I  took  in  the  matter  is  very  simple,  and  may  be  briefly 
explained  as  follows  :— On  Mrs,  Fay's  return  from  England  to 
this  country  the  genuineness  of  her  mediumship  was  very  much 
doubted,  and  was  the  subject  of  controversy  not  only  in  the 
spiritual  journals,  but  in  other  papers  as  well  Having,  whilst 
in  England,  satisfied  myself  that  the  manifestations  were  real,  I 
defended  her  to  the  best  of  my  abUity,  and  on  seeing  it  stated  in 
the  Boston  Herald  that  Mr.  Crookes  had  withdrawn  his  confidence 
in  her,  I  thought  it  prudent  to  write  to  that  gentleman,  mentioning 
my  reason  for  so  doing.  In  due  time  I  received  a  courteous 
reply,  whidi  I  at  once  took  to  the  Banner  office,  never  dreaming 
that  Mr.  Crookes  could  have  any  possible  objection  to  its  publi- 
cation after  the  articles  he  had  himself  published  on  the  subject 
in  the  English  journals.  Months  elapsed,  when  one  day  to  my 
surprise  I  met  with  the  facsimile  letter  in  the  New  York  Daily 
Graphic,  On  mentioning  the  subject  to  the  editor  of  the  Banner 
he  also  expressed  surprise,  and  stated  his  inability  to  account  for 
the  publication  of  the  facsimile.  He  at  first  was  of  opinion  that 
I  had  tidcen  the  letter  away  and  mislaid  it ;  but  on  searching, 
the  document  was  subsequently  found  in  the  office.  Hereupon 
b<^  Mr.  Colby  and  myself  wrote  to  the  editor  of  the  Graphic, 
requesting  him  to  state  how  he  obtained  possession  of  the  original 
letter,  so  as  to  get  the  facsimile  prepared ;  but  neither  of  us 
received  a  reply.  I  then  got  a  gentleman  residing  in  New  York 
to  call  on  the  Graphic  editor  on  the  subject,  and  was  informed 
that  the  said  editor  declined  to  say  bow  be  obtained  possession 
of  the  letter.  Thus  the  matter  stands,  and  it  as  inexplicable  to- 
day as  it  was  at  the  time  it  happened. 

I  entirely  exonerate  the  editot  of  the  Banner  and  his  associates 
from  any  complicity  in  the  matter,  and  I  trust  Mr.  Crookes,  after 
this  explanation,  will  see  that  his  imputation  against  American 
honour  is  wholly  unfounded. 

The  publication  of  the  letter  in  the  Banner  I  alone  am  answer- 
able for ;  and  as  I  explained  in  my  letter  to  Mr.  Crookes  that 
my  object  was  to  meet  a  statement  in  a  public  journal,  I  of  course 
thought  that  he  must  have  felt  that  the  reply  he  forwarded  would 
in  all  probability  be  nuule  public  use  of. 

Boston,  U.S.A.,  December  7,  1877  Robert  Cooper 

F.S. — Mr,  Crookes  errs  in  speaking  of  me  as  "a  Boston 
gentleman."    I  am  an  Englishnum  temporarily  located  here. — 


Philadelphia  Diploma 

In  Nature,  voL  [xvii.  p.  153,  it  is  stated  that  "A  'Dr.' 
Harmnth,  in  Berlin,  who  received  his  diploma  from  Philadelphia, 
was  lately  sentenced  to  pay  300  marks  for  using  the  prefix  pub- 
licly." It  is  but  just  to  so  old  and  respectable  a  univenity  as 
that  of  Philadelphia  to  point  out  that  *'  Dr."  Harmuth's  diploma 
could  not  have  been  genuine.  So-called  ''Philadelphia  degrees" 
of  all  sorts  are  sold  1^  agents  but  they  have  no  connection  vrith 
the  University  of  Philadelphia,  nor  have  they,  at  present  any 
connection  vrith  the  city,  though  the  author  of  this  scandalotis 
imposition  once  lived  there  and  carried  on  a  disreputable  practice 
as  a  quack  doctor.  The  public  should  still  be  on  their  guard 
against  Bogus  degrees,  for  diplomas  purporting  to  issue  from 
several  American  and  German  universities  are  still  to  be  had,  in 


some  cases  on  examination  in  absetttia  and  payment  of  the  fee^ 
in  oUiers  by  a  money  payment  only.  C*  M,  Jnglepy 

Valentines,  December  26,  1877 


Royal  Dublin  Society 

In  justice  to  m^lf  I  beg  to  state  that  my  function  as  editor 
of  the  Natural  Science  papers  in  the  "  Scientific  Proceedings  of 
the  Royal  Dublin  Society "  begins  onlv  with  Part  2  of  that 
journal,  and  that  I  had  no  knowledge  whatever  of  the  material 
contained  in  Part  i  until  it  had  been  printed  and.drculated.  By 
publishing  this  I  shall  be  greatly  obliged. 

Alex.  Macalister 

Anatomical  Museum,  Trinity  College,  Dublin 

The  Meteor  of  November  23 

I  HAVE  JQst  seen  Capt  Tupmsn's  letter  in  Nature  (vol  xvii. 
p.  1 14).  I  can  give  a  fairly  accurate  estimate  of  the  direction  of 
the  meteor  from  Llandudno  at  the  time  it  burst.  Sitting  in  a 
lighted  room  my  eye  was  attracted  by  a  bright  bar  of  light 
across  the  hearth-rug  similar  in  shape  to  a  gap  in  the  Venetian 
blind  caused  by  a  broken  tape.  The  light  slowly  faded  out  in 
about  the  same  place,  whidi  was  eas'dy  remembered.  I  listened 
intently  for  a  report  for  perhaps  about  a  minute,  gave  it  up,  and 
then  heard  what  was  somewhat  like  the  report  oif  a  ship's  gun  at 
a  short  distance, 

It  was  easy  afterwards  to  estimate  the  direction  of  the  light  as 
two  points  west  of  (true)  north,  and  thirty-five  degrees  above  the 
horizon. 

I  regret  that  the  time  between  the  fading  of  the  light  and  the 
report  I  can  only  guess  very  roughly.  It  may  have  been  about 
two  minutes.  T.  S.  Petty 

51,  Boundary  Road,  N.W. 


THE  SUN'S  MAGNETIC  ACTION  AT  THE 
PRESENT  TIME 

PERHAPS  no  result  in  magnetism  has  excited  so  much 
interest  as  that  which  has  connected  the  varying 
diurnal  oscillation  of  the  magnetic  needle,  and  the  fre- 
quency of  the  aurora  polaris,  with  the  spotted  area  of  the 
sun's  surface,  in  a  common  cycle  of  ten  and  a  half  years. 
Various  investigations  have  been  undertaken  in  order  to 
determine  whe&er  other  phenomena  could  not  be  found 
which  would  take  a  place  m  this  chain. 

That  the  movements  of  the  magnets  and  the  comisca- 
tions  of  the  aurora  are  due  to  the  cause  which  produces 
the  immense  chasms  in  the  sim's  envelopes  there  can  be 
little  doubt ;  but  we  know  nothing  of  the  mode  in  which 
the  stm  acts  on  our  earth  to  produce  these  effects,  and  we 
have  reason  to  believe  that  tnis  ignorance  has  prevented 
us  hitherto  from  tradne  to  the  same  cause  atmospheric 
variations  which  have  been  attributed  altogether  to  the 
solar  heating  action. 

Any  facts,  then,  as  to  what  the  sun  is  doing  at  the 
present  time  with  the  earth's  magnetism  will  not  be  with- 
out value,  wheUier  we  regard  the  facts  alone,  or  as  con- 
nected with  their  hypothetical  relations  to  atmospheric 
phenomena.  It  should  always  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  variations  of  magnetic  oscillations  in  the 
decennial  period,  shown  at  any  one  station  on  the  earth's 
surface,  agree  generally  with  those  shown  over  the  whole 
globe,  whue  the  meteorological  phenomena  are  so  much 
affected  by  conditions  of  position  that  it  is  difHcult  to 
distinguish  what  is  due  to  local  and  what  to  cosmic 
causes. 

It  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  studied  this  subject, 
that  the  interval  from  the  time  when  the  sun  has  fewest, 
till  that  when  he  has  most,  spots  has  been  less  than  that 
from  the  maximum  to  the  minimum  ;  and  that  the  same 
fact  has  been  observed  in  the  case  of  the  magnetic  oscil- 
lations. The  way  in  which  the  changes  of  the  latter 
occur  near  tb^  Xmt^  of  successive  minima  Ua,s  not,  hor- 


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ever,  been  studied.  The  accompanying  diagram  will 
show  this  for  the  last  three  minima. 

If  we  suppose  that  the  mean  diurnal  movement  of  the 
magnetic  needle  is  determined  for  each  month,  we  obtain 
the  amount  of  the  oscillation  or  range  ;  the  mean  of  the 
ranges  thus  found  for  twelve  successive  months  is  repre- 
sented by  a  point  in  the  curves ;  thus  the  last  point  in  the 
lowest  curve  represents  the  mean  of  the  ranges  for  the 
twelve  months,  October,  1876,  to  September,  1877  (corre- 
sponding to  April  I,  1877),  as  shown  by  the  observations 
made  in  the  Trcvandrum  Observatory  (nearly  on  the 
magnetic  equator).  The  point  immediately  preceding 
represents  the  mean  range  for  the  twelve  months, 
September,  1876,  to  August,  1877,  and  so  on  for  the  other 
points. 

If  these  cutves  are  examined,  it  will  be  seen,  that  in  the 
upper  one  the  minimum  is  very  clearly  marked  by  two 
points  corresponding  to  April  i  and  May  i,  1856  (repre- 


senting the  mean  ranges,  October,  1855,  to  September, 
1856,  and  November,  1855,  to  October,  1856),  and  that 
there  is  little  difference  in  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
curve  descends  to,  and  ascends  from,  the  minimum. 

In  the  middle  curve  the  epoch  of  minimum  is  by  no 
means  so  distinctly  marked  ;  it  occurs  between  the  points 
for  April  i  and  September  i,  1866.  There  is  also  a  con- 
siderable difference  in  the  rapidity  of  variation  in  the 
descending  and  ascending  branches  of  the  curve.  The 
descent  is  nearly  as  rapid  as  in  the  upper  curve,  but  the 
ascent  is  very  much  slower. 

In  the  lower  curve,  the  lowest  point  is  that  for  Decem- 
ber I,  1875,  but  it  is  even  now,  with  points  for  a  year  and 
a  half  later,  difficult  to  say  whether  this  is  the  minimum 
or  not,  the  point  for  January  i,  1877,  being  only  o''02  (two- 
hundredths  of  a  minute  of  arc)  higher.  In  this  curve 
the  change  of  range  in  the  diurnal  oscillatiori  is  quite 
insignificant  from  November  i,  1874,  to  April  i,  1877, 
including  the  ranges  from  May  i,  1874,  to  September  30, 
1877,  an  interval  of  three  years  and  five  months.  If  this 
result  is  confirmed  by  other  observations,  as  I  believe 
will  be  the  case,  no  such  constant  state  of  the  sun's  mag- 
netic action  will  have  been  observed  since  the  last  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  observations  of  sun-spots,  even  if  they  give  as 
accurate  a  measure  of  the  intensity  of  the  cause  as  that 
obtained  from  the  movements  of  our  magnets,  cannot  be 
observed  with  the  same  continuity,  nor  be  measured  with 
the  same  precision  ;  but  I  have  little  doubt  they  will  con- 
firm generally  the  result  shown  in  the  last  curve,  as  they 
have  in  prtccd'rg  ca-cs. 


With  regard  to  the  aurora  borealis,  the  appearances 
seem  to  have  been  very  rare  during  the  last  two  winters.  In 
the  report  by  Capt.  Sir  G.  Nares,  on  the  Arctic  expedition, 
he  says  that  in  the  winter  of  1875-76,  "  Light  flashes  of 
aurora  were  occasionally  seen  on  various  bearings, but  most 
frequently  passing  through  the  zenith  ;  none  were  of  suffi- 
cient brilliancy  to  call  for  notice.  The  phenomena  may  be 
said  to  have  been  insignificant  in  the  extreme,  and,  as  far 
as  we  could  discover,  were  totally  unconnected  with  any 
magnetic  or  electric    disturbance "  (Nature,  voL  xv. 

P-  35). 

In  the  twelve  months  including  September,  1843,  and 
August,  1844,  including  the  epoch  of  minimum  disturb- 
ance and  of  auroral  frequency,  I  observed  in  the  south 
of  Scotland  (in  lat.  55"*  35')  thirty  appearances  of  the 
aurora,  and  from  September,  1844,  till  the  end  of 
1845,  fifty-nine  appearances  were  observed  at  this  single 
station.*  Making  every  allowance  for  the  continuous 
watch  over  the  magnetic  instruments  at  the  Makerstoim 
Observatory  during  these  years,  the  difference  between 
Capt.  Sir  G.  Nares'  result.  In  so  high  latitude,  in  1875-76, 
and  that  for  the  south  of  Scotland,  is  very  distinct  I 
ought  to  add,  with  reference  to  the  apparent  want  of 
connection  of  the  faint  auroral  appearances  with  the 
magnetic  disturbance  noticed  by  Sir  G.  Nares,  that  seve- 
ral of  the  aurorae  observed  by  me  were  of  the  very 
faintest  kind,  mere  "traces,"  as  I  have  termed  them, 
which  I  could  never  have  remarked  had  I  not  been 
warned  by  very  slight  magnetic  irregularities  to  examine 
the  sky  with  the  greatest  attention.  Again,  in  no  case 
have  I  seen  the  faintest  trace  of  an  aurora  without  finding 
at  the  same  time  a  corresponding  irregularity  in  the 
movement  of  the  force  or  declination  magnet 

I  am  unacquainted  with  any  observations  of  the  aurora 
made  in  the  British  Isles  during  the  last  two  winters  ;*  I 
believe  that  no  scientific  institution  exists  in  this  country 
which  makes  the  look-out  for  aurora  throughout  the  night 
a  definite  portion  of  its  work,  and  that  all  our  knowledge 
of  this  phenomenon  appears  to  be  left  to  the} chances  of 
some  one  being  out,  at  the  hour  of  a'  display,  suffiderfdy 
bright  to  attract  his  attention  who  will  take  the  trouble  to 
communicate  his  observation  to  a  public  journal 

JOHN  Allan  Broun  • 

P.S.— I  have  to  thank  Mr.  A  Buchan  for  kindly  fur- 
nishing me  with  a  note  of  the  auroras  seen  at  the  stations 
of  the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society  during  the  ycAr 
1876.  These  amounted  to  forty-two  in  number,  twenty- 
six  in  the  first  half  and  sixteen  in  the  second  half  of  the 
year.  The  greater  part  were  seen  in  the  most  northerly 
stations,  including  the  Orkney,  Shetland,  and  Faro 
Islands  ;  nine  only  having  been  seen  south^of  the  Forth, 
I  cannot,  however,  compare  the  total  result  from  the 
hundred  stations  of  the  Society  with  that  from  the  single 
southerly  station  of  Makerstoun  in  1844,  since  much 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  watch  kept  in  each  case.  It 
is,  however,  gratifying  to  find  that  so  much  attention  is 
given  at  the  stations  of  that  highly  useful  scientific  body, 
the  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  to  the  observation  of 
this  phenomenon. 

December  31,  1877 

>  **  General  Results  of  the  Makerstoun  Obsenrations,*  p.  Ixxv.,  Trans, 
Roy  Soc  Ed  in.,  Part  a.  vol.  xix. 

>  I  do  not  omit  Mr.  Kinahan's  account  of  "auroric  lights,'*  which  he  saw 
so  frequQ.itly  in  the  winter  of  1876  77,  and  which  he  considered  a  species  of 
aurora  borealis  (Nature,  vol.  xv.  p.  334),  as  I  think  there  must  have  beca 
some  mistake  as  to  the  nature  of  those  lights.  He  says  they  were  "  very 
common  and  brilliant  during  '  the  dark  days'  of  December,  a  few  hours 
before  dawn  (about  five  o'clock)."  The  aur  jra  borealis  is  very  rarely  seen 
at  five  A.M  in  this  country.  In  the  two  years.  1844  5*nd  1845,  during  which 
the  aurora  was  sought  for  at  Makerstouo  every  hour  of  the  night,  it  was 
observed  on  seventy  seven  nights  on  an  average  of  nearly  three  bours  each 
night,  but  it  was  seen  only  twice  so  early,  and  that  with  a  bright  or  brilliant 
aurora  which  remained  during  five  hours  on  the  first  otcasion,  and  from  six 
f.M.  to  six  A.M  on  the  <econd.  I  cannot  say,  also,  that  I  have  e/erseen 
parts  of  the  phenomenon  described  by  Mr.  Kinaban.  and  I  had  hoped  that 
soiQe  other  observer  in  Irel.aid  would  have  confirmed  his  observations, 
which  if  exact,  would  be  most  important,  especia]l]r  as  n\ade  so  frequently  at 
the  cp-ch  of  m-nimum. 


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185 


THE  "" CHALLENGER"*  IN  THE  ATLANTIC^ 
II. 

IT  still  seems  but  the  other  day  when  every  zooloeist 
believed  with  Edward  Forbes  that  not  very  far  below 
the  surface  of  the  sea  there  existed  a  region  where  life 
was  unknown,  or  where  at  the  most,  if  it  existed  it  showed 
but  a  few  sparks,  which  only  served  ^  to  mark  its  lingering 
presence ; "  and  yet  even  when  Forbes 
was  writing  thus,  Sir  John  Ross  had 
brought  up  from  some  800  fathoms 
deep  in  Baffin's  Bay,  "a  beautiful 
Caput  nudusa^  and  the  present  pre- 
sident' of  the  Royal  Society  had 
written  (August  31, 1845), "  It  is  prob- 
able that  animal  life  exists  at  a  very 
great  depth — in  the  ocean.*'  "On 
one  occasion,  off  Victoria  Land,  be- 
tween the  parallels  of  71°  and  78° 
S.L.,  the  dredge  was  repeatedly  em- 
ployed, once  with  great  success  at 
380  fathoms,"  and  "  on  another  occa- 
sion the  sounding-line  brought  up 
distinct  traces  of  animal  life  from  a 
depth  of  550  fathoms."  The  history, 
hoi^ever,  of  the  subject,  is  to  be  found 
recorded  in  Sir  Wyville  Thomson's 
"  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  and  we  only 
here  refer  to  it  to  remind  the  reader 
how  completely  changed  are  the 
general  ideas  on  this  subject ;  and 
we  learn  without  surprise  that  ^  the 
most  prominent  and  remarkable  bio- 
logical result  of  the  ChaiUn^er^s 
voyage  is  the  final  establishment  of 
the  fact  that  the  distribution  of  living 
[animal]  beings  has  no  depth  limits 
but  that  animals  of  all  the  marine 
invertebrate  classes,  and  probably 
fishes  also,  exist  over  the  whole  of 
the  flora  of  the  ocean  ; "  but  although 
life  is  thus  universally  extended, 
probably  the  number  of  species  as 
well  as  of  individuals  diminishes 
after  a  certain  depth  is  reached. 
This  distribution  of  animal  life  de- 
pends in  a  marked  degree  either  upon 
the  nature  of  the  sea-bottom  or  upon 
the  conditions  which  modify  the 
nature  of  that  bottom.  The  fauna 
at  great  depths  was  found  to  be 
remarkably  uniform,  and  the  distri- 
bution area  seemed  to  depend  mainly 
on  the  maintenance  of  a  tolerably 
uniform  temperature.  It  is  curious 
to  note  that  the  families  which  are 
peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  abyssal 
fauna,  contain  a  larger  number  of 
species  and  individuals,  and  these 
are  larger  and  more  fully  developed 
in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  than  they 
are  in  the  Atlantic  and  the  North 
Pacific. 

Though  the  task  of  determining 
the  various  animal  forms  procured 
will  occupy  a  number  of  specialists  for  several  years, 
still  we  have  several  glimpses  of  the  riches  of  the  ocean 

«  "  The  Voyage  of  the  ChaUtnger.  The  Atlantic :  m  Preliminary  Account 
of  the  Geoerai  Results  of  the  Exploring  Voyage  of  H  M.S.  ChalUnger 
i!***  ^^**'  **''  *»<*  ^^  ^^t  ***«  o'  «*»e  Vcar  18761 "  By  Sir  C 
WyriUeThomsoa,  Knt.  LL.D..  F.R.SS.  L.  and  E.,  Ac.,  Regius  PtoAmot 
of  Natural  Hutory  in  the  University  of  Edinhurgh,  and  Director  of  the 
CivHian  Sa«itfic  Staff  of  the  CkalUnger  Exploring  Expedition.  Two 
TOlumes.  ra>hsbed  hy  Authority  of  the  Lords  Commi'sioners  of  the 
^•^jT^g^^^  MaaniUao  and  Ca.  1877.)    Coatiaued  fn>i&  jw  148. 


fauna  in  these  two  volumes.  Among  these  the  pretty 
Hexactinellid  sponges,  the  stalked  crinoids,  and  the  echi- 
noids  seem  to  hold  foremost  places.  The  stalked  crinoids 
with  their  lily-like  forms  are  the  most  remarkable  of 
these,  not  only  on  account  of  their  extreme  rarity,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  special  interest  of  their  relation  to 
many  well*  known  fossil  forms.  Of  one  of  these  fine  forms 
we  give  the  accompanying  illustration  (Pig.  3).     It  was 


Fig.  y.—PtHtactinus  macUarunuSt  Wyville  Thomson.     Shghtly  enlarged. 

dredged  from  a  depth  of  about  400  fathoms,  near  the 
Island  of  San  Miguel  It  belongs  to  the  genus  Penta- 
cn'nus,  and  has  been  called  after  Capt  Maclear,  R.N., 
the  commander  of  the  ChalUtifrer.  The  lily-shaped  head 
is  about  3^  inches  in  height,  and  the  stalk  may  have  been 
several  inches  longer.  The  scientific  description  of  such 
a  form  must  necessarily  be  very  technical,  and  not  easily 
to  be  understood  by  the  general  reader,  who,  however, 
cannot  fail  to  get  a  correct  idea  of  its  general  form  and 


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appearance  from  the  illustration.  The  special  volume  ia 
which  the  whole  group  of  these  lily-like  starfish  will  be 
described  is,  we  understand,  to  be  from  the  pen  of  Su- 
Wyville  Thomson. 

Though  the  zoological  treasures  obtained  by  dredging 
were  often  very  great,  yet  sometimes  this  often  prolonged 
operation  ended  in  utter  disappointment ;  for  example  : — 
The  vessel  was  on  her  way  from  Bahia  to  the  Cape,  when, 
on  October  2,  ^  we  saw  our  first  albatross  sailing  round  the 
ship  with  that  majestic  careless  flight  which  has  been  our 
admiration  and  wonder  ever  since  ;  rising  and  sinking,  and 
soaring  over  us  in  all  weathers,  utterly  regardless  of  the 


Ftc. 


^.-^Ciaacdaetyla  crccea,  I.f««on.     S  anley  Harbtur,  Falkland  Islands. 
Na.ural  s^e. 


motion  of  the  ship,  and  without  the  slightest  apparent 
t  iTort  1  have  often  watched  these  glorious  birds  for  hours 
from  the  bridge,  and  notwithstanding  all  we  know  or  think 
we  know  about  the  mechanics  of  flight,  to  the  last  1  felt 
inclined  to  protest  that  for  so  heavy  a  bird  to  support 
itself  motionless  in  the  air,  and  perform  its  vigorous  evo- 
lutions without  a  perceptible  movement  of  the  wings,  was 
simply  impossible  by  any  mechanical  means  of  which  we 
have  the  least  conception. 

"On  the  3rd  we  sounded  in  2,350  fathoms  with  a 
bottom  of  red  mud,  still  due  apparently  in  a  great  degree 
to  the  South  American  rivers,  and  a  bottom  temperature 
of  0^*8  C.    The  trawl  was  lowered,  and  on  heaving  in,  it 


came  up  apparently  with  a  heavy  weight,  the  accumula- 
tors being  stretched  to  the  utmost  It  was  a  long  and 
weary  wind-in,  on  account  of  the  continued  strain ;  at 
length  it  came  close  to  the  surface,  and  we  could  see  the  dis- 
tended net  through  the  water ;  when,  just  as  it  was  leavmg 
the  water,  and  so  greatly  increasing  its  weight,  the  swivel 
between  the  dredge-rope  and  the  chain  gave  way,  and  the 
trawl  with  its  unknown  burden  quietly  sank  out  of  sight 
It  was  a  cruel  disappointment—every  one  was  on  the 
bridge,  and  curiosity  was  wound  up  to  the  h^hest  pitch  ; 
some  vowed  that  they  saw  resting  on  the  beam  of  the 
vanishing  trawl  the  white  hand  of  the  mermaiden  for 
whom  we  had  watched  so  long  in  vain ;  but  I 
think  it  is  more  likely  that  the  trawl  had  |!ot 
bagged  with  the  large  sea-slugs  which  occor  in 
some  of  these  deep  dredgings  m  large  quantity, 
and  have  more  than  once  burst  the  trawl  net** 

Among  the  interesting  areatures  met  with  Uving, 
not  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  but  in  this  instance 
living  amid  the  fronds  of  one  of  the  larger  al^s, 
was  a  Holothuroid,  of  which  we  have  the  ioUowtng 
account : — 

*^  The  weather  while  we  were  at  the  Falklands 
was  generally  cold  and  boisterous,  and  boat-work 
was  consequently  uncomfortable  and  frequently 
impracticable,  except  in  the  shallow  water  within 
the  hatbour  ;  we  had,  however,  two  or  three  days' 
dredging  in  the  pinnace,  and  made  a  pretty  fair 
account  of  the  submarine  inhabitants  of  o«r 
i  mmediate  neighbourhood .  MacrocysUs  pyriferay 
the  huge  tangle  of  the  Southern  Seas,  is  very 
abundant  in  Stanley  Harbour,  anchored  in  about 
ten  fathoms,  the  long  fronds  stretching  for  many 
yards  along  the  surface  and  swaying  to  and  fro 
with  the  tide.  Adhering  to  the  fronds  tA  ma- 
•crocystis  there  wei«  great  numbers  of  an  elegant 
little  cucumber-shaped  sea-slug  {Cladodatiyla 
crocea^  Lesson,  S(x),  from  80  to  100  mm.  in  length 
by  30  mm.  in  widUi  at  the  widest  part,  and  of  a 
bright  saflron-yellow  colour.  The  mouth  and 
excretory  opening  are  terminal ;  ten  long,  delicate, 
branched  oral  tentacles,  more  resembling  in  form 
and  attitude  those  of  Ocnus  than  those  of  the 
typical  CucumaruE^  surround  the  mouth;  the 
perisom  is  thin  and  semi-transparent,  and  the 
muscular  bands,  the  radial  vessels,  and  even  the 
internal  viscera  <:an  be  plainly  seen  through  it. 
The  three  anterior  amhiilacral  vessels  are  approxi- 
mated, and  on  these  the  tentacular  feet  are 
numerous  ard  well  developed,  with  a  sucldng-disc 
supported  by  a  round  cribriform  calcareous  plate, 
•or  more  frequently  hy  several  wedge-shaped  radiat- 
ing plates  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  rosette  ;  and 
these  three  ambulacra  form  together,  at  all  evenu 
'in  the  female,  a  special  ambulatory  surface. 

^*  The  two  ambulacral  vessels  of  the  '  bivium ' 
are  also  approximated  along  the  back,  and  thus 
the  two  interambulacral  spaces  on  the  sides  of 
the  animal,  between  the  external  trivial  ambulacra 
and  the  ambulacra  of  the  bivium,  are  considerably 
wider  than  the  other  three  ;  consequently,  in 
a  transverse  section,  the  ambulacral  vessels  do 
not  correspond  with  the  angles  of  a  regular  pentagon, 
but  with  those  of  an  irregular  figure  m  which  three 
angles  are  approximated  beneath  and  two  above.  In 
the  female  the  tenUcular  feet  of  the  dorsal  (bivial) 
ambulacra  are  very  short ;  they  are  provided  with  sucking- 
discs,  but  the  calcareous  support  of  the  suckers  is  very 
rudimentary,  and  the  tubular  processes  are  not  apparently 
fitted  for  locomotion.  In  the  males  there  is  not  so  great 
a  diflerence  in  character  between  the  ambulacra  of  the 
trivium.and  those  of  the  bivium ;  but  the  tentacles  of  the  lat- 
ter seem  to  be  less  fully  developed  in  both  sexes,  and  I  have 
never  happened  to  see  an  individual  of  either  sex  progress- 
ing upon,  or  adhering  by,  the  water-feet  of  the  dorsal  canals. 


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187 


"  In  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  females  which  I 
examined,  young  were  closely  packed  in  two  continuous 
fringes  adhering  to  the  water-feet  of  the  dorsal  ambu- 
lacra. The  young  were  in  all  the  later  stages  of 
growth,  and  of  all  sizes  from  5  up  to  40  mm.  in  length  ; 
but  all  the  young  attached  to  one  female  appeared  to  be 
nearly  of  the  same  age  and  size.  Some  of  the  mothers 
with  older  families  had  a  most  grotesque  appearance— 
their  bodies  entirely  hidden  by  the  couple  of  rows,  of  a 
dozen  or  so  each,  of  yellow  vesicles,  like  npe  yellow 
plums  ranged  along  their  backs,  each  surmounted  by  its 
expanded  crown  of  oral  tentacles;  in  the  figure  the 
young  are  represented  about  half- 
grown.  All  the  young  1  examined 
were  miniatures  of  their  parents  ;  the 
only  marked  difference  was  that  in 
the  young  the  ambulacra  of  the  bivium 
were  quite  rudimentary — they  were 
externally  represented  only  by  bands 
of  a  somewhat  darker  orange  than 
the  rest  of  the  surface,  and  by  lines 
of  low  papillae  in  the  young  of  larger 
growth ;  the  radial  vessels  could  be 
well  seen  through  the  transparent 
body-wall ;  the  young  attached  them- 
selves by  the  tentacular  feet  of  the 
trivial  ambulacra,  which  are  early  and 
fully  developed 

"  We  were  too  late  at  the  Falklands 
(January  23)  to  see  the  process  of  the 
attachment  of  the  young  in  their  nur- 
sery, even  if  we  could  have  arranged 
to  keep  specimens  alive  under  obser- 
vation. There  can  be  little  doubt  that, 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  class, 
the  eggs  are  impregnated  either  in  the 
ovarial  tube  or  immediately  after  their 
extrusion,  that  the  first  developmental 
stages  are  run  through  rapidly,  and 
that  the  young  are  passed  back  from 
the  ovarial  opening,  which  is  at  th« 
side  of  the  mouth,  along  the  dorsal 
ambulacra,  and  arranged  in  their 
places  by  the  automatic  action  of  the 
ambnlacral  tentacles  themselves.'' 

One  other  illustration  we  take,  this 
time  from  an  animal  living  in  the  sur- 
face water,  though  it  sinks,  when  dead, 
to  the  bottom  of  the  sea  (Fig.  5). 

^*' Hastigerina  murrayi  is  very  widely 
distributed  on  the  surface  of  warm 
seas,  more  abundant,  however,  and 
of  larger  size  in  the  Pacific  than  in 
the  Atlantic.     The  shell  consists  of 
a   series   of  eight   or   nine    rapidly 
enlarging    inflated   chambers    coiled 
symmetrically  on  a  plane ;  the  shell- 
wall  is  extremely  thin,  perfectly  hyaline, 
and    rather  closely    perforated    with 
Lirge  and  obvious  pores.    It  is  beset 
vith  a  comparatively  small  number 
of  very  large  and  long  spines.    The 
proximal  portion  of  each  spine  is  formed  of  three  laminae, 
delicately  serrated  along  their  outer  edges,  and  their  inner 
edges  xmited  together.    The  spines,  when  they  come  near 
the  point  of  junction  with  the  shell,  are  contracted  to  a 
narrow  cylindrical  neck,  which  is  attached  to  the  shell  by 
a  slightly  expanded  conical  base.    The  distal  portion  of 
the  spine  loses  its  three  diverging  laminae,  and  becomes 
flexiole  and  thread-like.    The  sarcode  is  of  a  rich  orange 
colour  from  included  highly-cooured  oil  globules  . 

"On  one  occasion  in  the  1  Pacific,  when  Mr.  Murray 
was  out  in  a  boat  in  a  dead  calm  collecting  surface  crea- 
tures, he  took  gently  up  in  a  spoon  a  little  globular  gela- 


tinous mass  with  a  red  centre,  and  transferred  it  to  a 
tube.  This  globule  gave  us  our  first  and  last  chance  of 
seeing  what  a  pelagic  foraminifer  really  is  when  in  its  full 
beauty.  When  placed  under  the  microscope  it  proved  to 
be  a  Hastigerina  in  a  condition  wholly  different  from 
anything  which  we  had  yet  seen.  The  spines,  which  were 
mostly  unbroken,  owing  to  its  mode  of  capture,  were 
enormously  long,  about  fifteen  times  the  diameter  of  the 
shell  in  length  ;  the  sarcode,  loaded  with  its  yellow  oil- 
cells,  was  almost  all  outside  the  shell,  and  beyond  ths 
fringe  of  yellow  sarcode  the  space  between  the  spines,  to 
a  distance  of  about  twice  the  diameter  of  the  shell  all 


^c  - 


Fig.  s. — Hastigerina  murrayit  WyvUle  Thomcen.    From  tloe  surikce.    Fifty  times  the  luttural  siie. 

round,  was  completely  filled  up  with  delicate  bullcp,  like 
those  which  we  see  in  some  of  the  Radiolarians,  as  if  the 
most  perfectly  transparent  portion  of  the  sarcode  had 
been  blown  out  into  a  delicate  froth  of  bubbles  of  uniform 
size.  Along  the  spines  fine  double  threads  of  transparent 
sarcode,  loaded  with  minute  granules,  coursed  up  one 
side  and  down  the  other,  while  between  the  spines  inde- 
pendent thread-like  pseudopodia  ran  out,  some  of  them 
perfectly  free,  and  others  anastomosing  with  one  another 
or  joining  the  sarcodic  sheaths  of  the  spines,  but  all 
showing  the  characteristic  flowing  movement  of  living 
protoplasm." 


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17 an.  3.  1878 


It  would  be  easy  to  extend  our  notice  on  the  animal 
forms  alluded  to,  but  our  space  forbids.  It  is  curious 
that  DO  vegetable  life  seems  to  have  been  met  with  in 
depths  below  100  fathoms.  "  No  plants  live,  so  far  as  we 
know,  at  great  depths  in  the  sea  ;  and  it  is  in  all  proba- 
bility essentially  mconsistent  with  their  nature  and  mode 
of  nutrition  that  they  should  do  so."  But  parasitic  alga 
have  been  detected  in  some  of  the  deep-sea  corals,  and 
we  are  a  little  surprised  to  see  the  position  of  the  diatoms 
queried  ;  surely  their  plant  affinities  cannot  now  be  dis- 
cussed, and  without  these  little  plants  we  fancy  some  of 
the  plant-eating  deep-sea  forms  of  animal  life  would  be 
badly  off.     Holothuroids  are  especially  fond  of  them. 

The  following:  general  conclusions  are  arrived  at : — 

"  I.  Animal  life  is  present  on  the  bottom  of  the  ocean 
at  all  depths. 

"  2.  Animal  life  is  not  nearly  so  abundant  at  extreme 
as  it  is  at  more  moderate  depths  ;  but,  as  well-developed 
members  of  all  the  marine  invertebrate  classes  occur  at  all 
depths,  this  appears  to  depend  more  upon  certain  causes 
affecting  the  composition  of  the  bottom  deposits,  and  of 
the  bottom  water  involving  the  supply  of  oxygen,  and  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  other  materials 
necessary  for  their  development,  than  upon  any  of  the 
conditions  immediately  connected  with  depth. 

**  3.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  fauna  of  deep 
water  is  confined  p  iocipally  to  two  belts,  one  at  and  near 
the  surface,  and  the  other  on  and  near  the  bottom  ;  leaving 
an  intermediate  zone  in  which  the  larger  animal  form<, 
vertebrate  and  inveit  brate,  are  nearly  o  entirely  absent 

''4.  Although  all  the  principal  marine  invertebrate 
groups  are  represented  in  the  abyssal  fauna,  the  relative 
proportion  in  which  they  occur  is  peculiar.  Thus  Mol- 
lusca  in  all  their  classes,  Brachyourous  Crustacea,  and 
Annelida,  are  on  the  whole  scarce  ;  while  Echinodermata 
and  Porifera  greatly  preponderate. 

**  5.  Depths  beyond  500  fathoms  are  inhabited  through- 
out the  world  by  a  fauna  which  presents  generally  the 
same  features  throu^  hout ;  deep-sea  genera  have  usually  a 
cosmopolitan  extension,  while  species  are  either  univer- 
sally distributed,  or,  if  they  differ  in  remote  localities, 
they  are  markedly  representative,  that  is  to  say,  they  bear 
to  one  another  a  close  genetic  relation. 

**  6.  The  abyssal  fauna  is  certainly  more  nearly  related 
tVan  the  fauna  of  shallower  water  to  the  faunae  of  the 
tertiary  and  secondary  periods,  although  this  relation  is 
not  so  close  as  we  were  at  first  inclined  to  expect,  and 
only  a  comparatively  small  number  of  types  supposed  to 
have  become  extinct  have  yet  been  discovered. 

''  7.  The  most  characteristic  abyssal  forms,  and  those 
which  are  most  nearly  related  to  extinct  types,  seem  to 
occur  in  greatest  abundance  and  of  largest  size  in  the 
southern  ocean  ;  and  the  general  chatacter  of  the  faunae 
of  the  Atlantic  and  of  the  Pacific  gives  the  impression 
that  the  migration  of  species  has  taken  place  in  a  nor- 
therly direcuon,  that  is  to  say,  in  a  direction  correspond- 
ing with  the  movement  of  the  cold  under-current 

"8.  The  general  character  of  the  abyssal  fauna  re- 
sembles most  that  of  the  shallower  water  of  high  northern 
and  southern  latitudes,  no  doubt  because  the  conditions 
of  temperature,  on  which  the  distribution  of  animals 
mainly  depends,  are  nearly  similar." 

These  volumes  form  a  distinct  contribution  to  Science, 
and  will  certainly  be  welcomed  by  the  scientific  worker  ; 
and  their  interest  to  the  general  reader,  who  can  pass  over 
the  few  technical  descriptions  of  the  new  forms,  will  be 
scarcely  at  all  less. 

TUB  MODERN  TELESCOPE^ 
111. 

WE  kBOw  that  both  with  object-glasses  and  reflectors  a 
certain  amount  of  light  is  lost  by  imperfect  reflection 
in  the  one  case,  and  by  reflection  from  the  surfaces  and 

'  Cootinucd  firom  p.  xa?. 


absorption  in  the  other  ;  and  in  reflectors  we  have  gene- 
rally two  reflections  instead  of  one.  This  loss  is  to  the 
distinct  disadvantage  of  the  reflector,  and  it  has  been 
stated  by  authorities  on  the  subject,  that,  light  for  light, 
if  we  use  a  reflector,  we  must  make  the  aperture  twice 
as  large  as  that  of  a  refractor  in  order  to  mauce  up  for  the 
loss  of  light  due  to  reflection.  But  Dr.  Robinson  thinks 
that  this  is  an  extreme  estimate  ;  and  with  reference  to 
the  four-foot  reflector  now  in  operation  at  Melbourne, 
and  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made,  he  considers 
that  a  refractor  of  3373  inches  aperture  would  be  probably 
something  like  its  equivalent  if  the  glass  were  perfectly 
transparent,  which  is  not  the  case. 

On  the  assumption,  therefore,  that  no  light  is  lost  in 
transmission  through  the  object-glass.  Dr.  Robinson  esti- 
mates that  the  apertures  of  a  refractor  and  a  reflector  of 
the  Newtonian  construction  must  bear  the  relation  to  each 
other  of  i  to  1*42.  In  small  refractors  the  light  absorbed 
by  the  glass  is  small,  and  therefore  this  ratio  holds  approxi- 
mately good,  but  we  see  from  the  example  just  quoted 
how  more  nearly  equal  the  ratio  becomes  on  an  increase 
of  aperture,  until  at  a  certain  limit  the  refractor,  aperture 
for  aperture,  is  surpassed  by  its  rival,  supposing  t>r. 
Robinson's  estimate  to  be  correct  But  with  specula  of 
silvered  glass  the  reflective  power  is  much  higher  than 
that  of  speculum  metal ;  the  silvered  glass  being  estimated 
to  reflect  about  90  per  cent.'  of  the  incident  light,  while 
speculum  metal  is  estimated  to  reflect  about  63  per  cent ; 
but  be  these  figures  correct  or  not,  the  silvered  surface 
has  undoubtedly  the  greater  reflective  power ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  Sir  J.  Herschel,  a  reflector  of  the  Newtonian  con* 
struction  utilises  about  seven-eighths  of  the  light  that  a 
refractor  would  do. 

In  treating  of  the  question  of  the  future  of  the  telescope, 
we  are  liable  to  encroach  on  the  domain  of  opinion,  and 
go  beyond  the  facts  vouched  for  by  evidence,  but  there 
are  certain  guiding  principles  which  are  well  worthy  of 
consideration.  These  have  lately  been  discussed  by  Mr. 
Howard  Grubb  in  a  paper  **  On  Great  Telescopes  of  the 
Future."  We  shall  take  up  his  poinis  seriatim^  premising 
that  in  the  two  classes  of  telescopes,  refractors  and  re- 
flectors, each  possesses  some  advantages  over  the  other. 

We  may  conveniently  consider  first  the  advantages 
which  the  refractor  has  over  the  reflector. 

First,  there  is  less  loss  of  light  with  the  former  than 
with  the  latter,  as  a  ruU,  hence  for  equal  "  space-pene- 
trating power"  the  aperture  of  the  reflector  must  be 
greater.  This  condition  g^ves  us  a  greater  column  of  air 
and  consequently  greater  atmospheric  disturbance. 

"  The  refractor  having  a  tube  closed  at  both  ends^  and 
the  reflector  being  open  at  the  upper  end,  the  condition  of 
air-currents  is  quite  different  in  the  two  cases,  to  the 
disadvantage  of^  the  reflector,  for  in  it  the  upper  end 
being  open,  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  currents  of  hot 
and  cold  air  up  and  down  the  tube,  and  in  and  out  of  the 
aperture,  and  for  this  reason  great  advantage  has  been 

'  JMT  John  Herschel,  in  hb  work  on  the  telescope,  gives  the  following  Uble 
of  reflective  powers : — 

After  transmission  through  one  turfkce'of  glass  not  in  contact 

with  any  other  surCace 0*957 

After  transmission  through  one  common  surface  of  two  glasses 

ccmrnted  together  i  '000 

After  reflection  on  polished  vpeculum  metal  at  a  perpendicular 

incidence ^ ^    ».    0633 

After  reflection  on  polished  speculum  metal  at  450  obliquity...    0690 
After  reflection  00  pure  polished  silver  at  a  perpenoicular 

incidence     0905 

After  reflection  on  pure  po*i&hed  silver  at  45** obliquity    ^    ...    09 10 
After  reflection  on  glass  (external)  at  a  perpendicular  ind* 

dence  0*043 

The  eflective  light  in  reflectors  (irrespective  of  the  eye- piece «)  is  as 


Hcrschelian  (Lord  Ro8«e's  speculum  metal)    .. 

Newtonian  (both  mirrors  ditto) 

Do         (small  mirror  or  glais  prism)... 
(Jtegorian  or  Cassegrain     

Ihe  fame  telescopes,  all  the  metallic  reflections  being 
from  pure  silver     .»        ...        m.        


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189 


found  in  ventilating  the  tubes,  i,e,  making  it  of  some 
open-work  construction,  in  order  that  the  air  may  pass 
through  and  across  and  remove  currents  of  differing  tem- 


peratures. This  difficulty  is  not  felt  with  refractors;  but, 
curious  to  say,  in  the  largest  refractor  at  present  in  exist- 
ence (the  Washington  26-'inch),  Prof.  Newcomb  informs 


Fio. 9.— Lattice  Tubt  of  the  Melbourne  Reflector. 


me  that  considerable  inconvenience  is  felt  sometimes  from 
the  outside  of  the  object-glass  cooling  down  more  quickly 
in  the  evening  than  the  inside,  which  produces  a  decided 
effect  on  the  spherical  aberration,  and  mjures  temporarily 
the  otherwise  fine  definition.  He  consequently  recom- 
mends the  use  of  lattice  or  ventilated  tubes  for  very  large 
refractors.  If  this  be  found  necessary,  this  advantage  of 
the  refractor  vanishes." 

But  there  is  another  nice  point  concerning  this  larger 
aperture  which  has  to  be  considered. 

We  may  set  out  with  observing  that  the  light-grasp- 
ing power  of  the  reflector  varies  as  the  square  of  the 
aperture  multiplied  by  a  certain  fraction  representing  the 
proportion  of  the  amount  of  reflected  light  to  that  of  the 
total  incident  rays.  On  the  other  hand  the  power  of  the 
refractor  varies  as  the  square  of  the  aperture  multiplied  by 
a  certain  fraction  representing  the  proportion  of  trans- 
mitted light  to  that  of  the  totsd  incident  rays.  Now  in 
the  case  of  the  reflector  the  reflecting  power  of  each  unit 
^of  surface  is, constant  whatever.be  the  size  of  the  mirror, 
but  in  that  of  the  refractor  the  transmittinj^  power  de- 
creases with  the  thickness  of  the  glass^  rendered  requisite 
b^  increased  size.  Although  for  small  apertures  the  trans- 
mitting power  of  the  refractor  is  greater  than  the  reflecting 
power  of  the  reflector,  still  it  is  obvious  that  on  increasing 
the  size  a  stage  must  be  at  last  reached  when  the  two 
rivals  become  equal  to  each  other.  This  limit  has  been 
estimated  by  Dr.  Robinson  to  be  35*435  inches,  a  size  not 
yet  reached  by  our  opticians  by  some  ten  inches,  but 
object-glasses  are  increasing  inch  by  inch,  and  it  would 
be  rash  to  say  that  this  size  cannot  be  reached  within 
perhaps  the  lifetime  of  our  present  workers.  However 
this  may  be  we  can  say  with  safety  that  up  to  the  present 
limit  of  size  produced,  refractors  have  the  advantage  in 
light-grasping  power,  and  it  is  also  a  question  whether 
with  increase  of  thickness  in  the  glass  there  will  not  be 
such  an  increase  in  the  purity  of  material  and  polish  as 
to  keep  the  loss  by  transmission  at  its  present  value. 
Any  one  who  has  a  Tully  and  a  Cooke  object-glass,  by 
placing  them  side  by  side  on  a  clean  sheet  .of  paper,  will  be 
able  to  see  how  our  modern  opticians  have  already  reduced 
the  loss  by  transmission. 

The  next  point  worthy  of  attention  is  the  question 
of  permanence  of  optical  qualities.  Here  the  re- 
fractor  undoubtedly   has    the    advantage.      It    is  true 


that  the  flint  glass  of  some  object-glasses,  chiefly  those 
produced  in  Germany,  gets  attacked  by  a  sort  of  tarnish, 
still  that  is  not  the  case  generally,  while  on  the  other 
hand,  metallic  mirrors  often  become  considerably  dimmed 
after  a  few  months  of  use,  the  air  of  a  town  seeming  to 
be  fatal  to  them,  and  although  repolishing  is  not  a 
matter  of  any  great  difficulty  in  the  hands  of  the 
maker,  still  it  is  a  serious  drawback  to  be  obliged 
to  return  mirrors  for  this  purpose.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  exceptions  to  this,  for  there  are  many  small 
mirrors  in  existence  whose  polish  is  good  after  many 
years  of  continuous  use,  just  as  on  the  other  hand  there  are 
many  object-glasses  whose  polish  has  suffered  in  a  few 
years,  but  these  are  exceptions  to  the  rule.  The  same 
remarks  apply  to  the  silvered  glass  reflectors,  for  although 
the  silvering  of  small  mirrors  is  not  a  difficult  process,  the 
matter  becomes  exceedingly  difficult  with  large  surfaces, 
and  indeed  at  present  large  discs  of  glass,  say  of  four  or 
six  feet  diameter,  can  rarely  be  produced.  If,  however,  a 
-process  should  be  discovered  of  manufacturing  these  discs 
satisfactorily  aiid  of  silvering  them,  there  are  objections 
to  them  on  the  grounds  of  the  bad  conductivity  of  glass, 
whereby  changes  of  temperature  alter  the  curvature,  and 
there  is  also  a  great  tendency  for  dew  to  be  deposited  on 
the  surface. 

With  regard  to  the  general  suitability  for  observatory 
work  this  depends  upon  the  kind  of  work  requirea, 
whether  for  measuring  positions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  transit 
instrument,  where  pernanency  of  mounting  is  of  great 
importance,  or  for  physical  astronomy,  when  a  steady 
image  for  a  time  only  is  required.  For  the  first  purpose  the 
refractor  has  decidedly  the  advantage,  as  the  object-glass 
can  be  fixed  very  nearly  immovably  in  its  cell,  whereas 
its  rival  must  of  necessity,  at  least  with  present  appliances, 
have  a  small,  yet  in  comparison  considerable,  motion. 

The  difficulty  of  mounting  mirrors,  even  of  large  size, 
has  now  been  got  over  very  perfectly.  This  difficulty 
does  not  occur  in  the  mounting  of  object-glasses  of  sizes 
at  present  in  use,  but  when  we  come  to  deal  with  lenses 
of  some  thirty  inches  diameter,  the  present  simple  method 
will  in  all  probability  be  found  insufficient,  but  we  antici- 
pate that  one  will  be  adopted  which  will  allow  the  per- 
manent position  of  the  object-glass  to  be  retained. 

J.  Norman  Lockyer 
{To  be  continued.) 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Comet  of  i  106.— In  Mr.  Williams's  account  of 
the  object  observed  by  the  Chinese  in  this  year,  and  called 
a  comet  by  Ma  Twan  Lin,  we  find  the  following  note : — 
"This  appears  to  have  been  a  large  meteor,  as  it 
seems  to  have  been  seen  for  a  short  time  only.'' 
It  is  probable  that  the  author  had  not  compared  Pingr^s 


description  ot  the  motion  of  the  comet,  which  was 
certainly  observed  in  Europe  early  in  the  year,  or  he 
would  have  seen  that  in  all  likelihood,  notwithstanding 
Ma  Twan  Lin's  account  reads  as  if  it  referred  to  a  tem- 

Corary  phenomenon,  the  Chinese  really  observed  the 
right  comet  recorded  by  the  European  historians.  We 
are  told  that  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  epoch  Tsung  Ning, 
on  day  Woo  Seuh  of  the  first  moon  (1106,  Feb.  xo)  a 


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comet  appeared  in  the  west ;  it  was  like  a  great  Pei  Kow 
(a  kind  of  measure).  The  luminous  envelope  was  scat- 
tered ;  it  appeared  like  a  broken-up  star.  It  was  sixty 
cubits  in  len|th  and  three  cubits  in  breadth.  Its  direc- 
tion was  to  the  north-east ;  it  passed  through  Kwei,  Lew, 
Wei,  Maou,  and  Peih,  which  are  sidereal  divisions  deter- 
mined according  to  Biot  by  tiie  stars  /3  Andromedae, 
0  Arietis,  a  Muscae,  7  Tauri,  and  f  Tauri  respectively. 
^  It  then  entered  into  the  clouds,  and  was  no  more  seen." 
Gaubil's  minuscript,  used  by  Pingr^,  assigns  precisely  the 
same  course. 

European  historians  relate  that  on  February  4  (or 
according  to  others  on  the  following  day)  a  star  was  seen 
which  was  distant  from  the  sun  only  ''  a  foot  and  a  half ; " 
Matthew  Paris  and  Matthew  of  Westminster  call  this 
star  a  comet  On  February  7  a  comet,  properly  so  called, 
was  discovered  in  Palestme  in  "that  part  of  the  sky 
where  the  sun  sets  in  winter,''  its  ray  had  "  the  whiteness 
of  snow,"  and  extended  to  the  commencement  of  the 
sign  Gemini,  below  the  constellation  Orion.  As  Piugrd 
points  out  the  comet  must  at  this  time  have  had  a  south 
latitude,  and,  considering  the  sun's  position,  could  not  be 
less  advanced  than  10^  or  12°  of  Pisces  to  have  been  seen 
in  the  evening  after  sunset.  The  comet  subsequently 
passed  by  west  to  north-west,  the  tail  directed  to  that  part 
of  the  sky  between  the  north  and  the  east ;  the  comet  was 
visible  until  the  middle  of  the  night,  and  ^  shone  during 
twenty-five  days  in  the  same  manner  at  the  same  hour ; " 
as  one  writer  states,  it  had  a  real  motion  from  west  to 
east  The  length  of  the  comet's  appearance  is  variously 
given  ;  an  eye-witness  says  that  the  most  piercing  sight 
could  hardly  distinguish  it  after  fifty  days,  ana  a  manuscript 
consulted  by  Pingr^,  in  the  Biblioth^ue  de  Sainte- 
Genevi^ve,  of  the  thirteenth  century  at  latest,  mentions 
fifty-six  days  for  the  duration  of  visibility. 

The  comet  of  1 106  lon^  attracted  attention  from  the 
circumstance  of  Halley  having  identified  it  as  the  famous 
comet  of  1680,  an  idea  which  was  first  disputed  by 
Dunthome,  on  Uie  authority  of  a  manuscript  preserved  in 
one  of  the  College  libraries  at  Cambridge,  which  gives  the 
comef  s  track  from  the  beginning  of  the  sign  Pisces  (on 
February  7  as  Dunthome  reads)  in  the  order  of  the  signs 
to  the  commencement  of  Cancer,  which  agrees  closely 
with  the  path  recorded  by  the  Chinese.  He  considered 
that  this  track  "  quite  overbalanced  the  probability  of  the 
identity  of  the  comet  with  that  of  1680" — ^and  this  view 
has  been  confirmed  by  subsequent  calculation.  Again, 
when  astronomers  were  searching  for  earlier  accounts 
which  might  refer  to  the  great  comet  of  1843,  first  detect^ 
at  noon-day  on  the  date  of  its  perihelion  passage,  this 
comet  of  1106  was  fixed  upon  by  MM.  Laugier  and 
Mauvais,  as  probably  identical  with  it,  several  of  the 
circumstances  mentioned  above  being  overlooked  by 
them,  particularly  the  fact  of  the  comet  having  been 
observed  so  long  in  the  northern  part  of  the  heavens, 
where  it  is  impossible  that  the  comet  of  1843  could  be 
located. 

On  carefallv  weighing  the  scanty  evidence  afforded  by 
the  records  of  the  time,  it  appears  likely  that  the  elements 
of  the  comet  of  1 106  bore  some  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  great  comet  of  1618  (Pingr^'s  third  comet),  the 
inclination  being  smaller. 

The  Satellites  of  MARS.--Both  of  the  newly-dis- 
covered satellites  of  Mars  were  observed  during  Sep- 
tember with  the  1 2-inch  equatorial  of  the  Morrison 
Observatory,  Glasgow,  Missouri,  by  Mr.  Pritchett  On 
September  7  the  two  satellites  could  be  seen  with  the 
pkmet  entirely  in  the  field,  and  were  very  distinct  when 
It  was  shut  out  of  it,  and  on  September  10  and  13,  the 
inner  one  was  easily  observed.  The  outer  satellite 
was  again  estimated  to  be  of  the  fourteenth  magnitude. 
The  observations  of  this  satellite  were  made  witn  wires 
faintly  illuminated  with  a  red  light ;  for  observations  of 
the  inner  one  the  light  of  the  planet  sufficed     Unfavour- 


able skies  prevented  any  observations  in  October,  though 
Mr.  Pritchett  thinks  the  satellites  might  have  been  we]l 
followed  during  that  month. 

Coloured  Double  Stars.— In  Sir  John  Herschd's 
seventh  catalogue  of  double  stars  from  the  sweeps  with 
the  20-feet  reflector  is  one  the  position  of  which  identiE^ 
it  with  2  724,  and  the  note  attached  runs  thus  :  ''  A  very 
curious  double  star,  the  small  star  is  very  red."  The 
ctservation  belongs  to  sweep  No.  121,  for  the  epoch 
iS28'05.  Struve  measured  this  object  in  1829,  but  says 
nothing  respecting  the  colours  of  the  components,  which 
he  estimated  on  his  scale  87  and  io*a  In  1829-85  the 
angle  was  241*5^,  and  the'distance  6*86".  Has  any  one 
confirmed  Sir  John  Herschel's  observation  on  the  colour 
of  the  smaller  star?  The  position  for  18780  is  in  R.A. 
5h.  33m.  30s.,  N.P.D.  79®  y^. 

In  Memorie  deP  Osservaiorio  del  Collegio  Romane^ 
1^57-591  Pi  i73>  Secchi  mentions  a  wide  double  star, 
which  18  called  nova^  and  is  thus  measured  : — 

.856-63  Pcssr-S  DUt.  »3'-83  |  ^'•^TTu^r"^"" 
He  has  the  additional  remark,  "  Colori  superbiJ*  This 
object  would  appear  to  be  formed  by  Nos.  3743  and  3744 
of  Zone  +  37®  of  the  Durchmusterung :  positions  for 
1855*0:-  ^  ^  ^ 

3743  R.A.     19  58^23*5       N.P.D.    5241 

3744  „        195825*5  »         5247 

THE  TALKING  PHONOGRAPH^ 

MR.  THOMAS  A.  EDISON  recently  came  into  this 
office,  placed  a  little  machine  on  our  desk,  turned 
a  crank,  and  the  machine  inquired  as  to  our  health, 
asked  how  we  liked  the  phonograph,  informed  us  that  // 
was  well,  and  bid  us  a  cordial  good  night.  These  remarks 
were  not  only  perfectly  audible  to  ourselves,  but  to  a 
dozen  or  more  persons  gathered  around,  and  they  were 
produced  by  the  aid  of  no  other  mechanism  than  the 
simple  little  contrivance  explained  and  illustrated  below. 
The   principle  on  which   the  machine   operates  we 


Fig.  x« 


recently  explained  quite  fully  in  announcing  the  discovery. 
There  is,  first,  a  mouth-piece,  a.  Fig.  i,  across  the  inner 
orifice  of  which  is  a  metal  diaphragm,  and  to  the  centre  of 
this  diaphragm  is  attached  a  point,  also  of  metal,    b  is  a 

»  From  the  Scientific  Amtricttn  of  December  a?,  1877. 


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brass  cylinder  supported,  on  a  shaft  which  is  screw- 
threaded,  and  turns  in  a. nut  for  a  bearing,  so  that  when 
the  cylinder  is  caused  to  revolve  by  the  crank,  c,  it  also 
has  a  horizontal  travel  in  front  of  the  mouthpiece,  A.  It 
will  be  clear  that  the  point  on  the  metal  diaphragm  must, 
therefore,  describe  a  spiral  trace  over  the  surface  of  the 
cylinder.  On  the  latter  is  cut  a  spiral  groove  of  like 
pitch  to  that  on  the  shaft,  and  around  the  cylinder  is 
attached  a  strip  of  tinfoil  When  sounds  are  uttered  in 
the  mouth-piece.  A,  the  diaphragm  is  caused  to  vibrate, 
and  the  point  thereon  is  caused  to  make  contacts  with  the 
tinfoil  at  the  portion  where  the  latter  crosses  the  spiral 
groove.  Hence,  the  foil,  not  being  there  backed  by  the 
solid  metal  of  the  cylinder,  becomes  indented,  and  these 
indentations  are  necessarily  an  exact  record  of  the  sounds 
which  produced  them. 

It  might  be  said  that  at  this  point  the  machine  has 
already  become  a  complete  phonograph  or  sound  writer, 
but  it  yet  remains  to  translate  the  remarks  made.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  the  Marey  and  Rosapelly,  the 
Scott  or  the  Barlow  apparatus,  which  we  recently  de- 
scribed, proceed  no  further  than  this.  Each  has  its  own 
system  of'caligraphy,  andaffcrit  has  inscribed  its  peculiar 
sinuous  lines,  it  is  still  necessary  to  decipher  them.  Per- 
haps the  best  device  of  this  kind  ever  contrived  was  the 
preparation  of  the  human  ear  made  by  Dr.  Clarence  J. 
Blake,  of  Boston,  for  Prof.  Bell,  the  inventor  of  the  tele- 
phone^ This  was  simply  the  ear  from  an  actual  subject, 
suitably  mounted,  and  having  attached  to  its  drum  a 
straw,  which  made  traces  on  a  blackened  rotating  cylinder. 
The  difference  in  the  traces  of  the  sounds  uttered  in  the 


Fig.  ». 

ear  was  very  clearly  shown.  No-v  there  is  no  doubt  that 
by  practice  and  the  aid  of  a  magnifier,  it  would  be  possi- 
ble to  read  phonetically  Mr.  Edison's  record  of  dots  and 
dashes,  but  he  saves  us  that  trouble  by  literally  making  it 
read  itself.  The  distinction  is  the  same  as  if,  instead  of 
perusing  a  book  ourselves  we  drop  it  into  a  machine,  set 
the  latter  in  motion,  and,  behold  !  the  voice  of  the  author 
is  heard  repeating  his  own  composition. 

The  reading  mechanism  is  nothing  but  another  dia- 
phragm held  in  the  tube  D  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
machine,  and  a  point  of  metal  which  is  held  against  the 
tin  foil  on  the  cylinder  by  a  delicate  spring.  It  makes  no 
difference  as  to  the  vibrations  produced,  whether  a  nail 
moves  over  a  file  or  a  file  moves  over  a  nail,  and  in  the 
^  .present  instance  it  is  the  file  or  indented  foil  strip  which 
moves,  and  the  metal  point  is  caused  to  vibrate  as  it  is 
affected  by  the  passage  of  the  indentations.  The  vibra- 
tions, however,  of  this  point  must  be  precisely  the  same 
as  those  of  the  other  point  which  made  the  indentations, 
and  these  vibrations,  transmitted  to  a  second  membrane, 
must  cause  the  latter  to  vibrate  similar  to  the  first  mem- 
brane, and  the  result  is  a  synthesis  of  the  sounds  which, 
in  the  beginning,  we  saw,  as  it  were,  analysed. 

In  order  to  exhibit  to  the  reader  the  writing  of  the 
machine  which  is  thus  automatically  read,  we  have  had  a 
^ast  of  a  portion  of  the  indented  foil  made,  and  from  this 


the  dots  and  lines  in  Fig.  2  are  printed  in,  of  course 
absolute  facsimile,  excepting  that  they  arc  level  instea 
of  being  raised  above  or  sunk  beneath  the  surface.  This 
is  a  part  of  the  sentences,  *'  How  do  you  do?"  and  *'  How 
do  you  like  the  phonograph  ?"  It  is  a  little  curious  that 
the  machine  pronounces  its  own  name  with  especial 
clearness.  The  crank  handle  shown  in  our  perspective 
illustration  of  the  device  does  not  rightly  belong  to  it,  and 
was  attached  by  Mr.  Edison  in  order  to  faciliute  its  exhi- 
bition to  us. 

In  order  that  the  machine  may  be  able  exactly  to 
reproduce  given  sounds,  it  is  necessary,  first,  that  these 
sounds  should  be  analysed  into  vibrations,  and  ^ese 
registered  accurately  in  the  manner  described  ;  and 
second,  that  their  reproduction  should  be  accomplished 
in  the  same  period  of  time  in  which  they  were  made,  for 
evidently  this  element  of  time  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  quality  and  nature  of  the  tones.  A  sound  which  is 
composed  of  a  certain  number  of  vibrations  per  second 
is  an  octave  above  a  sound  which  registers  only  half  that 
number  of  vibrations  in  the  same  period.  Consequently 
if  the  cylinder  be  rotated  at  a  given  speed  while  register- 
ing certain  tones,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  turned 
at  precisely  that  same  speed  while  reproducing  them,  else 
the  tones  will  be  expressed  in  entirely  different  notes  of 
the  scale,  higher  or  lower  than  the  normal  note  as  the 
cylinder  is  turned  faster  or  slower.  To  attain  this  result 
there  must  be  a  way  of  driving  the  cylinder,  while  de- 
livering the  sound  or  speaking,  at  exactly  the  same  rate 
as  it  ran  while  the  sounds  were  being  recorded,  and  this 
is  perhaps  best  done  by  well-regulated  clockwork.  It 
should  be  understood  that  the  machine  illustrated  is  but 
an  experimental  form,  and  combines  in  itself  two  separate 
devices — the  phonograph  or  recording  apparatus,  which 
produces  the  indented  slip,  and  the  receiving  or  talking 
contrivance  which  reads  it  Thus  in  use  the  first  machine 
would  produce  a  slip,  and  this  would  for  example  be  sent 
by  mail  elsewhere,  together  in  all  cases  with  information 
of  the  velocity  of  rotation  of  the  cylinder.  The  recipient 
would  then  set  the  cylinder  of  his  reading  apparatus  to 
rotate  at  precisely  the  same  speed,  and  in  this  way  he 
would  hear  the  tones  as  they  were  uttered.  Differences 
in  velocity  of  rotation  within  moderate  limits  would  by  no 
means  render  the  machine's  talking  indistinguishable,  but 
it  would  have  the  curious  effect  of  possibly  converting 
the  high  voice  of  a  child  into  the  deep  bass  of  a  man,  or 
vice  versd. 

No  matter  how  familiar  a  person  may  be  with  modem 
machinery  and  its  wonderful  performances,  or  how  clear 
in  his  mind  the  principle  underlying  this  strange  device 
may  be,  it  is  impossible  to  listen  to  the  mechanical  speech 
without  his  experiencing  the  idea  that  his  senses  are 
deceiving  him.  We  have  heard  other  talking  machines. 
The  Faber  apparatus,  for  example,  is  a  large  affair,  as 
big  as  a  parlour  organ.  It  has  a  key-board,  rubber  larynx 
and  lips,  and  an  immense  amount  of  ingenious  mechanism 
which  combines  to  produce  something  like  articulation  in 
a  single  monotonous  organ-note.  But  here  is  a  little  affair 
of  a  few  pieces  of  metal,  set  up  roughly  on  an  iron  stand 
about  a  foot  square,  that  talks  in  such  a  way,  that,  even 
if  in  its  present  imperfect  form  many  words  are  not  clearly 
distinguishable,  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  inflec- 
tions are  those  of  nothing  else  than  the  human  voice. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  the  startling  possibility  of 
the  voices  of  the  dead  being  reheard  through  this  device, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  its  capabiUties  are  fully 
equal  to  other  results  just  as  astonishmg.  When  it  be- 
comes possible,  as  it  doubtless  will,  to  magnify  the  sound, 
the  voices  of  such  singers  as  Parepa  and  Titiens  will  not 
die  with  them,  but  will  remain  as  long  as  the  metal  in 
which  they  may  be  embodied  will  last.  The  witness  in 
court  will  find  his  own  testimony  repeated  by  machine, 
confronting  him  on  cross-examination— the  testator  will 
repeat  his  last  will  and  testament  into  the  machine  so 


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that  it  wiU  be  reproduced  in  a  way  that  will  leave  no 
question  as  to  his  devising  capacity  or  sanity.  It  is 
already  possible  by  ingenious  optical  contrivances  to 
throw  stereoscopic  photographs  of  people  on  screens  in 
full  view  of  an  audience.  Add  the  talking  phonograph  to 
counterfeit  their  voices,  and  it  would  be  diMcult  to  carry 
the  illusion  of  real  presence  much  further. 


NOTES 

Mr.  Sorbv  is  busy  perfecting  his  new 'method  of  studying 
minerals.  Some  very  remarkable  properties  are  still  nnezplained, 
and  only  the  other  day  Mr.  Sorby  made  a  very  great  fresh 
advance  in  the  subject. 

It  is  probable  that  Sheffield  will  be  chosen  for  the  meeting  of 
the  British  Association  in  1879.  Nottingham  was  to  have  been 
the  place  of  meeting,  bat  a  difficulty  has  arisen  respecting  the 
meeting  there,  and  Sheffield  has  been  nnofficially  written  ta 
The  matter  is  being  warmly  taken  up  by  some  of  the  principal 
townsmen,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  with  a  successful  result. 

A  PBOTOLiTHOGRAPHic  plate  of  the  primary  triangulation 
of  the  United  States  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of  the 
Territories,  carried  on  during  the  summer  of  1877,  by  Mr.  A.  D. 
Wilson,  chief  topographer,  has  jnst  been  published  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  under  the  charge  of  Dr. 
F.  V.  Hayden.  The  area  covered  by  these  triangles  extends 
from  Fort  Steele,  in  Wyoming  Ty.,  westward  to  Ogden,  in 
Utah  Ty.,  a  distance  of  about  260  miles,  and  north  as  far  as  the 
Grand  Teton,  near  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  including 
Freemont's  Peak  of  the  Wind  River  Range  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  area  embraces  about  28,000  square  miles,  and  within 
it,  twenty-sue  primary  stations  were  occupied,  and  their  positions 
accurately  computed.  Besides  these  occupied  stations,  a  large 
number  of  mountain  peiks  were  located,  which  in  the  fatore 
will  be  occupied  as  points  for  the  extension  of  the  topographical 
work  of  the  Survey.  A  base  line  was  carefully  measured  near 
Rawlin's  Springs^  on  the  line  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  from  this  initial  base  the  work  was  extended  north  and  west 
to  the  valley  of  Bear  River,  in  Idaho  Ty.  Here  a  check  base 
was  measured,  and  the  system  expanded  to  the  neighbouring 
mountain  peaks  to  connect  with  the  triangulation  as  brought 
forward  from  the  first-mentioned  base.  Along  the  line  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  the  work  was  connected  at  six  points 
with  the  triangulation  system  of  Clarence  King's  40th  parallel 
survey.  In  addition  to  the  importance  of  this  sheet  as  the  base 
work  of  the  season's  topographical  work,  it  presents  a  most 
striking  feature  in  the  number  of  remarkably  long  sights  which 
were  taken  from  the  sununits  of  some  of  the  most  lofty  moun- 
tains in  the  area  explored.  Many  of  these  sights  were  over  100 
miles  in  length,  while  some  reach  a  distance  of  135  miles. 
From  Wind  River  Peak  all  the  prominent  points  in  the  Big 
Horn  Mountains  were  sighted,  also  the  loftier  peaks  of  the 
Uinta  Mountains;  the  former  are  located  165  miles  to  the 
north-east,  while  the  Uinta  Mountains  are  situated  about  the 
tame  distance  to  the  south-west.  As  these  ranges  were  not 
in  the  scope  of  the  season's  work,  they  are  not  given  on  the 
chart 

The  Annual  Riport  of  ike  Smithsoman  Institution  for  the 
year  1876,  which  has  recently  been  published,  is  of  general 
interest  The  Institution  continues  to  carry  on  its  [usuid  work 
with  vigour  and  efficiency.  Two  important  vokmes  of  the 
Smithsonian  Contributions  to  Knowledge,  xx.  and  xxi.,  have 
been  issued.  The  former  on  the  Winds  of  the  Globe,  by  Prof. 
Coffin,  consisting  of  781  quarto  pages,  is  considered  to  be  the 
most  important  contribution  to  knowledge  which  the  Institution 
has  given  to  the  world.  It  presents  a  rich  mine  of  information 
for  the  use  of  meteorglogists,  the  physical  geographpr,  and  the 


mariner.  Volume  xn.  contains  the  following  articles,  viz. : — (i) 
Statements  and  Expositions  of  Certain  Harmonies  of  the  Solar 
System,  by  Prof.  Alexander.  (2)  On  the  General  Integrsd  of 
Pbmetary  Motion,  by  Prof:  Newcomb.  (3)  The  Haidah  Indians 
by  J.  G.  Swan.  (4)  Tables  of  Atmospheric  Temperature  in 
America.  There  has  been  published  an  important  work  oq  the 
Antiquities  of  Tennessee,  by  Dr.  Joseph  Jones,  and  another  on 
the  Archaeological  Collections  of  the  U.S.  National  Moseum ; 
also  a  supplement  to  Prot  F.  W.  Clarke's  work  on  the  "  Con- 
stants of  Nature^"  consisting  of  tables  of  specific  gravities^  boifing 
and  melting  points,  specific  heats,  &c.  Large  additions  have 
during  the  year  been  made  to  the  collections  of  the  National 
Museum  in  charge  of  the  Institution.  In  the  Appendix  to  the 
Report  there  is  a  translation  of  the  eulogy  on  Gay-Lussac  by  M. 
Arago ;  a  biographical  sketch  of  Dom  Pedro  II. ;  a  trsumda-  j 
tion  of  an^important  paper  of  Prof.  Pilar  on  the  Revohi- 
tions  of  the  Earth's  Crust,  which  will  be  read  with  mterest  by 
students  of  physical  geography  and  geology.  The  subjects  dis- 
cussed in  this  article  are  the  origin  of  the  earth,  central  heat,  the 
fluid  envelope,  organism!*,  ice,  vrith  a  concise  acooont  of  the 
theory  of  secular  changes  of  climate  resulting  from  changes  in 
the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit,  antiquity  of  man,  &c.  Then 
follows  a  paper  by  Dr.  D.  Kirkwood  on  the  Asteroids  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  But  the  article  which  will  probably  attract 
most  attention  is  one  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Taylor  on  Kinetic  Theories 
of  Gravitation.  In  this  memoir,  occupying  about  eighty  pages, 
is  given  an  interesting  historical  account  of  all  the  principal 
theories  which  have  been  advanced  since  the  time  of  Newton  to 
the  present  day  to  explain  the  nature  of  gravitation.  Villemot, 
1707 ;  Bemouilli,  1734;  Le  Sage,  1750 ;  Euler,  1760;  Henpath, 
1816 ;  Guyot,  1832;  Faraday,  1844;  Seguin,  1848;  Bondiepor9» 
1849 ;  Lam^,  1852  ;  Waterston,  1858  ;  Challis,  1859 ;  Glennie, 
1861 ;  Keller,  1863 ;  Tait,  1864 ;  Saigey,  1866 ;  CroU,  1867 ; 
Leray,  1869 ;  Boisbaudran,  1869 ;  Guthrie^  1870 ;  Cnx^es, 
1873.  These  theories  are  all  criticised  vrith  conriderable  acute- 
ness.  Mr.  Taylor  lays  down  six  fundamental  characteristics  of  | 
gravity  vrith  which,  he  asserts,  every  theory  must  agree.  But 
onfortimately  it  is  in  reference  to  the  truth  of  some  of  Mr.  Taylor's 
postulates  that  the  greatest  diversity  of  opinion  exists.  No  kinetic 
theory  of  gravitation  can  fulfil  his  six  conditions.  Mr.  Taylor 
seems  to  misapprdiend  some  of  the  theories  in  important  potnts» 
particularly  those  of  Le  Sage  and  CrolL  The  Appendbc  coq« 
eludes  vrith  a  number  of  interesting  papers  on  Ethnology. 

Wb  have  already  referred  to  Prof.  A.  Agassiz's  intention  o£ 
carrying  out  a  series  of  researches  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  With 
an  assistant  he  is  to  be  accommodated  on  board  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  steamer  Blake^  which  has  just  sailed  on  a  surveying 
cruise  that  vrill  occupy  this  winter  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  By 
a  study  of  the  animals  dredged  from  the  bottom  of  the  Gulf, 
Prof.  Agassiz  will  be  enabled  to  make  important  comparisons 
with  the  fauna  of  the  Atlantic,  and  especially  as  to  growth, 
habits,  migrations,  and  changes  of  living  forms  found  in  the 
waters  near  the  British  Islands  and  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula, 
The  expedition  is  under  the  command  of  Lieutenant-Commander 
Charles  D.  Sigsbee,  United  States  Navy,  who  has  had  several 
years  experience  on  coast  survey  duty,  and  has  been  notably 

Nbw  York  will  in  all  probability  have  a  magnificent  new 
2k)ological  Garden  in  Central  Park  before  the  end  of  another 
year.  The  Park  Commissioners,  have  little  doubt  that  the 
amount  of  money,  300^000  dollars,  necessary  to  make  a  com* 
mencement,  will  be  subscribed  vrithout  difficulty. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  Robert  Hollond,  a  gentleman 
formerly  well-known  in  connection  vrith  aeronautics. 

Thb  Rev.  Horace  Waller  vmtes  to  the  Tintes  that  CoL 
Mason  l)4s  b^u  round  Lake  Albert  Nyanvt  in  a  steamer,  and^ 


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corroborates  the  £»ct  of  its  being  a  comparatiTely  small  land- 
locked lake.     CoL  Mason  is  in  the  service  of  the  Khedive. 

Mr.  Stanley  has  arrived  in  Egypt,  and  is  to  spend  a  few 
days  at  Cairo.  On  New  Year's  Day  he  was  to  be  entertained 
at  a  banquet  by  Sir  George  Elliot,  M.P.,  to  which  the  principal 
English  and  American  visitors  and  residents  were  invited. 

The  African  Association  presided  over  by  the  King  of  the 
Belgians  has  learnt  by  telegram  that  its  travellers  have  safely 
reached  Zanzibar. 

At  a  recent'  meeting  of  the  Liverpool  Historic  Society, 
Mr.  T.  Glazebrook  Rylands,  F.S.A,  read  an  important 
paper  op  "Ptolemy's  Geography  of  the  Coast  from  Caer- 
^  narvon  to  Cumberland  (including  Cheshire  and  Lancashire). 
The  paper  was  the  preliminary  result  of  extensive  and  long 
'^  research,  daring  which  the  author  has  found  out  that  pre- 
vious writers  have  examined  Ptolemy's  work  carelessly  or 
inadequately,  and  greatly  misrepresented  his  data.  It  has, 
for  example^  been  inferred  for  centuries  that  the  Mersey  was 
unknown  to  Ptolemy,  and  that  the  river  known  as  Belisama  was 
identical  with  the  Ribble.  This  has  led  to  further  deductions  of 
an  erroneous  character ;  as,  for  example,  that  there  was  a  wide 
sheet  of  water  making  the  mouths  of  the  Mersey  and  the  Dee 
undistinguishable,  while  two  blands  in  it  reared  their  heads, 
viz.,  Wallasey,  separated  by  a  branch  of  the  tide  through  Wal- 
lasey Pool,  and  Wirral,  separated  by  a  strait  almost  coincident 
with  the  canal  from  Chester.  Mr.  Rylands  believes— and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  of  the  fact — that  he  has  ascertained  the  ideas 
of  Ptolemy  and  verified  his  measurements  and  mode  of  projection 
in  a  way  wholly  unknown  to  former  inquirers.  He  has  thus 
explained  apparent  anomalies  and  corrected  misunderstandings 
of  former  writers.  Commencing  southwards  at  Caernarvonshire, 
he  has  verified  the  positions  from  beyond  Pwlhelli  round  by 
Caernarvon  and  Conway  to  the  Dee ;  he  has  verified  the  positions 
of  the  Mersey  and  the  Ribble^  and  all  along  the  coast  to  St 
Bee's  Head,  in  Cumberland.  In  several  instances  where  it  was 
■-  thought  Ptolemy  was  in  error,  Mr.  Rylands  has  shown  he  is  cor- 
rect, and  it  is  a  matter  of  surprise  that  where  we  should  expect 
approximate  truth  only,  the  more  rigid  tests  give  more  accurate 
results. 

The  Bristol  Naturalists*  Society  appears  to  be  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  It  has  recently  added  to  its  organisation  a  Physical 
and  Chemical  **  Section,"  of  which  Dr.  W.  A.  TUden  is  secre- 
tary and  Mr.  P.  J.  Worsley  president.  The  recent  meetings 
of  the  Society  have  been  more  largely  attended,  and  there 
appears  to  be  a  revived  interest  in  physical  science  in  the  ancient 
city, 

M.  Gauthier  Villars  has  just  published  a  new  edition  of 
a  highly  mteresting  old  book,  "  Lectures  on  Chemical  Philo- 
sophy," delivered  at  the  Collie  de  France  in;  1836  by  M. 
Dumas.  In  this  curious  work  all  the  prevalent  ideas  in  die- 
mistry  were  initiated.  Not  a  single  sentence  has  been  altered, 
yet  M.  Dumas'  lectures  seem  quite  fresh  and  young,  ready  to 
be  used  by  students  in  the  highest  schools.  They  weie  col- 
lected by  M.  Bineau,  a  gentleman  who  died  twenty  years  ago, 
after  having  been  a  professor  in  the  Lyons  Faculty  of  Sciences. 

The  sittings  of  the  enlarged  council  of  the  Paris  observatory 
came  to  an  end  last  week.  The  resolutions  come  to,  of  which  we 
have  already  given  the  substance,  have  been  sent  to  M.  Bardoux, 
the  Minister  for  Public  Instruction.  The  International  Meteoro- 
logical Service  entered,  on  January  i,  the  twenty-first  year  of  its 
existence,  and  will  continue  connected  with  the  Paris  Observa- 
tory, where  it  was  established  by  M.  Leverrier  in  1857.  The 
present  head  of  the  service  is  M.  Front,  a  physicist  connected 
with  the  service  for  many  years,  and  trained  by  Leverrier  him- 
self. The  first  physidst-iK^if/  is  M  ^  Moureau,  formerly  a  school- 
master, 'whom  Leverrier  remarked  for  his  zealj  and  assiduity 


in  meteorological  researches  and  observations.  The  great 
astronomer  required  no  other  scientific  qualifications  than  intel- 
ligence and  instruction  obtained  by  personal  exertion.  He 
turned  away  many  doctors  in  science  'and  pupils  of  the  highest 
schools  who  were  wanting  in  the  requirements  he  was  anxious  to 
secure,  and  sought  to  find  them  even  In  the  humblest  stations  of 
life. 

Mr.  John  Fielding,  of  Todmorden,  has  just  presented  to  the 
Aquarium  at^ Westminster  two  specimens  of  Frottw  sangwnms^ 
obtained  by  his  courier,  C.  F.  Kohl,  from  the  grotto  of 
Adelsburg.  They  are  said  to  be  the  first  shown  in  England.  A 
specimen  of  Menobranchus  lateralis  has  been  on  view  for  some 
little  time. 

A  MOST  unfortunate  series  of  disasters  followed  Mr.  Car- 
rington's  endeavours  to  bring  to  London  a  collection  of  specimens 
of  the  Mediterranean  fauna.  Dr.  Eisig,  of  the  Naples  Aquariuns, 
offered  him  every  facility,  suggested  localities,  and  placed  some 
store-tanks  at  his  service.  A  collection  of  fish  zoophytes  and 
corals  was  made,  and  seven  tanks  were  fitted  up  on  a  cargo 
steamer  to  transport  them  to  England.  Shortly  after  starting  a 
thunderstorm  was  encountered,  the  ship  was  struck  by  lightning, 
and  the  contents  of  two  metal  tanks  were  at  once  destroyed. 
Among  other  things  a  fine  collection  of  mureen  eels  averaging 
2  feet  in  length  was  thus  lost.  Rough  weather  for  a  day  or  two 
caused  further  deaths.  After  leaving  Gibraltar  the  change  of 
temperature  proved  excessively  fatal,  the  bright-coloured  animals 
suffering  most  The  heavy  weather  in  the  Channel  broke  some 
of  the  other  tanks,  so  that  but  few  animals  reached  England 
alive.  Mr.  Carrington,  however,  arranged  for  supplies  with 
agents  at  Naples,  Messina,  Palermo,  Valentia,  Gibraltar,  Tan- 
giers,  and  Lisbon. 

Mr.  B.  Ralph,  of  Launceston,  Cornwall,  sends  us  a  ripe 
strawberry  which  he  gathered  on  December  29  from  a  hedge 
about  400  feet  above  sea-leveL  Pink  strawberry  blossoms,  he 
states,  are  not  uncommon.  The  thermometer  stood  at  yfi  in 
the  shade.  Bjur.  29*2,  with  a  west  wind.  Many  of  the  com- 
moner hedgeflowers  linger  on,  such  as  lychnis  and  geranium. 
He  also  incloses  some  primroses,  blossoming  in  an  exposed 
situation  outside  his  window. 

Two  somewhat  forcible  shocks  of  earthquake  were  felt  at 
Bologna  on  December  23,  and  a  slight  one  at  Alicante  on  the 
preceding  day. 

Prop.  Barrett,  in  a  recent  lecture  on  the  telephone,  gave  a 
receipt  for  making  a  cheap  one.  Take  a  wooden  tooth-powder 
box  and  make  a  hole  about  the  size  of  a  half-crown  in  the  lid 
and  the  bottom.  Take  a  disc  of  tinned  iron,  such  as  can  be  had 
from  a  preserved  meat  tin,  and  pi  ace  it  on  the  outside  of  the 
bottom  of  the  box,  and  fix  the  cover  on  the  other  side  of  it  Then 
take  a  small  bar-magnet,  place  on  one  end  a  small  cotton  or  silk 
reel,  and  round  the  reel  wind  some  iron  wire,  leaving  the  ends 
loose.  Fix  one  end  of  the  magnet  near,';as  near  as  possible 
without  touching,  to  the  disc,  and  then  one  part  of  the  telephone 
is  complete.  A  similar  arrangement  is  needed  for  the  other  end. 
The  two  are  connected  by  the  wire,  and  with  this  Prof.  Barrett 
says  he  has  been  able  to  converse  at  a  distance  of  about  too 
yards. 

M.  Bardoux,  the  new  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in 
France,  has  held  a  reception  of  the  several  heads  of  his  depart- 
ment and  employis  oi  the  central  administration.  He  delivered  a 
speech  insisting  upon  the  necessity  for  a  Republican  Government 
to  educate  the  people,  as  a  good  system  of  public  education  i* 
the  strongest  basis  on  which  any  Republic  can  be  safely 
established.  According  to  the  X/X,  Si^le  M.  Bardoux  is  not 
only  preparing  a  Bill  for  establishing  gratuitous  elementary 
education,  but  also  for  organising  a  higher  elementary  education. 


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{Jan.  3,  1878 


Prof.  Pfaundlir  commimicated  in  a  recent  session  of  the 
Vienna  Academy  the  results  of  some  experiments  undertaken  to 
decide  the  question  as  to  the  smallest  absolute  number  of  vibra- 
tions capable  of  producing  a  sound.  By  means  of  a  siren  with 
two  openings  for  blowing,  he  finds  that  two  isolated  vibrations 
are  capable  of  producing  a  tone  which,  by  repetition,  becomes 
audible. 

The  Meteorological  Society  of  Paris  has  elected  as  president 
M.  Henr^  Mangon,  profcfsor  of  Agriculture  at  the  Conserva- 
toire des  Arts  et  Metiers. 

The  Postal  and  Telegraph  services  are  to  be  united  in  France, 
as  they  have  been  already  in  England,  under  a  single  direction. 
The  first  director  of  the  complex  organisation  will  be  M.  Cocheris, 
one  of  the  staff  of  the  Ttmps  and  a  well-known  writer  on  matters 
of  political  economy. 

At  the  last  meeting,  December  19,  1877,  of  the  Russian  Geo- 
graphical  Society,  M.  Mushketov  made  a  very  interesting  com. 
munication  on  lui  last  journey  in  the  Tian  Shan  and  to  the 
Pamir,  where  he  visited  some  places  never  before  vidtcd  by 
European  travellers.  His  researches  enable  us  to  correct  many 
imperfections  in  the  works  of  Gordon  and  Stoliczka,  and  to  ob- 
tain many  new  and  important  data.  A  complete  geological 
sketch  of  the  Pamir  highlands  will  soon  be  published  by  M. 
Mushketov.  At  the  same  meeting  the  secretary  gave  an  account 
of  a  new  expedition  to  Central  Asia,  which  will  start  from  St. 
Petersburg  at  the  beginning  of  this  year,  under  the  leadership  of 
Prof.  A.  £.  MiddendorfT.  The  expedition  has  especially  in  view 
the  study  of  the  agricultural  conditioos  of  Turkistan,  and  the 
well-known  traveller,  zoologist,  and  practical  agriculturist  who 
is  at  the  head  of  the  expedition,  will  be  supported  in  his  work 
by  MM.  Smirnoff  and  Russow. 

At  the  meeting,  December  15,  of  the  St  Petersburg  Society 
of  Naturalists  Prod  Kessler  referred  to  the  fishes  brought  this 
year  by  M.  Pdyakoff  from  the  lakes  AlaKul  and  Balkharii.  In 
addition  to  the  seven  species  which  were  known  before  in  the 
Central-Asian  fauna  he  has  discovered  four  new  ones,  one  of 
which  is  the  interesting  fish  described  by  the  inhabitants  as 
Mannker  (its  zoological  description  will  soon  appear),  the  flesh 
and  caviare  of  which  are  poisonous. 

Prof.  Bkrthelot,  of  Paris,  is  probably  the  most  prolific 
chemist  of  the  day.  We  notice  in  the  two  last  numbers  of  the 
Annala  de  Chimie  et  tie  Physique^  the  two  last  numbers  of  the 
Comptes  Rendus^  and  the  last  BuiUUn  tie  la  SociiU  Chimique  de 
Parts^  thirty-two  various  articles  nnder  his  name.  Berthelot's 
researdies  are,  however,  confined  to  thermal  and  physical  che- 
mistry,  and  are  not  delayed  by  the  analytical  operations  atten- 
dant on  other  branches  of  diemical  investigation. 

Capt.  J.  O.  LuNGiNEKS,  of  the  Danish  vessel  Luiterfcld^  com- 
municates to  a  Copenhagen  paper  an  interesting  account  of  a 
novel  eiperience  which  occurred  on  December  10,  1876,  while 
on  a  voyage  to  Valparaif  o.  The  vessel  was  at  this  time  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Terra  del  Fuego,  about  140  miles  from 
Magellan's  Straits,  when  early  in  the  morning  it  narrowly 
escaped  collision  with  an  island  where  no  trace  of  land  appeared 
on  the  charts.  The  vessel  hove- to  until  daylight,  when  the 
captain  proceeded  with  a  boat's  crew  to  the  new  island,  which 
had  gradually  diminished  in  size  since  the  first  observation. 
Around  the  conical  rocky  mau  the  water  was  hissing,  and 
although  no  smoke  appeared,  it  was  found  to  be  too  highly 
heated  to  permit  of  landing.  The  [sinking  continued  slowly, 
nntil  at  eight  o'clock  the  island  was  completely  submerged,  and 
an  boor  later  the  vessel  pasted  over  the  spot  where,  it  had  'dii- 
i^peared. 

;.  Tiis  December  Session  of  the  Beriin  Geographical  Sodety 


was  occupied  by  a  long  and  interesting  address  from  Dr.  F.  M« 
Hildebrandt,  on  the  results  of  his  late  African  explorations. 
We  have  already  alluded  in  a  late  number  to  the  unfortunate 
result  of  the  expedition  to  the  snow-dad  mountains  of  equatorial 
Africa,  when  the  explorer  was  compelled  to  return  with  Mount 
Kenia  fairly  in  sight.  The  heroism  of  Dr.  Hildebrandt  in 
battling  with  danger  and  disease  in  manifold  forms  is  only 
approached  by  the  adroitness  and  ingenuity  which  characterised 
his  dealings  with  the  natives.  Among  the  Hataitas  he  was 
regarded  as  a  magician,  and  was  forced  to  pronounce  incanta- 
tions on  the  unfruitful  fields.  For  this  purpose,  at  his  request, 
specimens  of  all  the  plants  and  animals  in  the  vicinity  were 
githered  by  the  tribe,  and  after  having  served  as  a  "  fetish,"  were 
carefully  packed  away  in  the  collections.  On  another  occasion 
he  was  attacked  by  several  hundred  natives,  who  beat  a  hasty 
retreat,  when  the  explorer  advanced  towards  them  armed  with  a 
photographic  camera.  Despite  the  constant  succession  of  mis- 
fortunes accompanying  Dr.  Hildebrandt  during  his  two  years' 
explorations  in  Africa,  he  has  succeeded  in  gathering  togetber  a 
large  and  valuable  collection  of  anthropological  and  botanical 
specimens  especially,  from  Cape  Gardafui  and  the  Comoro 
island  Johanna.  A  number  of  new  spedes  and  genera, 
particularly  of  aromatic  plants,  were  discovered  in  the  former 
locality. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  two  Lions  {Felis  ho)  from  Upper  Nubia,  pre. 
sented  by  Mr.  John  Baird;  a  Green  Monkey  {CercopUhecus 
ca/lilrichus)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  J.  Scott;  a 
Bonnet  Monkey  {,\facaeus  tadiatm)  from  India,  presented  by 
Mr.  J.  H.  Thompson ;  a  Common  Thicknee  {(Edunentm 
crepitant)^  European,  presented  by  Mr.  F.  Moll ;  a  Macaque 
Monkey  {Macacus  cj  nomot^us)  from  India,  deposited  ;  a  Collared 
Fruit  Bat  {Cynonyeteris  co/laris),  a  Geoffroy's  Dove  {Peristcra 
gfoffroit)^  bred  in  the  Gardens. 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

Oxford. — An  examination  for  a  Raddiffe  Travelling  Fellow- 
ship will  be  held  on  February  II.  Candidates  should  forward 
notice  of  their  intention  to  offer  themselves,  on  or  before  January 
15,  to  Dr.  Acland. 

An  examination  will  be  held  at  Queen's  College  on  April  30 
to  fill  up  an  open  scholarship  in  natural  science,  of  the  value  of 
90/.,  tenable  for  five  years. 

London. — We  learn  that  in  consequence  of  the  success 
attending  the  course  of  Lectures  on  Physiology  now  being 
delivered  at  the  Working  Men's  College,  Great  Ormond  Street, 
by  Mr.  T.  Dunman,  the  Council  of  that  Institution  have  arranged 
for  the  ddivery,  by  the  same  gentleman,  of  a  supplementary 
advanced  course  of  about  sixteen  lectures,  the  first  of  which  will 
be  delivered  on  Friday,  January  18.  The  lectures  will  be  accom- 
panied by  practical  demonstrations.  Mr.  Dunman  has  been 
appointed  to  the  lectureship  in  physiology  at  the  Birkbeck 
Institution,  recently  vacated  by  Dr.  Aveling. 

Manchester.— Mr.  M.  M.  Pattison  Muir,  F.R.S.E.,  As- 
sistant-Lecturer in  Chemistry,  and  Demonstrator  in  the  Labora- 
tory of  the  Owens  College,  has  been  appointed  Pndector  in 
Chemistiy  at  GonvUle  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.  ) 

Berlin.— We  notice  in  the  report  of  a  late  session  of  the 
Prussian  House  of  Deputies  a  very  vigorous  presentation,  by 
Prof.  Mommsen  and  Prof.  Virchow,  of  the  necessity  for  a  new 
buikiing  for  t^e  royal  library.  This  valuable  collection  of 
books— over  700,000  in  number— is  the  largest  in  Germany, 
and  increases  so  rapidly  that  the  present  quarters  in  the  Im- 
perial Pldace  are  most  inadeqvate.  The  Government  shows 
an  inclination  to  remedy  the  eri),  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  chief  store  of  mental  pabnlnm  far  the  Berlin  student  wjU  soon 
be  provided  with  a  house  of  its  own*  and  the  mvdi-iieedffl  cM** 
logue  of  its  trcaiuies  finally  be  puhranM;    ' 


,r\i-^rT 


Jan  3,  .878] 


NATURE 


'95 


BuPAPESTH' — ^The  comimttee  intrusted  with  the  preparations 
for  the  first  centennial  celebration  of  this  university,  have  decided 
to  invite  all  foreign  universities  to  send  representatives  on 
the  occasion.  A  work  on  the  history  of  the  university  is  being 
prepared  by  Prof.  Theodor  Pauler,  the  late  Minister  of  Education. 

Hbidelbrro. — In  the  recently-irsued  calendar  of  the  Uni- 
versity for  the  present  semester  we  notice  a  serious  falling  off  in 
the  attendance,  the  present  number  of  students  (461)  being  250 
less  than  that  for  the  past  summer.  This  fact  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  increasing  custom  of  the  German  students  to  gather  in  the 
Universities  of  the  great  cities  during  the  winter.  The  theolo- 
gical faculty  includes  19  students,  the  medical,  79,  the  philo- 
sophical, 180,  and  the  legal,  183.  Heidelberg  still  pc>ssesses 
evidently  its  traditional  attractions  for  English-speaking  students, 
the  catalogue  containing  the  names  of  twenty-one  Englishmen 
and  twenty-six  Americans,  a  large  proportion  of  whom  arc 
studying  under  Bunsen.  Of  the  sixty- seven  other  foreigners  in 
attendance  Switzerland  contributes  eighteen  and  Russia  nineteen. 
Tlie  corps  of  professors  numbers  105,  of  whom  fifty-nine  are  in 
the  philosophical  faculty.  Prof.  Bluntschli,  the  leading  authority 
on  international  kw,  is  the  pro-rector  for  the  present  year.  We 
notice  that  Prof.  Blum  has  been  forced  by  advanced  age  to  give 
up  the  chair  of  mineralogy.  His  connection  with  the  University 
Hates  back  to  1828,  and  under  his  direction  the  mineralogical 
department  at  Heidelberg  has  long  been  one  of  the  favourite 
resorts  of  students  from  various  countries,  the  museum  ranking 
among  the  best  in  Europe.  Prof.  Blum's  fame  as  a  mineralogist 
rests  chiefly  on  his  thorough  and  exhaustive  researches  on  pseu- 
domorphs,  the  results  of  which  are  embodied  in  his  work  "  Die 
Pseudomorphosen  des  Mineralreichet."  A  very  complete  and 
practical  text 'book  of  mineralogy,  as  well  as  the  numerous 
smaller  treatises  on  subdivisions  of  the  science,  which  have 
appeared  at  intervals  from  his  pen,  are  regarded  as  standard 
works. 

Strass^URG. — ^The  grant  of  money  for  the  new  edifices  of  the 
university  amounts  to  10,500,000  marks  (over  500,000/.).  Of 
this  sum  2^  millions  are  contributed  from  the  imperial  funds, 
5i  millions  result  from  Alsace-Lorraine's  share  of  the  new 
imperial  bank  notes,  and  the  remainder  is  contributed  by  the 
city,  the  district,  and  the  two  provinces.  At  present  the  uni- 
versity is  attended  by  627  students  divided  as  follows  among 
the  faculties ;— theological,  49,  legal,  156,  medical,  117,  philo- 
sophical, 305.  Despite  the  a^*le  corps  of  professors  gathered 
together  since  the  re-establishment  of  this  historic  university,  the 
number  of  students  shows  a  decrease  of  eighty  as  compared  with 
1876,  a  result  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  coldness  exhibited 
by  the  old  French  inhabitants  towards  the  German  students. 

Holland. — ^The  Netherlands  School  Museum,  at  Amsterdam, 
was  opened  on  December  24, 1877,  in  presence  of  Mr.  Heemskerk 
(recently  Prime  Minister  of  Holland),  and  several  authorities 
connected  with  the  Educational  Department.  Mr.  A.  van 
Otterloo,  for  the  committee,  in  his  opening  speech  alluded  to 
the  valuable  co-operation  of  England  in  the  exhibition.  The 
authorities  afterwards  inspected  the  museum,  and  exptesscd  their 
high  appreciation  of  the  interesting  collections  of  school  appliances 
exhibited  by  the  School  Board  for  London  and  others. 

St.  Petersburg. — A  new  High  School  for  ladies  is  to  be 
opened  at  St.  Petersburg  for  the  special  purpose  of  preparing 
female  teachers  for  women's  colleges.  The  School  is  provided 
with  the  necessary  money  by  a  young  lady,  and  it  will  be  con- 
ducted by  the  professors  of  the  St  Petersburg  University. 

Prof.  TarkhanofT,  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Medical  Academy, 
having  assisted  at  the  examinations  in  physlologv  and  anatomy 
of  the  thirty-six  ladies  who  have  now  finished  their  five  years' 
course  at  the  High  School  of  Medicine  at  St  Petersburg^  pub- 
lishes a  report  on  those  examinations.  The  answers  of  the  ladies, 
he  says,  were  definite,  clear,  and  often  vivid.  Deep  and  very 
accurate  knowledge  was  shown. in  anatomy  and  histology,  the 
examinations  having  been  made  according  to  the  extensive  pro- 
grammes existing  in  ordinary  universities.  On  the  average  the 
answers  were  qmte  as  good  as  those  of  male  students ;  but  the 
answers  of  three  or  four  ladies,  by  their  completeness  and  bril- 
liancy, produced  a  deep  impression  on  the  exaininers,  and  greatly 
exceeded  all  the  professor  has  ever  witnessed  either  as  a  student 
or  professor. 

Charkow.— The  annual  calendar  of  this  Russian  university 
shows  an  attendance  of  442  students.  Over  half  of  this  number 
are  freed  enUrely  from  the  payment  of  lectures,  while  a  third 
receive  annual  stipends  varying  from  180  to  340  roubles.  The 
corps  of  instiuctors  numbers  sixty-four. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

London 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  December  14,  1877.— Dr. 
Hugglns,  F.R.S.,  hi    the  chair.— A  paper   by    Dt.  Wolf,  of 


Zurich,  set  forth  that  the  sun-spot  penod  varies  from  seven  to 
sixteen  years,  eleven  years  being  the  average. — A  paper  by  Mr. 
C.  V.  Boys  described  a  new  astronomical  clock.  Mr.  Christie 
and  Lord  Lindsay  criticised  it — A  photogra{^  of  Uie  sun  was 

Presented  by  M.  Janssen.  It  is  one  of  those  taken  daily  at 
leudon,  measuring  one  foot  in  diameter.  Dr.  De  la  Rue  said 
it  was  the  finest  example  of  celestial  photography  he  had  ever 
seen.  It  was  not  taken  with  an  equatorial,  but  an  instrument 
after  the  fashion  of  the  Kew  photoheliograph  with  a  5^ -inch 
object-glass.  The  picture  was  not  taken  at  the  principal  focus, 
but  in  that  of  a  secondary  magnifier,  corrected  independently  of 
visual  focus.  He  pointed  out  the  tornadoes  visible  on  tlie  photo* 
graph,  and  spoke  of  the  importance  of  a  physical  oliservatory  to 
register  the  changes  which  occur  on  a  tremendous  scale  every 
hour,  sun-spots  being  phenomena  of  compaiatively  small  import- 
ance. Capt.  Abney  spoke  in  corroboration,  and  said  that  M. 
Janssen  at  first  thought  these  photographed  tornadoes  lud  an 
atmospheric  origin.  Mr.  Christie  said  that  similar  phenomena 
had  been  found  on  the  Greenwich  photographs,  and  they  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  collodion. — Mr.  Glaisher  read  a  paper  on 
the  law  of  force  tending  to  any  point  whatever  in  the  plane  of 
motion  in  order  that  the  orbit  may  always  be  a  conic.— Mr.  Lynn 
gave  a  description  of  Mr.  Howlett's  drawing  of  the  solar  spot  of 
October  31  to  November  3,  being  about  15''  diameter. — Lord 
Lindsay  concluded  the  description  of  his  spectroscope  for  nebuhe 
referred  to  last  month. — Mr.  Christie  made  some  remarks  and 
aiticised  it,  and  the  meeting  then  adjourned. 

Photographic  Society,  December  11,  1877.— Papers  were 
read  by  Capt.  Abney,  R.E.,  F.R.S.,  on  fog-producmg  emul- 
sions and  their  rectification,  and  by  H.  B.  Berkeley,  on  emul- 
sions. Capt.  Abney  showed  that  the  cure,  or  rather  the  elimina- 
tion, of  fog  in  emulsions  (as  also  in  dry  plates)  would  be  effected 
by  tne  introduction  of  either  bromide,  iodine^  or  nitric  acid  into 
the  emulsion.  Nitric  acid  prevented  the  formation  of  any 
chemically-produced  sub-bromide  of  silver,  and  reduced  the  fog 
to  the  state  of  bromide ;  where  pure  bromide  is  present,  it 
seems  almost  impossible  that  there  should  be  fog.  If  an  emul- 
sion plate  is  exposed  to  light,  and  afterwards  partly  dipped  into 
copper  bromide,  then  expos^  in  the  camera  and  developed,  the 
portion  treated  with  the  bromide  will  be  found  to  be  free  from 
fog  and  perfectly  clear. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  December  17,  1877.— M.  Pcligot 
in  the  chair : — The  foUowbg  papers  were  read  : — On  the 
order  of  appearance  of  the  first  vessels  in  the  shoots  of  some 
Leguminosae  (third  part),  by  M.  TrccuL — Note  on  the  ring  of 
Saturn,  by  M.  Tisserand.— On  intramolecular  work,  by  M. 
Boileau.— On  an  essential  improvement  of  the  navigation  lock 
with  mued  oscillation,  by  M.  De  Caligny«— M.  Cailletet  was 
elected  correspondent  for  the  section  of  mineralogy,  in  room  of 
the  late  M.  d'Ommalius  d' Alloy  (obtaining  thirty-three  votes 
against  nineteen  for  Mr.  James  Hales).— Production  of  crys- 
tallised sulphide,  selenide,  and  telluride  of  silver,  and  of  filiform 
silver,  by  M.  Margottet.  The  former  are  obtained  by  paising 
vapours  of  sulphur,  selenium,  and  tellurium,  over  silver  (heated 
red)  by  means  of  a  current  of  nitrogen. — The  silver  gets  covered 
with  the  crystals.  The  crystallised  sulphide  is  transformed  into 
metallic  and  filiform  silver  by  a  current  of  dry  hydrogen  at  440 
degrees.  The  corresponding  reduction  of  the  selenide  and  tellu- 
ride  takes  place  only  at  the  highest  temperatures  the  gUss  can 
bear. — Use  of  lacs  of  eoslne  and  flaoresceine  for  preparation  of 
decorative  painthigs  without  poison,  by  M.  Turpin.  A  potassic 
or  sodic  solution  of  eosine,  ^.^.,  treated  by  an  acid,  gives  a  pre- 
cipitate of  eosic  acid  insoluUe  in  water ;  this  washed  tiU  Uie 
water  begins  to  take  a  rose-colour  is  insoluble  in  the  hydrate  of 
oxide  of  zinc,  and  so  forms  a  very  rich  lac  (eosinate  of  zinc) 
var^in^  from  rose  to  deep-red,  according  to  the  quantity  of 
eosic  acid  iised.— Vine  districts  ^ttai^Lcd  by  phylloxera 
(1877),  by  M.  Dudaux.  It  is  noted  with  reference  to 
L'Aude  that  the  vineyards  bordering  on  the  sea  (some  kilo- 
metres in  width)  are  preserved  much  longer  than  the  other.s. 
— The  natural  enemies  of  the  phylloxera  in  Germany,  by  M. 
Blankenhorn.  The  small  extension  of  centres  of  phylloxera 
there  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  stocks  have  been  frequented, 
previous  to  the  phylloxera  infection,  by  natural  enemies  of  the 


Digitized  by 


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196 


NATURE 


\yan.  3,  1878 


insect  (wliich  are  specified).— On  the  intermediary  integrals  of  the 
^neral  equation  with  partial  derivatives  expressing  that  the 
problem  of  geodesic  lines,  considered  as  a  problem  of  mechanics, 
•apposes  a  rational  integiml  with  reference  to  components  of  the 
Telocity  of  the  moving  body,  by  M.  L^vy. — Calculation  of  the 
longitude  or  the  hour  of  Paris  at  sea,  by  occultations  of  stars,  by 
M.  Baills. — On  the  conditions  with  limits  in  the  problem  of  the 
elastic  plates,  by  M.  Boussinesq.^)n  the  equation  of  Lam^, 
by  M.  BrioschL— On  apparatus  for  projection  with  polarised 
light,  by  M.  Laurent  For  polarisers  the  author  uses  Nicols 
made  of  two,  three,  or  four  pieces  of  spar,  each  piece  with  two 
faces  cut  parallel  to  each  other  and  the  cleavage ;  then  he  cements 
them  together  with  a  hard  mastic,  and  operates  the  whole  like  a 
single  piece  of  spar.  The  analyser  used  is  a  Nicol  of  2a  mm. 
diaimeter ;  it  is  placed  at  the  principal  focus  of  the  projection 
lens. — Action  of  oxychloride  of  carbon  on  toluene  in  presence  of 
chloride  of  ammomum,  by  MM.  Ador  and  Crafts. — Action  of 
stable  anhydrous  acids  on  stable  anhydrous  bases  ;  explosion  of 
the  compound,  by  MM.  Solvay  and  Lucion. — Anhydrous  phos- 
phoric acid  and  oxide  of  sodium  may  exist  intimately  mixed  in 
fine  powder  without  reacting  at  the  ordinary  temperature,  but  a 
rise  of  less  than  100**  causes  instantaneous  combination  with 
remarkable  violence.  M.  Lucion  sees  here  no  confirmation  of 
thejdualistic  theory  or  argument  against  the  unitarian.  — On  the 
sensibility  of  the  pericardium  in  the  normal  and  pathological 
states,  by  MM.  Bochefontaine  and  Bourceret  The  sound  peri- 
cardium is  sensible ;  the  external  face  apparently  more  than  the 
internal  The  sensibility  can  be  shown  by  mechanical  excitations. 
The  pericardium  inflamed  experimentally  shows  a  lively  seosi- 
bility,  at  least  on  the  external  face  and  in  wards. — Maturation  and 
diseases  of  the  cheese  of  Cantal,  by  M.  Duclaux.  Enough  water 
remains  for  development  of  ferments,  and  there  are  present  lactic 
add  and  albumen. —Observations  on  the  zoological  afiinities  of 
Uie  genus  Phodilus,  by  M.  Milne-Edwards. — On  the  measure- 
ment of  the  dihedric  angles  of  microscopical  crystals,  by  M. 
Bertrand. — On  the  signification  of  various  parts  of  the  vegetable 
ovule,  and  on  the  origin  of  those  of  the  seed  (concluded),  by  M. 
Baillon. — Preparation  of  alcoholic  chlorides  and  their  application 
to  the  production  of  colouring  matters,  by  MM.  Monnet  and 
Reverdin. 

December  24,  1877. — M.  Peligot  in  the  chair. — The  following 
papers  were  read  : — On  some  applications  of  elliptic  functions 
(continued),  by  M.  Hermite. — On  the  rotatory  power  of  meta* 
styrolene,  by  M.  BenheloN]  Metastyrolene,  denved  in  the  cold 
state  from  active  styrolene,  has  rotatory  power  (just  as  metatere- 
benthine  shares  the  rotatory  power  of  terebenthioe).  On  the 
other  hand,  inactive  stjrrolene,  as  prepared  by  the  pyrogenic 
method,  gives  an  inactive  metastyrolene. — On  Saturn's  ring 
(contmued),  by  M.  Tisserand. — Ol>servations  on  the  Bahmie 
cotton  plant,  by  M.  Naudin.  This  plant,  which  is  found  in 
Egypt,  and  is  very  productive,  is  not,  as  supposed,  a  cross 
between  cotton  [Qossypium)  and  Combo  (or  Hibiscus  esculentus). 
It  differs  from  the  old  race  merely  in  aspect.  It  is  still  in  process 
of  improvement  The  t>otanical  species  is  the  Gossypium  barba- 
dense  of  Linnaeus  and  Parlatore,  or  Sea  Island  cotton.  It 
requires  much  heat,  and  is  recommended  for  Algeria,  where  the 
cotton -industry  has  been  declining. — Notions  concerning  intra- 
molecular work  .(continued),  by  M.  BoileatL — On  M.  lE^itean's 
recent  communication  regarding  comparison  of  the  phylloxera  of 
the  oak  with  that  of  the  vme,  by  M.  Balbiani.— On  anthogenesic 
Homoptera,  by  M.  Lichtenstein. — Progress  of  the  phylloxera 
in  the  south-west  of  France,  by  M.  Duclaux.— On  the  results 
obtained  by  use  of  sulphide  of  carbon  for  destruction  of  phyl- 
loxera, by  M.  Marion.  Reiterated  treatment  with  small  quan- 
tities is  recommended. — On  the  ventilation  of  the  transport-ship 
AnnamiUf  by  M.  Bertin.  After  three  hours  the  volimie  of  air 
evacuated  under  the  sole  action  of  heat  from  the  chimneys  was 
over  29,000  cubic  metres,  and  might  rise  to  40,000.  This  move- 
ment of  air  would  secure  a  renewal  of  air  in  the  hospital  about 
eight  times  in  the  hour. — The  death  of  Ruhmkorflf  was  referred 
ta — M.  Dumas,  hprofos  of  MM.  Cailletet  and  Pictet*s  almost 
simultaneous  success  m  liquefisiction  of  oxygen,  read  a  passage 
from  Lavoisier,  showing  he  had  anticipated  such  results.  —On 
the  condensation  of  oxygen  and  carbonic  oxide,  by  M.  Cailletet. 
His  method  was  to  expand  the  gases  suddenly ;  when  cooled 
to  —  29°,  and  compressed  to  the  extent  of  300  atmo- 
spheres ;  a  thick  mist  appears.  This  is  had  firom  oxygen, 
even  at  ordinary  temperature,  if  it  have  had  time  to  lose  the 
heat  acquired  simply  through  compression.  Hydrogen,  under 
similar  treatment,  gave  no  such  mist.  Nitrogen  was  not  experi: 
mented  wiUi. — Experiments  by  M.  Pictet  on  liquefaction  of 


oxygen,  by  M.  de  Lognes.  The  apparatns  is  described. — ^M. 
Dumas  opened  a  sealed  letter  deposited  by  M.  Cailletet  on 
December  3,  announcing  his  discovery.  M.  Pictet's  results  were 
announced  on  December  22.  Several  members  expressed 
opinions  on  the  subject — New  observations  on  the  r6U  of  pees* 
sure  on  chemical  phenomena,  by  M.  Berthelot  He  o^ls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  decomposition  of  chlorate  of  potash 
into  oxygen  and  chloride  of  potassium  an  exothermic  reactioo, 
and  not  limited  by  its  inverse,  is  not  stopped  bv  a  pressore  of 
320  atmospheres. — On  the  employment  of  graphic  methods  in 
the  prediction  of  occultations,  by  M.  Tisiot^)n  the  transfor- 
mations of  contact  of  sjrstems  of  surfaces,  by  M.  Fouret — Ex- 
perimental researches  on  magnetic  rotatory  polarisation ;  mag- 
netic rotations  of  luminous  rays  of  vanous  wave-lengths;, 
by  M.  BecquereL  He  experimented  specially  with  bichlmde 
of  titanium,  interposing  a  spectroscope  between  the  eye 
and  the  analyser  in  his  former  apparatus ;  and  he  notes  some 
differences  between  the  positive  and  negative  magnetic  rotations. 
— Ordinary  and  extraordinary  indices  of  refraction  of  quartz  for 
rays  of  different  wave-lengths  as  far  as  the  extreme  violet,  by  VL 
Sarasin.  The  numerical  results  for  lines  of  cadmium,  sodinoa, 
zinc,  and  aluminium  are  tabulated. — Engraving  on  glass  by^elec- 
tridty,  by  M.  Plante.  The  surface  of  a  plate  of  glass  or  crystal 
is  covered  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  nitrate  of  potuh 
(poured  on  it).  A  horizontal  platinum  wire,  connected  with  one 
of  the  poles  of  a  secondary  battety  of  fifty  to  sixty  elements,  is 
placed  m  the  liquid  along  the  edges,  then  holding  in  the 
hand  the  other  platinum  electrode,  covered,  except  at  the  end, 
with  insulating  mater,  one  touches  tbe  glass  with  it,  and  draws 
characters,  &c.,  which  remain  distinctly  engraven. — On  acid 
acetates  (continued),  by  M.  Villiers. — On  experiments  riiowing 
that  meningo-encephalitis  of  the  convexity  of  the  brain  produces 
different  symptoms,  according  to  the  points  of  this  region  that 
are  affected,  by^MM.  Bochefontaine  and  VieL— On  the condidoos 
of  development  of  Ligube,  by*  M.  Duchamp.  He  made  two 
pigeons  (which  are  pretty  far  removed  from  aquatic  birds),  swallow 
some  ligulpe  from  a  tench.  After  four  and  five  days  respec- 
tively they  were  killed,  and  each  had  in  its  intestine  a  living 
ligula  with  genital  organs  developed,  and  the  matrices  full  o? 
eggs  (just  as  with  the  duck).— On  a  miocene  alios  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Rambouillet,  by  M.  Meunier.  This  points  to 
sudden  cataclysm.— On  thermal  colourol  rixigs  by  M.  Dccharme; 
He  remarks  on  the  difference  in  these  on  tmned  and  on  zinked 
iron  plates. 

Vienna 

Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  November  8,  1877.— 
On  the  least  absolute  number  of  sound-impulses  that  are  necessary 
to  production  of  a  tone,  by  M.  Pfaundler.— On  generalisaUon 
of  known  triangle  propositions  to  any  perfect  n  an^es  inscribed 
in  a  conic  section,  by  M.  Cantor. — On  the  per&t  square  in 
general,  by  the  same.— On  dtramalic  acid,  by  M.  MorawskL— 
On  accessory  projections  in  the  skull  of  ieporides,  by  M. 
Mojsisovics. — On  arbitrary  and  spasmodic  movements,  by  M. 
Briicke.— On  cork  and  corked  tissues  generally,  by  M.  HohncL 


CONTBNTS  Page 

Ths  Last  OP  TKB  Gasbs 177 

HuXLBY's  PHVStOGKAPHY .     .  178 

OuK  Book  Shslf  :« 

Proctor's  "Myths  and  Marvelf  of  Astronomy" x8o 

Lbttkks  to  thb  Editoe  :— 

Electrical   £aperimait.~Pror.    J.   Clbeic  Maxwell,   IF.R.S.; 

F  J.  PlIANI x8o 

TheTelephone— Prof.  John  G.  McKbndsick tSi 

The  Radiometer  and  iu  Lessons  — G  Johnstone  Stoney,  F.  R.  S.  189 

Glaciation  of  Orkney.— Prof.  M.  FoBSTEE  Heodle i8* 

Northern  Affinities  of  Chilian  Insects.— Alfred  R.  Wallace  .    .  x8s 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Kva  Fjiy.— Robekt  Ompee 183 

Philadelphia  Diploma.— Dr.  C  M.  Imclebv 183 

Royal  Dublin  Sodety.— Prof.  Alex.  Macalistee 183 

The  .Meteor  of  November  «3. — T.  S.  Petty  ........  183 

The  Sun's  Magnetic  Action  at   the  Present  Time.    By  John 

Allan  Broun.  F.R.S.  (l#^<M/i/M/nt/^;m) 183 

The  "Challengee**  in  the  Atlantic,  II.  \With  UlnstraHm^   .  185 
The  Modeem  Telescope,  III.    By  J.  Nobmaic  Lockyee,  F.R.S. 

{)VUk  lUuttratwK) 18I 

OvE  Astbonoiiical  Column  :~ 

The  Comet  of  1 106 x8o 

The  Satellites  of  Mars 190 

Coloured  Double  Stars 390 

ThbTalking  Phonograph  iWitk  lUustraHoms) 190 

Notes «..  191 

UMivBBsrrv  and  Educational  Intblugbncs 194 

SoOBTIBS  AMD  ACADIMm .     .     •    .     •     • 195 

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THURSDAY,  JANUARY    lo,  1878 


THE  SALARIES  OF  THE  OFFICERS  IN  THE 
BRITISH  MUSEUM 

THE  inadequacy  of  the  salaries  of  the  officers  of  the 
British  Museum  has  long  been  a  standing  grievance. 
It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  give  any  valid  reasons  why 
the  literary  and  scientific  men  of  this  great  national  estab- 
lishment should  not  receive  emoluments  at  least  equal 
to  those  granted  in  the  ordinary  branches  of  the  Civil 
Service.  The  obstinacy  of  the  trustees  in  clinging  to 
obsolete  principles  of  priority,  and  in  endeavouring  to 
keep  entirely  in  their  own  hands  the  right  of  nomination 
to  in  the  more  important  posts,  has,  no  doubt,  been  the 
main  cause  why  the  Treasury  have  until  recently  refused 
to  do  justice  to  a  most  meritorious  and  ill-treated  branch 
of  the  public  service.  From  the  "  Correspondence  be- 
tween the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum  and  the 
Treasury,"  which  has  lately  been  issued  as  a  Parliamentary 
Paper,  we  are  glad  to  find  that  in  this  instance,  as  on 
former  occasions,  the  present  Ministry  has  been  induced 
to  do  justice  where  their  predecessors  in  office  have  per- 
sistently ignored  righteous  claims.  After  a  long  corre- 
spondence, commenced  in  May,  1876,  and  extending  over 
some  fifteen  months,  it  seems  to  have  been  finally  settled 
that  the  salaries  of  the  keepers  of  the  various  depart- 
ments shall  be  raised  to  750/.  per  annum  afcer  five  years' 
service,  instead  of  stopping  at  600/.,  the  former  limit,  and 
that  the  salaries  of  the  assistant-keepers  shall  rise  to  600/. 
after  five  years'  service,  instead  of  being  restricted 
to  450/.  as  heretofore.  The  assistants  in  the  various 
departments  will,  in  future,  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  first,  or  upper  class,  with  salaries  commencing  at  250/. 
per  annum,  and  rising  by  annual  increments  of  15/  to 
450/. ;  those  of  the  second,  or  lower  class,  commencing 
at  120/.,  and  rising  by  increments  of  10/.  to  240/.  This 
will  create  a  considerable  general  improvement  in  the 
position  of  these  subordinates,  of  whom  the  junior 
assistants,  as  they  are  called,  have  hitherto  commenced 
at  90/.,  and  the  senior  assistants  have  never  risen  beyond 
400/.  But  the  trustees  have  agreed  to  regard  the  new 
second  class  for  the  future  as  an  "  educational  class,** 
from  which  those  persons  who  show  special  aptitude  for 
the  work  of  the  d  fferent  departments  may  be  promoted 
to  the  first  class,  whilst  those  who  have  no  extraordinary 
abilities  must  remain  content  with  the  maximum  salary  of 
the  lower  class.  Another  concession  that  the  trustees 
have  been  compelled  to  make  in  order  to  obtain  the 
above-mentioned  advantages  is  a  reduction  in  the  number 
of  the  assistants  of  the  upper  class.  The  Treasury  justly 
point  out  to  the  trustees  that  the  scheme  of  having  a  first 
class  of  assistants  double  the  number  of  that  of  the 
second  class,  is  *^  inconsistent  with  all  ordinary  classi- 
fication," and  that  the  comparative  numbers  of  the  two 
classes  "  ought  to  be  exactly  reversed."  This  the 
trustees  have,  as  it  appears,  somewhat  unwillmgly 
undertaken  to  effect,  by  a  gradual  reduction  of  the  num- 
ber of  first-class  assistants  as  vacancies  occur,  and  by 
making  all  future  appointments  into  the  second  class, 
except  when  **  an  opportunity  occurs  of  securing  the  ser- 
vices of  a  person  possessing  very  special  quaKfications." 

Vou  xvxi.— No.  418 


A  third  point  which  the  trustees  ''are  prepared  to  re- 
consider "is  the  number  of  keeperships,.  now  amounting 
to  thirteen,  and  in  order  that  the  Treasiuy  may  have 
greater  control  in  this  matter,  they  have  undertaken  not 
to  fill  up  any  keepership  which  may  hereaftet  become 
vacant,  "  without  the  previous  concurrence  of  the  Trea* 
sury."  A  still  more  important  proposal  made  by  the 
Treasury  and  "conceded  by  the  trustees,"  is  that  the 
position  of  keeper  should  be  considered  as  a  ''  staff  ap- 
pointment, to  which  no  officer  within  the  Museum  should 
have  any  right  of  succession  by  seniority."  This  "  con- 
cession" will,  we  trust,  do  away  with  the  practice  of 
putting  round  men  into  square  holes,  in  order  to  obtain 
for  them  an  additional  salary,  which  in  former  years  has, 
we  fear,  been  followed  in  some  instances  at  die  British 
Museum. 

One  remaining  point,  which  has  much  exercised  the 
well-known  economy  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
we  are  pleased  to  see  he  has  been  obliged  to  give  up.  It 
was  proposed  that  the  keepers  who  occupy  the  residences 
attached  to  the  British  Museum  ought  to  give  up  a  certain 
portion  of  their  salaries  in  lieu  of  rent  In  reply  to  this  in- 
genious suggestion,  the  trustees  very  justly  urge  that  those 
keepers  who  reside  on  the  premises  have  important  duties 
to  perform,  in  having  to  take  in  turn  the  general  charge  of 
the  whole  museum  under  the  principal  librarian,  for  which 
the  accommodation  of  a  residence  is  no  more  than  a  fair 
equivalent  This  contention  was  ultimately  allowed  to 
prevail,  and  on  the  whole,  we  think,  there  is  every  reason 
to  b^  grateful  to  the  Government  for  the  improvements 
effected  by  the  new  scheme  in  the  position  of  the  employh 
at  the  British  MuseunL  Even  in  these  hard  times  it 
cannot  be  said  that  a  place  of  750/.  per  annum  with  a 
good  residence  attached  and  a  pension  in  future  when 
work  is  no  longer  possible,  is  not  such  a  prospect  as  may 
well  attract  some  of  the  cleverest  youths  of  the  period 
who  have  a  leaning  to«vards  literature  or  science  to  seek 
the  place  of  ** junior  assistant"  in  the  British  Museunu 

JULES  VERNE 

Hector  ServadaCy  or  the  Career  of  a  fomet—From  the 
Earth  to  the  Moon, — Around  the  Moon.  — Twenty 
Thousand  Leagues  under  the  Sea, — Around  the  World 
in  Eighty  Days,^The  Fur  Country,— A  Winter  amid 
the  Ice^  &c.,  &c.    (London  :  Sampson  Low  and  Co.) 

THESE  remarkable  works,  which  we  owe  to  the 
genius  of  Jules  Verne,  the  first-named  being  that 
which  has  last  appeared,  are  well  deserving  of  notice  at 
our  hands,  for  in  the  author  we  have  a  science  teacher 
of  a  new  kind.  He  has  forsaken  the  beaten  track,  bien 
entendu;  but  acknowledging  in  him  a  travelled  Frenchman 
with  a  keen  eye  and  vivid  imagination — and  no  slight 
knowledge  of  the  elements  of  science — we  do  not  see  how 
he  could  have  more  usefully  employed  his  talents.  He 
will  at  once  forgive  us  for  saying  that  when  we  compare 
his  romances  of  the  ordinary  type,  such  as  "  Martin  Paz," 
with  those  we  have  given  above,  we  think  that  he,  as  well 
as  his  readers,  is  to  be  congratidated  upon  the  new  line  he 
has  opened  out 

There  have  been  many  books  before  his  time  in  which 
the  interest  has  centred  in  some  vast  convulsion  of  nature^ 
or  in  nature  generally  being  put  out  of  joint,  but  In  these 


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NA  TURE 


{Jan.  10.  1878 


there  has  been  no  attempt  made  to  reach  the  vraisimblabU; 
indeed  in  most  cases  there  has  not  been  sufficient  know- 
ledge  on  the  part  of  the  author  to  connect  his  catastrophe 
either  with  any  law  or  the  breaking  of  one.  But  with  Jules 
Verne  for  once  grant  the  possibility  of  his  chief  incident, 
and  all  the  surroundings  are  secundem  artem.  The  time 
at  which  the  projectile  was  to  be  shot  out  of  the  columbiad 
towards  the  moon  was  correctly  fixed  oii  true  astronomical 
grounds,  and  the  boy  who  follows  its  flight  will  have 
a  more  concrete  idea  of,  and  interest  in,  what  gravity 
is  and  does,  possibly,  than  if  he  were  to  read  half-a- 
dozen  text-books  in  the  ordinary  way.  Once  grant  the 
submarine  vessel  and  the  use  made  of  electricity,  and  the 
various  scenes  through  which  the  strange  ship  passes  are 
sketched  by  no  'prentice  hand.  To  take  the  most  extreme 
case,  if  it  be  possible  to  imagine  one  in  such  a  connection— > 
Algeria  torn  from  the  earth  by  a  comet  and  started  on  an 
orbit  of  its  own  ;  the  astronomical  phenomena  have  been 
most  carefully  thought  out,  and  children  of  larger  growth 
will^  if  they  choose,  find  much  to  learn  as  well  as  to  amuse 
them.  Indeed  it  is  very  rare  that  one  finds  our  author 
tripping  in  such  matters,  although  he  does  sometimes. 
One  case  that  occurs  tons  is  when,  in  the  "Fur  Country,** 
he  refers  to  the  midnight  sun  touching  the  edges  of  the 
western  horizon  without  dipping  beneath  it ;  and  even  this 
may  be  due  to  the  translator,  for  we  have  not  the  original 
French  edition  to  refer  to. 

Thus  much  premised  let  us  see  how,  in  "Hector 
Servadac,'*  his  last  work,  the  author  attempts,  as  part  of 
his  task,  to  inculcate  scientific  truths,  remarking  that  his 
plot  is  carefully  kept  out  of  view  till  the  end  of  the  volume. 
He  and  his  faithful  servant  are  stunned  by  a  crash^  in 
which  the  earth  groaned  as  if  the  whole  framework  of  the 
globe  were  ruptured,  while  the  sea  and  air  became  one, 
and  both  glowed  in  a  radiance  intenser  than  the  effulgence 
of  the  northern  lights.  In  the  midst  of  a  gigantic  earth- 
quake-wave he  found  the  moon's  disc  becoming  much  larger 
than  it  was  before,  and  a  new  blazing  star  appearing  sud- 
denly in  the  firmament.  Strange  to  say  watches,  which 
are  not  stopped,  mark  two  as  the  sun  rises  in  the  west ! 
Next  point  Their  respiration  became  more  forced  and 
rapid,  like  that  of  a  mountaineer  when  he  has  reached  an 
altitude  where  the  pressure  of  the  circumambient  air 
has  become  reduced ;  when  they  jump  they  fly.  The 
horizon  is  contracted.  There  are  more  surprises  :  a 
strange  body  (the  retreating  earth)  seems  to  contend  in 
splendour  with  the  sun  ;  but  the  true  condition  of  affairs 
has  not  revealed  itself  yet,  for  he  is  anxious  to  go  and 
look  for  his  fellow-men ;  en  attendant^  however,  they 
must  eat. 

" '  By  jingo  1 '  he  exclaimed, '  this  is  a  precious  hot  fire.' 
Servadac  reflected.    In  a  few  minutes  he  said  :— : 

"  *  It  cannot  be  that  the  fire  is  hotter,  the  peculiarity 
must  be  in  the  water.' 

"And,  taking  down  a  centigrade  thermometer  which  he 
had  hung  upon  the  wall,  he  plunged  it  into  the  skillet. 
Instead  of  100%  he  found  tbat  the  instrument  registered 

only  ee*". 

"  *  Take  my  advice,  Ben  Zoof,'  he  said ;  *  leave  your 
eggs  in  the  saucepan  a  good  quarter  of  an  hour.'" 

So  much  for  the  careful  treatment  of  the  first  forty 
pages.  At  last  the  truth  dawns  upon  Hector,  and  he 
finds  others  on  the  newly  tom-oflf  fragment,  including 
even   the  very  astronomer  who  predicted    the   comet. 


A  new  point  m  fovotir  of  the  metric  system  is  here  in- 
troduced ;  for  our  astronomer,  anxious  to  determine  the 
density  and  mass  of  Gallia^  as  the  fragment  had  now 
been  named  (this  is  more  pardonable  than  Gailium),  finds 
that  not  only  the  metre  ol  the  archives,  but  all  other 
measures  whatever  had  disappeared.    He  shows  that — 

10  5-fraQc  pieces  37  mm.  in  diameter 
10  2-franc      „      27  mm.         „ 
20  50-cent.    „     18  mm.        „ 

exactly  make  a  metre. 

A  German  Jew  (M.  Verne  has  his  ideas  of  the  different 
nationalities)  is  made  to  lend  this  sum  at  an  enormous 
rate  of  interest,  and  the  experiment  proceeds. 

"  By  the  appointed  time  the  engineer  had  finished  his 
task,  and  with  all  due  care  had  prepared  a  cubic  deci- 
metre of  the  material  of  the  comet 

" '  Now,  gentlemen,'  said  the  Prof  Rosette, '  we  are  in 
a  position  to  complete  our  calculations ;  we  can  now 
arrive  at  Gallia's  attraction,  density,  and  mass.' 

"  Every  one  gave  him  their  complete  attention. 

" '  Before  I  proceed,'  he  resumed,  *  I  must  recall  to  your 
minds  Newton's  general  law,  "  that  the  attraction  of  two 
bodies  is  directly  proportional  to  the  product  of  their 
masses,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  their 
distances." ' 

"  *  Yes,  then,'  continued  the  professor,  *  keep— —  " 

"  *  Yes,'  said  Servadac  ;  '  we  remember  that*^ 

"  *  Well,  then/  continued  the  professor,  *  keep  it  in  mind 
for  a  few  minutes  now.  Look  here  !  In  this  bag  are 
forty  five-franc  pieces— -altogether  they  weigh  exactly  a 
kilogramme,  by  which  I  mean  that  if  we  were  on  the 
eartn,  and  I  were  to  hang  the  bag  on  the  hook  of  the 
steel  yard,  the  indicator  on  the  dial  would  register  one 
kilogramme ;  this  is  clear  enough,  I  suppose  ? ' 

"  As  he  spoke  the  professor  designedly  kept  his  eyes 
fixed  upon  Ben  Zoof.  He  was  avowedly  following  the 
example  of  Arago,  who  was  accustomed  always  in  lecturing 
to  watch  the  countenance  of  the  least  intelligent  of  his 
audience,  and  when  he  felt  he  had  made  his  meaning 
clear  to  him,  be  concluded  that  he  must  have  succeeded 
with  all  the  rest  In  this  case,  however,  it  was  technical 
ignorance,  rather  than  any  lack  of  intellij^ence,  that  justi- 
fied the  selection  of  the  object  of  this  special  attention. 

"  Satisfied  with  his  scrutmy  of  Ben  Zoof 's  face,  the  pro- 
fessor went  on : — 

" '  And  now,  gentlemen,  we  have  to  see  what  these  coins 
weigh  here  upon  GalUa.' 

"  He  suspended  the  money  bag  to  the  hook;  the  needle 
oscillated,  and  stopped. 

"*Readitofif!'hesaid. 

"  The  weight  registered  was  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  grammes. 

"'There,  gentlemen,  one  hundred  and  thirty-three 
grammes  I  Less  than  one-seventh  of  a  kilogramme  ! 
You  see,  consequently,  that  the  force  of  gravity  here  on 
Gallia  is  not  one-seventh  of  what  it  is  upon  the  earth ! ' 

^* *  Interesting  1 '   cried    Servadac,    'most   interesting 
But  let  us  go  on  and  compute  the  mass.' 

" '  No,  captain,  the  density  first,'  said  Rosette. 

" '  Certainly,'  said  the  lieutenant ;  *  for,  as  we  already 
know  the  volume,  we  can  determine  the  mass  as  soon  as 
we  have  ascertained  the  density.' 

"  The  professor  took  up  the  cube  of  rock. 

"  *  You  know  what  this  is,'  he  went  on  to  say.  '  You 
know,  gentlemen,  that  the  block  is  a  cube  hewn  from  the 
substance  of  which    everywhere,  all    throughout   your 

'  "  On  this  subject  an  amusiog  anecdote  m  related  by  the  i!Iu8triotis  astro- 
nomer hbnseli.  One  diy,  just  after  he  had  beea  sliudiog  to  ihs.  as  hw 
usual  habit,  a  young  man  entered  the  roocn,  aud  feehog  kure  ttie  lecturer 
knewr  him  well,  sa  uccd  him  accordingly.  '  I  regret  I  have  not  the  pleasure 
of  your  acqtuintanee/  said  M.  Arago.  '  You  surprise  me,'  Kplied  x\m 
TouBg  student.  '  Not  oniy  am  I  most  regular  in  my  atteodance  at  your 
(cctvres,  but  you  never  uke  your  «yeft  on  me  fr^ro  Che  beginnmg  to  Um 
end/  "* 


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voyage  of  circumnavigation,  you  found  GaUia  to  be  com- 
posed— a  substance  to  which  your  geological  attainments 
did  not  suffice  to  assign  a  name.' 

**  The  professor  took  the  cube,  and,  on  attaching  it  to  the 
hook  of  the  steel  yard,  found  that  its  apparent  weight 
was  one  kilogramme,  and  four  hundred  and  thirty 
grammes. 

" '  Here  it  is,  gentlemen ;  one  kilogramme,  four  hundred 
and  thirty  grammes.  Multiply  by  seven  ;  the  product  is, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  ten  kilogrammes.  What,  therefore, 
is  our  conclusion  ?  Why,  that  the  density  of  Gallia  is 
just  about  double  the  density  of  the  earth  ;  which  we 
know  is  only  five  kilogrammes  to  a  cubic  decimetre. 
Had  it  not  been  for  this  greater  density,  the  attraction  of 
Gallia  would  only  have  been  one-fitteenth  instead  of  one- 
seventh  of  the  terrestrial  attraction.' 

"  The  professor  could  not  refrain  from  exhibiting  his 
gratification  that,  however  inferior  in  volume,  in  density, 
at  least,  his  comet  had  the  advantage  over  the  earth." 

We  have  given  this  long  extract  to  show  the  pleasant 
way  in  which,  in  this  latest  form  of  French  light  literature, 
amusement  is  combined  with  instruction.  It  would  not 
be  fair  to  the  book  to  say  more  of  the  plot  or  of  the 
(Unouement 

We  have  dwelt  especially  upon  Jules  Verne's  latest 
book,  but  equal  praise  must  be  given  him  for  all  those  we 
have  named.  A  boy,  for  instance,  who  had  read  how  the 
frozen  island  in  the  "  Fur  Country"  was  kept  together  by 
Dr.  Black's  device,  would  at  once  understand  the  rationale 
of  Pictet's  and  Cailletet's  recent  splendid  work,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  physical  geography  he  would  have  gradually 
absorbed  in  following  the  strange  adventures  recounted  in 
that  volume. 

We  are  glad  to  have  such  books  to  recommend  for 
boys'  and  girls'  reading.  Many  young  people,  we  are  sure, 
will  be  set  thirsting  for  more  solid  information. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

The  Geometry  of  Compasses:  or^  Problems  Resolved  by  the 
mere  Description  of  Circles^  and  "  the  Use  of  Coloured 
Diagrams  and  Symbols**  By  Oliver  Byrne.  (London  : 
Crosby  Lockwood  and  Co.,  1877.} 

This  is  only  our  old  friend, ''  La  Geometriadd  Compasso 
di  Lorenzo  Mascheroni"  (Paris,  i797)>  decked  out  in  the 
manner  we  have  indicated  in  the  quoted  portion  of  the 
title.  The  order  of  sequence  has  been  departed  from, 
but  this  is  not  a  material  point  The  constructions  are 
the  same  and  the  proofs  the  same  with,  we  believe,  one 
exception,  in  which  case  we  give  the  preference  for 
simplicity  to  Mr.  Byrne. 

There  are  twenty  problems,  which  are  in  most  cases 
given  in  duplicate,  first  construction  and  figure  in  colours, 
then  proof  and  imadomed  figure  on  the  next  two  pages. 

The  merits  and  nature  of  Mascheroni's  work  are  well 
known ;  hence  the  present  work,  for  reasons  given  above, 
is  good.  But  we  cannot  call  this  Mr.  Byrne's  book. 
Problem  XX.,  which  is  the  last,  is  an  elegant  construction 
for  dividing  the  circumference  into  seven  equal  parts  by 
plane  geometry.  But  for  this  the  compiler  is  indebted 
to  an  able  mathematician.  Dr.  Matthew  Collins.  The 
book  is  Very  neatly  and  correctly  got  \xp^  and  for  frontis- 
piece has  a  hand  with  a  pair  of  compasses  transferring  a 
given  length. 

Proceedings  of    the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
VoL  xvi.,  No.  99.    January  to  May,  1877. 

Prof.  Copb  has  several  noteworthy  papers  in  this  part : 
one,  on  the  Batrachia  of  the  coal- measures  of  Ohio,  de- 
scribes the  newgenufp  Ichthycanthut,  and  the  newsped^  of 


Leptophractus  and  Tuditanus.  He  also  describes  remains 
of  a  Dinosaurian  from  the  trias  of  Utah  ;  the  humerus  is 
one  of  the  longest,  and  distally  the  most  contracted 
known  in  the  group.  These  remains  are  the  first  dis- 
covered fossils  in  the  triassic  beds  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain regions.  Another  valuable  paper  is  on  the  brain  of 
Coryphodon.  One  of  the  longest  contributions  will  be 
much  esteemed  by  geologists,  viz.,  Mr.  Ashbumer's  mea- 
sured section  of  the  palaeozoic  rocks  of  Central  Pennsyl- 
vania (Huntingdon  County),  a  section  extending  vertically 
through  18,394  feet.  A  very  valuable  series  of  physio- 
logical experiments  is  recorded  in  a  paper  by  F.  L. 
Haynes,  on  the  asserted  antagonism  between  nicotin  and 
strychnia.  Philology  is  well  represented  by  a  paper  on 
the  Timucua  language,  by  Mr.  A.  S.  Gatschet ;  this  lan- 
guage, formerly  spoken  in  Florida,  appears  to  be  the  oldest 
withiiv  the  American  Union  of  which  writings  of  some 
extent  are  preserved. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  nd  holdhimsdf  responsible  for  ophmnsexpresud 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  eon  he  nndertahe  to  ret$tm^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  refected  nuumscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  commnntcations. 

The  Editor  urgently  ^*9*^ts  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  posiible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  tkat  it 
is  impossible  otherwiu  to  ensure  the  apiearanec  even  of  com^ 
munications  contaif$ing  interesting  ana  novd  fdcts,\ 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

With  reference  to  the  controversy  between  Mr.  Stouey  and 
Mr.  Osborne  Reynolds  about  the  laws  of  the  conduction  of  heat 
in  gases,  it  seems  desirable  to  call  the  latter  gentleman's  attention 
to  the  fact  that  neither  Claosins'  nor  Clerk  Maxweil's  investiga- 
tions, as  published  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine^  affect  the 
controversy  between  them. 

The  latter,  in  his  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine^  vol. 
XXXV.,  lays  particular  stress  upon  the  fact  that  he  supposes  the 
motions  of  the  molecules  to  be  uniformly  distributed  in  every 
direction.  He  says,  however,  on  page  188  :  "  When  one  gas  is 
diffusing  into  another,  or  when  heat  is  being  conducted  through  a 
gas,  the  distribution  of  velocities  will  be  different  in  the  positive 
and  negative  directions  instead  of  being  symmetrical,  as  in  the 
case  we  have  considered.*'  From  this  theory  of  the  uniform 
distribution  of  velocities  he  deduces  the  formula  (29),  (31),  and 
(32),  as  he  numbers  them,  and  to  which  he  subsequently  refers. 
On  page  214  be  gets  aa  equation  (143)  which  represents  the 
transierence  of  heat  through  the  medium,  and  says :  **  The 
second  term  contains  quantities  uf  four  dimensions  in  ( ij  (,  whoic 
value  luill  depend  upon  the  distribution  cf  velocity  among  the 
molecules,  ^the  distribudon  of  velocity  is  that  which  we  have 
proved  to  exist  when  the  system  has  no  external  forces  acting  on 
it»  and  when  it  has  arrived  at  its  final  state  we  shall  have  by 
equations  (29),  (31),  (32)  ..."  ceriain  results  from  which  he 
deduces  his  equation  for  the  conduction  of  heat  in  gases. 

When  he  tays  '*  has  arrived  at  its  final  sute  "  it  is  evident  from 
his  reference  to  the  equations  that  he  means  the  state  of  a  gas  in 
which  neither  diffusion  nor  conduction  of  heat  nor  cunents  of 
any  kind  are  going  on.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  his  final  result 
u  only  a  first  approximation  and  could  not  possibly  be  expected 
to  hold  within  distances  comparable  with  the  mean  length  ol  the 
path  of  a  molecule  between  two  enc^juoters. 

Clausius  in  his  paper  as  translated  in  the  Philosophical 
Magazine  for  June,  1862,  does  suppose  a  distribution  of  velocity 
among  the  molecules  of  such  a  kind  that  the  velocity  and  number 
of  molecules  moving  in  the  positive  and  negative  directions  is 
different,  but  assumes  the  mean  between  thein  to  be  the  same  as 
the  number  moving  in  a  direction  normal  to  the  direciion  of  the 
transference  of  heat.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  what  he 
practically  does  is  to  assume  that  the  number  of  molecules  moving 
m  a  direction  making  an  ani^le  Q  with  the  direction  of  transference 
of  heat  can  be  expressed  by  a  formula  of  the  form— • 

n  =  n^{i  +^cos0)y 
for  he  neglects  ^  throughout  his  investigation.    In  this  form  it 
is  evident  that  n^  is  the]number  when  $  s  -and  is  the  mean  of 

the  values  iij  s  if^  (i  +  e)  and  n^  =:  if^  (i  •  r),  which  represent 
the  numbers  going  towards  and  from  the  points  of  high  tempera- 


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tore.  From  the  fact  that  ^  enters  into  the  investigatioii  it  all  it 
is  evident  that  this  is  only  an  approximation  to  the  true  distribn- 
tion.  In  accordance  with  this  Mr.  Stoney  has  shown  con- 
clusively that  in  a  compressed  Crookes's  layer  the  number  of 
molecules  moving  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  transference  of 
heat  is  greater  tlun  the  number  of  th«tse  moving  in  any  direction 
normal  to  it,  so  that  the  expressi<>n  Ciausios  derived  from  'his 
assumption  cannot  be  considered  as  expressing  the  whole  state 
of  affairs. 

It  is  remarkable  that  to  this  order  the  expression  for  the  pres- 
sure on  any  plane  is  the  sa<ne,  but  Clausiui  gives  another  term 
in  his  expression  for  the  pressure  on  a  plane  normal  to  the  direc- 
tion of  transfer -nee  of  heat  to  which  he  attaches,  indeed,  only 
an  indefinite  coefficient  because  it  is  of  the  order  <*,  and  he  was 
purposely  neglecting  quuititien  of  thu  oner.  He  might  have 
prophesied,  however,  from  the  ext»t  nee  of  such  a  term  that  at 
distances  comparable  with  e  a  force  woald  be  manifested  such  as 
Mr.  Crookes  has  since  discovered.  Now  this  /  is  by  definition 
a  quantity  of  the  order  ot  the  length  of  the  mean  path  bei  ween 
successive  encounters,  and  hence  these  terms  varying  with  ^ 
would  become  of  importance  at  distances  comparaole  with  the 
length  of  this  mean  path. 

I  believe,  then,  that  I  have  shown  thit  neither  Cliusius  nor 
Clerk  Maxwell  have  considered  the  case  in  dtitp  ite  bet^reen  Mr 
Stoney  and  Mr.  Osborne  Rcyn  'Ids,  and  th  »t  as  far  as  thtir 
investigations  bear  upon  it  they  tend  very  much  to  strengthen 
Mr.  Sioney's  ca'^e.  I  have  also  shown  that  Clausius  was  on  the 
point  of  anticipating  both  Crookes's  fore-  and  Mr.  Stoney's 
explanation  of  it.  Geo.  Fras.  Fitzgerald 

Trmiiy  College,  Dublin 

Prof.  Elmer  on  the  Nervous  System  of  Medusae 

Some  of  your  readers  may  remember  that  a  few  months  ago  I 
published  in  Natuke  an  abstract  of  a  lecture  which  I  had 
delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  on  "  The  Evolution  of  Nenres." 
In  this  lecture  I  mainly  treated  of  my  recent  researches  on  the 
nervous  system  oi  Medusa ;  and  stated,  among  other  things,  that 
I  was  the  first  to  publish  the  observation  concerning  the  para- 
lysing effect  of  removing  the  margins  ot  nect<)calyces.^  Within 
the  lai>t  few  days,  however,  I  have  received  a  communication 
from  Prof.  Eimer,  of  Tiibingen,  informing  me  that  he  has  the 
right  to  claim  priority  as  regards  the  publishing  of  this  observation. 
I  therefore  send  you  this  note  in  order  that  I  may  rectify  the 
injustice  which  I  previously  did  to  Dr.  Eimer  in  your  columns. 

The  facts  of  the  case  are  simply  thete  :  Dr.  Eimer  made  his 
observation  a  few  months  later  than  I  made  mine ;  but,  as  he 
communicated  his  observation  within  a  few  weeks  after  he  had 
made  it  to  the  Physikalisch'tnedicinischen  GestWchaft  zu  Wurt- 
burgt  his  publication  preceded  mine.  He  has  therefore  the  right 
to  claim  priority  as  regards  this  observation,  and  also  as  r^ards 
some  further  physiological  experiments  by  which  he  followed  it 
np--all  of  which  I  have  been  careful  to  detail  in  my  Royal 
Society  publications. 

So  much  in  justice  to  Dr.  Eimer.  In  justice  to  myself  I  must 
now  explain  that,  although,  since  the  publication  of  my  Croonian 
lecture  in  1875,  I  have  been  aware  that  Dr.  Elmer's  work  was 
independent  of  mine,  it  is  only  within  the  la&t  few  days  I 
have  learned  from  him  that  the  publication  of  his  work  was  prior 
to  mine.  The  reason  of  the  ambiguity  on  this  head  is  explained 
in  a  newly-pubiished  memoir  by  Dr.  Eimer,  where  it  is  stated 
that  his  previous  memoir,  having  been  published  in  the  fVurz- 
hurg  Verhandlungen  without  its  proper  title* page,  the  initials 
•*<^.  /."  ("this  year"),  which  occur  in  the  paper  itself,  refer, 
not  to  the  date  on  the  volume,  but  to  the  year  preceding.  My 
prolonged  ignorance  concerning  Dr.  Eimeir^s  claim  to  priority, 
has,  therefore,  not  been  due  to  any  fault  on  mv  part ;  and  as  in 
all  my  previous  publications  on  this  subject  I  have  spoken  of 
Dr.  Eimer's  work  as  subsequent  to  my  own,  I  may  here  add 
that  I  think  the  fact  of  his  having  been  so  long  in  acquainting 
me  with  the  true  standing  of  the  case,  displays  a  laudable  spirit 
of  indifference  on  his  part  to  the  matter  of  mere  priority. 

GkorgbJ.  Romaic  es 

18,  Cornwall  Terrace,  Regent's  Park,  N.W. 

Mr.  Crookes  and  Eva  Fay 
After  Mr.  Cooper's  courteous  explanation  which  appeared 
in  last  week's  Nature  (p.  183),  I  gladly  exonerate  him  from 
blame. 

>  I  first  published  this  obs;rvatios  in  a  not«  tOi.NATUXX,  which  appeared 
in  November,  1874. 


To  the  pablicatioa  of  my  ktter  in  the  Banner  of  Liekt^  if 
Mr.  Cooper  thought  it  likely  to  do  Eva  Fay  any  good,  I  have 
no  ground  of  complaint ;  but  what  I  did,  and  do  now,  protest 
against,  is  the  uoanthorised  publication  of  a  lithographed  foe- 
stmilroi  my  letter  in  sncb  a  manner,  and  with  such  surroundings, 
as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  the  intention  vras  to  throw  discredit  on 
my  testimony  as  a  trustworthy  experimentalist 

I  am  glad  to  find  that  Mr.  Cooper  was  no  party  to  this  breach 
of  etiquette,  and  I  willingly  a  iihdraw  any  expressions  in  my 
letter  m  NATURE  (vol  xviiL  p.  43)  which  may  appear  to  reflect 
on  him. 

As  a  fitting  climax  to  this  controversy,  may  I  request  you  to 
publish  the  subjoined  letter  from  Eva  Fay,  which  appeared  in 
the  Banmr  of  Li^kt  for  December  aa  last  ? 

London,  January  7  William  Crookes 

"To  the  Editor  of  the  Banner  of  Light.  Boston,  U.S., 
December  aa 

'*  I  WISH  to  state  a  few  facts  in  ref^^ence  to  an  article  in  yonr 
paper  of  December  8,  referring  to  myself,  in  a  letter  of  Mr. 
Crookes  on  Dr.  Carpenter's  attack. 

"  First,  it  is  untrue  that  Mr.  Crookes  gave  me  a  letter  speak- 
ing of  the  spiritU4listic  nature  of  my  manifestations,  and  referring 
to  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society.  The  only  letter,  to  mv  know- 
ledge, that  Mr.  Cro>ikes  ever  wrote  regarding  my  mMiumship 
(with  the  exception  of  the  one  written  t  >  Mr.  Cooper)  appeared 
in  the  London  Daily  Telegraph,  and  other  joumsis,  March  11, 
1875. 

**  Second,  in  reply  to  Dr.  Carpenter's  statement  that  an  offtf 
was  made  by  uiy  managers  in  May,  1875,  ^  ^^  equivalent  sum 
of  money  fur  me  to  'expose  the  whole  affaii,'  I  will  now  say 
to  Dr.  Carpenter,  as  I  did  to  my  managers,  /  have  nothing  to 
expose. 

**  I  am  in  receipt  of  a  letter,  dated  November  18, 1877,  asking 
me  if  I  will  fix  a  price  to  visit  England  under  the  title  of 
an  '  Expos^e,'  and  show  how  I  am  supposed  to  have  hoodwinked 
members  of  the  Royal  Society. 

"  My  reply  was  as  follows  : — '  A«  poor  a;  I  am,  and  as  clever 
as  I  am  supposed  to  be  by  Dr.  Carpenter  and  others,  I  am 
obliged  to  decline  your  tempting  proposition  to  replenish  my 
excnequer  by  attempting  imposftibiUtie#.  I  sincerely  hope  to  be 
able  to  maintain  myself  and  child  in  a  more  honourable  occa- 
pation.'  **  Annie  Eva  Fay 

•'Akron,  Ohio,  December  10,  1877" 

Volcanic  Phenomena  in  Borneo 

Ms.  Wallace,  in  his  wotk  on  the  '*  Geographical  DistrOM- 
tion  of  Animals,"  has  the  remark  that  no  volcaoo,  active  or 
extinct,  is  known  to  exi»t  within  the  area  of  the  island  of  Borneo^ 
notwithstanding  that  it  is  almost  environed  by  a  volcanic  belt  in 
full  aaivity  at  a  short  distance.  In  fact,  it  seems  to  be  generallj 
understood  that  this  vast  island  now  represents,  and  has  con- 
tinued to  represent  for  long  past  time,  a  perfectly  quiescent  area 
in  so  far  as  manifestations  uf  subterranean  energies  are  concerned. 
This  view  is  doubtless  strictly  correct  in  regard  to  the  exi»tence 
of  any  volcanic  vent  which  is  now  in  action,  or  which  has  been 
so  within  the  historical  period ;  but  it  would  be  etroneous  to 
deduce  from  it,  as  seems  natural  to  do  at  first  sight,  the  inference 
that  the  area  is  one  of  entire  quiescence,  or  that  it  has  been  so 
free  from  volcanic  action  in  any  but  the  most  recent  times. 

Speaking  solely  with  reference  to  the  north-west  district,  it 
may  be  observed  that  shocks  of  earthquake  have  been  recorded 
more  than  once  by  credible  witnesses  muring  late  years,  viz.,  one 
in  June,  1874,  a  second  in  June,  1876,  and  two  more  in  July, 
1876.  These  were  recorded  the  first  m  S  idong,  the  three  others 
in  Sarawak.  According  to  native  testimony,  sli^tht  shocks  ar« 
by  no  means  rare,  and  a  severe  one  is  particularly  held  in 
remembrance^  which  took  place  seventy  or  eighty  years  ago,  and 
was  accompanied  by  "  a  ram  of  ashes."  Seismometrical  obser- 
vation would  probably  show  that  they  are  very  frequent.  These 
shocks  seem  to  indicate  that  the  island  is  directly  affected  by  the 
proximity  of  the  volcanic  band  above  referred  to. 

As  for  the  period  ot  time  preceding  the  historical  epoch,  there 
are  not  wantmg  signs  that  this  pare  of  Borneo  was  the  theatre  of 
a  display  of  considerable  volcanic  energy,  and  it  has  yet  to  be 
shown  that  its  date  of  activity  was  anterior  to  the  deposition  of 
the  sandatone  conglomerate  formation  of  the  country,  whidi  is, 
with  the  excepdon  of  very  recent  deposits,  the  most  modem- of 
the  stratified  rocks  of  thu  part  of  the  island,  it  having  been 
assigned— I  know  not  with  how  much  truth— to  a  later  tertiary 


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date  on  the  evidence  of  the  plant-remains  found  in  the  coal- 
seams  which  are  associated  witn  it 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  determining  questions  of  relative 
superposition  in  a  country  so  densely  clothed  wiUi  vegeta- 
tion, and  to  the  insignificant  depth  of  the  sections,  natural 
and  artificial,  which  are  accessible,  coupled  with  the  re- 
markably disturbed  condition  of  large  tracts  of  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks-^it  is  not  possible  to  define  at  present  the 
relations  of  the  igneous  to  the  sedimentary  rocks  of  the 
district  Nevertheless,  such  evidence  as  I  have  myself  been  able 
to  collect  goes  to  support  the  hypothesis  that  the  last  outbreak  of 
volcanic  activity  was  posterior  m  date  to  all  but  the  more  modem 
deposits  of  shales,  clays,  river-gravels,  &c.,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  it  preceded  more  or  less  immediately,  the  last  submergence 
of  north-west  Borpeo^though  separated  from  that  submergence 
by  a  long  interval,  and  possibly  being  the  concomitant  of  an 
antecedent  elevation  of  the  land. 

The  traces  of  this  outbreak  remain  in  the  existence  of  thermal 
springs,  two  at  least  of  which  occur  in  association  with  bills  of 
trappy  and  basaltic  rocks  ;  the  country  in  many  parts  is  dotted 
with  hills  of  basalt,  columnar  basalt,  and  felspathic  porphyries, 
and  in  the  intervening  lowlands  is  seamed  with  dykes  of  porphy- 
ritic,  homblendic,  and  siliceous  rocks  ;  the  sedimentary  strata  are 
greatly  disturbed  when  the  igneous  rocks  occur,  being  often 
upheaved  at  high  angles  and  much  plicated,  and  locally  the 
sandstones  and  shales  have  been  metamorphosed ;  whilst  masses 
of  a  volcanic-conglomerate  (?)  are  occasionally  met  with. 

Philippine  Islands,  September  27  A,  H.  Everett 

New  Form  of  Telephone 

Having  had  the  pleasure  of  listening  to  Mr.  Preece  and  Prof. 
Graham  Bell  explaming  that  most  wonderful  invention,  the 
telephone,  at  the  late  meeting  of  the  British  Association  in 
Plymouth,  I  endeavoured  to  obtain  the  instrument  for  my  own 
nse,  and  was  ultimately  successful. 

It  soon  struck  me  that  if  the  disc  or  diaphragm  whose  vibra- 
tion causes  the  induced  current  in  the  coil  of  copper  wire  must 
be  a  magnetic  substance,  and  not  simply  a  conductor,  then  if  I 
could  succeed  in  getting  an  electro-magnet  to  vibrate  in  a  similar 
manner  it  might  be  po«ible  to  get  as  powerful  a  sound. 

With  this  object  in  view  a  coil  of  insulated  copper  wire  was 
fastened  to  a  card,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i. 


The  wire  used  was  No.  28  cotton-covered,  and  it  was  sewed 
to  the  card  with  thread. 

The  iron  disc  was  taken  out  of  one  of  the  telephones,  and  the 
coil-diaphragm  put  ui  its  place  through  which  a  current  was 
passed  from  a  single  Bunsen  cell.  On  making  connection  with 
the  other  telephone,  talking,  singing,  and  whistling  were  heard 
distinctly  at  both. 

Various  coils  have  shice  beenTtried  both  with  thicker  and  also 
thinner  wire,  but  as  yet  the  results  have  not  been  as  good  as 
when  the  iron  disc  is  used. 

When  two  such  coils  are  used,  one  superposed  on  the  other, 
the  loudness  of  the  sotmd  transmitted  is  increased  to  some 
extent.  The  same  result  is  produced  by  adding  another  Bunsen 
celL  With  a  Darnell's  cell  the  sound  is  very  feeble.  When  a 
coil  is  placed  in  each  telephone  the  result  is  rather  unsatisfactory 
as  yet 

It  has  also  been  noticed  that  a  simple  conductor  as  a  coil  of 
copper  wire  also  transmits  sound  but  very  faintly. 

A  small  apparatus  (Fig.  2)  has  been  made  to  show  the  effects 
above  described.  A  piece  of  wood  about  three  inches  square  and 
about  one  inch  thick  has  a  hole  bored  through  it  about  two 
inches  in  diameter.  A  reel  (2)  containmg  about  250  yards  of 
silk-covered  copper  wire  is  placed  in  the  hole  with  a  piece  of 
soft  iron  about  half  an  inch  in  diameter  as  axis  (i). 

A  co'?  diaphragm  (3)  is  placed  across  one  end  of  the  hole  at  a 


very  short  distance  firom  the  soft  iron  core,  and  is  covered  by  a 
mouth-piece.  Across  the  other  end  of  the  hole  at  a  similar  dis- 
tance from  the  core  is  placed  a  thin  iron  disc  (4)  which  is  also 
covered  by  a  mouth-piece.  On  a  current  being  passed  through 
the  coil-diaphragm  this  apparatus  acts  as  a  telephone,  and 
messages  can  be  sent  from  either  side  of  it 

2. 


3.  Coil  diaphragm. 

4.  Iron  disc. 

The  iron  disc  and  core  may  be  removed,  and  the  coil- 
diaphragm  alone  acts  in  an  exactly  similar  noanner. 

The  above  are  the  results  of  some  experiments  which  have 
occupied  my  spare  time  lately,  and  not  having  seen  anything 
similar  published  I  forward  them  to  you  as  they  are  rather 
interesting.  The  whole  of  the  experiments  have  been  conducted 
with  the  aid  of  mjr  friend,  Mr.  G.  B.  Nicoll,  who  has  also  made 
many  important  soiegestions.  Jambs  M.  Romanu 

Shooting  Stars 

The  number  of  shooting  stars  seen  here  during  the  last  six 
months  (July  to  Decembrr)  is  2,259  in  168  hours  of  watching. 
This  number  includes  385  Perseids  observed  becween  August  j 
and  16.  Of  the  remaining  1,874  1.028  were  seen  during  seventy- 
five  hours  in  the  mornings  and  846  during  ninety-three  hours  in 
the  evenings.  After  making  certain  allowances  for  time  spent 
in  registering  the  paths  (and  omitting  the  Perseids),  the  horary 
numbers  appear  to  have  been  as  follows  : — 

16*4  A.M.,  10  9  P.M.,  134  A.M.  and  P.M. 

From  these  figures  I  estimate  that  the  aggregate  number  of 
shooting-stars  as  bright  as,  or  brighter  than,  5ih  mags.,  which 
entered  the  earth's  atmosphere  in  this  particular  part  of  the 
world  by  night  and  day  during  the  last  six  months,  was  about 
236,70a  The  horary  number  has  iJready  been  mentioned  as 
13  '4  lor  one  observer.  Now  a  single  pair  of  eyes  certainly  cannot 
command  more  than  a  fourth  part  of  the  visible  sky,  so  that 
we  must  adopt  53*6  as  the  horary  rate  over  the  whole  sky. 
From  this  we  readily  deduce  the  diurnal  number  as  1286*4,  and 
the  aggregate  for  the  six  months,  236,697*6  as  above. 

When  it  is  further  considered  that  the  average  height  of  ordi« 
nary  shooting-stars  is  only  about  seventy  miles,  and  that  there- 
fore observers  at  widely  distant  stations  must  each  see  a  distinct 
set  altogether,  we  are  able  to  form  some  remote  idea  of  the  vast 
number  that  enter  our  atmosphere  every  day. 

Biistol,  December  26,  1877  W.  F.  Denning 

Gentiana  asclepiadea  and  Bees 

This  gentian  is  very  abundant  on  the  mountain  slopes  round 
Engelberg,  as  visitors  to  that  part  o«  Switzerland  well  know.  As 
I  was  botanising  in  the  neighbourhood,  in  the  autumn  of  this 
year,  I  observed  that  most  of  the  flowers  were  pierced  with  a 
round  hole  at  the  base.  Presently  I  saw  a  bee  come  to  one  of 
the  pierced  flowers,  and  thrust  in  its  proboscis  in  search  of 
honey.  The  flowers  of  this  beautiful,  sweet-smelling  gentian 
are  long  and  funnel-shaped,  and  very  contracted  at  the  base, 
and,  as  the  bee  that  visited  it  was  a  <*  fair  large  "  one,  like  Sir 
Torre's  diamond,  and  not  of  the  narrow  hive-bee  type,  it  could 
not  possibly  have  effected  its  purpose  by  entering  the  flower  m 
the  usual  way  at  the  cop,  and  had  no  doubt  resorted  to  this 
method  of  extracting  the  honey.  I  only  saw  this  one  kind  of 
bee  visit  the  flowers,  but  I  saw  many  of  them  at  work,  and  all 
acted  in  the  same  way.  One  of  them  came  to  some  of  the 
flowers,  which  I  had  gathered,  as  I  held  them  in  my  hand.  I 
cannot  say  that  I  saw  a  single  flower  actually  pierced  by  a  bee; 
the  day  was  warm,  even  for  Engelberg,  and  the  bees  were  very 


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quick  in  their   vuvetnents,  which  increased    the   difBcnlty  of 
observation,  but  that  the  bees  themselves  were  the  agents,  In 
making  the  holes,  there  can  be  no  reason  to  doubr. 
Highfield,  Gainsborongb,  December  31        F.  M.  BUETON 


Photography  Foreshadowed 

Thb  6rat  prophetic  allusion  to  the  photographic  art,  the  dis- 
covery of  which  was  to  take  place  eighteen  centuries  later,  is 
perhaps  found  in  the  story  of  the  miraculous  occurrence  told  in 
the  life  of  St.  Veronica. 

The  second  insunce  is  about  the  year  1690 ;  but  intermediate 
instances  may  probably  be  found.  1  extract  from  the  works  of 
Fenelon  ^  the  loUowing  passage  from  an  imaginary  voyage  in 
1690  : — "  There  was  no  painter  in  the  country,  but  when  any- 
one wished  to  have  the  portrait  of  a  fiiend,  a  beautiful  landscape, 
or  a  tableau  which  represented  any  other  object,  he  put  water  in 
large  basins  of  gold  or  silver;  then  placed  this  water  opposite 
the  object  he  wished  to  paint  Soon  the  water  congealing 
became  like  a  looking-glass,  in  which  the  image  of  that  object 
remained  ineffaceable  ;  and  it  was  a  picture  as  faithful  as  the 
brightest  minors."  One  could  wish  that  the  author  had  entered 
into  detail  as  to  the  manner  "  of  placing  this  water  opposite  the 
objects  he  wished  to  paint." 

The  third  instance  is  about  1760,  that  is  seventy  years  later, 
and  seventy-nine  years  before  1839,  the  date  of  Daguerre's  dis- 
covery. It  is  reported '  by  Ed.  Foumier,  who  extracted  from 
what  he  calls  "  un  assez  manvais  livre,*'  written  by  a  certain 
Tiphaigne  de  la  Roche  ^^  the  entire  passage,  extremely  curious, 
but  rather  long.  This  passage  contains  many  details.  The 
**  water  "  of  F&elon  is  replaixd  by  **a  material  very  subtle, 
very  viscous,  and  very  read v  to  dry  and  harden."  "They** 
(certain  *' elementary  spirits  )  coat  with  this  material  a  piece  of 
linen,  and  present  it  to  the  objects  which  they  wish  to  paint,"  &c. 

In  the  two  last  examp  es  the  pictures  formed  reproduce  the 
images  of  the  objects,  with  their  natural  colours  and  their  forms, 
so  that  the  objects  are  seen  as  if  reflected  in  a  mirror.  The 
photographs  of  the  present  day  are  still  very  far  from  this  ideal 
perfection,  which,  however,  they  will  probably  never  cease  to 
approach  without  ever  being  able  to  reach. 

Rotterdam  J.  A.  Grosuans 

Average  Annual  Temperature  at  Earth's  ^Surface 
Having  lived  for  many  years  both  in  the  southern  and 
northern  hemispheres,  I  have  a  very  strong  impression  that  if 
means  were  taken  to  ascertain,  with  more  or  lesi  approximation, 
the  average  annual  temperature  at  the  earth's  stirface,  by  a  com- 
bination of  the  daily  averages  of  a  sufficient  number  of  places  of 
observation,  there  would  be  found  a  very  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  yearly  values  of  the  said  average  annual  temperatures. 
But  whether,  on  inquiry,  there  should  prove  to  be  a  decided 
difference  or  an  absolute  agreement  between  these  averages,  the 
fact  in  either  case  would  surely  be  worth  ascettaining,  and  could 
not  fail  to  be  instructive.  It  might  be  objected  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  obtain  the  observations  of  the  dally  average  tem- 
perature from  such  a  number  of  observatories  as  would  render  the 
desired  annual  average  for  the  whole  earth  of  flny  value,  but  I 
think  this  objection  overstates  the  difficulty.  Suppose  that  the 
subject  were  taken  up  by  some  one  of  the  meteorological  autho- 
rities m  Great  Britain,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  obtain  from 
existing  daily  records,  a  good  average  annual  value  for  the  tem- 
perature of  the  British  Islands.  Similarly,  an  average  annual 
value  cotild  be  obtained  for  the  temperature,  from  the  daily 
averages  in  the  various  colonies  and  dependencies  of  the  British 
empire;  and  I  take  it  to  be  certain,  that  the  conductors  of  the 
various  meteorological  observatories  all  over  the  empire  would 
cheetfully  respond  to  an  invitation  to  co-operate  in  such  a  work. 
In  a  similar  scientific  spirit  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  observatories 
of  all  civilised  countries  would  be  willing  to  exchange  their 
observations,  and  an  approximate  result  could  thus  be  arrived  at, 
possibly  in  two  or  three  years.  Certainly,  it  might  be  at  first  a 
rough  approxtmatk>n  only,  but  it  would  be  yearly  becoming  better 
with  the  rapid  increase  ot  meteorological  observatories  all  over 
the  world.  And  as  it  is  ntt  too  much  to  hope  that,  sooner  or 
later,  the  whole  habitable  earth  will  be  civilised  and  covered  with 
observatories,  it  is  certain  that  the  figures  ultimately  obtained  to 
represent  the  average  annual  temperatures  at  the  earth's  surface 

*  Paris,  Auguste  De»ret  18  J7.  tome  3"*^,  p  643. 

*  L«  Vieox  Neu^  HUtoire  Aucienao  <les  lny«ations  ct  D^ooav«rt« 
Modemet     Pani,  Deoiu,  zSjo 

9  Gipbaode,  k  Bab>loae,  MJDCCLX,  x^. 


would  have  the  value  of  scientific  approximations  of  considerable 
accuracy.  If  this  be  so,  it  cannot  be  too  early  to  begin  cheat 
statistics  now. 

Supposing  that  these  annual  averages  should  exhibit  a  differ* 
ence  in  their  yearly  values,  it  is  probable  that  these  diffrrences 
would  vary  in  sympathy  with  the  total  sun-spot  areas  of  the  yean 
to  which  they  belonged.  What  could  be  done  for  temperature^ 
could  be  done  at  the  same  time  for  other  sat)jects  of  mete<m>]ogical 
investigation,  and  it  is  impossible  to  anticipate  at  present  wfasit 
light  ttiese  tabulated  annual  averages  might  be  able  to  throw 
upon  various  problems  of  solar  and  terrestrial  physics. 

Balham,  December  4  D.  Traill 

ON  A  MEANS  FOR  CONVERTING  THE  HEAT^ 
MOTION  POSSESSED  BY  MATTER  AT 
NORMAL  TEMPERATURE  INTO  WORK 

IN  a  previous  article ^  we  cotisidered  how,  by  a  simple 
mechanical  means,  diffusion  renders  it  possible  to 
derive  work  from  matter  at  normal  temperature.  As  the 
subject  is  an  important  one  we  propose  to  develop  it 
somewhat  further  here. 

2.  The  normal  temperature  of  objects  on  the  earth's 
surface  represents  a  vast  store  of  energr  in  the  form  of 
molecular  motion.  The  sea  (for  example;  at  norma!  tem- 
perature possesses  an  amount  of  molecular  energy  whidi 
(by  computation),  if  it  were  entirely  utilised,  would  be 
competent  to  lift  it  to  a  height  of  upwards  of  seventy 
miles.  The  air  and  the  crust  of  the  earth  itself  possess 
comparable  amoimts  of  energy.  It  might  therefore  wdl 
be  asked  beforehand  whether  it  is  not  possible  to  transfo 
some  of  this  intense  molecular  motion  to  masses  and 
utilise  it  It  may  be  observed  that  this  intense  store  of 
energy  is  being  continually  dissipated  in  space  in  the  form 
of  waves  (by  radiation).  The  energy  possessed  by  the 
molecules  of  matter,  however,  maintains  (as  is  Imown)  a 
constant  normal  value  on  account  of  the  waves  of  heat 
received  from  the  sun,  whose  mechanical  value  at  the 
earth's  surface  (as  represented  by  the  results  of  Herschel 
and  Pouillet)  is  normally  equal  to  about  one-horse  power 
per  square  yard  of  surface.  Here,  therefore,  we  have  a. 
continual  store  of  motion  kept  up  in  the  molecules  of 
matter  on  the  earth's  surface  to  be  wasted  in  great  part  in 
imparting  motion  to  the  ether  of  space.  It  would  cer- 
tainly look,  ^  priori^  as  if  there  ought  to  be  some  means 
of  utilising  this  store  of  motion. 

3.  The  second  law  of  thermodynamics  would  (as  is 
known)  assume  that  this  would  not  be  practicable.  This 
law  was  propounded  simply  as  what  was  considered  a 
legitimate  inference  from  the  observed  behaviour  of  heat. 
But  a  great  advance  in  the  knowledge  of  the  nature  of 
heat  has  been  made  since  that  time,  and  it  shotild  be 
noticed  that  the  law  is  (admittedly)  by  no  means  theth- 
retically  necessary  or  requisite  to  satisfy  the  principle  of 
the  conservation  of  energy.  Indeed  a  conceivable  case 
opposed  to  it  has  been  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Maxwell, 
though  one  not  capable  of  being  practically  carried  out. 
It  was  my  purpose  in  the  last  article  to  direct  attention  to 
a  physical  process  opposed  to  the  law  and  admitting  of 
practical  realisation,  in  the  effects  attendant  on  the  dif- 
fusion  of  matter.  At  the  time  when  this  law  was  enun- 
ciated the  character  of  the  motion  termed  "heat"  (as 
illustrated  in  the  now  accepted  kinetic  theory  of  gases) 
was  unrecognised,  and  therefore  the  mechanism  of  the 
diffusion  of  gases  was  not  understood.  Under  these 
conditions,  therefore,  it  would  not  be  much  a  point  for 
surprise  if  increase  of  knowledge  should  show  the  law 
not  to  be  generally  applicable  (or  not  to  admit  of  that 
general  application  which  is  implied  by  the  use  of  the 
term  "  law  "). 

4.  1 1  may  serve  greatly  to  facilitate  the  following  of  this 
subject  if  we  visualise  the  relations  of  heat  and  work 
more  closely.  Since  "  fuaV^  is  simply  a  motion  of  small 
portions  of  matter  (termed  "molecules*'),  and  since  the 

*  *'  On  the  D.flusion  of  Mauer  in  ReUtion  to  tht  jBecoad  Law  of  Tbenao* 
dy&amici,*'  tee  NATuaa,  vol.  xvii.  p^  jx. 


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transference  of  this  motion  to  visible  masses  is*  called 
'^  work^*  so  therefore  the  conversion  of  heat  into  work  is 
no  more  than  the  transference  of  motion  from  small  to 
large  portions  of  matter,  1 /.,  the  transference  of  motion 
between  portions  of  matter  of  different  dimensions.  The 
mechanical  equivalent  of  heat  therefore  simply  represents 
the  equivalence  in  energy  between  the  motions  0/ portions 
of  matter  of  different  dimensions  (molecules  and  visible 
masses).  To  deny,  therefore,  that  the  heat  possessed  by 
matter  at  normal  temperature  could  be  converted  into 
work  would  be  to  assume  that  by  a  certain  difference  in 
dimensions  the  conditions  are  such  that  motion  can  no 
longer  be  transferred  from  the  smaller  portions  of  matter 
to  the  larger.  This  would  evidently,  ^  priori^  be  by  no 
means  a  necessary  assumption ;  indeed  it  woidd  appear, 
perhaps,  rather  strange  that  by  no  device  could  such  a 
Uiing  be  done. 

5.  At  the  first  sight  one  difficulty  in  the  way  of  utilising 
this  motion  that  surrounds  us  on  all  sides  is  that  the 
larger  scale  portions  of  matter  (visible  masses)  are  im- 
mersed among  the  smaller  scale  portions  of  matter 
(molecules)  which  surround  the  visible  masses  on  all 
sides  (as  the  molecules  of  the  surrounding  air,  &c.),  so 
that  a  perfect  equilibrium  of  motion  exists  on  all  sides ; 
so  that  it  becomes  impossible  to  transfer  the  motion  to 
the  larger  scale  mass  in  the  one  direction  or  in  the  other, 
and  we  cannot  lay  hold  of  each  moving  molecule  indi- 
vidually, on  account  of  its  minute  size. 

6.  It  is  an  observed  fact  (and  demonstrated  theoreti- 
cally) that  portions  of  matter  in  motion  among  themselves 
tend  to  acquire  the  same  energy  of  motion  (called  ^  tem- 
perature "  in  the  case  of  molecules).  In  accordance  with 
well-known  facts,  whenever  the  energy  of  this  system  of 
small  moving  portions  of  matter  is  greater  in  one  part 
than  in  another,  <>.,  whenever  the  equUibrium  of  energy  is 
upset,  then  we  can  transfer  some  of  the  energy  to  Uui^er 
scale  masses  (convert  heat  into  work).  Is  there,  however, 
no  other  means  of  converting  heat  into  work  but  through 
inequality  of  energy  f  It  was  pointed  out  in  the  last 
article  that  inequality  of  velocity  (by  the  mechanism  of 
diffusion)  will  serve  the  same  purpose.  The  portions  of 
matter  (molecules)  which  by  equal  temperature  possess 
equal  energy,  possess,  when  their  tnasses  are  unequal, 
unequal  vdocities.  This  inequality  of  velocity  can  be 
utilised  for  work  as  well  as  inequality  of  energy. 

7.  Since  size  is  only  relative^  or  there  is  nothing  abso- 
lute in  size,  it  will  be  quite  legitimate  to  suppose  molecules 
magnified  up  to  a  larger  scale  so  as  to  be  visible,  and  we 
do  this  as  in  dealing  with  the  mechanism  of  a  process,  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  visualise  or  conceive  clearly  the 
results  without  this  condition,  and  it  is  our  object,  on 
account  of  its  practical  bearing,  to  exhibit  the  process 
involved  in  a  clear  light  Suppose,  therefore,  the  mole- 
cules of  two  diverse  gases  (oxygen  and  hydrogen)  to  be 
magnified  up  to  visible  dimensions,  and  as  we  are  not 
concerned  with  the  shape  or  form  of  the  molecules,  we 
may  simply  represent  the  molecules  of  the  two  gases  b^  a 
number  of  spheres,  those  representing  hydrogen  possessing 
each  one-sixteenth  of  the  mass  of  those  representing 
oxygen,  and  also  possessing  a  normal  velocity  four  times 
as  great  This  is  known  to  be  the  fact  in  the  case  of  the 
two  gases  when  at  the  same  temperature.  We  will  further 
suppose  the  spheres  inclosed  in  the  two  separate  halves 
of  a  cylinder  with  a  piston  between  them.  The  spheres 
may  either  be  supposed  perfectly  elastic  or  their  motion 
kept  up  artificialiv  in  some  way ;  just  as  in  the  case  of  a 
gas  the  motion  of  its  molecules  is  kept  up  by  the  mole- 
cular vibrations  of  the  sides  of  the  cylinder. 

8.  The  spheres  of  the  two  sets  possess  equal  energies 
of  motion,  the  one  set  making  up  in  mass  tor  what  uey 
want  hi  velocity.  The  colliding  spheres  in  each  compart- 
ment will  arrange  themselves  (according  to  a  known 
principle)  so  that  the  number  of  spheres  in  unit  of  volume 
of  each  set  is  the  same^  and  therefore  the  pressure  exerted 


by  their  impacts  on  opposite  sides  of  the  piston  will  pro- 
duce perfect  equilibrium,  so  that  the  piston  remains 
immovable.  Now  the  question  is,  supposing  that  (as 
in  the  case  of  molectiles)  we  cannot  lay  hold  oi  each 
of  these  spheres  separately,  is  there  any  means  of 
utilising  the  inequality  of  velocity  for  the  performance  of 
work  ?  [This  is  the  question  we  have  to  make  in  the  case 
of  two  gases  at  the  same  temperature,  whose  molecules 
we  cannot  grasp,  and  which  possess  unequal  velocities.] 
If  we  could  by  any  device  get  a  number  of  the  spheres 
from  one  compartment  into  the  other  without  changing 
their  velocities  in  the  act,  then  the  pressure  would  evi- 
dently rise  in  one  compartment,  and  we  should  thus 
obtain  a  capacity  for  work  without  the  performance  of 
work.  It  is  evident  that  this  could  be  done  by  making 
several  perforations  in  the  piston,  about  the  size  of  the 
spheres  themselves,  so  that  the  spheres,  in  impinging 
against  the  piston  would  sometimes  happen  to  encounter 
the  void  space  of  a  hole,  and  thus  pass  through  with 
unchanged  velocity  into  the  opposite  compartment  If 
the  spheres  of  the  two  sets  were  moving  with  equal 
velocities,  it  is  evident  that  as  many  on  an  average  would 
pass  through  one  way  as  the  other,  and  there  would 
therefore  be  no  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  pressure, 
and  consequently  no  work  to  be  derived.  But  from  the 
fact  that  the  spheres  are  moving  with  unequal  velocities, 
a  different  result  will  ensue.  It  will  be  evident  that  the 
number  of  spheres  passing  through  the  hole  will  be  pro- 
portional to  the  number  of  times  they  strike  against  the 
giston,  for  the  chances  that  a  sphere  will  encounter  a 
cJe  will  be  proportional  to  the  number  of  its  impacts 
against  the  piston,  i.e.  to  the  velocity  of  the  sphere.  So 
the  velocity  of  the  spheres  in  one  compartment  being  four 
times  that  in  the  other,  four  times  as  many  lighter  spheres 
pass  through  one  way,  as  heavier  spheres  pass  through  the 
other.  The  number  of  spheres  in  one  compartment  will 
therefore  rapidly  augment,  and  thus  the  pressure  af^ainst 
the  piston  m}X  rise,  and  the  piston  will  be  finally  driven 
towards  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  in  this  act 
energy  will  be  transferred  from  the  spheres  in  the  one 
compartment  to  those  in  the  other ;  or  part  of  the  energy 
could  be  transferred  to  an  outside  mechanism  in  a  sdf- 
acting  manner  if  desired,  by  simply  connecting  the  piston 
to  the  mechanism. 

9.  Now  if  precisely  the  same  thing  can  be  done  in  the 
case  of  two  gases,  it  is  evident  that  here  the  energy  being 
heatf  we  have  in  the  result  attendant  on  the  motion  of  the 
piston,  the  transference  of  heat  from  one  portion  of  gas  to 
another  at  normal  temperature,  i,e,  the  transference  of 
heat  in  a  self-acting  manner  from  a  colder  to  a  hotter 
portion  of  matter;  and  if  desired,  a  conversion  of  a  part 
of  the  heat  of  the  gas  (at  normal  temperature)  into  work 
by  cooling  it  down  below  the  temperature  of  the  coldest 
of  surrounding  objects. 

10.  In  the  case  of  a  gas  it  is  clear  that  we  cannot  make 
perforations  analogous  to  the  above  sufficiently  small  to 
suit  molecules,  but  to  attack  molecules  we  must  have  re- 
course to  molecular  mechanism,  or  to  attempt  to  handle 
them  like  the  spheres  we  must  have  recourse  to  mechanism 
on  a  suitable  scale.  We  have  such  a  mechanism  in  a 
porous  diaphragm  (such  as  of  pipeclay  or  plumbago) 
which  represents  a  piston  with  molecular  perforations. 
Such  a  diaphragm,  if  fitted  as  a  piston  into  a  cylinder 
will  exhibit,  with  the  molecules  of  two  separate  gases 
possessing  different  molecular  velocities  (such  as  mole- 
cules of  oxygen  and  hydrogen),  precisely  the  same  phe- 
nomena as  those  exhibited,  simply  on  a  inagnified  scale  in 
the  case  of  the  spheres  ;  or  the  above  description  applies 
word  for  word.  We  have  by  the  motion  of  the  porous 
piston  the  conversion  of  the  heat-motion  of  the  gcu  at 
normal  temperature  into  worfc^  the  transference  Si  heat 
automatically  from  the  colder  portion  of  gas  to  the  warmer. 
The  second  law  of  thermodynamics  only  holds  when  the 
molecules  brought  into  contact  happen  to  be  of  the  saffte 


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{Jan.  lo,  1878 


kind,  or,  more  accurately  speaking,  of  the  same  mass. 
This  latter  case  is  evidently  exceptional,  and  if  a  case  be 
exceptional  the  term  **  law  "  becomes  no  longer  applicable 
tiit. 

11.  The  rates  of  diflfusion  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
across  the  porous  diaphragm  are  known  to  be  as  four  to 
one,  i,f,  as  the  molecular  velocities.  The  above  illustra- 
tion of  the  spheres  may  serve  to  exhibit  the  physical  basis 
or  caiise  of  this  fact  in  a  clear  light  The  mere  statement 
tbat  the  rates  of  diffusion  are  inversely  as  the  square  roots 
of  the  molecular  weights  of  the  gases,  evidently  throws 
no  light  on  the  cause  or  physical  basis  of  the  action, 
which  is  always  the  main  thing  to  realise  in  physical 
science.  The  fact  that  diffusion  is  in  the  above  ratio  to 
the  molecular  weight,  evidently  only  happens  to  be  true 
because  the  molecular  velocity  is  in  that  same  ratio  to  the 
mofecular  weight,  otherwise  molecular  weight  has  nothing 
whatever  to  do  with  the  rate  of  diffusion.  So  it  will  be 
equally  apparent,  from  the  above  illustration,  that  the  rate 
of  diffusion  of  a  gas  through  a  porous  diaphragm  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  but 
depends,  caterts  paribus^  on  the  number  of  molecules  of 
the  gas  in  unit  volume.  An  increase  of  the  number  of 
molecules  in  unit  volume  (by  adding  to  the  number  of 
impacts  of  the  molecules  against  the  vessel)  increases  the 
pressure,  and  this  is  why  diffusion  appears  to  be  depen- 
dent on  pressure,  though  evidently  physically  it  has 
nothing  to  do  with  it.  This  serves  to  explain  how,  pro- 
vided the  molecular  velocities  of  the  gases  are  consider- 
ably diverse,  such  enormous  dififerences  of  pressure  can 
take  place  by  diffusion  through  a  porous  diaphragm,  the 
pressure  having  no  power  whatever  to  adjust  itself 
through  the  diaphragm ;  for  the  passage  of  a  molecule 
through  the  diaphragm  simply  depends  whether,  in  its 
normal  motion,  it  happens  to  encounter  a  pore  or  not 
The  above  illustration  may  also  serve  to  show  that  the 
velocity  of  propagation  of .  any  impulse  ("wave")  by  a 
system  of  bodies  in  free  collision  can  only  be  dependent 
pn  the  normal  velocity  of  the  bodies,  just  as  a  system  of 
couriers  interchanging  motion  among  themselves  convey 
a  message  at  their  own  rate.  So  the  molecules  of  a  gas 
ii^terchanging  motion  among  themselves  convey  an  im- 
pulse at  their  own  rate,  and  thus  the  velocity  of  sound  in 
a  gas  can  be  solely  dependent  on,  and  proportional  to, 
the  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  the  gas ,  and  on  nothing 
else.  This  must  evidently  be  true  on  the  basis  of  the 
kinetic  theory,  and  this  theory  being  now  accepted,  it 
would  be  not  unreasonable  to  expect  that  in  so  funda- 
mental a  matter  as  the  propagation  of  sound,  an  explana- 
tion of  it  on  the  basis  of  this  theory  would  be  looked  to, 
for  a  statical  theory  of  the  propagation  of  sound  appears 
scarcely  to  harmonise  with  the  dynamical  theory  ofgases. 
We  have  alluded  to  this  fact  as  briefly  as  possible,  having 
the  illustration  of  the  spheres  at  hand.  There  may  be  a 
liability  to  lose  sight  of  facts  like  the  above  unless  due 
care  be  taken  to  realise  molecular  phenomena  by  picturing 
them  on  a  larger  scale.  The  velocity  of  sound  in  hydro- 
gen is  four  times  greater  than  in  oxygen,  solely  because 
the  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  hydrogen  is  four  times 
greater  than  the  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  oxygen^ 
nothing  conceivably  to  do  with  the  molecular  weight  of 
the  gas^  excepting  in  so  far  as  a  less  molecular  weight 
determmes  a  higher  molecular  velocity}  The  rate  of  pro- 
pagation of  the  wave  is  affected  by  temperature  in  so  far 
as  the  velocity  of  the  molecules  of  the  gas  (in  whose 
motion  the  heat  of  the  gas  consists)  is  affected  by 
temperature. 

12.  As  an  illustration  of  a  simple  form  of  apparatus 
adapted  for  convening   normal   temperature   heat  into 

>  Tt  b  evid«f)t  ibftt  though  the  vel'Kity  of  iht  w»vc  is  proportional  to  th* 
vtlodty  O'  the  moloculet,  th«  ahtcluU  vtlocity  of  the  ware  mutt  be  to  a 
cetU'D  fixed  <legre«  ktt  thu  ihac  of  ih«  molecol«< :  for  the  molcculet  ia 
their  oorauU  moctoot  are  aoviog  more  or  'e  •  piUatuh  to  the  nnh  of  the 
w»ve.  This  I  have  pointed  out  in  a  pape*.  publ^Thcd  in  the  PhilotopkUml 
HhfMin9  for  June,  1877,  «hsre  the  true  maUiematical  relation  for  the 
vclooity  hat  hen  detWBintd  by  Braf.  Maiwrll,  and  it  there  giren. 


work,  and  admitting  of  continuous  actuation,  the  following 
rough  sketch  may  serve : — Let  the  annexed  diag^tu 
represent  a  cylinder  containing  three  pistons,  B^DyC,  the 


central  one,  D,  of  which  is  furnished  with  any  porous 
diaphragm  (such  as  of  plumbago,  or  porous  earthenware). 
Let  any  light  gas  (hydrogen  being  the  most  effective)  be 
supposed  introduced  into  one-half  of  the  cylinder,  some 
heavier  gas  (or  air)  filling  the  other  half.   All  three  pistons 
are  supposed  (first)  fixed.    Then,  as  is  known,  diffusion 
commences  through  the  porous  diaphragm,  everything 
remaining  necessarily  at  norm  U  temperature  so  long  as 
the  pistons  are  fixed  and  no  work  is  done.    The  rapidly 
moving  molecules    of  the  light   gas   pass   in   greater 
numbers  through  the  pores  of  the  diaphragm  than  those 
of  the  heavy  gas  (or  air),  so  that  the  pressure  rises  in  the 
compartment  originally  filled  with  air.    As  soon  as  the 
pressure  has  attained  a  maximum,  the  central  piston  is 
automatically  released,  and  is  thus  driven  by  the  excess 
of  pressure  towards  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder,  the 
portion  of  gas  which  does  the  work  being  chilled  and 
the  heat  transferred  in  the  form  of  work  to  the  outside 
machinery  with  which  the  central  piston  is  connected.   A 
certain  part  of  the  heat  goes  to  the  portion  of  ^s  towards 
which  the  piston  is  driven,  heat  thus  passmg  from  a 
colder  to  a  hotter  body  (for  as  soon  as  the  portion  of  gas 
commences  to  be  chilled,  it  is  already  the  colder).  Simul- 
taneously with  the  stroke  of  the  central  piston,  a  con- 
venient automatic  arrangement  connected  with  the  ma^ 
chinery   oscillates   the  two   end   pistons  inwards  and 
outwards,  expelling  in  the  inward  stroke  (through  con- 
venient openings)  the  diffused  mixture  of  gas  and  air, 
and  by  the  outward  stroke  drawing  in  a  fresh  supply.    Of 
cotu'se  the  valves  suitable  for  this  are  not  given,  as  it  is 
only  our  purpose  to  sketch  the  principle  of  such  an  appa- 
ratus as  a  scientific  point,  and  having  no  regard  to  any 
Question  of  commercial  value  or  not.    Clearly  the  power 
derived  would  depend  on  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas 
used,  and  would  be  proportional  {ceeteris  paribus)  to  the 
area  of  the  piston.    Coal  gas  would  give  a  less  power 
than  hydrogen.     A  diffused  mucture  of  gas  and  air  is 
necessarv  for  gas  engines,,  the  mixture  being  exploded  in 
them.     It  is  clear  that  it  would  be  possible,  by  means  of 
an  apparatus  of  the  above  character,  to  derive  power  in 
the  act  of  mixing  the  gas  and  air  previous  to  exploding  the 
mixture.    The  );aseous  mixture,  a<ter  passing  through  the 
apparatus,  could  be  stored  in  some  reservoir  or  receptacle, 
so  as  to  recover  (before  combustion  in  the  gas  engine) 
from  surrounding  objects  the  heat  which  it  lost  by  con- 
version into  work  in  the  diffusion  engine.    By  this  pro- 
cedure it  may  be  observed  that  the  heat  converted  into 
work  is  derived  from  the  normal  store  of  heat  possessed 
by  surrounding  objects,  and  their  store  is  finally  made 
good  by  the  sun,  which  latter  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  the  ultimate  source  of  the  energy  derived. 

13.  In  view  of  the  numerous  porous  structures  existing 
in  the  animal  and  vegeUble  world  {porosity  being  a  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  animal  and  vegetable  or- 
ganisms), also  taking  into  consideration  the  prevalence  of 
gases  of  different  molecular  weights,  notably  oxygen  and 
carbonic  acid  (which  are  known  to  be  intimately  con- 
nected with  animal  and  vegetable  processes) ;  the  con- 
clusion would  seem  warranted,  and  even  necessarv,  that 
work  on  the  above  principle  must  take  place  widely  in 
nature,  and  thus  part  of  the  store  of  energy  accunmUted 
in  materials  on  the  earth's  surface  by  the  stm^  is  made  to 
fulfil  a  useful  end,  instead  of  being  dissipated  uselessly  in 
tpace.  S.  TOLV£R  PRESTON 


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20? 


ARARAT^ 

IN  the  childhood  of  mankind  the  dwellers  in  Western 
Asia  cherished  the  story  of  a  great  flood  which 
drowned  all  their  race  save  one  man  and  his  family. 
They  told  the  tale  from  father  to  son,  how  the  flood  rose 
till  it  covered  their  highest  hills,  and  how  the  ark  in  which 
their  ancestor  had  saved  himself,  his  family,  and  a  motley 
crowd  of  animals  floated  on  the  waters  until,  when  these 
abated,  it  came  to  rest  on  the  first  emergipg  summit  of 
the  land.  They  chose  as  the  scene  of  this  new  starting- 
point  for  humanity  the  loftiest  peak  of  which  they  had 
knowledge — ^a  vast  snowy  cone  shooting  far  into  the  blue 
air  above,  and  shrouding  itself  every  day  in  cloud  and 
storm.  No  one  had  ever  climbed  to  its  mysterious  sum- 
mit since  the  ark  rested  there.  But  generation  after 
generation  looked  up  to  it  with  awe  and  veneration 'from 
the  plains  of  Armenia.  The  story  spread  far  away  into 
other  lands.  It  became  part  of  the  religious  teaching  of 
nearly  a  half  of  mankind.  No  mountain  is  so  familiar, 
all  the  world  over,  as  that  from  which  Noah  is  famed  to 


have  descended  to  re- people  the  earth.  The  first  con- 
ception which,  as  children,  most  of  us  have  formed  of  a 
mountain,  arose  out  of  this  story  of  Ararat. 

Apart  from  its  legendary  associations  and  the  mystery 
arising  from  its  reputed  inaccessibility,  there  must  be 
something  strangely  fascinating  about  Ararat.  Men  who 
have  seen  much  of  mountains  in  many  countries  speak  of 
it  as  the  noblest  mass  among  them  all  The  summit  of 
its  snowy  cone  (17,000  feet)  greatly  exceeds  any  European 
peak  in  elevation,  and  sweeps  up  from  the  level  plain  of 
the  Araxes  (2,500  feet)  as  from  a  sheet  of  water.  Ic 
looks  as  if  it  might  well  claim  to  be  linked  with  the 
oldest  of  human  traditions. 

So  impressive  a  mountain,  so  long  associated  with 
man's  faith  and  history,  would  have  been  appropriately 
placed  among  the  most  ancient  landscapes  of  the  earth's 
surface.  Some  scenes  suggest  only  the  changes  of  yester- 
day ;  others  set  us  thinking  of  the  earliest  condition  of 
our  world.  We  naturally  look  for  a  kind  of  consonance 
between  the  venerable  antiquity  of  the  associations  which 
gather  round  Ararat  and  the  primeval  character  of  the 


Great  and  Lessor  Ararat  from  the  North-east. 


mountain  itself.  But  geology  delights  in  contrasts,  and 
nowhere  could  so  impressive  a  contrast  be  found  between 
the  remoteness  of  the  tradition  and  the  comoarative 
youth  of  the  mountain  on  which  it  lingers.  Here  we 
find  no  colossal  pyramid  of  granite  with  outer  folds  of 
more  ancient  rocks  such  as  have  been  built  up  and  carved 
into  the  oldest  mountain- chains.  In  reality  it  is  but  a 
mountain  of  yesterday,  possibly  not  so  old  as  the  advent 
of  man  upon  the  earth,  certainly  much  younger  than 
many  plants  and  animals  now  living. 

To  a  student  of  the  evolution  of  the  earth's  surface- 
features  there  is  something  profoundly  suggestive  in  the 
long  Une  of  depressions  and  ridges  which  separates 
i:urope  from  Africa,  and  stretches  eastward  through  the 
heart  of  Asia.  On  the  one  hand,  he  sees  the  basins 
of  the  Mediterranean,  Black,  Dead,  Caspian,  and  Aral 
Seas  ;  on  the  other  he  notes  how,  in  a  general  sense, 
parallel  with  these  deep  troughs,  run  massive  mountain 
ridges,  including  the  great  axis  of  the  Old  World.     He 

«  Traascaucasia  and  Ararat.  By  James  Brycc.  (London  :  Macmlllan 
auil  Cu.,  1877.) 


finds,  on  closer  research,  that  while  most  of  these  ridges 
have  received  their  latest  upheavals  at  a  recent  geolo- 
gical date,  they  yet  for  the  greater  part  belong  originally  to 
earlier  periods  of  disturbance,  some  of  them,  indeed, 
bearing  witness  to  many  successive  uplifts  during  a  vast 
section  of  geological  time.  Yet  further  examination  will 
bring  before  him  evidence  that  along  some  of  these  lines  of 
earth-folding,  volcanic  action  has  of  old  been  abundant ; 
and  that  the  present  Mediterranean  volcanoes  are  but  the 
lingering  remnants  of  the  chain  of  actively  burning  moun- 
tains which  ran  through  Asia  Minor  and  crowned  the 
peaks  of  the  Caucasus.  And  he  will  discover  that  just 
as  there  have  been  successive  uplifts  of  the  same  axis 
or  mountain-chain,  so  have  there  been  widely- separated 
outbursts  of  volcanic  activity  during  a  long  course  of  ages 
from  the  same  focus  of  discharge. 

It  is  in  relation  to  this  remarkable  history  that  Mount 
Ararat  acquires  its  main  geological  interest.  Thanes 
chiefly  to  the  veteran  Abich  a  good  deal  is  now  known  of 
the  geology  of  the  .Caucasian  and  Transcaucasian  ridges. 
He  has   shown  how  a  nucleus  of  Devonian  and  car- 


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NA  TURE 


{7 an.  lo,  1878 


boniferous  limestone  rocks  appears  even  under  the  mass 
of  Ararat,  and  has  drawn  the  inference  from  his  wanderings 
in  that  region,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  Upper  Car- 
boniferous Limestone  period  a  great  continental  upheaval 
took  place  during  which  the  Arnienian  region  received  its 
first  outlines.  The  land  thus  raised  he  believes  to  have 
reniained  above  water  until,  in  the  course  of  the  Cretaceous 
period,  it  so  far  sank  as  to  become  an  island,  and  continued 
in  this  condition  even  into  Pliocene  times,  when  the  whole 
of  that  region  became  involved  in  another  vast  continental 
upheaval  to  which  the  final  modelling  of  the  Armenian 
highlands  was  due.  These  great  terrestrial  movements 
were  accompanied  by  the  outbreak  of  volcanic  action. 
Abich  regards  the  diabase,  diorite,  and  porphyry  rocks  as 
having  been  abundantly  erupted  during  the  Jurassic 
period  and  to  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  mountain  masses,  especially  in  the  Lower 
Caucasus.  To  late  Tertiary  times,  however,  belong  the 
trachytic  and  doleritic  lavas  which  have  been  poured 
forth  on  so  colossal  a  scale  as  to  form  such  mountains  as 
Elbruz,  Kasbek,  Ala  G5z,  and  t>e  two  Ararats. 

In  Mr.  Bryce's  recently  published  volume  (to  which  atten- 
tion has  already  been  drawn  in  Nature)  wc  have  a  record 
of  the  latest  and  probably  the  most  daring  ascent  of  Mount 
Ararat  The  ugh  not  a  professed  geologist  he  has  hid  a 
geological  training,  and  has  seen  much  of  many  lands,  alike 
in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New.  It  was  not  to  make  out 
any  obscure  point  in  the  structure  of  Ararat  that  he  bent 
his  steps  towards  that  little  known  mountain.  But  he  had 
climbed  many  a  peak  in  Europe,  and  he  no  doubt  longed 
to  set  foot  upon  the  high  places  of  another  continent. 
So  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  heights  of  Armenia,  with 
no  thought,  however,  of  writine  a  book  about  his  journey. 
The  volume  he  has  just  published  has  been  partly  wrung 
from  him  by  the  importunitv  of  friends,  who  reasonably 
supposed  that  the  world  might  be  as  much  interested  as 
they  in  knowing  more  about  Ararat  In  its  charmingly 
fresh  and  graphic  pages  one  gets  such  a  living  picture  of 
the  mountain  as  cannot  be  gained  from  any  of  Use  geolo- 
gical memoirs.  From  long  experience  of  mountain 
climbing  his  eyes  are  so  keen  and  so  trained,  while  his 
pen  is  so  facile  and  vivid  that  we  can  mount  with  him  as 
he  goes  warily  over  each  lava-current,  rubbish-cone, 
and  snow- slope.  We  feel  the  sharp  thin  air  of  the 
mountain  as  it  blows  through  his  narrative.  We  join  in 
his  quiet  chuckle  as  he  halts  at  a  solitary  piece  of  wood 
far  up  on  the  cone  and  irreverently  detaches  a  fragment 
for  the  inspection  of  those  who  cannot  personaUy  discover 
whether  the  true  ark  still  resu  on  the  top  of  Ararat  And 
we  can  sympathise  with  his  awe  as  he  stood  among  the 
clouds  alone  on  the  summit  of  the  mysterious  mountain. 
It  is  not  for  any  new  scientific  facts  so  much  as  for  the 
vivid  sketch  of  the  general  aspect  of  the  huge  volcanic 
mass  that  his  book  has  an  intarest  to  geologists. 

A  vignette  of  Ararat  forms  the  frontispiece  of  the 
volume,  which  is  here  reproduced.  In  the  middle  dis- 
tance is  shown  the  aUuvial  plain  of  the  Araxes.  Below 
the  snowy  cone  and  icy  dins  of  the  Greater  Ararat  a 
deep  cleft  or  recess  appears  with  huge  cliffs  somewhat 
like  the  Val  del  Bove  of  Etna,  and  no  doubt  due  to  some 
of  the  volcanic  explosions  of  the  mountain.  On  the  sky- 
line of  this  slope,  towards  the  base  of  the  larger  cone, 
some  of  the  late  cinder-cones  and  craters  appear.  Some 
of  these  are  still  so  fresh  and  perfect  that  they  look  as  if 
they  had  been  active  only  the  other  dav  and  might  blaze 
forth  again  to-morrow.  The  graceful  outline  of  the 
Lesser  Ararat  rises  on  the  left  Arch.  Geikie 

AGE   OF   THE   SUN  IN  RELATION   TO 
EVOLUTION 

ONE  of  the  most  fonnidable  objections  to  the  theory 
of  evolution  is  the  enormous  length  of  time  which 
it  demands.     On  this  point  Prof.  Haeckcl,  one  of  the 


highest  authorities  on  the  subject,  in  his  ^  History  of 
Creation,"  has  the  following  :—'*  Darwin's  theory,  as  well 
that  of  LyeU,  renders  the  assumption  of  immense  periods 
absolutely  necessary.  ...  If  the  theory  of  development 
be  true  at  all  there  must  certainly  have  elapsed  immense 
periods,  utterly  inconceivable  to  us,  during  which  the 
gradual  historical  development  of  the  animal  and  vege- 
table proceeded  by  the  slow  transformation  of  species .  .  . 
the  periods  during  which  species  originated  by  gradual 
transmutation,  must  not  be  calculated  by  single  centuries, 
but  by  hundf^ds  and  by  millions  of  centuries.  Every 
process  of  development  is  the  more  intelligible  the  longer 
it  is  assumed  to  last** 

There  arc  few  evolutionists,  I  presume,  who  will  dis- 
pute the  accuracy  of  these  statements  ;  but  the  question 
arises,  does  physical  science  permit  the  assumption  of 
such  -enormous  periods  ?  We  shall  now  consider  the  way 
in  which  Prof.  Haeckel  endeavours  to  answer  this  qoes- 
tion  and  to  meet  the  objections  urged  against  the 
enormous  lapse  of  time  assumed  for  evolution. 

"  I  beg  leave  to  remark,"  he  says|,  "  that  we  have  not  a 
single  rational  ground  for  conceiving  the  time  requisite 
to  be  limited  in  any  way.  ...  It  is  absolutely  impossinle  to 
see  what  can  in  any  way  limit  us  in  assuming  long 
periods  of  time.  .  . .  From  a  strictly  philosophical  point  of 
view  it  makes  no  difference  whether  we  hypothetical!} 
assume  for  this  process  ten  millions  or  ten  thousand 
miUions  of  years.  ...  In  the  same  way  as  the  distances 
between  the  different  planetary  systems  are  not  calculated 
by  miles  but  by  Sirius-distances,  each  of  which  comprises 
iniUions  of  miles,  so  the  organic  history  of  the  earth  mast 
not  be  calculated  by  thousands  of  years,  but  by  palaeon- 
tological  or  geological  periods,  each  of  which  comprises 
many  thousands  of  years,  and  perhaps  millions  or  milliards 
of  thousands  of  years." 

Statements  more  utterly  opposed  to  the  present  state  of 
modem  science  on  this  subject  could  hardly  well  be  made. 
Not  only  have  physicists  fixed  a  limit  to  the  extent  of  time 
available  to  the  evolutionist,  but  they  have  fixed  it  within 
very  narrow  boundaries. 

Every  one  will  admit  that  the  organic  history  of  our 
globe  must  have  been  limited  by  the  age  of  the  sun's  beat. 
The  extent  of  time  that  the  evolutionist  is  allowed  to 
assume  depends,  therefore,  on  the  answer  to  the  question, 
What  is  the  age  of  the  sun's  heat  ?  And  this  again  depends 
on  the  ulterior  Question,  From  what  source  has  he  derived 
his  energy  ?  The  sun  is  losing  heat  at  the  enormous  rate 
of  7,000  horse-power  on  every  square  foot  of  surface;  And 
were  it  composed  of  coal  its  combustion  would  not  main- 
tain the  present  rate  of  radiation  for  5,000  years.  Com- 
bustion, therefore,  cannot  be  the  origin  of  the  heat 

Gravitation  is  now  almost  universallv  appealed  to  as  the 
only  conceivable  source  from  which  the  sun  could  have 
obtained  his  energy.  The  contraction  theory  advocated 
by  Helmholtz  is  the  one  generally  accepted,  but  the  total 
amount  of  work  performed  by  gravitation  in  the  conden- 
sation of  the  iun  from  a  nebulous  mass  to  its  present 
size  could  only  have  afforded  twenty  million  yeart*  beat 
at  the  present  rate  of  radiation.  On  the  assumption  that 
the  sitn's  density  increases  towards  the  centre,  a  few 
additional  million  years'  heat  might  be  obtained.  But  on 
evdy  conceivable  supposition  gravitation  could  not  have 
afforded  more  than  tv^enty  or  thirty  million  years'  heat 

Prof.  Haeckel  may  make  any  assumption  he  chooses 
about  the  age  of  the  sun,  but  he  must  not  do  so  in  regard 
to  the  age  of  the  sun's  heat.  One  who  believes  it  incon- 
ceivabU  that  matter  can  either  be  created  or  annihilated 
may  be  allowed  to  maintain  that  the  sun  existed  from  all 
eternity,  but  he  cannot  be  permitted  to  assume  that  our 
luminary  has  been  losing  heat  from  all  eternity. 

If  20,000,000  or  30,000,000  years  do  not  suffice  for  the 
evolution  theory,  then  either  that  or  the  gravitation  theory 
of  the  origin  of  the  sim's  heat  wUl  have  to  be  abandon^* 

In  a  former  paper  {Quarterly  Journal  of  Scienu  for 


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July,  18/ 7)  I  have  proved  from  geological  evidence  that 
the  antiquity  of  our  habitable  globe  must  be  at  least  three 
times  greater  than  it  could  possibly  be  had  the  sun 
derived  its  heat  simply  from  the  condensation  of  its  mass. 
This  proves  that  the  gravitation  theory  of  the  origin  of 
the  sun's  heat  is  as  irreconcilable  with  geological  facts  as 
it  is,  according  to  Haeckel,  with  those  of  evolution,  and 
that  there  must  have  been  some  other  source,  in  addition, 
at  least,  to  gravity,  from  which  the  sun  derived  his  store 
of  energy. 

That  other  source  is  not  so  inconceivable  as  has  been 
assumed,  for  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  the  nebulous  mass 
from  which  the  sun  was  formed  by  condensation  might 
have  been  possessed  of  an  original  store  of  heat  previous 
to  condensation.  And  this  excessive  temperature  may  be 
the  reason  why  the  mass  existed  in  a  nebulous  or  rarefied 
condition.  Now  if  the  mass  were  originally  in  a  heated 
condition  then  in  condensing  it  would  have  to  part  not 
merely  with  the  heat  of  condensation,  but  also  with  the 
heat  it  originally  possessed. 

The  question  then  arises— By  what  means  could  the 
nebulous  mass  have  become  incandescent  ?  From  what 
source  could  the  heat  have  been  obtained  ?  The  dynami- 
cal theory  of  heat  affords,  as  was  shown  several  years 
ago  {PhiL  Mag.  for  May,  1868),  an  easy  answer  to  this 
question.  The  answer  is  that  the  energy  in  the  form  of 
neat  possessed  by  the  mass  may  have  t^en  derived  from 
motion  in  space.  Two  bodies,  each  one-half  the  mass  of 
the  sun,  moving  directly  towards  each  other  with  a 
velocity  of  476  miles  per  second,  would,  by  their  concus- 
sion, generate  in  a  single  moment  50,000,000  years'  heat. 
For  two  bodies  of  that  mass,  moving  with  a  velocity  of 
476  miles  per  second,  would  possess  4,149  X  10^  foot- 
pounds of  kinetic  energy,  and  this,  converted  into  heat 
oy  the  stoppage  of  their  motion,  would  give  out  an 
amount  of  heat  which  would  cover  the  present  rate  of 
the  sun's  radiation  for  a  period  of  50,000,000  years. 

There  is  nothing  very  extraordmary  in  the  velocity 
which  we  have  found  would  be  required  to  generate  the 
50,000,000  years'  heat  in  the  case  of  the  two  supposed 
bodies.  A  comet  having  an  orbit  extending  to  the  path 
of  the  planet  Neptune,  approaching  so  near  the  sun  as  to 
almost  graze  his  surface  in  passing,  would  have  a  velocity 
of  about  390  miles  per  second,  which  is  within  eighty-su 
miles  of  Aat  required. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  476  miles 
per  second  is  the  velocity  at  the  moment  of  collision. 
But  more  than  one-half  of  this  velocity,  or  274  miles  per 
second,  would  be  derived  from  their  mutual  attraction  as 
they  approached  each  other.  We  have  consequently  to 
assume  an  original  or  projected  velocity  of  only  202  miles 
per  second.  If  the  original  velocity  was  678  per  second, 
this,  with  the  274  derived  from  gravity,  would  generate 
an  amount  of  heat  which  would  suffice  for  200,000,000 
years.  And  if  we  assume  the  original  velocity  to  have 
been  1,700  miles  per  second,  an  amount  of  heat  would 
be  generated  in  a  smgle  moment  which  would  suffice  for 
no  less  than  800,000,000  years. 

It  will  be  asked,  Where  did  the  two  bodies  get  their 
motion  ?  It  may  as  well,  however,  be  asked,  Where  did 
they  get  their  existence  ?  It  is  just  as  easy  to  conceive 
that  they  always  existed  in  motion  as  that  they  always 
existed  at  rest.  In  fact,  this  is  the  only  way  in  which 
enei^gy  could  remain  in  a  body  without  dissipation  into 
space.  Under  other  forms  a  certain  amount  of  it  is  con- 
stantly being  transformed  into  heat  which  never  can  be 
retransformed  back  again,  but  is  dissipated  into  space  as 
radiant  heat.  But  a  t>ody  moving  in  void  stellar  space 
will  retain  its  energy  in  the  form  of  motion  undiminished 
and  untransformed  for  ever,  unless  a  collision  takes  place. 

The  theory  that  the  sun's  heat  was  ori^nally  derived 
from  motion  in  space  is,  therefore,  for  this  reason,  also 
more  in  harmony  with  evolution  than  the  gravitation 
theory,  because  it  explains  how  the  enormous  amount  of 


energy  which  is  being  dissipated  into  stellar  space  may 
have  existed  in  the  matter  composing  the  sun  untrans- 
formed during  bygone  ages.  Or  in  fact  for  as  far  back 
as  the  matter  itself  existed. 

In  conclusion  there  are  only  two  sources  conceivable 
from  which  the  sun  could  have  derived  his  heat  The 
one  \s gravitation,  the  other  motion  in  space ^  The  former 
could  have  afforded  only  about  20,000,000  or  30,000,000 
years*  heat,  but  there  is  in  reality  no  absolute  limit  to  the 
amount  which  may  have  been  derived  from  the  latter 
source,  for  the  amount  generated  would  depend  on  the 
velocity  of  motion.  And  when  we  take  into  consideration 
the  magnitude  of  the  stellar  universe,  the  difference  between 
a  motion  of  202  miles  per  second,  and  one  of  1,700  miles 
to  a  great  extent  disappears,  and  the  one  velocity  becomes 
about  as  probable  as  tne  other. 

It  may  be  urged  as  an  objection  to  the  theory  that  we 
have  no  experience  of  bodies  moving  in  space  with  such 
enormous  velocities  as  the  above.  This  objection,  for  the 
following  reason,  is  of  no  weight. 

No  body  moving  with  a  velocity  exceeding  400  miles 
per  second  could  renudn  a  member  of  our  solar  system  ; 
and  beyond  our  system  there  is  nothing  visible  but  the 
stars  and  nebulae.  These  stars,  however,  are  suns  like 
our  own,  and  visible  because,  like  the  sun,  they  have 
lost  their  motion — the  lost  motion  being  the  origin 
of  their  light  and  heat  Bodies  moving  in  stellar  space 
with  these  enormous  velocities  can  have  neither  light 
nor  heat,  and,  of  course,  must  be  invisible  to  us.  Tney 
must  first  lose  their  motion  before  the  kinetic  energy  in 
the  form  of  motion  can  be  transformed  into  light  and 
heat,  so  as  to  constitute  visible  suns. 

James  Croll 


ON  THE  FORMATION  OF  HAILSTONES, 
RAfNDROPSy  AND  SNOWFLAKES^ 

THE  author  conunences  by  recapitulating  some  of  the 
leading  points  in  a  paper  which  he  read  before  the 
same  Society  on  October  31,  1876,  "On  the  Manner  in 
which  Raindrops  and  HaUstones  are  Formed."    In  this 

Eaper,  which  was  published  in  Nature  (vol  xvi  p.  163), 
e  had  shown  that  the  ag^^regation  of  the  small  doud  par- 
ticles into  raindrops  or  hailstones  is  sufficiently  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  the  larger  particles  descend  faster 
than  the  others,  and  consequently  overtake  those  imme- 
diately beneath  them,  and,  combining  with  these,  form 
stUl  larger  particles,  which  move  with  greater  velocity, 
and  more  quickly  overtaking  the  particles  in  front  of 
them,  add  to  their  size  at  an  increasing  rate.  He  also 
showed  that  the  shape  and  structure  of  ordinary  hail- 
stones was  exactly  such  as  would  result  from  this  manner 
of  formation.  For  he  had  observed  that  the  shape  of 
hailstones  was  not  as  it  at  first  sight  appeared,  that  of 
more  or  less  imperfect  spheres,  but  that  of  more  or  less 
imperfect  cones  or  pyramids  with  rounded  bases,  the 
conical  surfaces  being  striated,  the  striae  radiating  from 
the  vertex  ;  the  texture  being  that  of  an  aggregation  of 
a  number  of  small  ice  particles  without  crystallme  form, 
being  packed  more  closely  together  toward  the  base  or 
rounded  face  of  the  stone.  In  this  paper  the  author  had 
reverted  to  the  possibility  of  making  artificial  hailstones 
by  blowing  a  stream  of  frozen  fog  against  a  small  object, 
making,  as  it  were,  the  cloud  to  rise  up  and  meet  the 
stone,  instead  of  the  stone  falling  through  the  cloud. 

He  had  not,  however,  then  overcome  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  such  a  stream  of  frozen  fog,  but  gave  two 
sketches  of  plaster  stones,  which,  as  far  as  their  shape 
and  the  striated  appearance  of  their  surface  were  con- 
cerned, closely  resembled  hailstones,  and  whioh  plaster 
stones  had  been  obtained  by  blowing  some  finely-divided 

s  Abstract  of  paper  by  Prof.  Osborre  Rejrnoldf,  F.R.S ,  read  at  the 
Manchoter  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society. 


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\jfan,  lo,  1878 


plaster  of  Paris  against  small  splinters  of  wood  by  means 
of  a  jet  of  steam. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed  the  reading  of  that 
paper  Dr.  Crompton  suggested  the  ether  spray,  such  as  is 


Fig.  I. 

used  in  surgery,  as  a  means  of  obtaining  a  frozen  fog, 
and  Prof.  Reynolds  explains  how  after  various  attempts 
he  bad  succeeded  in  combining  a  spray  of  ether  and 
water  so  as  to  form  artificial  stones.  He  then  proceeds 
as  follows : — 

The  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  i.  It  consists  of  a 
brass  tube  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  one  end  of  which  is 
connected  with  bellows  capable  of  maintaining  a  constant 
pressure  of  about  18  inches  of  water,  on  the  other  end  of 
the  tube  is  a  cap  over  the  end  of  which  is  a  flat  plate  or 
diaphragm  having  a  central  opening  \  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  which  forms  the  aperture  for  the  blast.  Enter- 
ing through  the  sides  of  the  main  brass  tube  are  two 
small  brass  tubes  which  reach  to  within  \  an  inch  of  the 
plate  and  into  the  ends  of  which  are  sealed  fine  glass 
capillary  tubes,  the  glass  being  very  thin  ;  these  protrude 
just  through  the  middle  of  the  aperture,  the  one  about  ^  j^ 
of  an  inch  and  the  other  ^.  Through  these  tubes  the 
water  and  ether  are  separately  introduced  into  the  blast 
to  form  the  spray,  and  it  is  mainly  on  the  adjustment  of 
these  tubes  that  the  efficiency  of  the  apparatus  depends. 
It  is  essential  that  the  ether  tube  should  be  slightly  the 
longest,  otherwise  the  ends  become  stopped  with  ice,  and 
I  find  it  better  that  the  ether  tube  should  be  somewhat 
larger  than  the  water  tube.  The  bore  of  the  tubes  must 
be  very  small,  but  this  is  not  sufRcient,  for  unless  the 


glass  is  very  thin  the  spray  will  not  be  finely  divided. 
Both  the  ether  and  water  are  forced  through  the  tubes 
from  bottles  by  connecting  the  interiors  of  these  bottles 
with  the  bellows,  and  the  quantities  of  ether  and  water 
are  regulated  either  by  raising  and  lower- 
ing the  bottles  or  by  means  of  the  cocks 
in  the  pipes. 

The  tube  is  fixed  in  an  ordinary  retort- 
stand,  so  that  the  blast  is  vertical  If  then 
a  small  splinter  of  wood  is  held  pointing 
downwards  into  the  spray,  a  lump  of  ice 
forms  on  the  end  of  the  splinter,  and  this 
lump  has  all  the  appearance  of  the  hail- 
stones. It  is  quite  white  and  opaque,  it  is 
conical  in  form  and  has  a  rounded  base  and 
striated  surface. 

In  this  way  I  have  formed  stones  from 
half  to  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter. When,  however,  the  stones  are 
growing  large  it  is  necessary  to  move  this 
splinter  so  as  to  expose  in  succession  all 
parts  of  the  face  of  the  stone  to  the  more 
direct  action  of  the  spray. 

When  using  this  apparatus  in  a  warm 
room  I  have  found  it  best  to  fix  a  pad  of 
blotting  paper  over  the  jet  at  a  height  of 
10  or  12  inches.  The  surface  of  this  pad 
is  cooled  by  the  spray  and  prevents  radia- 
tion from  the  ceiling,  which  otherwise  tends 
to  melt  the  top  of  the  stone.  For  a  similar 
reason  I  have  found  it  well  to  surround 
the  blast  with  a  wide  cylinder  or  inverted 
cone  of  paper,  which  keeps  off  radiation 
W'ithout  interfering  with  the  action  of  the 
jet. 

By  sticking  several  pieces  of  wood  into 
the  pad,  pointing  downwards,  a  number  of 
stones  may  be  made  at  once. 

In  Fig.  2  a  medium-sized  stone  as  well 
as  one  of  the  largest  stones  are  shown  at- 
tached to  the  splinters  of  wood.  The 
surface  of  the  cone,  where  continuous,  is 
truly  conical,  or  rather  pyramidal,  but  this 
surface  is  broken,  as  it  were  by  steps,  and 
a  very  marked  fact  is  that  all  the  continuous 
surfaces  have  the  same  vertex,  and  hence 
the  different  conical  surfaces  to  which  they 
belong,  have  not  the  same  vertical  angle, 
the  surface  being  exactly  such  as  would  be  acquired  by 


Fig.  2. 


the  fragments  of  a  sphere  so  constituted  that  the  fracture 
tended  to  follow  radial  lines. 


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Owing  to  the  radiation  of  the  surfaces  from  a  common 
vertex  and  the  steps  which  occur  between  the  vertex  and 
the  base,  the  angle  of  the  conical  surface  of  the  stone  is 
greater  near  the  vertex  than  near  the  base.  Thus  the 
smaller  stones  appear  less  elongated  than  those  which 
are  larger. 

The  fact  that  in  the  sketches  of  actual  stones,  which 
I  gave  in  my  last  paper,  I  showed  the  steps  as  less  pro- 
nounced and  the  angles  larger  than  they  are  in  the  arti- 
ficial stones,  is  probably  owing  in  some  measure  to  my 
having  formed  my  ideas  from  the  observation  of  favourable 
specimens  chosen  from  amongst  those  which  fell.  The 
larger  angles  were  probably  also,  in  part,  owing  to  the 
smaller  size  of  the  actual  hailstones,  which  were  not  much 
more  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  across.  But  I  think  that 
it  is  important  to  notice  that  the  somewhat  imperfect  way 
in  which  the  outside  layers  in  the  surface  of  the  artificiad 
stones  are  continued,  may  be  owing  to  the  narrowness  of 
the  jet  of  air  which,  on  striking  the  stone,  tends  to  diverge 
laterally  rather  than  to  flow  upwards  past  the  sides  of  the 
stone,  as  it  would  do  if  the  jet  were  broader,  or  as  the  air 
must  do  when  the  stone  is  falling  through  it 

The  rate  at  which  stones  can  be  formed  depends  on 
the  amount  of  water  which  can  be  introduced  into  the 
spray,  the  larger  stones  taking  from  one  to  two  minutes. 
At  first  sight  this  may  seem  to  be  somewhat  slow,  but  the 
following  estimate  tends  to  show  that  the  artificial  are 
probably  formed  quicker  than  the  actual  stones. 

The  speed  of  the  jet  of  air  at  the  point  at  which  the 
stones  are  formed  is  nearly  eaual  to  that  at  which  the 
larger  stones  would  fall  through  the  air.  This  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  if  a  large  stone  becomes  accidentally 
detached  from  its  splinter  of  wood  it  rather  falls  than 
rises,  but  when  this  happens  with  smaller  stones  they  are 
driven  up  by  the  force  of  the  blast 

I  find  that  the  speed  of  the  blast  varies  from  150  to  200 
feet  per  second,  /.^.,  from  one-and-a-half  to  two  miles  a 
minute. ,  The  larger  stones,  therefore,  traverse  from  one 
to  four  miles  of  frozen  spray.  So  that  if  we  imagine  a 
cloud  as  dense  as  the  spray  it  would  have  to  be  from  one 
to  four  miles  thick  in  order  that  the  stones  might,  in  fall- 
ing through  it,  attain  the  size  of  the  artificial  stones  ;  and 
considering  that  the  stones  would  only  gradually  acquire 
a  speed  equal  to  that  of  the  blast,  the  time  occupied  in 
fallmg  through  the  cloud  would  in  all  probability  be  very 
considerable,  at  least  from  five  to  ten  minutes  after  the 
stone  had  acquired  a  sensible  size. 

As  regards  the  proportion  which  the  density  of  spray 
bears  to  that  of  a  cloud,  a  comparison  may  be  made  from 
the  fact  that  when  working  in  saturated  air  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  60^  or  70®  F.,  the  condensation  of  vapour  supplied 
sufficient  ice  to  form  the  spray  ;  and  since  it  is  probskble 
that  the  dense  summer  clouds,  from  which  hail  is  formed, 
result  from  the  cooliog  of  air  from  temperatures  nearlv.  if 
not  quite,  equal  to  this,  there  is  probably  no  great  difier- 
ence  iff  the  density  of  the  clouds  and  the  spray. 

1  have  not  yet  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  the 
texture  of  these  stones  under  the  microscope,  but  to 
all  appearance  they  consist  of  an  aggregation  of  snudl 
spherical  particles  of  ice  ;  and  it  seems  worthy  of  notice 
that  while  nothing  like  a  snow  crystal  ever  appears  to  be 
produced  in  the  ether  spray,  the  moment  the  blast  is 
stopped  the  end  of  the  ether  tube  becomes  covered  with 
ice,  which  often  assumes  the  form  of  snow  crystals. 

This  appears  to  indicate  the  character  of  the  difference 
between  those  conditions  which  result  in  snow  and  those 
which  result  in  hail 

When  the  cloud  particles  are  formed  at  or  above  the 
temperature  of  32®  and  then  freeze,  owmg  to  cooling  by 
expansion  or  otherwise,  the  particles  as  they  freeze  retain 
their  spherical  form.  This  is  what  happens  in  the 
spray. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  saturated  air  at  a  temperature 
below  32^  Is  stiU  farther  cooled,  the  deposition  of  the 


vapoiu*  will  be  upon  ice,  and  will  take  the  form  of  snow 
crystals. 

The  aggregation  of  the  snow  crystals  Into  flakes  i?,  as 
I  pointed  out  in  my  previous  paper,  accounted  for  by 
the  larger  crystals  overtaking  the  smaller  crystals  in  their 
descent,  and  the  still  more  rapid  descent  of  the  flakes  as 
they  increase  In  size. 

As  regards  the  formation  of  rain-drops,  I  have  nothing 
to  add  to  what  was  contained  in  my  last  paper.  '  The 
same  explanation  obviously  applies  to  both  hail  and  rain, 
and  any  doubt  which  may  have  been  left  by  the  less 
direct  arguments  in  my  former  paper  will,  I  venture  to 
think,  have  been  removed  by  the  verification  of  my  pre- 
dictions in  the  production  of  artificisd  hailstones  so  closely 
resembling  in  all  particulars  those  formed  by  nature. 
And,  in  conclusion,  I  would  thank  Or.  Crompton  for  the 
suggestion  of  the  means  by  which  I  have  been  able  to 
produce  these  stones. 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  South  Polar  Spot  of  Mars.— Prof.  Asaph 
Hallhas  instituted  a  series  of  measures  of  the  position  of 
the  south  polar  spot  of  Mars,  with  the  Washington 
refractor  during  the  late  favourable  opposition  of  the 
planet,  having  been  led  thereto  by  the  great  discbrdances 
m  the  positions  of  the  spot,  as  determined  so  far.  He 
adopts  Oudeman's  node  and  inclination  of  the  equator  of 
Mars,  which,  for  the  epoch  taken,  viz.,  1877,  September, 
170,  G.M.T.  give  N  —  47**  56',  I  «  39**  14',  and  the  angle 
of  position  of  the  south  pole  162^  6',  and  assumes  the 
time  of  rotation  of  the  planet  24h.  37m.  2273s.,  as  found 
by  Mr.  Proctor.  The  observations  were  made  with  a 
power  of  400,  and  on  thirty-two  nights,  h'om  August  10  to 
October  24,  during^  the  whole  of  which  period  the  spot 
was  always  seen  with  great  distinctness,  and  little  change 
in  its  appearance  noted  except  what  might  be  accounted 
for  by  change  of  distance.  From  thirty- four  equations  of 
condition  treated  on  the  method  of  least  squares,  Prof. 
Hall  finds  for  the  angle  of  position  of  the  south  pole  of 
Mars  at  the  above-mentioned  epoch  166*  22',  tor  the 
radius  of  the  small  circle  described  by  the  spot  5^  k  i',  and 
for  the  angle  of  position  of  the  spot  at  the  epoch,  with 
respect  to  the  rotation-axis  of  the  planet,  311^  24'.  The 
various  determinations  of  the  south  polar  dutance  of  this 
spot  are  as  follow  : — 


Hmchd,  1783 

...      8    i 

Lintser,  1862    ... 

0     / 
...    20    0 

Bessel,  1830     ... 
Madler,  1837    ... 

...      8    6 

Kaiser,  1862     ... 

...      4  x6 

...    12    0 

Hall,  1877 

...      5  " 

Secchi,  1857     ... 

...    174a 

On  several  of  the  finer  nights,  when  the  markings  on  the 
edge  of  die  spot  were  very  distinct,  it  appear^  as  ^'a 
depression  in  the  surface  of  the  planet" 

Prof.  Newcomb's  Lunar  Researches— It  is  under- 
stood that  if  no  unforeseen  delay  occurs  in  the  printing, 
Part  I.  of ''  Researches  on  the  Motion  of  the  Moon,^  upon 
which  ProC  Newcomb  has  been  engaged  for  six  years 
past,  will  be  ready  for  publication  in  the  course  of  next 
month.  It  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  eclipses  and 
occultations  previous  to  1750.  Aq  abstract  appeared 
in  Siiliman's  Journal  fpr  November  last. 

The  Cordoba  Observatory.— In  an  address  delivered 
on  November  4,  on  the  occasion  of  receiving  from  the 
Governor  of  the  province  of  Cordoba  the  premiums 
awarded  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia  to 
the  Argentine  National  Observatory  and  to  himself  for 
Lunar  and  Stellar  Photo^phs,  Or.  B.  A.  Gould  gave  a 
brief  outline  of  the  successive  applications  of  photography 
to.  astronomical  purposes  since  Mr.  Bond's  experimentt 
with  the  r5-inch  refractor  of  Harvard  Observatory  in 
1850,  with  more  particular  reference  to  work  executed  at 
Cordoba  of  "late  m  this  direction.    Dr.  Gould  expresses 


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[Jan.  lo,  1878 


himself  satisfied  with  the  results  obtained  at  the  Argentine 
Observatory ;  the  photographs  of  the  moon  at  full  and  in 
the  last  quarter  he  thinks  may  be  favourably  compared 
with  any  obtained  elsewhere  which  he  had  seen.  He 
refers  to  ^  the  very  beautiful  picture  of  the  moon  "  made 
with  the  4-feet  reflector  at  Melbourne,  which  was  also 
achibited  at  Philadelphia,"  and  adds,  he  is  not  sure,  if  he 
had  seen  this  elegant  photograph  before  placing  his  own 
on  exhibition  he  would  have  ventured  to  compete.  Dr. 
Gould  remarks  that  much  of  the  credit  of  the  stellar 
photographs  is  due  to  the  pure  air  of  Cordoba,  which  is 
mcredibly  transparent  on  the  not  ver^  numerous  occasions 
when  the  sky  is  really  clear.  The  impressions  on  glass 
exhibited  were  of  six  different  clusters,  the  plate  of  the 
cluster  X  Cannae  containing  two  images  each  of  185 
stars,  and  that  of  17  Argus  containing  180,  and  many  of  the 
stars  as  faint  as  the  ninth  magnitude.  Measurable 
photographs  of  not  less  than  eiphty-four  celestial  objects 
nave  been  secured,  of  which  nmeteen  are  double  stars 
and  the  remainder  clusters.  The  planets  Jupiter,  Mars, 
and  Saturn,  have  also  been  photographed  ''with  sufficient 
distinctness  to  show  clearly  the  details  of  light  and  colour 
on  the  surfaces  of  the  two  former,  and  the  existence  of  the 
ring  in  the  latter,''  but  the  images  have  not  been  suffi- 
ciently sharp  to  allow  of  successful  photographic 
enlargement. 

Variable  Stars.— Herr  Palisa  in  AsL  Nach,,  No. 
2,174,  mentions  his  having  remarked  a  new  variable  star, 
the  position  of  which  for  1877*0  is  in  R.A.  i6h.  4m.  35s., 
N.PD.  109^  48' 9.  It  does  not  occur  on  Chacornac's 
chart  No.  49 ;  it  was  lom.  on  May  26,  1876,  and  on 
July  31  and  August  3  of  last  year,  whereas  on  May  17, 
1877,  no  trace  of  it  was  perceptible.  The  period  is  there- 
fore no  doubt  comparatively  short 

The  star  L.  36606  »  B.A.C  6641  appears  to  vary  from 
6'5m.  to  om.  On  October  17,  1852,  Argelander  estimated 
it  of  the  mrmer  magnitude,  Lalande  and  Piazzi  call  it  an 
eighth,  while  about  midsummer,  185 1,  it  was  little,  if  any- 
thing, over  the  ninth  magnitude. 

L.  262 1 1  is  probably  variable  from  6m.  to  8m.,  and 
L.  37307  from  7in.  to  9in.,  and  it  is  not  unlikelv  that 
further  observations  will  place  ^  Geminorum  on  the  list 
of  variables ;  it  has  been  rated  at  a  filth  magnitude  and  as 
low  as  8^. 

The  Minor  Planet  Eva.— A  planet  of  the  eleventh 
magnitude^  observed  by  Herr  Palisa  at  Pola  on  December 
29,  is  mentioned  in  the  Bulletin  InterruUional  of  January  3, 
as  possibly  No.  180,  but  according  to  a  communication 
from  Herr  Knorre,  of  Berlin,  as  probably  identical  with 
No.  164,  detected  by  M.  Paul  Henry  at  Paris  on  July  12, 
1876,  which  received  the  name  Eva,  The  observations 
of  1876  extended  over  an  interval  of  Utde  more  than  a 
fortnight,  and  the  elements  which  have  been  calculated 
by  Mr.  Winslow  Upton  and  M.  Bossert  are  therefore 
liable  to  tmcertainty,  but  if  we  adopt  Mr.  Upton's  orbit 
and  compute  for  Uie  time  of  the  Pola  observation,  the 
place  is  found  to  be  about  a  degree  only  from  that 
observed,  and  it  is  therefore  probable  that  No.  180  has 
yet  to  be  discovered. 

THOMAS  VERNON  WOLLASTON 

THE  very  limited  band  of  scientific  English  ento- 
mologists has  just  sufiered  a  great  loss  by  the 
sudden  death,  on  the  4th  instant,  at  his  residence, 
I,  Bamepark  Terrace,  Teignmouth,  of  Thomas  Vernon 
Wollaston— a  name  dear  to  science,  and  of  which  he  well 
upheld  the  reputation.  Accurate,  elaborate,  and  precise 
adpunctum^  and  naturally  of  a  minutely  critical  habit,  he 
nevertheless  persistently  acted  upon  a  broad  conception  of 
the  saence  to  which  he  was  devoted  ;  and  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  periodical  banishments  to  a  warmer  climate 
imposed  upon  him  in  early  manhood  bv  pulmonary  weak- 
ness, set  himself  the  task  of  thoroughly  investigating  the 
coleopterous  fauna  of  the  Madeiras,  Salvages,  and  Cape 


de  Verdes,  and  finally  of  St.  Helena.  His  philosophical 
deductions  from  the  vast  mass  of  well-sifted  evidence 
obtained  (chiefly  by  his  own  bodily  toil,  though  he  was 
always  in  a  more  or  less  debiliuted  state  of  health) 
referring  to  these  isolated  groups,  may  be  summed  up  as 
corroborating  the  former  existence  of  that  submerged 
Atlantis  whereon  geologists  differ.  From  the  ochaustive 
care  with  which  his  material  was  obtained,  it  seenas 
highly  unlikely  that  his  i>remises  were  insufficient;  and 
his  discussion  of  the  subject  so  far  resembles  Kfr.  Dar- 
win's method  that  it  supplies  the  objections  likdy  to 
be  raised,  and  itself  practically  exhausts  criticism  by 
minuteness  of  observation. 

To  students  of  British  entomology,  Mr.  Wollaston  is 
best  known  by  his  early  papers  m  the  Zoologist  and 
Stainton's  Entomologist^  Annual  and  IVetkly  InUlU- 
gencer^  and  by  his  revision  of  Atomaria  in  Trans,  Ent, 
Sec,  1877.  His  first  scientific  contribution  was  in  the 
Zoologist,  voL  L  (1843),  ot^  Coleoptera  at  Launceston, 
when  a  student  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge  (where,  with 
the  late  J.  F.  Dawson  and  Hamlet  Clark,  he  imbibed  from 
Dr.  Babmgton  a  taste  for  natural  science),  and  his  last,  a 
paper  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History^ 
on  a  weevil  destructive  to  the  banana  in  Madeira,  was 
received  from  him  by  the  writer  almost  simultaneously 
with  the  news  of  his  death.  He  published  many  descrip- 
tive and  analytical  papers,  almost  exclusively  on  Coleofi- 
tera,  in  the  above-named  publications,  the  youmal  0/ 
Entomology  and  the  Entomolo^st^  Monthly  Magazine  ; 
but  his  magnum  opus  is  the  well-known  "  Insecta 
Maderensia,"  published  in  1854,  the  results  of  his  sojourns 
in  Madeira,  to  which  he  first  went  in  1847.  This,  firom 
its  amount  of  novelty  and  classical  treatment,  at  once 
established  his  reputation. 

His  collection,  increased  by  another  visit  in  1855,  having 
been  purchased  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum, 
he  prepared  a  more  complete  account,  which  was  pub- 
lished as  a  museum  "Catalogue"  in  1857.  Subsequent 
visits  in  1858  and  1859  resulted  in  a  description  of  the 
coleopterous  fauna  of  the  Canaries,  also  published  as  a 
museum  *'  Catalogue  "  in  1864.  The  acquisition  of  fresh 
material  compelled  him  in  the  next  year  to  write  his 
**  Coleoptera  Atlantidum,"  an  arduous  critical  woik  of 
nearly  700  pages,  followed  in  1867  by  the  *'  Coleoptera 
Hesperidum,**  a  valuable  descriptive  account  of  the  species 
of  the  Cape  Verde  Archipelago,  visited  in  1866.  His  last 
contribution  to  geographical  entomology,  '^  Coleoptera 
Sanctx-Helenae,"  1877,  contains  a  multiplicity  of  un- 
expected developments  (especially  after  the  supposed 
exhaustion  of  the  productions  of  the  island  in  Mr.  Melliss's 
work),  and  shows  that  St  Helena  is  the  home  of  a  special 
family,  Cossonida^  to  which  Mr.  Wollaston  had  always 
devoted  attention,  having  himself  described  no  less  than 
2S5  new  species  in  it,  as  against  67  described  by  all  other 
naturalists,  living  or  dead. 

Of  his  other  works,  it  may  suffice  to  mention  one  on 
the  ''Variation  of  Species,"  published  in  1856,  and 
another,  "Testacea  Atlantica,"  that  will,  alas,  be  posthu- 
mous  (though  complete),  being  a  descriptive  account  of 
the  land-shells  of  his  favourite  hunting-ground. 

The  amount  of  work  in  these  publications  and  in  others 
not  referred  to,  is  astonishing,  especially  to  those  who 
know  the  extreme  precision  (both  in  manipulation  and 
writing)  and  the  weak  physical  condition  of  the  author. 
Mr.  Wollaston  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Linnean  Society 
in  1847,  and  was  also  a  Fellow  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
sophical Society,  but,  beyond  his  university  degree,  sought 
no  other  honoriuy  distinction.  He  was,  we  believe,  in  his 
fifty-seventh  year  at  the  time  of  his  death.         £.  C.  R. 

NOTES 
Wb  may  remind  oar  readers  that  on  this  day,  a  ceotniy  ago, 
one  of  the  great  reformers  of  idence-^^haps  the  most  cele* 
brated  naturalist  of  fall  timet— Linn^  breathed  hh  list     HU 


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name  is  too  familiAr  to  1  oar  readers  to  necessitate  any  bio. 
graphical  remarks  on  our  part.  His  countrymen  will  doubtless 
commemorate  the  day  in  a  fitting  manner,  and  the  nnctum  at 
Uptala  University,  Ltnn^*s  room,  which  is  still  preserved  in  its 
original  state,  will»  we  are  sure,  be  visited  by  many  a  scientific 
pilgrim. 

At  die  last  general  meeting  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sdeocf  s 
of  Brussels,  the  five  years'  prize  for  natural  sciences  was  awarded 
to  Prof,  van  Beneder,  of  Li^e,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  zoolo- 
gist of  Lonvain. 

The  Emperor  of  Austria  has  recently  awarded  the  large 
gold  medal  "for  art  and  science"  to  the  well-known  African 
traveller,  Dr.  Oscar  Lenz. 

The  African  traveller,  Herr  Gerhard  Rohlfs,  is  now  organis- 
ing an  expedition  for  the  investigation  of  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Great  Sahara.  He  will  be  accompanied  by  a  number  of  scien- 
tific men,  amongst  ethers  by  Prof.  Zittel,  of  Munich.  Tripoli 
will  be  the  head-quarters  of  the  expedition,  and  its  first  efforts 
will  be  the  exploration  of  the  mysterious  oases,  Wajanga  and 
Knfara,  in  the  south  of  Anjila,  which  have  never,  been  visited 
by  any  European  travellers* 

At  Frankfort-on-the-Main  a  new  society  has  been  formed  with 
the  sole  object  of  watching  over  the  Interests  of  chemical 
industry. 

Amongst  the'students  of  Strassburg  University  the  idea  has 
ripened  to  erect  a  monument  in  memory  of  Goethe  as  the  most 
eminent  representative  of  German  culture^  and  as  the  ideal  of  a 
German  student  The  monument  is  to  stand  in  front  of  the  new 
University  Building,  and  b  to  represent  the  poet  as  he  appeared 
at  the  time  of  his  sojourn  at  Strassboig,  la  the  prime  of  youth 
and  <streogtii,  and  in  the  costume  of  that  period.  Most  of  the 
professors  of  the  University  regard  the  idea  favourably,  and  the 
iidiabttaats  of  the  dty  are  confidently  expected  to  do  the  same. 

Another  Pompeii  has  been  accidentally  discovered  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Mount  Gaigano,  near  Manfredonia.  There  were  found 
an  ancient  temple  of  Diana,  a  magnificent  portico  about  twenty 
metres  loDg,  with  an  undeiground  necropolis  of  great  extent  A 
large  number  of  important  inscriptions  has  already  been  for- 
warded to,  and  exhibited  by,  the  National  Museum  of  Naples. 
The  discovered  city  is  the  ancient  Sipuntnm,  near  Arpinum, 
mentioned  by  Strabo  and  Titus  Livius.  The  houses  are  nearly 
twenty  feet  beneath  the  cultivated  soil.  This  town  was  at  the 
time  ingulfed  in  consequence  of  a  terrible  earthquake.  The 
Italian  Government  has  ordered  researches  to  be  made  on  a 
large  scale. 

We  are  glad  to  learn  that  a  telegram  received  at  Rome  from 
Cairo  announces  that  the  Marquess  Antinorij  had  arrived  at 
Zeyla,  from  which  he  intended  to  start  at  once  for  Italy.  It  is 
not  known,  however,  as  yet  whether  he  is  alone  or  accompanied 
by  other  members  of  his  expedition. 

Me.  Stanley  has  left  Alexandria  for  England  by  BrindisL 
He  is  expected  to  visit  Rome,  Marseilles,  and  Paris,  on  his  way 
home,  and  speak  on  his  work  to  the  geographical  societies  of 
these  cities.  The  Khedive  invested  Mr.  Stanley  with  the  order 
of  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Medjidie^  accompanied  by  another 
order  of  the  next  grade,  thus  conferring  vpon  Mr.  Stanley  the 
title  of  Grand  Officer  of  the  Order  of  the  Medjidie. 

M.  Gauthier  Villars  has  published  the  new  issue  of  the 
Anmtaire  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes  of  France,  which  con- 
tains a  large  numl)er  of  geographical  data.  It  is  the  first  time 
that  such  a  quantity  of  interesting  numerical  data  has  been  col- 
lected in  this  small  volume.  In  addition  the  volume  conuins 
two  eisayt,  one  by  Dr.  Janssen  on  Solar  Photography,  and  the 
oOier  on  Cosmical  Meteorology  by  M.  Faye.  The  latter  denies 
fUiv  connection  to  exist  between  either  ^solar  spots,  magnetic 


disturbances,  or  the  motions  of  Jupiter,  and  the  positions  of  the 
moon  and  variations  of  weather. 

The  death  is  announced  of  General  X^  Marmora,  who  always 
took  a  lively  interest  in  the  progrea  of  science  in  Italy,  and  often 
gave  his  substantial  aid  to  the  establishment  of  practical  scien- 
tific schools. 

SiGNOR  Mengoni,  one  of  the  greatest  architects  of  Italy, 
builder  of  the  well-known  Vittorio-Emanuele  Gallery  at  Milan, 
has  fallen  from  the  great  arch  of  that  building,  whilst  giving  direc- 
tions for  the  completion  of  this  his  life-work ;  he  died  instantly. 

Messrs.  Macmillan  have  in  preparation  the  first  part  of  a 
"  Course  of  Instroction  in  2U>otomy,'*  by  Prof.  Huxley,  assisted 
by  Mr.  T.  J.  Parker.  This  part  will  consist  of  directions  for  the 
dissection  of  readily-obtainable  examples  selected  from  each  of 
the  classes  of  the  vertebrata,  accompsmied  by  full  descriptions  of 
the  parts  displayed. 

We  notice  the  appearance  of  a  very  interesting  Russian  work 
by  M.  Nemirovich-Danchenko,  entitled  "  The  Land  of  Cold," 
being  a  description  of  the  author's  travels  in  the  White  Sea  to 
the  coast  of  Russian  Laponia,  to  Kandalaksk  Bay,  Novaya 
Zemlya,  and  Waigatz  Island.  The  work  has  no  pretensions  to 
be  scientific,  but  it  is  full  of  interesting  and  usefid  information 
on  the  inhabitants  of  the  regions  visited.  The  able  descriptions 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  life  of  the  walrus-  and  seal-hunters, 
but  it  contains,  besides  lively  pictures  of  such  life,  abundant 
statistical  data  as  to  the  state  of  those  industries,  and  descriptions 
of  the  varied  manners  in  which  they  are  carried  on  in  different  parts 
of  Northern  Russia.  An  important  part  of  the  work  is  devoted 
to  descriptions  of  Samoyedes^  Korels,  Zyrians,  Yuraks,  Chuk- 
chees,  Kamchadalians,  Lapps,  and  Und  Cossack^  based  on  the 
author's  own  notes  and  other  reoent  information.  The  work, 
extending^  520  pages^  is  illustrated  with  twenty-five  fuU-page 
illustrations^  and  is  written  in  the  attractive  style  characteristic 
of  the  author,  who  is  weU  known  in  Russia. 

The  anniversary  meeting  of  the  Vienna  Geographical  Society 
was  held  on  December  18.  The  Society  now  numbers  seventy 
honorary,  132  corresponding,  and  641  ordinary  members.  The 
Austrian  Minbter  for  Public]  Instruction  has  granted  a  yearly 
subsidy  of  1,000  florins  to  the  Society  for  the  period  of  three 
years,  and  tUs  smn,  as  .well  as  other  donations  it  has  received, 
have  enabled  the  c  )uncil  to  enlarge  the  Society's  library,  which 
during  the  past  year  was  increased  by  234  new  works  and  nine- 
teen geographical  views,  as  well  as  to  facilitate  materially  the 
publication  of  scientific  works,  and  to  support  geographical 
exploration.  The  receipts  of  the  Society  during  1877  were 
7,332  florins,  the  expenses^  7til0  florins.  The  President^  in  his 
report,  announced  that  the  scientific  investigations  made  in 
Central  Africa  by  Dr.  Oscar  Lenz  and  Lieut.  Lux,  will  soon  be 
published,  and  that  the  Austrian  traveller,  Dr.  Emil  Hollnb, 
after  a  sojourn  of  nearly  three  years  in  South  Africa,  will  shortly 
return  to  Austria. 

Phylloxera,  that  pernicious  enemy  of  the  vine^  which 
hitherto  had  mainly  restricted  its  devastations  to  the  wine- 
growing districts  of  France  and  Switzerland,  seems  lately  to  ht 
gaining  ground  in  Germany  as  well.  It  is  aim<»unced  that  it 
has  appeared  in  a  vineyard  at  Rauschwitz,  near  Glogau«  wn  well 
as  in  a  vicicultural  establishment  at  Plantt^es,  near  Metz.  In 
the  former  case  the  vines  had  been  purchased  last  spring  from 
one  of  the  numerous  horticulturists  of  Erfurt.  The  necessary 
measures  are  being  taken  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  plague. 
In  France  phylloxera  seems  also  on  the  increase;  at  Saint  Mcdatd 
and  other  places  of  the  Gers  Department  the  vines  are  covered 
by  such  masses  of  the  insect  that  the  latter  can  easily  be  seen  by 
the  naked  e)e,  which  is  generally  not  an  easy  matter. 

A  NEW  weekly  serial  for  horticulturists  has  been  published 
smce  January  i  at  Berlin  nnder  the  title  Z>/r  deuische  Carfm, 


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The  contract  made  between  Alsace,  Baden,  and  Switzerland, 
for  the  protection  of  the  fisheries  in  the  Rhine  and  its  tributaries, 
has  recently  come  into  force.  The  states  mentioned  agree  to 
issue  similar  laws  with  regard  to  fisheries,  and  to  further,  in  every 
possible  way,  the  maintenance  ,'and  increase  of  the  valuable 
spedes  of  fish  both  in  the  Rhine  and  in  the  Lake  of  Constance. 
The  contract  has  been  signed  for  the  space  of  ten  years,  and  the 
participation  of  the  other  Rhenish  states  is  much  desired. 

In  the  last  session  of  the  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fur  oflentliche 
Gesundheitspflege,  Dr.  Falk  described  a  new  method  of  testing  the 
purity  of  drinking  water  by  electrical  experiment.  From  researches 
carried  out  in  the  laboratory  of  the  School  of  Artillery  in  Berlin, 
it  appears  that  the  conductive  properties  of  water  for  the  electric 
current  vary  rapidly  according  to  its  degree  of  purity,  the 
resistance  decreasing  with  the  purity  of  the  water.  It  is  pos« 
sible,  in  this  manner,  to  detect  with  great  ease  the  presenoe.of 
small  quantities  of  oxganic  matter  in  water. 

In  the  last  session  of  the  Naturforschende  'Gesellschaft  of 
Gorlitz  the  President,  Dr.  Peck,  made  an  interesting  communica- 
tion on  a  newly-discovered  enemy  of  the  carp.  It  appears  that 
large  numbers  of  the  spawn  of  this  fish  are  attacked  by  the 
Water-bug  [Ranatra  iiwaris),  which  fastens  itself  firmly  on  the 
back  of  its  prey  with  its  forefeet,  and  by  means  of  its  sharply- 
pointed  trunk,  sucks  out  the  small  amount  of  blood  in  the, young 
organism.  A  series  of  experiments  conducted  in  some  large 
establishments  for  fish  culture  show  that  4he  only /method  of 
fighting  this  new  foe  is  to  drain  the  ponds  dry  and  restock  them 
with  fish. 

A  coNSiGNMBNTof  soles  and  turbot'was*sent  from  the  South- 
port  Aquarium  on  Thursday  last  to  America  in  charge  of  Mr. 
Mather,  agent  to  Prof.  Baird,  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Fish  and  Fisheries.  If  they  arrive  safely  they  are  destined  to 
be  turned  adrift  in  the  Bay  of  MassachusetU.  It  appears  that 
while  so  many  members  of  the  PifuronecHd^e  are  common  enough 
on  the  American  coast,  soles  and  turbot  are  entirely  unknown. 
Hence  a  journey  to  England  was  arranged  by  Profl  Baird  to  see 
if  these  desirable  fish  could  not  be  safely  transmitted  across  the 
Atlantic. 

The  members  of  the  Scientific  Club  will  learn  with  regret  that 
Mr.  Logan  Lobley,  F.G.S.,  has  tendered  his  resignation  of  the 
office  of  secretary  to  the  Committee  of  the  Club. 

We  r^[ret  to  record  the  death,  on  December  22,  of  Mr.  James 
\yhatman  Bosanquet,  F.R.A.S.,  M.R.A.S.,  &c,  who  was 
distinguished  by  his  researches  in  biblical ;  chronology  and 
Assyrian  history.  He  helped  forward  in  many  ways  the  investi- 
gations by  Mr.  George  Smith,  by  Boscawen,  and  others,  which 
have  resulted  in  the  recent  &mous  discoveries.  His  Suable 
suggestions  with  reference  to  certain  solar  eclipses  as  bearing  on 
the  subject  have  frequently  been  acknowledged  by  the  Astro- 
nomer-Royal and  by  Mr.  Hind. 

The  death  of  M.  Fran9ois  Vincent  Raspail,  one  of  the  deputies 
for  Marseilles,  is  announced.  The  deceased  deputy,  who  was 
bom  in  1794,  achieved  scientific  distinction  early  in  life,  and  for 
many  xears  past  has  held  a  high  reputation  on  account  of  his 
chemical  researches.  Notwithstanding  these  scientific  pursuits, 
M.  Raspail  throughout  his  life  took  an  ardent  and  active  part 
in  political  ai!kirs. 

VanUy  Fair  is  [informed  that  the  Khedive  has  granted  to  a 
Dutch  Company  the  right  of  draining  Lake  ;Mareotis,  and 
utilising  the  land  reclaimed.  Its  area  is  about  7S,ooo  acres,  and 
the  company  has  bound  itself  to  hand  over  to  the  Viceroy  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  crops  raised. 

Wk  have  received  the  first  number  of  the  Kivu^  TnlmiationaU 
^  s  Sr'rttref,  wb^'ch  we  recently  annoijncpd  as  about  to  appear 


There  are  two  original  papers,  one  by  M.  Balbiam',  on  **  The 
Importance  and  Rdle  of  Embryogeny,''  and  the  other  by  ProC 
von  Nagel),  on  "  The  Lower  Fungi  and  the  Decompositions 
which  they  'determine."  The  rest  of  the  number  is  mainlj 
occupied  with  reports  of  societies. 

The  Gardtner's  CkronkU  learns  with  much  pleasure  that  Mr. 
Bentham  has  finished  the  "  Flora  Australiensis,"  and  that  die 
seventh  and  last  volume  of  this  useful  work  will  shortly  appear. 
The  first  volume  was  published  in  1863,  so  that  the  w(»k  has 
proceeded  at  the  rate  of  one  volume  every  two  years^  Not  a 
very  rapid  rate,  it  is  true ;  but  still  it  compares  fiivourably  with 
the  pace  of  other  publications  of  the  same  kind.  Mr.  Bentham 
has  had  the  advantage  of  Baron  von  Mueller's  co-operation  ia 
this  great  work. 

A  Danish  agricultural  journal  recommends  to  those  of  its 
readers  who  wish  to  provide  themselves  every  winter  with  a 
sufficient  supply  of  ice  to  last  daring  the  whole  of  the  summer 
the  following  simple  means  of  increasing  the  thickness  of  ice 
during  mild  winters : — Long  and  intense  cold  is  necessary  to 
produce  a  coating  of  ice  of  more  than  two  or  three  inches'  thicknets 
upon  a  surface  of  water  of  any  considerable  extent  But  if  a  bole 
is  made  in  the  ice  and  the  surface  firom  time  to  time  covered 
with  a  shallow  layer  of  water,  even  moderately  cold  weather  will 
suffice  to  freeze  this  water,  and  by  repeating  the  experiment  ioe 
of  ten  inches  or  a  foot  in  thickness  is  obtained  without  much 
difficulty.  The  Danish  journal  therefore  proposes  the  use  of 
portable  pumps  to  be  placed  into  the  ice-holes  for  the  purpoie 
described, 

The  apparatus  used  by  M.  Cailletet  for  the  liqndaction  of 
the  gases  was  constructed  by  M.  Ducretet,  the  philoeophical 
instrument  maker,  and  was  put  into  operation  in  the  labotm- 
tory  of  the  Paris  Normal  School  during  last  week,  whne  it 
has  been  visited  by  a  number  of  scientific  men. 

Two  shocks  of  earthquake^were  felt  at  Beachburg,  Renfrew  co., 
Ontario,  on  the  morning  of  December  18  last,  the  first  being 
between  the  hours  of  one  and  two,  the  last  between  five  and  six 
o'clock.  The  latter  was  so  severe  as  to  shake  the  houses  and 
arouse  the  inmates  firom  their  beds.  Beachburg  is  situated  in 
the  same  district  in  the  Ottawa  Valley  in  which  the  earthquake 
of  November  4  was  felt  most  severely. 

Those  who  have  visited  that  charming'vratering-place,  Tenby, 
in  South  Wales,  will  know  how  exceptionally  rich  the  locality  is 
in  fossils,  sea-shells,  and  especially  in  bone  caves,  some  of 
which  coi^tained  human  remains  and  stone  implements.  Mr. 
Smith  of  GumfrestoD,  who  has  just  died,  is  celebrated  for  the 
researches  he  made  in  the  limestone  caves  and  barrows  of  the 
neighbourhood,  and  his  collection  of  bones,  implements,  urns, 
&c.,  is  most  extensive  and  interesting,  and,  on  the  authority  of 
Prof.  RoUeston,  one  of  the  most  complete  ever  got  together  by 
a  single  individual  Through  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Chas.  Allen 
and  others,  the  whole  of  the  money  for  the  purchase  of  thif 
collection  is  forthcoming,  but  only  on  condition  that  a  suitable 
building  shall  be  provided  to  hold  it.  At  its  last  meeting  the 
British  Assodation  made  a  money  grant  for  the  further  examina- 
tion of  the  Tenby  bone  caves,  so  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  im* 
portance  to  science  that  a  good  local  museum  shoukl  be  estab- 
lished to  prevent  these  most  valuable  specimens  being  scattered 
all  over  the  country.  Those  of  our  readers  who  really  wish 
practically  to  help  in  promoting  the  cause  of  local  museums  have 
now  an  opportunity  of  doing  so  by  forwarding  subscriptions  to 
Charles  Allen,  Esq.,  10^  Norton  Tenby,  South  Wales.  At  the 
same  time  the  people  of  Tenby  and  of  Pembrokeshire  generally 
will  surely  have  public  spirit  eoough  and  a  sufficiently  clear  per- 
ception of  their  own  interest  not  to  let^this  fine  collection  slip 
thrcu^^  'heir  ^ii'ds. 


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Mr.  Dxnis  D.  Redmond  writes  from  Dablin  in  reference  to 
Dr.  Rdntgen's  telephone  alimiD,  cilling  attention  to  one  which 
be  has  found  tery  effectnaL  He  simply  sends  the  current  of  an 
ordinary  mtgneto-electric  machine  through  the  instrument,  which 
produces  a  loud  hum  that  is  distinctly  heard  many  yards  away. 

The  last  number  of  the  Isvestia  of  the  Russian  Geographical 
Society  contains  three  letters  from  M.  Potanin  from  Khobdo  and 
Ulassutai,  which,  though  written  in  January,  March,  and  July, 
reached  the  society  only  in  October.  The  winter  in  Khobdo  was 
Tery  cold ;  the  thermometer  stood  in  January  as  low  as  -  27*  Cels. 
at  noon,  and  eren  —  37*  at  seren  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  but  the 
western  gales  brought  a  much  warmer  temperature,  those  of 
October  15,  November  24,  and  December  34,  having  been  the 
heaviest,  and  the  last  causing  arise  of  temperature  from  —  19**8 
to  —  o*'4  Cels.  There  was  little  snow,  so  that  the  birds  could 
easily  find  their  food,  and  M.  Potanin  has  noticed  no  less  than 
fifty  species  (the  insectivorous  Podoces  kemdersonn  was  among 
them),  which  wintered  at  Khobdo.  la  March  M.  Potanin 
started  for  Hami.  He  crossed  the  eastern  pare  of  the  Altai 
Mountains,  the  Altain  Nam,  and  soon  reached  the  Gobi  Steppe, 
which  takes  two  days  to  cross,  one  night  having  to  be  passed 
without  fix)d  for  the  horses  and  without  water.  On  the  southern 
frontier  of  the  Steppe  he  was  at  the  Chinese  town  Santaru. 
Thence  he  crossed  the  Mechin-ola  Chain,  which  runs  parallel  to 
the  Tian-Shan,  and  entered  the  B^ikul  depression.  Hami  was 
reached  on  May  23,  and  the  travellers,  who  were  kindly  received 
by  the  authorities,  stayed  for  some  time.  They  rt  tamed  thence 
to  Ulassutaif  1./.,  after  having  crossed  the  chain  mentioned 
above,  turned  east,  following  a  series  of  San's  settlements  at 
the  northern  foot  of  the  eastern  part  of  Tian  Shan,  or  Karlyk- 
Tagh,  covered  with  perpetual  uiow.  At  Nom-Tologoy  settle* 
ment  they  turned  north,  crossed  for  a  second  time  the  Gobi 
Steppp>,  and  afterwards  the  Altai  ridge,  and  reached  Ulassutai 
on  July  25.  A  survey  was  made  throughout  the  route,  and 
collections  of  birds  and  plants,  especially  alpine,  were  obtained. 
From  Ulassutai  M.  Potanin  intended  to  visit  the  almost  un- 
known tracu  at  the  sources  of  the  Yenissei,  Lake  Kosogol,  and 
thence  to  retun  by  way  of  Lake  Ubsa-nor  to  Biysk. 

Tkb  Aiigemtimi  ukwdaeriscke  GadUchaft  Jur  dU  Gesammien 
Nmimrwisumchaften^  of  Zurich,  has  just  published  the  second 
part  of  its  volume  for  1877,  which  contains  but  one,  but  a  veiy 
elaborate  txeatise,  on  the  spiders  of  Switserland.  The  paper 
occupies  no  less  than  320  quarto  pages,  and  is  accompanied  by 
six  well-drawn  plates.  The  author  is  Prof.  Hermann  Lebert, 
and  his  work  is  a  most  valuable  addition  to  zoological  science. 

A  NSW  ethnographical  museum  is  about  to  be  erected  in  Paris, 
and  is  to  contain  everything  that  is  of  any  value  in  relation  to 
the  science  of  ethnography. 

Thx  new  volume  of  the  Pofiuiar  Scienci  Review  commences 
welL  The  January  number  has  several  good  articles,  that  on 
"The Old  and  the  New  Chemistry"  bebg  specially  interesting. 

In  reference  to  our  note  last  week  on  the]  specimens  in  the 
Westminster  Aquarium,  it  is  the  specimen  of  Menobranchus 
laUraHs  which  is  said  to  be  the  first  shown  in  EngUnd. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Macaque  Monkey  (Macaeus  eynomolgus) 
from  India,  presented  by  Mr.  F.  Wood;  a  Striped  Hysena 
{.Hyana  striata)  from  Arabia,  presented  by  Capt.  F.  Cotton  ;  a 
R^  and  Yellow  Maccaw  (Ara  ekloroptera)  from  Cartagena, 
presented  by  Capt.  King ;  a  Naked-eared  Deer  {Cenms 
gymnopis)  from  Venezuela,  presented  by  Mr.  Cyril  Graham  ;  a 
Robben  Island  Snake  {Corondla  phocarum)  firom  South  Africa, 
presented  by  Messrs.  Rice  and  Jamrach ;  a  Macaque  Monkey 
( ^facaeus  eynomolgus)  from  India,  deposited. 


AMERICAN   SCIENCE 

TN  the  December  number  of  the  American  J<mmal  of  Scimee 
^  and  Artt  Mr.  Hoklen  collates  various  observations,  by  the 
Herschels  and  others,  on  the  trifid  nebula  M  20,  discovered  by 
Messier,  June  5,  1764,  who,  however,  gives  no  details  concern- 
ing it.  The  result  of  the  inouiry  is  to  show  (i)  that  fiom  1784, 
when  Sir  William  Herschel  first  described  it  somewhat  in  detail, 
to  1833,  the  remarkable  triple  star  observed  in  the  nebula,  was 
centrally  situated  between  the  three  nebulosities ;  (2)  from  1839 
to  1877  the  triple  star  was  not  centially  situated,  but  involved  in 
one  of  the  nebulosities  (A).  The  idea  that  the  triple  star  has  a 
large  proper  motion  being  thought  improbable,  it  is  concluded 
that  the  nebula  has  *  undergone  marked  changes  of  position,  or 
brilliancy,  or  both,  during  the  period  1784  to  1877.  The  con- 
jecture was  thrown  out  by  Sir  John  Herschel,  tliat  "  perhape 
this  singular  object  has  a  proper  motion." 

In  a  recent  survey  of  the  Connecticut  Valley,  one  of  the  most 
interesting  features  is  the  discovery  of  a  massive  gravel  ridge,  often 
nearly  covered  by  the  alluvium  of  the  highest  terraces  extending 
froai  Lyme,  N.  H.,  to  Windsor,  Vt.  (twenty-four  miles).  It  occu- 
pies nearly  the  middle  of  the  valley,  and  resembles  the  gravel 
ridges  that  have  been  known  under  the  various  name*  of  kames,  in 
Scotlan<^,  Ciikers  in  Ireland,  and  asar  in  Sweden.  The  theory  of 
the  origin  of  the  kames,  commonly  accepted,  is  that  they  wero 
heaped  up  through  the  ai^ency  of  marine  currents,  during  a  sub- 
mergence of  the  land.  It  seemed  impossible  to  account  thus  for 
the  kames  in  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimack  valleys  (one  is 
found  in  the  latter  also),  which,  being  bordered  on  both  sides  by 
high  hills,  would  have  been  long  esnuuies  open  to  the  sea  only 
at  their  mouths,  and  therefore  not  affected  bv  oceanic  currents. 
The  date  of  their  formation  is  known  to  be  between  the  period 
when  the  ice-sheet  moved  over  the  land,  and  that  closely  follow- 
ing, in  which  the  more  recent  and  modified  drift  was  deposited 
in  the  open  valley  from  the  floods  that  were  supplied  by  the 
melting  ice;  and  Mr.  Warren  Upham,  who  describes  these 
kames,  is  thus  led  to  attribute  their  formation  to  the  action  of 
the  gUcial  rivers,  which  flowed  in  channels  on  the  surface  of  the 
ice-sbeet ;  the  kames  having  been  formed  at  or  near  their  muuth% 
extending  along  their  valleys,  as  fast  as  (he  ice  front  retreated. 

Amonts  many  important  discoveries  made  last  sammer  by  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  are  those  of  two  new  species  of 
fikhes,  named  respectively  Macntrue  batrdHvaA  Lycoda  verrHltu 
Particulars  of  these  and  of  a  number  of  other  unusual  forms  are 
commnnicatfd  by  Messrs.  Goode  and  Bean. 

The  Museum  of  Vale  College  has  recently  received  the  greater 
portion  of  the  skeUton  of  a  huge  reptile  which  proves  to  be  one 
of  the  most  romarkable  animals  yet  discovered.  It  was  found 
by  Prof.  Lakes  and  Engineer  Beckwith  in  upper  Jurauic  beds  in 
Colorado  on  the  eastern  flank  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.    The 

{>resent  species  {Ste^saurm  armatus)  was  probably  thirty  feet 
ong,  and  moved  mainly  by  swimming.  Some  of  the  teeth  pro- 
served  have  compressed  crowns  and  are  inserted  in  sockets  (one 
is  112  mm.  long,  greatest  diameter  of  crown,  24  mm.),  others 
aro  cylindrical  and  are  placed  in  rows,  either  in  thin  plates  of 
imperfect  bone  or  in  cai  tillage  (the  latter  may  prove  to  bis  dermal 
spines).  The  body  was  protected  by  laige  bony  dermal  plates 
(one  of  these  was  over  three  feet  in  len^h). 

Prof.  Marsh  also  contributes  a  notice  of  some  new  Dino- 
saur ian  reptiles  from  the  Jurassic  formation. 

The  employment  of  diromic  add  in  various  volumetric  deter- 
minations u  recommended  by  Mr.  Hinman,  who  gives  examples 
of  his  mode  of  procedure. 

We  learn  firom  the  New  York  Tribum^^K  the  last  earthquake 
in  the  West  was  supposed  to  have  radiated  from  a  locality 
in  Nebraska  that  has  been  popularly  regarded  as  the  site  of  a 
volcano.  Prof.  Samuel  Aughey,  of  the  Nebraska  Sute  Uni- 
versity, has  recently  made  an  examination  of  the  grotmd.  The 
seat  of  disturbance  is  on  the  banks  of  the  Missouri,  in  Dixon 
Cocmty,  about  thirty-six  miles  from  Sioux  City.  A  bluff,  about 
1,100  feet  long  and  160  feet  high,  sloping  at  an  angle  of  60*  to 
80^  toward  the  river,  is  at  present  the  place  whero  the  phenomena 
aro  most  exhibited,  but  other  bluffs  at  a  few  miles'  distance  have 
been  similarly  affected.  ^  On  the  bluff  sounds  were  heard  pro- 
ceeding from  the  interior,  especially  on  placing  the  ear  to  the 
ground.  Flames  sometimes  broke  forth,  occasionally  at  night. 
Steam  escaped  from  crevices.  On  digging  into  the  \AqSU  intense 
heat  stopped  the  work  alter  proceed mg  a  few  feet  Selenite^ 
alum,  and  magne&ic  sulphate  in  crystals  wero  abundant.  Pro^ 
Aughey  regarda  these  features  as  not  volcanic  in  the  usual  sense 


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NATURE 


\7afu  lo,  187$ 


of  the  term,  bat  timpl/  the  result  of  local  chemical  action.  The 
formation  is  cretaceous.  The  blnlT  is  capped  bf  calcic  carbonate. 
Beneath  are  shales  containing  ferric  bi^nlphide  in  crystals  of 
pyrites.  Below  the  shale  is  a  soft  limestone,  containing  car« 
bonates  of  magnesia  and  alumina.  The  chemical  reactions 
conseanent  upon  part  of  the  soil  being  soaked  with  water  after 
its  fall  toward  the  river,  have  been  the  decomposition  of  the 
pyrites,  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  attacic  of  the 
acid  on  the  alkaline  carbonates.  The  heat  evolved  in  the  first  of 
these  reactions  is,  of  course,  very  great ;  in  the  latter  part  the 
violence  must  be  increased  by  the  liberation  of  carbonic  anhvdride. 
AH  the  authenticated  disturbances  are  thus  easily  explained. 
Prof.  Aughey  does  not  connect  them  with  the  earthquake. 

Prof.  J.  L.  Campbell,  of  Washini^iton  and  Lee  University,  has 
l^en  collating  and  discussing  the  data  for  the  great  meteor  which 
was  seen  in  manv  parts  of  Virginia  on  the  afternoon  of  November 
20.  He  concludes  that  its  height  was  about  100  miles  ;  but  this 
estimate  is  merely  approximate.  lu  course  seems  to  have  been 
8°  or  10**  west  of  noith.  Irs  explosion  appears  to  have  taken 
place  over  the  south-east  comer  of  Halifax  County,  about  fifteen 
or  twcntv  miles  a  little  south  of  west  from  Clarksville,  100  miles 
from  Richmond,  eighty  from  Lexington,  and  firty-five  from 
Raleigh.  It  was  a  meteor  of  unusual  size  and  brdliancy,  and 
detbnated  loudly  when  it  exploded. 

The  comer*stone  of  a  bntldiog  for  the  accommodation  of  th^ 
Davenport  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  was  laid  on  October  4, 
and  is  almost  the  first  edifice  west  of  Chicago  intended  for  piiv«ly 
scientific  purposes ;  the  building  is  expected  to  be  ready  for  oceo- 
pation  this  month.  The  Academy  is  a  young  institution,  which 
has  grown  very  rapidly,  and  has  already  assumed  a  prominent 
position  among  establishments  of  this  kind  in  the  United  States. 
This  b  due  prmdpally  to  the  excelleot  character  of  its  Transact 
tionst  filled  with  mteresting  information,  and  especially  rich  in 
subjects  rdating  to  American  archaeology.  Part  t  oEvoL  ii.  has 
been  sent  us. 

If  the  descriptions  are  not  overdrawn,  a  remarkably  convenient 
smaJl  steam  engine  has  been  invented  in  Philadelphia.  It  is  an 
oscillating  engine,  attached  to  a  tank  tioldmg  about  two  gallons 
ef  water.  The  boiler  is  of  about  a  quart  capacity  ;  the  steam* 
chest  half  that  size  ;  the  whole  concern  occupies  a  space  of  about 
10  inches  square  and  18  high,  and  weighs  35  pounds.  It  it 
designed  for  use  with  any  sort  of  light  machinery,  and  is  said  to 
be  suitable  for  a  variety  of  domestic  work.  The  details  of  the 
contrivance  are  not  yet  stated,  but  assurances  are  given  that  it 
car  not,  under  any  circumstances,  explode  ;  that  it  is  as  manage- 
able as  an  ordinary  gas  burner,  since  the  inventor  has'succeeded 
in  dispensing  with  water  and  steam  gauges  and  automatic  floats, 
so  that  the  whole  apparatus  is  simple,  and  no  skill  is  required  to 
bperate  it.  The  kitchen  of  the  future  is  expected  to  contain  one 
of  these  engines,  to  chop  hash,  turn  the  coffee-mill  and  the 
roasting-jack,  sift  ashes,  and  mangle  the  family  linen. 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

£oiHBUR<HL*-The  matriculation  returns  for  the  past  year 
have  now  been  completed,  and  show  a  considerable  increase  in 
the  onn^r  of  students  in  resideooe  over  any  former  period. 
The  numbers  on  the  register  for  1876  were  3,30a,  for  1877  they 
amount  to  2,56>.  The  students  are  divided  between  the  several 
facuhies  as  follows  :— In  the  faculty  of  arts,  953  students ;  kA 
theology,  67  \  of  law,  364 ;  and  of  medicine,  1,176.  The 
ground  is  now  being  cleared  for  the  erection  of  the  University 
Extension  Buildings,  which,  with  the  aid  of  the  Government 
grant,  will  be  vigorously  proceeded  with,  and  thus  furnish'  the 
additional  accommodation  so  urgently  required  for  the  increasing 
number  of  students,  and  for  the  fuller  develojpment  oT  the  teach- 
ing resources  of  the  University. 

Taunton  Cqllegb  School.— A  fint-dass  microscope  by 
Smith  «nd  Beck,  a  handsome  dock  and  centre-piece,  a  purse 
containing  136/.,  and  addresses  emblazoned  (m  parchment,  from 
the  old  boys,  the  parents,  and  the  fritods  of  the  school,  have 
been  presented  to  the  Rev.  W.  Tnckwdl,  on  his  leaving 
Taunton. 

Francs. — M.  Bardoux  will  propose  to  the  French  Partiament, 
during  its  present  session,  to  organise,  in  each  department  (there 
are  eighty-nine),  a  high  primary  school  after  the  model  of  the 
t^  Ttugot^OM  of  th«tntlnidptl  sdiOoU  of  P^.  He  will  also 


introduce  a  bill  for  enlarging  the  Sorbonne,  the  traditional  head- 
quarters of  the  University. 

Berlin. — The  professorshioofbotann  which  has  been  vacant 
sioce  the  death  of  Alexander  Braun  last  March,  is  now  to  be  fiUc^ 
by  Prof.  Eichler,  of  Kiel,  «ho  has  accepted  a  call  to  this  podrion 
as  well  as  to  the  directorship  of  the  Botanical  Gardens  in  BerliaT 
He  enters  upon  his  duties  next  April,  During  the  interim  Uie 
gardens  are  under  the  direction  of  ProC  Koch. 

GdmNGiN.— The  present  attendance  at  the  Univerrity  tt  909^ 
a  sUght  decrease  on  the  past  summers.  They  are  divided  among 
the  faculties  as  follows:  theology,  86;  medtdne,  115;  law; 
375  ;  philosophy,  433.  The  representation  of  foreign  coontricf 
is  unusually  small,  with  the  exception  of  America,  which  suppU^f 
a  contingent  of  27.  The  corps  of  instructors,  numbering  1 16, 
includes  9  in  theology,  26  in  medicine,  14  in  law,  and  6j  i^ 
philosophy  and  sdence. 

ERLANGSN.'The  University  is  attended  at  present  by  448 
studentf ,  a  slight  increase  on  the  number  of  the  past  summer. 
Bavaria  contributes  305,  the  remaining  143  coming  from  ihm 
other  parts  of  Germany  and  firom  abrwd.  Medicine  iodudef 
1 10^  pharmacy  56,  chemistry  and  the  natural  idences  3^ 
mathematics  and  physics  10. 

SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

The  current  number  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  MUfweopic 
Scknee  eommeneet  with  Dr.  Rok>erts'  ac<kes8  at  the  Manchester 
meeting  of  the  British  Medical  Association  on  the  doctrine  <d 
Contagtam  Vivum  and  its  application  to  medidne. — Following 
this  is  Part  4  of  Mr.  Archer's  rfsumi  of  recent  contributions  19 
our  knowledge  of  "Fresh-water  Rhizopoda,^'  induding  the 
Rhixopoda,  Monothalamia,  Monostomata. — Prof.  Cari  Yogi's 
account  of  Loxosoma  is  abacracted,  with  notes,  by  Rev.  T.  Hioks. 
The  genus  is  confirmed  as  a  Polyzoon,  and  allied  to  PediQdlma 
Its  ova  and  reproductive  buds  are  described,  as  well  as  the  dif- 
ferent organs,  in  detail  — A  paper  by  Prof.  Arthur  Boettchei* 
treats  of  the  results  arrived  at  by  treating  red  blood  corpusdes 
with  alcoholic  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.— Dr.  Klein  con- 
tributes n  paper  on  the  minute  anatomy  of  the  epidermis  ia 
small-pox  of  sheep. — The  last  paper  is  Prof.  Lankester's  im- 
portant notes  on  the  embryology  and  classification  of  the  anim4 
kingdom  ;  comprising  a  revision  of  specularions  relative  to  thf 
origin  and  significance  of  the  germ-layers.  This  paper  has  since 
been  separately  published. 

Annalen  der  Physik  und  Chentie,  No.  10. — On  the  border 
angle  and  the  expansion  of  liquids  on  solid  bodies,  by  M. 
Quincke. — On  the  spedfic  heat  of  vapours  and  their  variations 
with  the  temperature,  by  M.  Wiedemano. — Determination  ol 
the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  for  air  at  constant  pressure  and 
constant  Volume  by  the  velodty  of  sonnd,  t>y  M.  Kaiser.  ^-On 
the  internal  friction  of  solid  bodies  (continued),  by  M.  Schmidt, 
— On  the  doctrine  of  aggregate  states,  by  M.  Ritter. — Manometric 
method  of  determining  the  spedfic  gravity  of  gases,  by  M.  Reek^ 
nagel.— On  the  disaggregation  of  tin,  by  the  Editor. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  De&  13,  1877.^"  Experimental  Restarbhes 
on  the  Electric  Dischaige  with  the  Chloride  of  Silver  Battery," 
by  Warren  De  la  Rue,  M.A.»  D.CL.«  F.R.S.,  and  Hugo  W. 
MUHer,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.     Part  I. 

The  paper  in  question  deals  mainly  with  the  striking  distance 
between  terminals  of  different  forms  w  air  and  in  other  gases  at 
ordinarv  atmospheric  pressures  ;  and  in  air  at  reduced  pressurcf 
short  of  the  partial  vacua  of  the  «o*called  vacuum  tubes. 

The  authors  have  found  that  the  discharge  of  the  battery,  with 
one  or  two  poles  in  the  form  of  a  point;  presents  several  interesring 
phenomena  which  precede  the  true  jump  ef  the  spark,  and  whicS 
do  not  occur  with  other  forms  of  terminals ;  for  exampW,  diact 
or  spherical  surfaces.  With  8,040  cells  the  striking  dittanof 
between  a  paraboloidal  point,  positive,  and  a  disc  is  about  0*34 
in.  (864 millims.),  but  there  is  always  a  luminous  discharge. 
Very  apparent,  far  beyond  the  distance  measurable  by  theiir 
micronometer-dischasger,  naoaely,  I*i6  inch  (39*5  miUims.),  a« 
th^hafe  before  stated.^ 

The  current  which  passes  during  the  luminous  discha^  ^^^1 
>  Prwc.  J?{r>  SoCt  iP^  vol  mdv.  ^  i<^ 


Digitized  by 


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yan.  lo,  1878] 


NA  TV  RE 


2'5 


precedes  the  jump  of  th^  true  spairk  \&  extremely  feeble,  in  com- 
parison wiih  ihat  ^hich  iftVcs  place  after  ihe  ^park  has  paiscd 
and  the  voltaic  arc  has  formed  ;  even  when  the  pKoint  and  disc  are 
not  more  distant  than  'oi  inch  beyond  the  sti iking  distance  0*34. 
inch  for  8,040  element*,  it  is  only  y^*^  P^^t  of  it. 

The  appearance  of  the  discharge  is  very  different,  according 
OS  the  point  is  positive  or  negative  ;  it  is  intermittent  in  both 
cases,  bat  is  much  less  discontinuous  when  the  p|oint  is  negative 
than.when  it  is  positive,  as  can  be  seen  with  a  microscope  having 
a  rotating  minor  p'aced  in  the  b.nd  of  the  body  between  the 
objective  and  e>e-piece.  The  appearances  observed  are  shown 
in  the  wood  engravings  which  illustrate  the  paper. 

Between  a  point  and  a  disc  the  spark  is  longest  with  the  point 
posithre,  when  from  5,000  to  8,000  cells  are  used  ;  but  for  a  Jess 
number  of  elements,  1,000  to  3,000,  it  is  longest  when  the  point 
is  negative. 

The  length  of  the  spark  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  form  of  the 
point ;  thus  with  a  point  in  the  form  of  a  cone  of  20  degrees  the 
strikirg  distance  is  0*184  inch  with  S»640  cells,  and  0267 
inches  with  8,040,  whi'e  with  a  point  apprpaching  a  paraboloid 
in  form,  and  with  the  same  t>ase'and  ot  the  sime  height  as  the 
cone,  it  is  0*237  inch  with  5,640  cells,  and  0*343  '^^^  ^^'^ 
8,040. 

The  striking  distance  between  a  point  and  a  plate  is  in  accord- 
ance, very  nearly  with  the  hypothesis  of  this  distance,  increasing 
in  the  direct  ratio  of  the  square  of  the  number  of  elements,  at  aU 
events  up  to  8,040  cells,  thus  *  :— 

Number  of  ctllfl      ...   x,ooo    %(cx>    3.000  4,000   5.000  6^000   7^000   8.000 

in.        in.       in.        in.       in.       io.        in.       in. 
pittance  obfcrvcJ  ...  0*0051  00221  0*0554  o*toi  0*159    oa"  o'aS6    0*352 
Distance  calculated...  00055  00220  00495  o'o8«  0*1375  o  T98  0*2695  0352 

Between  plane,  spherical,  or  cylindrical  surfaces,  the  striking 
distance  does  not  follow  this  law  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  inctease 
is  nearly,  but  not  quite,  in  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  cells. 

i,odo  cells.  8,000  cells. 


Between  spherical  surfaces 
Plane  „  „ 

Two  concentric  cylinder* 


0*0050  ...  o*o8io 
ox>i04  ...  00852 
00071     ...    0*0991 


The  striking  distance  between  two^pAnboloidal  'points  was 
found  to  be  with— 


x,o8o  cells. 

in. 

0005 


8,040  cells. 

in. 

0401 


The  nature  of  the  metal  used  for  terminals  has,  in  almost  all 
eases,  no  influence  on  the  length  of  the  spark,  but  there  is  one 
striking  except ion«  namely^  in  the  case  of  aluminium ;  when  an 
aluminium  point  is  used  the  spark  is  longer  than  with  points  of 
all  other  metals  tried,  in  the  ratio  of  1*242  to  I.) 
'  The  .length  of  the  spark  is  diffefeiit  in  various  gates ;  for 
exampk^  air,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  hvdrogei^  and  carbonic  acid^ 
and  the  ratio  between  the  lengths  of  spark  in  various  gases  varies 
with  the  forms  of  the  terminals.  The  length  of  the  spark  bears 
DO  simple  relation  either  to  the  density  of  the  gas  or  its  viscosity.' 

The  paper  contains  an  account  of  a  few  experiments  on  the 
length  of  spark  ia.air  at  dificrent  pressures,,  from  141*5  miUims. 
to  760  millims.  Between  a  point  and.  a  disk  the  length  of  the 
spark  increases  nearly,  but  not  quite,  in  the  ratio  of  the  dilatm- 
tion ;  but  between  two  sphericii  sut£aoes  it  increases  far  more 
rapidly,  and  it  is  possible  that  at  a  certain  degree  of  rare 'action 
the  striking  distance  may  be  coincident  for  spherical  surfaces  and 
points. 

Wlien  a  strong  resistance  is  interp€«ed  in  the  circuit,  4,000,000 
ohms  for  exanaple,  the  discharge  is  completely  changed  in 
character ;  instead  of  the  ordinary  spark  and  production  of  the 
voltaic  arc,  very  brilliant  snapping  sparks  pass  between  the 
terminals  at  more  or  less  rapid  intervals,  exact  y  like  the  sparks 
of  a  small  Leyden  jar.  Then  pierce  a  piece  of  writing  with 
minute  holes. 

It  has  been  foimd  that  an  accumulated  charge  of  a  condenser 
of  42*8  microfarads  capacity,  charged  with  the  potential  of  3240 
eells»  produced  neither  an  elongation  nor  a  contraction  of  a 
metallic  rod  02  inch  when  suddenly  discharged  through.  This 
Ciharge  deflagrates  10*5  inches  of  platinum  wire  0*0125  ^^  ^ 
iismeter. 

More  dense  sparks  were  obtained  with  one  of  App's  coib  for 
torodndng  6*inch  sparks  when  the  primary  was  connected  w^th 
1680^  2280^  3480  chloride  of  silver  ceUs^  than  when  it  was  usied 

>  Proc*  Rtjf  Sh*,  1876^  voL'anv.  p.  167* 
•  Proc,  Roy,  S0C  ,  vol  X3cvi(  p.  ta7. 


with  a  sinc-caf^n,' bichromate  of  patash  baUpky  bf^U  cells 
proddcing  a  current  360  times  aS  greai,  thus  showing  the'  in* 
fluence  of  High  potent  iais  in  inducing  secondary  currents. 

These  cUtrcnt.s  of  high  potentials  have  also  a  marked  eflTect  in 
inducing  magnetism,  when  the  actual  current  is  taken  into 
acc<3unt. 

The  second  part  of  the  paper,  which  is  it\  course  of  preparation, 
will  deal  with  the  discharge  in  rarefled  gases,  in  the  so-called 
vacuum  tubes. 

Chemical  Society,  December  20,.  1877. — Dr.  Gladstone, 
president,  in  the  chair. —The  following  papers  were  read  : — On 
the  constitution  of  the  terpenes  and  of  camphor,  by  Dr.  Arm- 
strong.— Comrnunications  from  the  laboratory  of  the  London 
In^ti'ulton,  by  Dr.  Armstrong.— On  the  h>dro:arbons  from 
Pittus  syhfstriSf  with  remarks  on  the  constitution  of  the  terpenes, 
by  Dr.  TiJden.  The  author  hi^s  examined  the  terpenes  from 
Russian  turpentine  oil  and  Oltum  fo'iorum  pini  ^ylvestris.  He 
considers^  that  there  are  probably  only  three  isoraerides  amongst 
the  natural  terpenes,  and  suggests  a  formula  for  these  bodies 
derived  from  that  of  diamylene^ — On  citric  add  as  a  constituent 
of  imperfectly  rfpe  mulberry  juice,  by  Dr.  Wright  and  .  Mr. 
Paterson.  This  juice  was  found  to  contain  26*83  grm.  of  citric 
add  and  3*26  grm.  of  potash  salts  per  litre  ;  the  authors  point 
nut  that  it  may  be  valuable  as  an  antiscorbutic,  and  as  a  substitute 
for  lime  juice.— On  cuprous  chloride  and  the  absorption  of  car- 
bonic oxide  and  hydrochloric  add  gas,  by  J.  W.  Tnomas.  The 
author  suggests  a  ready  method  qf  .n^ki^lgji  ^olUMQn.of  cuprpus 
chloride  for  gas  analysis,  but  finds  that  although  a  solution  of 
this  salt  absorbs  carbonic  oxide  readily,  sixty-three  per  cent  of  the 
gas  may  be  again  liberated  on  neutraliiiog  the  solution  with 
potash.  To  avoid  such  an  error  he  just  neutralises  the  solution 
of  cuprous  chloride  with  ammonia  and  in  this  way  prepares  a 
solution  which  introduces  i.ito  the  absorption  tube  neither  iiree 
ammonia  nor  free  acid,  but  which  absorbs  carbonic  oxide  with 
facility.  The  author  has  also  observed  that  a  saturated  solution 
of  ammonic  sulphate  absorbs  hydrochloric  acid  gas  with  great 
readiness,  forming  an  add  salt  and  ammonic  chloride. 

Anthropological  Institute,  December  11, 1877.— Dr.  John 
Evans, D.C.L.,F.R.S.,president,inthechair.— Dr.  James F.  N* 
Wise  was  elected  a  member. —Mr.  Worthingtnn  Smith  exhibitci 
some  objects  from  Maiden  Bower,  and  a  series  of  camera  locida 
drawings  of  several  stone  monameats  in  Wales.  — ^Mr.  A.  Jukes 
Browne,  F.G.S.,  exhibited  a  aeries  of  flint  flakes,  scrapers,  and 
arrow  points  from  Egypt,  and  read  an  interesting  paper  on  the 
subject.  He  described  the  geological  formation  01  the  country 
round  Uelwan  about  sixteen  miles  south  of  Cairo,  whence  the 
flmts  were  obtained,  and  explained  the  denuding  action  of  the 
Nile  in  this  locality.  He  thought  that  the  finding  of  separate 
implements  in  each  site  pointed  to  there  having  been  flint  manu- 
factories on  those  spots  which,  moreover,  were  near  the  hot 
springs.  No  adzes  or  celts  were  found,  but  fragments  of  horses' 
teeth  split  into  long  pieces  were  among  the  flints.  The  flints 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  these  implements  were  pebbles  found 
on  the  lower  plateau  which  had  been  washed  down  from  the  hills 
of  eocene  limestone  above,  the  upper  beds  of  which  aboimd  in 
siliceous  concretions  of  various  sizes. -r-Mr.  Jukes  Browne  also 
exhibited  some  flint  implements  from  a  site  on  the  borders  of  the 
Fens  in  Lincolnshire,  which  appeared  to  have  been  a  station  or 
manufactory  similar  to  those  at  Helwan.  The  president  and  Mr. 
Mog^eridge  .made  some  remarks  on  the  above. -r-Mr.  J.  Park 
Harrison  communicated  a  further  report  on  the  "cave* pits  "  at 
Cibsbury. .  He  said  that  the  galleries  belonging  to  it,  and  the 
p)(s  adjoining,  appeared  to  have  been. used  as  places  of  shelter 
and,  concealment  for  some  considerable  time  after  they  were 
excavated.  No  evidence  existed  at  present  that  they  were 
habitations.   One  shait,  to  which  there  was  access  from  the  cave- 

1>its,,  was  found  to  have  been  left  unfinished  with  the  horn  tools 
yiog  where  the  work  had  been  interrupted.  .  Several  snuU  oval 
pits,  the  largest  only  5  feet  long,  and  4  feet  6  inches  dt.ep,  were 
met  with  this  autumn  for  the  hist  time  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  8haft5.  Among  their  opntents  were  sling  stones  and  smidl 
pieces  of  flint  and  Iractured  ru(>bing-stone  bearing  marks  of  fire, 
fragments  of  pottery,  of  various  dates,  a  few  flint  implements 
and  many  flakes  ;  also,  three  weights  formed  of  chalk  (similar  to 
some  found  in  Mr,  Tindale's  pit) ;  a  carding-comb,  a  small  iron 
huok,  and  three  pieces  of  burnt  clay  with  the  impresa  of  stickji 
on  wattles.  A  lew  bones  of  calf,  roebuck*  pig,  and  goat,  witl\ 
two  or  three  shells,  were  the  only  anima|l  remains.  They  would 
appear  to  have  been  preserved  by  the  charcoal  and  charred 
matter  in  contact  with  them.     If  the  little  pits  were  graves 


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thqr  would  appear  to  have  been  med  for  leoondanr  inter- 
mentii  or  been  otherwiie  distarbed.  The  absence  ot  human 
bones  might  be  doe  to  atmospheric  inflaence,  aa  in  many 
other  cases  of  borial  by  inhnmttion.  There  was  black  mould  at 
the  bottom  of  all  the  little  pits.  Coarse  potsherds,  flint  im* 
plements,  and  burnt  pebbles,  were  also  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood  of  the  small  pits  near  the  surface,  and  may  possibly 
mark  the  spots  where  flint-workers  of  an  earlier  period  were 
interred.  A  discussion  followed  in  which  several  members  took 
part 

Institution  of  Civil  Bngineert,  December  18,  1877.— 
Annual  General  Meetincr. — Mr.  ^George  Robert  Stephenson, 
president,  in  the  ch«ir.— The  numbers  of  the  several  classes  of 
members  on  November  30^  1877,  were :~  Honorary  members, 
16 ;  members,  925 ;  associates,  1,670 ;  and  students,  448 ;  to- 
gether, 3,059,  as  against  2,844  at  the  same  date  last  year,  showing 
an  increase  at  the  rate  of  about  7i  per  cent.  The  income  proper 
for  the  year  had  amoun  ed  to  9,903/.  5/.  3</.,  the  life  compositions 
and  admission  fees  and  building  fund  (all  regarded  as  capital),  to 
2,113/.  I3^'«  *^^  ^c  dividends  on  truit  funds  to  462/.  16/.  6/. 
The  general  expenditure  had  reached  10,278/.  2/.,  and  the  pay- 
ments on  account  of  trusts  were  486/.  8x.  $ei.  The  disbursements 
were  thus  374/.  16/.  9^.  in  excess  of  the  income.  The  funded 
property  (including  the  cash  balance)  belonging  to  or  under  the 
control  of  the  Insutution,  was  now  38,773/.  4s.  ii</.— Mr.  John 
Frederic  Bateman,  F.R.S.,  was  elected  president 

Victoria  (Philosophical)  Institute,  January  7.— Mr.  C. 
Brooke,  F.R.S.,  in  the  chair.— It  was  announced  that  exactly 
one  himdred  members  had  joined  during  the  past  year. — A 
paper  on  bmitations  in  nature  was  read  by  Mr.  s.  R.  Pattison, 
F.G.S. 

Edinburgh 

Royal  Society,  December  17. 1877.— Sir  William  Thomson, 
president  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Alexander  Buchan  read  the  report  of 
tiie  depuration  fnxn  the  Society  to  Upsalato  assist  in  celebrating 
the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  Universttf  of  Upsala. — Mr. 
J.  B.  Hannay  then  read  a  paper  on  a  new  method  of  determining 
the  cohesion  of  liquids  by  the  size  of  its  normal  drop,  which  he 
considered  was  that  obtained  by  allowing  the  drops  to  succeed 
one  another  as  rapidly  as  possible.  He  found  that  the  weight 
of  the  drop  of  liquid  dropping  from  a  column  of  the  same  liquid 
increases  at  the  rate  at  which  the  drops  follow  one  anoiher. 
This,  he  thought,  was  due  (i)  to  the  fact  that  the  rate  of  flow  of 
liquid  through  the  neck  of  the  drop  wa«  faster  when  drops  sue* 
oeeded  rapidly,  and  (2)  because  the  flow  lasted  for  a  longer  time. 
He  found  also  that  cohesion  decreases  with  rise  of  temperature, 
but  rather  quicker  than  the  density. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  December  31,  1877.— >M.  Peligot 
in  the  chair. — M.  Faye  presented  the  Annuain  du  Bureau  des 
Longitudes  for  1878.— Ilie  following  papers  were  read  : — On  the 
oon»titutioD  of  the  solar  surface  and  on  photography  regarded  as 
a  means  of  discovery  in  physical  astionomy,  by  M.  Janssen. 
Photography  has  two  sdvantages  over  optiod  observation.  If 
the  time  of  exposure  be  accurately  determined,  so  as  to  prevent 
superposition,  or  what  may  be  called  photographic  irradiation, 
the  true  relations  of  luminous  inienuty  of  the  object  are  expressed. 
Further,  when  the  luminotts  action  b  very  short  the  photo- 
graphic spectrum  is  reduced  to  a  narrow  band  near  G ;  thus  very 
tolerable  photographic  images  of  the  sun  may  be  had  with 
simple  lenses  ofloog  focus,  and  chemical  achromatism  is  much 
more  easily  realised  than  optical.  M.  Janssen  has  so  arranged 
that  the  time  of  luminous  action  can  be  reduced  to  ^A^  of  a 
second  in  summer.  The  images  are  more  latent  and  require  slow 
development,  &c.  But  they  throw  new  light,  especially  on  the 
solar  granulations,  which  are  found  more  or  less  of  spherical 
form  ;  the  irregular  grains  are  made  up  of  small  spherical  ele* 
ments.  The  state  resembles  that  of  our  douds.  These  spheri- 
cal elements  and  their  distribution  probably  result  from  a 
breaking  up  by  gaseous  currents.  The  luminous  power  of  the 
Sim,  then,  resides  chiefly  in  a  small  number  of  points  of  its  sur- 
face, and  the  spots  are  not  the  principal  element  of  the  variations 
that  star  undergoes. — Constitution  and  brecdform  structure  of 
the  meteoric  iron  of  Santa  Catharina  (Brasil) ;  deductions  from 
its  characters,  concerning  the  history  of  meteoritic  rocks,  and 
especially  the  habitual  association  of  carbon  with  sulphide  of 
iron,  by  M.  Danbr^  The  association  referred  to  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  action  of  lulphide  of  carbon  on  iron.     If  an 


iron  bar  be  thus  treated  at  a  red  temperature^  it  gets  coated 
with  a  oystalline  substance  wfaidi  has  the  characters  of 
pyrrhotine.--On  the  order  of  iqppearsnce  of  the  first  ves- 
sels in  shoots  of  Ftmieulum  vulgan  and  dulce,  by  H« 
Tr^cuL — ^Note  on  waves  and  eddies  of  various  kinds  in  a 
canal  whose  current  is  altematdy  intercepted  and  renewed,  and 
in  which  the  depth  can  be  varied,  by  M.  de  Caligny.— On  the 
condensation  of  gases  supposed  inooerdble^  by  M.  Cailletet. 
Pure  dry  nitrogen,  compressed  to  200  atmospheres  at  -l-  13^, 
then  suddenly  expanded,  condenses  distinctly  in  small  droplete  ; 
The  liquid  retires  from  the  walls  to  the  centre.  Pure  hydrogea 
oomprnsed  to  280  atmospheres  and  expanded,  gave  momentarily, 
a  very  fine  mist  Air  was  also  liquefied  by  a  direct  experiment. 
M.  Berthelot  corroborated  M.  Cailletet's  account— M.  De 
Lesseps  announced  that  the  personnH  oH  the  first  scientific  and 
hospital  station  of  the  International  African  Association  had 
reached  Zansibar.  They  had  met  Stanley  and  got  naeful 
advice  from  him.— On  a  storm  which  occurred  over  tbe 
south  part  of  the  Sues  Canal  on  the  night  of  October  23-24. 
In  a  few  hours  an  artificial  lake  of  about  five  million  cobic 
metres  was  formed  on  the  west  side  of  the  canal  by  the  rains. — 
Kinematics  and  dynamics  of  current  waves  on  a  liquid  spheroid  ; 
application  to  the  evolution  of  the  elliptic  protuboanoe  about  a 
spheroid  deformed  by  attraction  of  a  aistant  star,  bv  M.  Guyon. 
— On  a  new  experiment  on  liqueAtcdon  of  oxygen,  by  M.  Ptctet 
The  oxygen  jet  in  the  electric  light  showed  a  white  central  part 
(of  liquid  or  even  solid  elements)  and  an  exterior  blue  part,  indi* 
eating  return  to  the  gaseous  sute. — On  a  note  by  M.  Boussiaeiq 
on  conditions  with  limits  in  the  problem  of  elastic  platei^  by  M. 
Levy. — On  a  theorem  of  M.  Viilaroean ;  remarks  and  cooae- 
quences,  by  M.  Gilbert — On  a  new  kind  of  bird  of  nocturnal 
prey  from  Madagascar,  by  M.  Milne- Edwards.  This  belongs  to 
the  same  zoological  type  as  the  white  owls,  but  has  osteological 
peculiarities.— >The  peripheric  organs  of  the  sense  of  space,  by 
M.  Cyon.  Having  shown  that  there  are  intimate  rdatioos 
between  the  semidroilar  canals  and  the  centres  of  innervarion  of 
the  muides  of  the  eye,  he  considers  that  sensations  caused  hf 
excitation  (througti  the  otoliths)  of  the  nerve  terminations  in 
the  ampoUse  ol  these  canals,  through  movements  of  the  head, 
serve  to  form  our  notions  of  the  three  dimensions  of  space.— 
On  the  evolution  of  red  corpuscles  m  the  blood  of  superior 
animals,  viviparous  vertebrates,  by  M.  Hayem.  Tlie  red  oorpvsclcs 
are  developed  from  small,  colourleo,  delicate,  very  alterat^ 
elements  termed  hamatoblasts, — Experiments  provingfthat  there  is 
during  life  a  figured  ferment  in  typhoid  hamau  t>lood,  by  M. 
Felts.— On  thecauje  of  spontaneous  alteration  of  eggs;  reply 
to  a  reclamation  of  M.  Gayon,  by  MM.  Bechamp  and  Eastache. 


CONTBNT8  Pagb 

Trts  Salakiis  09  THt  Orricsas  in  ths  British  Mtrstoii  ....  197 

JuLis  Vkkns 197 

Oua  Book  ^hblt  ^— 

Byrne's  "  Geometry  of  Compa<sts.  or  Probleias  rssolvad  by  the 
mere  De»crip  ioa  of  Cirdes,  and '  the  Use  of  coloured  Diagrtms 

aiKl5ymbolt"'     .        .    .             . 199 

**  ProceeJing*  of  the  American  Philosoph  cal  Society  "    .    .    •    .  199 
Lvrraas  ru  thb  Editor  :— • 

The  Radiometer  and  Its  Lessons  — Gsa  Fras.  FrrSGBRALO ...  199 

Prof.  Eimer  on  the  Nervous  System  of  Medosft.— Grorgb  J. 

KOMANIS too 

Mr.  CrookesaiidEvaF«nr.— WiluamCrookrs,  P.R.S.     .    .    .  soo 

Volcanic  Phenomena  in  Borneo.— A.  H.  EvBRSTT .    ..*...  too 
New  Form  of  Telephsne  — jAitas  M.  Romanis    {}¥itk  tlhutra- 

si^ms) »..*....  toi 

Shooting  StarL— W.  F.  Drnminc tot 

Gentiana  asdcpiadea  and  Bees.- F.  M.  Burton    ..,.••  toe 

Photography  foreshadowed— Dr  J  A  Groshams tot 

Average  Annual  temperature  at  Earth's  Surface  — D.  Tra^l      .  toe 
On  a  Mbams  poe  Convrrtimg  tnb  Ubat-Motiom  Possbssbd  sy 
Matter  at  Normal  rsMPRitATURB  into  Work.    By  S.  Tolver 

Vkestoh  (iVuh  tiiustrutiam) ^  .     ,  tot 

Ararat.    By  Prof.  Gbikib.  F.RS.  (fK>M /i7a»Ms/fm) tos 

AcbopthbSun  in  RauATioN  TO  EvoLOTioN.    By  Jambs  CioLL, 

LL.D  ,  F  R.S. to6 

On  thb  Formation  op   Hailstonbs,   Raindrops,   and   Snow- 

PLAKRS.  By  Prof  Osbornb  Reynolds,  F.R.S  {H^ith  lUustraticm)  wf 
Our  Astromomical  Column  :~ 

The  Sooth  Polar  Spot  of  Man •.•..to9 

Prof.  Newcomb's  Lunar  Reacarches 109 

The  Cordoba  Observatory to9 

Vmriable  Stan •*  tio 

The  Minor  Planet  Eva tio 

Thomas  Vbrmom  Wolla^ton tio 

Notes  ....••...•..•• tio 

American  Scibncb tij 

iJMITBRBmr  AMD  SOOCATIOHia.  ImTBLUOBMCB tl4 

SCIBMTIPIC  SbRIALS tS4 

Socxbtibs  AND  Acadbmibs as4 


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THURSDAY,  JANUARY    17,  1878 


THE  DENSITY  OF  LIQUID  OXYGEN 

THE  magnificent  experimental  methods  devised  by 
MM.  Cailletet  and  Pictet  have  already  begun  to 
increase  the  number  of  the  ''  Constants  of  Nature.''  M. 
Pictet,  although  in  a  neck-and-neck  race  he  was  beaten 
by  Cailletet  in  the  liquefaction  of  hydrogen,  has  left  his 
competitor  in  the  rear  with  regard  to  a  result  of  the  first 
importance  on  the  density  of  oxygen.  The  noble  rivalry 
between  the  £cole  Normale  Sup^rieure  of  Paris  and  the 
Atelier  de  Physique  of  Geneva  bids  fair  not  only  to  con- 
tinually increase  in  interest,  but  to  become  the  central 
feature  in  the  progress  of  physical  science  for  some  time. 

A  telegram  from  M.  Pictet  announcing  that  hydrogen 
had  been  solidified  was  sent  to  M.  Dumas  on  January  1 1. 
The  illustrious  chemist  read  the  telegram  at  a  sitting  of 
the  Soci^t^  d'Encouragement,  of  which  he  was  the  chair- 
man, and  which  was  holding  its  regidar  semi-monthly 
meeting  on  that  very  evening.  M.  Dumas  reminded  his 
hearers  with  his  wonted  force  and  propriety  of  expression, 
that  in  the  first  edition  of  his  '*  Traits  de  Chimie,''  published 
about  forty  years  ago,  he  had  called  hydrogen  a  gaseous 
metal.  He  said  he  had  been  led  to  hold  this  view  by 
seeing  how  small  was  the  affinity  of  hydrogen  for  metals 
and  how  great  for  metalloids. 

M.  Dumas  said  moreover  that  his  peculiar  ideas  had 
received  some  degree  of  confirmation  from  the  discovery 
of  the  large  conductibility  of  hydrogen  for  heat  and  elec- 
tricity, but  that  the  first  real  demonstration  had  been 
given  by  MM.  Cailletet  and  Pictet  It  was  for  him  a  great 
satisfaction  having  lived  long  enough  to  see  that  most 
important  fact  established  so  clearly,  ^  Thai  you  may  feel 
certain^  gentlemen^  that  in  drinking  a  glass  of  water  you 
are  certainly  absorbing  a  metallic  oxide J^ 

M.  Pictet,  in  the  experiments,  the  results  of  which  were 
telegraphed  to  M.  Dumas,  as  we  have  seen,  prepared  the 
hydrogen  by  the  decomposition  of  potassic  formiate  by 
means  of  potassic  (hydrate.  This  reaction,  according  to 
Berthelot,  gives  the  gas  of  the  utmost  purity.  The 
pressure  was  commenced  at  8.30  p.m.,  it  was  increased 
gradually,  and  in  a  little  more  than  half  an  hour  (at  9.7) 
it  reached  650  atmospheres.  At  this  moment  the  pressure 
remained  stationary  for  some  seconds,  the  stop-cock  was 
opened,  and  a  jet  of  a  steel  blue  colour  escaped  with 
a  strident  noise,  comparable  to  that  heard  when  a  bar 
of  iron  is  plunged  into  water. 

This  jet  suddenly  became  intermittent,  and  the 
spectators  observed  a  hail  of  solid  corpuscles  projected 
with  violence  on  the  ground,  where  they  produced  a 
crackhng  noise.  The  stop-cock  was  then  again  closed, 
the  manometer  indicating  370  atmospheres.  This  slowly 
descended  to  320,  at  which  point  it  remained  stationary 
for  some  minutes.  Then  it  rose  to  325.  The  stop-cock 
was  again  opened,  the  jet  was  now  so  intermittent,  that  it 
was  believed  that  an  actual  crystallisation  of  hydrogen  (!) 
had  gone  on  inside  the  tube.  This  was  proved  by  the  fact 
that  liquid  hydrogen  flowed  out  of  the  jet  when  the 
temperature  was  increased  by  the  stoppage  of  the  pumps. 

M.  Dtmias,  considering  oxygen  as  belonging  to  the 
Vou  XVII.— Na  439 


sulphur  group,  and  isomorphous  bodies  as  having  the 
same  atomic  volume,  />.,  the  quotient  obtained  when  the 
atomic  weight  is  divided  by  the  density,  had  concluded 
that,  the  atomic  volume  of  sulphur  being  ^,  that  of 
oxygen  would  be  Y>  ^md  reciprocally,  that  the  density  of 
liquid  or  solid  oxygen  would  be  |},  that  is  the  atomic 
volume  divided  by  the  atomic  weight  "■  i,  which  is  the 
density  of  water. 

M.  Dumas  having  communicated  these  considerations 
to  M.  Pictet,  has  elicited  a  most  interesting  response  from 
him.    He  writes  : — 

''  You  arrive  at  the  expression  of  the  density  of  liquid 
oxygen  as  being  represented  by  ^  «=  i  «  d  in  the  solid 
state,  and  probably  the  liquid  one  also,  neglecting  the 
variation  due  to  expansion. 

''  I  have  the  great  satisfaction  of  being  able  to  announce 
to  you  the  complete  experimental  demonstration  of  the 
theoretical  views  enunciated  by  you  now  some  time  ago 
at  Geneva.  This  demonstration  has  been  arrived  at  as 
follows : — 

"  I  know  directly  and  very  exactly— 

''  I.  The  exact  volume  of  the  interior  of  the  wrought 
iron  shell  and  the  volume  of  potassic  chlorate  decomposed 
into  oxygen  and  potassic  chloride. 

"  II.  The  temperature  of  the  shell  at  the  moment  of 
complete  decomposition. 

''111.  The  volume  of  the  tube  in  which  the  condensa- 
tion of  oxygen  is  brought  about 

**  IV.  The  pressure  before  and  after  condensation. 

"  V.  The  pressures  indicated  by  the  manometer  after  two 
or  three  successive  jets,  till  the  moment  the  point  of  satu- 
ration is  reached,  and  after  which  the  gas  issues  in  a 
gaseous  form. 

''  These  various  data,  combined  with  the  gaseous  density 
pressure  and  temperature  lead  me  to  the  conclusion  that 
a  difference  of  74*26  atmospheres  on  the  manometer 
represents  the  variation  of  pressure  corresponding  to  the 
condensation  of  oxygen  in  the  tube  immersed  in  the  car- 
bonic acid. 

"  This  variation  has  been  exactly  observed  in  the  three 
last  experiments  which  I  have  made  with  the  assistance 
of  many  of  my  colleagues  here  at  Geneva. 

"  The  quantity  of  liquid  oxygen  which  we  had  in  the 
tube  was  45*467  grammes,  corresponding  to  a  volume  of 
46*25  cubic  centimetres.  But  it  is  possible  that  the 
highest  part  of  the  thin  tube  had  some  centimetres  in 
length  not  occupied  by  the  liquid.  This  may  explain  the 
difference  of  o'8  gramme  found. 

''  Moreover,  very  volatile  liquids  have  such  considerable 
expansions  that  it  is  indispensable  to  have  exactly  .the 
temperature  to  which  they  are  subjected,  in  order  to 
determine  their  true  density.  However  this  may  be, 
there  is  an  absolute  verification,  within  small  limits,  of 
error  of  the  theoretical  calculation  regarding  this  physical 
constant.'' 

In  addition  to  this  important  result,  in  another  experi- 
ment, M.  Pictet  has  used  polarised  light  to  determine  the 
presence  or  absence  of  solid  particles  of  oxygen  in  the 
jet.  The  jet  was  illuminated  by  means  of  the  electric 
light,  and  observed  with  two  Nicol  prisms.  A  very  strong 
polarisation  was  observed,  indicating  the  presence  of 
solid  particles,  which  in  all  probability  were  really  solid 
particles  of  oxygen. 

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FRANKLAND'S  RESEARCHES  IN  CHEMISTR  Y 

Experimental  Researches  in  Pure,  Appliedy  and  Physical 
Chemistry.  By  E.  Frankland,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
&c    (Loodon  :  John  Van  Voorst,  Paternoster  Row.) 

THE  numerous  and  valuable  investigations  of  Dr. 
Frankland  in  general  chemistry  are  so  well  known, 
that  chemists  will  doubtless  regard  the  issue  of  his 
collected  researches  with  lively  satisfiaction,  partly  on 
accoimt  of  the  ease  with  which  the  various  memoirs  can 
be  referred  to  in  the  fine  volume  before  us,  but  chiefly 
because  the  work  is  likely  to  prove  of  special  value  as  an 
aid  in  the  higher  education  of  chemical  students. 

Any  criticisms  of  the  statements  of  fact  or  of  [theory 
contained  in  such  a  set  of  "  collected  researches  "  would  be 
so  clearly  out  of  place  in  Nature,  that  we  need  offer  no 
apology  for  dealing  with  the  work  before  us^from  a  general 
rather  than  firom  a  technical  point  of  view.  Indeed,  almost 
all  the  matter  contained  in  the  volume  has  long  been  the 
common  property  of  all  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  chemistry, 
while  the  mantier  in  which  the  investigations  are  presented 
to  the  reader  is  alone  new.  The  chief  interest  of  the  work 
as  a  whole  is  due  to  the  fortunate  circumstance  that  its 
varied  contents  have  been  grouped  by  the  distinguished 
author  of  the  researches,  who  has  bound  them  together 
with  a  species  of  commentary  that  enables  the  reader 
clearly  to  appreciate  the  relations  of  the  parts  in  each 
line  of  inquiry,  and  to  obtain  such  glimpses  into  the 
working  of  the  mind  of  the  investigator  as  the  study  of 
formal  papers  can  rarely  afford. 

The  subject-matter  of  this  fine  volume  of  rather  more 
than  1,000  pages  is  conveniently  divide4  into  three 
sections.  Section  I.  contains  the  author's  researches  in 
Pure  Chemistry ;  Section  II.,  those  in  Applied  Chemistry ; 
and  Section  III.,  the  investigations  that  belong  to  the 
physical  side  of  the  science. 

Section  I.  is  fitly  introduced  by  a  chapter  on  the 
peculiar  system  of  notation  now  employed  by  Dr.  Frank, 
land.  This  introduction  was  rendered  necessary  by  the 
translation  of  the  older  formulae  employed  in  the  earlier 
memoirs  into  those  more  recently  adopted  by  the  author. 
Although  Dr.  Frankland's  system  of  notation  is  un- 
doubtedly interesting,  we  fear  that  its  use  throughout  the 
volume  will  detract  from  the  educational  value  of  the 
work  in  the  eyes  of  those  chemists  who  think  that  the 
expressions  in  common  use  can  be  made  to  serve  the 
same  purposes  as  those  employed  in  the  South  Kensington 
School. 

As  the  work  stands,  'however,  the  chapter  in  question 
is  useful  in  its  place,  and  it  may  induce  some  chemists  to 
adopt  the  author's  system  who  have  hitherto  held  aloof 
from  it. 

The  first  of  the  series  of  researches  given  is  that  on  the 
transformation  of  cyanogen  into  oxatyL  This  well- 
known  inquiry  was  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
Kolbe  at  a  time  when  the  investigation  of  the  then  recog- 
nised ** compound  radicles"  had  commenced  to  excite  much 
interest,  more  especially  in  view  of  Liebig's  recently  pro- 
pounded theory  of  conjugated  compounds.  The  inves- 
tigation led  to  the  highly  important  conclusions  that  most 
of  the  organic  acids  owe  their  acidity  to  the  presence  of 
the  group  COOH  (the  semi-molecule  of  oxatyl),  and  that 
their  basicity  depends  on  the  number  of  these  groups 


contained  within  their  molecules ;  while  it  was  shown 
that  the  synthesis  of  many  acids  of  the  acetic  series 
could  be  effected  by  the  [conversion  of  the  cyanogen  of 
alcoholic  cyanides  into  the  oxatyl  semi-molecule  by  the 
action  of  alkalies.  This  research  has  since  borne  rich 
fruit,  and  it  seems  to  have  lid,  almost  directly,  to  the 
most  important  of  the  author's  discoveries,  namely,  to  the 
isolation  of  the  alcohol  radicles  by  the  action  of  zinc  on 
iodides  of  radicles  containing  half  the  number  of  atoms 
of  carbon.  Although  this  research  was  one  of  the  most 
important  contributions  to  synthetic  chemistry  that  bad 
then  been  made,  its  full  value  was  not  understood  till  M. 
Wurtz  completed  Dr  Frankland's  work  by  the  discovery 
of  methyl-ethyl,  and  other  mixed  radicles,  which  he  pre- 
pared by  the  action  of  zinc  on  mixtures  of  alcoholic 
iodides,  Uius  filling  up  the  gaps  in  Franklaad's  list,  and 
rendering  the  method  a  general  one  for  ascending^  the 
homologous  series. 

In  the  course  of  experiments  on  the  action  of  zinc  on 
the   iodides  of  alcohol   radicles,  Frankland  made  the 
remarkable  discovery  that  the  metal  can  unite  directly 
with  the  alcohol  radicles  and  form  the  curious  and  inter- 
esting compounds  now  termed ''  organo-metallic,^  of  which 
zinc-methyl  and  zinc-ethyl  are   those  most  commonly 
known.    The  author  says  *' zinc-methyl  and  zinc-ethyl 
were  the  first  of  these  bodies  with  which  I  became 
acquainted ;  they  were  discovered  on  July  12, 1849,  in  the 
laboratory  of  Prof.  Bunsen  at  Marburg,  during  my  work 
on  the  isolation  of  the  organic  radicles.    After  making 
the  reaction  for  the  isolation  of  methyl  by  digesting 
methylic   iodide  with  zinc,  and  after  discharging  the 
gases,  I  cut  off  the  upper  part  of  the  tube  in  order 
to   try   the  action  of  water   upon   the  solid   residue. 
On  pouring  a  few   drops   of  water  on  this  residue  a 
greenish  blue  flame  several  feet  long  shot  out  of  the  tube, 
causing  great  excitement  amongst  those  present    Prof. 
Bunsen,  who  had  suffered  from  arsenical  poisoning  during 
his   researches  on    cacodyl,  suggested  that  the  spon- 
taneously inflammable  body,  which  diflused  an  abomin- 
able odour  through  the  laboratory,  was  that  terrible  com- 
pound which  might  have  been  formed  by  arsenic  present 
as  an  impurity  in  the  zinc  used  in  the  reaction,  and  that 
I  might  be  already  irrecoverably  poisoned.    These  fore- 
bodings were,  however,  quelled  in  a  few  minutes  by  an 
examination  of  the  black  stain  left  upon  porcelain  by  the 
flame;  nevertheless,  I  did  afterwards  experience  some 
symptoms  of  zinc  poisoning." 

The  discovery  of  the  large  group  of  organo-metallic 
bodies  and  the  secondary  investigations  to  which  the 
author  was  thereby  led  induced  him  to  propound  the 
theory  of  "  atomicity,**  now  taught  in  one  form  or  another 
in  our  schools  of  chemistry. 

Having  discovered  the  organo-metallic  bodies  just 
referred  to,  Dr.  Frankland  appears  to  have  turned  his 
attention  to  the  production  of  analogous  compounds  con- 
taining unmetallic  bodies  united  directly  with  alcohol 
radicles,  and  in  this  direction  he  was  successful,  as  he 
showed  that  boron  could  be  made  to  afford  some  highly 
interesting  compounds  of  the  desired  kind.  This  line  of 
investigation,  however,  was  not  pursued  to  any  consider- 
able extent,  as  the  author  evidently  desired  to  concentrate 
his  attention  upon  the  study  of  the  action  of  members  of 
the  organo-metallic  group  upon  various  organic  bodies, 


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hoping  thereby  to  succeed  in  replacing  the  oxygen  of 
many  oxygenated  compounds  by  alcohol  radicles  derived 
from  zinc-methyl|  zinc-ethyl,  and  allied  bodies.  In  the 
primary  research  of  this  new  series,  nearly  all  of  which 
were  conducted  in  conjunction  with  the  late  Mr.  B.  F. 
Duppa,  ethylic  oxalate  was  the  subject  of  experiment,  with 
the  result  that  a  portion  of  its  oxygen  was  replaced  by 
methyl,  and  the  first  step  taken  in  the  synthesis  of  acids 
of  the  lactic  series.  A  large  number  of  new  compounds 
were  discovered,  and  the  relations  of  the  members  of  the 
lactic  series  of  acids  to  each  other  and  to  the  acrylic  and 
to  the  fatty  group  of  acids  clearly  made  out  Then  fol- 
lowed researches  on  the  members  of  the  acrylic  series 
which  were  suggested  by  those  on  the  lactic  acids  and 
which  also  afforded  a  ridi  harvest  of  results. 

Up  to  this  point  Dr.  Frankland's  investigations  are  seen 
to  have  been  intimately  connected  with  one  another  and  to 
have  resulted  in  some  of  the  most  valuable  contributions 
yet  made  to  synthetical  chemistry ;  but  the  last  research 
of  importance  included  in  this  section  of  the  volume 
seems  to  stand  alone,  for  it  is  concerned  with  the  synthesis 
of  acids,  ethers,  and  ketones  of  the  fatty  series  by  a 
method  differing  from  that  previously  employed  in  the 
important  particular  that  the  alcohol  radicles  were  substi- 
tuted for  hydrogen  and  not  for  oxygen.  These  new  inves- 
tigations resulted  in  the  discovery  of  a  mode  of  effecting 
the  synthesis  of  the  acids  of  the  fatty  series  and  of  bodies 
related  to  them,  of  dissecting  their  molecules,  and  thus,  in 
some  measure,  of  determining  their  structure.  Although 
these  researches  were  not  directly  connected  with  those 
that  preceded  them,  there  can  be  scarcely  a  doubt  that 
they  were  suggested  by  the  insight  into  the  constitution 
of  the  acids  gained  in  the  course  of  Dr.  Frankland's 
previous  researches. 

A  few  short  papers — on  Gas  Analysis,  on  the  Composi. 
tion  of  Air  from  Mont  Blanc,  on  the  Analysis  of  Organic 
Compounds  containing  Mercury,  and  on  the  Combustion 
of  Iron  in  Compressed  Oxygen— bring  Section  I.  to  a  close. 

Section  II.  contains  the  author's  researches  on  Artificial 
Light,  on  Drinking  Water,  on  the  Purification  of  Foul 
•  Water;  together  with  miscellaneous  work  in  Applied 
Chemistry.  Section  III.  includes  Dr.  Franldand's  valu- 
able memoirs  on  the  Influence  of  Atmospheric  Pressure 
on  Combustion,  on  the  Spectra  of  Gases  of  Vapours  (an 
investigation  carried  out  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Lockyer), 
on  the  Source  of  Muscular  Power,  and  on  Climate. 

The  contents  of  these  two  sections  are  much  too  inter- 
esting to  be  lightly  passed  over— and  those  of  Section  II. 
in  some  degree  challenge  criticism  —but  we  must  leave 
them  for  consideration  in  another  article  and  now  return 
to  Section  I.  This  section  forms  just  half  the  book, 
and  by  far  the  most  important  half.  In  fact  Dr. 
Frankland's  work  is  so  naturally  divisible]  into  two 
parts  that  we  regret  he  has  not  issued  it  in  two 
volumes  rather  than  in  its  present  form,  for  its  value 
as  a  work  of  reference  would  not  have  been  lessened 
thereby,  while  the  section  of  chief  educational  importance 
(Section  I.)  would  have  been  rendered  more  easily  acces- 
sible to  students.  This  is,  however,  but  a  trifling  fault— 
if  a  fault  it  happens  to  be— but  the  really  important  fact 
remains  that  we  can  point  students  to  the  volume  before  us 
for  a  dearand  detailed  account  of  someof  the  mostremark- 
able  researches  of  our  time  in  synthetic  chemistry.    It  is 


difficult  to  over-estimate  the  importance  of  indnciag  senior 
students  to  consult  original  memoirs  rather  than  abstracts 
of  researches.  The  temptation  to  rest  content  with  a  state- 
ment of  results  is  great,  but  we  have  no  hesitation  in 
expressing  the  opinion  that  the  careful  experimental  study 
of  a  single  good  memoir,  on  a  subject  suited  to  the  capa- 
city of  the  student,  is  of  far  greater  value  to  him  than  the 
immediate  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  a  volume  of  the 
"Abstracts"  given  in  the  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society, 
useful  though  these  are  when  properly  employed.  The 
publication  of  such  groups  of  researches  as  Dr.  Frank- 
land's  will,  we  believe,  do  much  to  promote  the  kind  of 
higher  chemical  education  referred  to,  and  to  foster  a 
taste  for  research  amcmgst  senior  students  of  chemistry. 

J.  Emerson  Reynolds 

{To  he  continued,) 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Bericht  iiber  die  Thdtigkeit  der  botanischen  Section  der 

schlesischen  Gesellschaft  im  Jahre    1876.     Erstattet 

von  Prof.  Dr.  Ferdinand  Cohn,  zeitigem  Secretair  der 

Section. 

This  is  a  journal  of  the  proceedings  of  the  ten  ordinary 

and  one  extraordinary  meetings  of  the  Silesian  Society 

held  during  the  year  1876.    The  chief  contributors  are 

Professors  Goeppert  and  Cohn,  and  their  communications 

relate  to  a  great  variety  of  subjects.    The  most  important 

?aper  of  Goeppert's  is  on  the  effects  of  the  cold  of 
)ecember,  1875,  on  the  vegetation  in  the  Breslau  Botanic 
Garden,  much  interesting  information  being  given  on  the 
action  of  cold  on  plants,  the  effects  of  snow  in  protecting 
vegetation,  and  the  action  of  frost  on  roots.  Another 
interesting  paper,  by  the  same  author,  is  on  Plant  Meta- 
morphoses. The  indefatigable  industry  of  Prof.  Cohn  is 
well  shown  in  this  journal,  as  he  contributes  a  large 
number  of  valuable  papers.  His  recent  visit  to  Britain 
affords  materials  for  two  papers,  while  a  short  communica- 
tion on  Spontaneous  Generation  is  interesting  on  account 
of  the  ingenious  form  of  the  tube  in  which  the  experi- 
ments were  made,  the  shape  being  that  of  a  capitsu  N 
turned  upside  down.  The  other  papers  of  interest  are 
chiefly  connected  with  thenewly-publishcd  "  Cryptogamic 
Flora  of  Silesia,"  noticed  a  short  time  since  in  our 
columns.  The  last  paper  is  by  Uechtritz  on  the  Phanero- 
gams of  the  Silesian  Flora,  and  occupies  a  large  part  of 
the  whole  Bericht, 

A  List  of  Writings  Relating  to  the  Method  of  Least 
Squares,  with  Historical  and  Critical  Notes,  By 
Mansfield  Merriman,  Ph.D.  (From  the  Transactions  of 
the  Connecticut  Academy,  voL  iv.,1877,  pp.  151-232.) 

Mr.  Merriman  is  alreadv  favourably  known  as  the 
author  of  a  good  text-book  on  the  ''Elements  of  the 
Method  of  Least  Squares.**  In  this  work  he  gave  a  short 
"  list  of  literature,''  and  said  he  could  easily  have  extended 
its  limits;  indeed  he  hoped  some  time  to  publish  an 
extended  list.  All  students  of  this  branch  must  be  greatly 
indebted  to  Mr.  Merriman  and  to  the  Connecticut  Academy 
for  this  excellent  critical  list  of  writers.  There  are  408 
titles,  classified  as  313  memoirs,  72  books,  and  23  parts  of 
books,  dating  from  Cotes  (1722)  down  to  1876.  Of  these 
408,  312  are  described  from  actual  inspection.  We  could 
wish  for  similar  lists  in  other  branches,  for  then  much 
time  would  be  saved  and  students  could  easily  determine 
what  books  would  be  most  advantageous  to  them,  and 
also  get  an  idea  of  what  had  already  been  done  by  previous 
investigators.  There  are  numerous  clerical  errors,  easily 
to  be  corrected,  but  we  are  surprised  that  so  well-4nformed 
and  painstaking  a  writer  should  cidl  Sir  W.  Thomson, 
Thompson,  and  Dedekind,  Dedakind,  as  he  does  on  all 
occasions  when  their  names  occur. 


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LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[Tke  EJSicr  does  not  holdhimsdf  responsible  for  cfiuiom  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  mnaertahe  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of^  rgected  manuscripts. 
N0  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  othenoise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com» 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts,} 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 
I  AM  sorry  to  have  again  to  correct  Mr.  Stoney ;  bat  I  cannot 
allow  the  statements  contained  in  his  letter  to  pass  unnoticed. 

1.  There  is  nothing  in  my  earlier  paper  that  is  **  admittedly 
erroneous,"  If  there  is  error  in  these  papers  I  am  not  aware 
of  it. 

2.  These  papers  do  not  **  conclude  with  Prof.  Reynolds's  own 
expression  of  opinion  that  residual  gas  is  not  the  cause  of  the 
force  observed  oy  Mr.  Crookes.''  Nor  have  I  ever  held  or  any- 
where expressed  such  an  opinion. 

3.  In  the  passage  to  which  Mr.  Stoney  refers,  Clausius  does 
not  imply  that  the  law  established  by  himself  and  Maxwell,  viz., 
that  the  only  condition  of  thermal  equilibrium  in  a  gas  is  that  of 
uniform  temperature,  depends  on  the  mean  path  of  the  molecules ; 
and  it  was  this  law  that  I  instanced  as  bmg  at  variance  with 
Mr.  Stone/s  assumptions  (i)  that  gas  is  a  penect  non-conductor 
of  iieat ;  (2)  that  a  layer  of  gas  across  which  the  temperature 
varies  can  exist  in  a  state  of  thermal  equilibrium  without  the 
passage  of  heat  from  the  hotter  to  the  colder  part.  Mr.  Stoney 
has  nowhere  that  I  can  see  given  any  proof  of  these  assumptions, 
and  I  venture  to  prefer  the  authority  of  Professors  Maxwell  ani 
Clausius,  supported  as  it  is  by  the  whole  evidence  of  facts. 

4*  Mr.  Stoney  says  that  I  have  excluded  the  polarisation  of 
gas  from  my  explanation.  Mr.  Stoney  has  not,  that  I  am  aware, 
defined  what  he  means  by  polarisation,  but  if  he  measures  the 
polarisation  of  a  gas  conducting  heat  by  the  excess  of  momentum 
carried  across  any  ideal  surface  in  one  direction  over  and  above 
that  which  is  carried  in  the  opposite,  this  polarisation  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  length  of  the^mean  path,  and  forms  an  essential 
part  of  my  explanation. 

There  is  one  statement  in  Mr.  Stoney 's  Utter  which  is  not 
erroneous.  He  says : — "  I  caimot  find  anywhere  in  Prof. 
Osborne  Reynolds's  writings  an  explanation  of  the  thing  to  be 
explained,  viz.,  that  the  stress  in  a  Crookes's  layer  is  different  in 
one  direction  from  what  it  is  at  right  angles  to  that  direction." 

I  do  not  at  all  admit  that  this  is  *'  the  thing  to  be  explained," 
and  I  am  quite  sure  that  Mr.  Stoney  would  Hnd  no  explanation 
of  it  in  my  wriiingp. 

In  the  passage  quoted  above  Mr.  Stoney  has,  for  the  fir^t  time, 
so  far  as  I  know,  expressly  stated  bis  belief  that  Mr.  Crookes's 
phenomena  depend  on  such  a  difference  of  stress.  I  have  thought 
»\\  along  that  his  views  were  based  on  such  an  assumption,  but 
I  did  not  like  to  take  it  for  granted.  It  is  almost  a  pity,  if  I  may 
use  the  phrase,  that  he  did  not  express  himself  thus  clearly  at 
first,  as  in  that  case  I  might  have  done  b;lore  what  I  am  about 
to  do  now,  viz.,  prove  definitely  that  such  a  condition  of  stress 
can  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  cause  of  Mr.  Crookes's  results— 
that,  so  lar  from  explaining,  such  a  condition  of  stress  is  incon- 
sistent with,  these  results,  and  this,  not  in  mere  matters  of  detail, 
but  as  regards  the  fundamental  direction  in  which  the  force  acts. 

Throughout  all  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  one 
invariable  law  as  to  the  direction  of  motion  has  b^en  found  to 
maintain,  which  is  that  the  force  alwa3rs  tends  to  drive  the  vanes 
or  bodies  in  the  direction  of  their  colder  faces.  Thus  when  a 
body  i^free  to  move  in  a  sufficiently  rarefied  medium,  if  its  front 
be  heated  it  will  move  backwatd,  while  if  its  front  be  cooled  it 
will  move  forward,  always  moving  towards  its  colder  face. 
There  are  no  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

Let  us  now  suppose  that  we  have  two  bodies,  A  and  b,  free  to 
move  in  a  sufficiently  rarefied  medium.  Suppose  A  to  be  initially 
hot  and  B  cold,  while  the  medium  and  surround mg  surfMe  are 
at  the  mean  temperature  of  A  and  B.  Then,  owing  to  the  radia- 
tion of  heat  between  the  two  bodies,  that  side  of  A  which  is 
opposite  to  B  will  be  couled  faster,  and  hence  be  colder  than  the 
other  side  of  A.  Hence  according  to  the  law  stated  above,  a 
must  move  towards  B,  and  this  it  is  found  to  do  by  experiment. 
On  the  other  hand,  that  side  of  B  which  is  opposite  to  A  will 
become  heated  by  radiation  faster,  and  hence  become  hotter, 
than  the  other  side  of  B,  and  hence  B  will  move  away  from  A. 
Thus  if  both  bodies  were  free  to  move,  we  should  have  B 
running  away  from  A,  and  a  running  after  b. 


This  aspect  of  the  phenomenon  is  perhaps  the  most  paradoxical 
that  i)resents  itself;  it  is  nevertheless  in  strict  accordance  with. 
experiment,  and  it  was  by  instancing  this  case  that  I  was 
enabled  to  show  that  the  force  could  not  by  any  possibility  be 
directly  due  to  radiation  (see />-*//.   Trans.,  roL   166,  p.  72S). 

The  same  reasoning  now  enaUet  me  to  show,  just  as  con- 
dusiveiy,  that  the  force  which  causes  the  motion  in  the  bodies 
cannot  be  due  to  the  stress,  in  the  layer  of  gas  which  separates 
the  bodies,  being  greater  in  the  direction  joining  the  bodies  than 
it  is  at  right  angles  to  this  direction.  For  the  only  effect  of  such 
a  difference  in  the  stress  would  be  to  canse  the  bodies  to  separate  ; 
therefore,  instead  of  a  following  B,  it  would  be  forced  back  in 
the  direction  of  its  hottest  side,  or  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that 
in  which  it  is  found  experimentally  to  move. 

This  case,  therefore,  shows  the  fundamental  error  of  Mr. 
Stoney's  view.  Although  he  allows  that  the  intervening  gas  is 
the  medium  of  communication,  he  assumes,  none  the  less,  that 
the  force  acts  directly  between  the  two  bodies  (the  heater  and 
cooler),  in  which  case  action  and  reaction  must  be  equal  between 
the  two  bodies.  Experiment,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  con- 
clusively that  the  force  acts  independently  between  each  hodj 
and  the  gas  which  surrounds  it;  the  pressure  l>eing  always 
greatest  on  the  hottest  side.  The  force  which  acts  on  the  body 
reacts  on  the  gas,  causing  it  to  move  in  the  opposite  direction, 
arid  the  wind  thus  caused  tends  to  carry  all  opposing  obstacles 
with  if.  Hence,  in  the  case  above,  the  motion  given  to  the  air 
at  the  one  body  must  to  some  extent  affect  the  opposing  surface* 
but  this  surface  forms  only  one  obstad^  while  the  action  of  the 
wind  is  distributed  throughout  the  entire  chamber,  in  which  it 
acts  in  the  manner  so  beautifully  shown  by  Dr.  Schuster's  plan 
of  suspendii^  the  vessel.  A  simple  analogy  to  what  happens 
in  the  case  of  a  and  B  is  furnished  by  two  steamboats,  the  one 
following  the  other.  The  water  thrown  back  by  the  screw  of 
the  first  would  stop  the  second,  but  only  to  a  smidl  extent 

When  answering  Prof.  Foster  in  a  former  letter,  I  said  "that 
it  is  contrary  to  the  kinetic  theory  that  the  increase  resulting 
from  rarefaction  in  the  mean  path  of  the  gaseous  molecnles 
should  favour  the  action."  In  making  this  statement  all  I  meant 
to  imply  was  that  the  action  was  independent  of  any  relation 
between  the  mean  path  and  the  distance  of  the  hot  surface  from 
the  cold  surface,  which  was  the  only  point  in  question.  Althougih 
my  sUtemenc  was  strictly  true  in  this  sense,  it  appears  to  me,  on 
funher  consideration,  that  it  might  include  more  than  I  intended. 

I  hope  that  nothing  I  have  said,  either  in  my  earlier  papers  or 
in  this  controversy,  luui  led  any  one  to  suppose  that  I  regarded 
my  explanation  as  entirely  complete.  I  suggested,  and  to  some 
extent  established,  the  true  source  of  the  force,  namely  the  heat 
communicated  to  the  residual  gas,  and  although  now  my  sugges- 
tion appears  to  have  been  universally  accepted,  it  may  bs 
remembered  that  at  the  time  my  first  paper  was  written  the  only 
other  suggestions  as  to  the  cause  of  the  motion  observed  by  Mr. 
Crookes  were  of  a  widely  different  character.  As  regards  the 
working  out  of  the  detail  of  my  explanation,  there  has  been  one 
point  which  I  could  not  quite  see  through,  viz.,  the  influence 
which  the  hot  molecules  reoeding  from  the  surface  might  have  on 
the  rate  at  which  the  cold  ones  would  come  up,  and  although  I 
have  been  trying  to  satisfy  myself  on  this  point  ever  since  my 
first  paper  was  published,  it  is  only  within  the  last  three  months 
that  I  succeeded. 

Now,  however,  I  have  arrived  at  a  result  which,  although 
somewhat  unexpected  and  striking,  will,  I  hope,  be  found  to 
reconcile  what  has  hitherto  appeared  to  be  anomalous  in  the 
phenomena  already  known,  and  to  have  suggested  certain  hither- 
to unexpected  phenomena  which  now  only  await  experimental 
verification.  Osburne  Rjeynolds 

January  15  — 

Sun- spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism 

Precisely  because  the  article  (Nature,  toL  xviL  p.  183) 
on  "  The  Sun's  Magnetic  Action  at  the  Present  Time,^'  is  by 
so  able  a  mathematical  physicist  as  Mr.  John  Allan  Broun, 
and  because  of  all  sides  of  the  solar  problem  there  is  none 
wherein  he  is  so  facde  princeps  as  the  nugnetic,  I  venture  to 
think  this  a  good  opportunity  for  asking  a  question  which  has 
troubled  me  much  of  late,  and  which  is  this :  — 

The  sun-spot  cycle  and  the  terrestrial  magnetic  diurnal  oscil- 
lation cycle  are  looked  on  now  generally  as  being,  if  not  actual 
cause  and  effect,  at  least  as  equally  both  of  them  effects  of  one 
and  the  same  ca^se,  and  necessarily,  therefore,  synchronous. 
Vet  if  we  inquire  ui  the  sun-spot  observers  the  lei^h  of  their 
cycle,  they  declare      (as  see  Prof.  Rudolph  WolTs  admirable 


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221 


mnd  exhaustive  jMiper  in  the  Ust  volame  of  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Rojal  Astronomical  Society)  to  be  ii'iii  years.  While  if  we 
msk  the  magnetic  men  the  length  of  the  cycle  of  their  needle 
manifestations,  they  (as  in  Mr.  Allan  Broun  s  fint  paragraph  on 
p.  183)  declare  it  as  confidently  to  be  10 *c  years. 

Wherefore  I  would  request  to  be  kindly  informed  if  the 
maxima  of  the  two  cycles  do  approximately  agree  just  now, 
where  will  they  be,  reuitively  to  each  other,  aifter  a  dozen  cycles 
hence  ?  And  the  answer  may  or  may  not  assist  in  clearing  up 
certain  apparent  anomalies  in  the  Edinburgh  earth-thermometer 
obsenrations.  PiAZZi  Smyth 

15,  Royal  Terrace,  Edinburgh,  January  11 


On  the  Insects  of  Chili  and  New  Zealand 

In  Mr.  McLachlan's  note  "  On  Some  Peculiar  Points  in  the 
Insect  Fauna  of  Chili "  (Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  162),  I  see,  with 
surprise,  the  remark  that  "  the  large  islands  of  New  Zealand 
furnish  us  with  no  indication  whatever  of  forms  parallel  with 
those  found  in  Chili,"  for  it  is  well  known  that  many  Lepidoptera 
belonging  to  European  genera  do  occur  in  New  Zealand,  although, 
perhaps,  neither  Argynnis  or  Colias,  Amongst  a  small  number 
of  Lepidoptera  from  New  Zealand  which  lately  came  into  my 
hands,  I  notice  species  of  the  following  European  genera : — 
Sisia^  Cloantha^  Nonagria^  Hdiotfus^  Hybemia^  LarenHa^ 
Fidonia,  Cidaria,  Coremia^  Campto^ramma^  Asthena^  Acidaiia^ 
Scoparia,  Except  in  the  case  of  Sesia  tipuliforme,  it  is  not 
probable  man  has  had  any  band  in  the  introduction.of  them. 
None,  except  the  Stsia,  are  identical  with  European  species, 
although  several  approximate,  and  the  causes  which  have  led  to 
the  existence  of  A^ynnU  and  Colias,  in  Chili,  are  probably  the 
same  as  those  which  have  planted  the  insects  I  have  named  in 
New  Zealand. 

In  Mr.  Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species,"  Chapter  XII.,  we  find 
a  suggested  Explanation  of  the  Presence  of  the  Forms  of  the 
Northern  Temperate  Zone  in  South  America  and  New  Zealand 
in  the  occurrence  of  alternate  glacial  epochs  at  the  North  and 
South  Poles,  and  although  the  observations  especially  refer  to 
plants,  they  are  applicable  to  the  insects  which  would,  doubtless, 
acoompan^  them  m.  their  supposed  migrations.  Perhaps  it  is 
not  an  entirely  satisfactory  explanation,  and  with  his  usual  can- 
dour, Mr.  Darwm  admits  that  it  does  not  meet  all  difficulties. 
In  describing  the  wanderings  of  the  plants,  Mr.  Darwin  uses 
terms  (figurative  of  course)  which  endow  them  with  extra- 
ordinary if  not  voluntary  powers^  of  locomotion,  as,  indeed, 
they  would  seem  to  require  in  reality,  for  effecting  such  won* 
derful  migrations,  and  as  regards  insects  Mr.  McLachlan  goes 
further,  ud  suggests  that  some  of  them  "mistook  the  points  of 
the  compass  and  went  southward.'' 

Now  the  pertinacity  with  which  the  Lepidoptera  adhere  to 
particular  plants  and  stations,  and  prefer  death  to  change  of 
either,  is  a  much  more  noticeable  character  than  their  ability  to 
emigrate,  and  seems  to  me  a  Krious  bar  to  the  acceptance  of  a 
theory  involving  great  changes  of  food  and  a  double  journey 
across  the  equator ;  possiblv  some  of  the  polyphagous  species 
might  survive  it,  but  even  these,  according  to  Mr.  McLachlan, 
appear  to  have  got  a  little  muddled  in  their  reckoning.  Most  of 
the  insects  I  have  named  are  eminently  select  in  their  diet,  and 
how  are  we  even  to  conceive  of  the  wingless  female  of  Hybemia 
performing  the  vast  journey  ? 

I  do  not  know  that  we  have  evidence  that  change  of  climate 
induces  migration  of  the  Lepidoptera.  There  is  a  Urce  colony  of 
Bryophila  perla,  which  has  been  stationed  on  an  old  wall  here 
for  the  last  twenty  y^irs,  and  although  there  are  miles  of  similar 
lichen-covered  walls  in  the  neighbourhood,  I  have  never  seen  a 
specimen  fif^  yards  from  head-quarters,  and  even  under  the 
threat  of  a  new  glacial  epoch,  I  do  not  think  it  would  consent  to 
move  on. 

In  saying  there  are  no  indications  of  similar  forms  on  the 
northern  portions  of  the  Andes,  I  am  not  sure  whether  Mr. 
McLachlan  refers  to  Lepidoptera  or  Trichoptera,  so  I  will 
mention  that  I  have  received  Kveral  species  of  CoUtu  captured 
on^the  eastern  Cordillera  of  New  Granada.  The  genus  probably 
ranges  through  the  whole  chain  of  the  Andes. 

Dooglasi  ble  of  Man,  January  2  Edwin  Birchall 

Macrosilia  cluentius 
In  Nature  (vol.  viii.  p.  223)  I  have  spoken  of  a  Sphinx 
which,  with  its  proboscis  of  0*25  metre  length,  would  be  capable 


of  obtaining  nearly  all  the  nectar  of  Ana^aeum  sisquipedale, 
Latelv  my  brothei,  Fritz  MuUer  (lUjahy,  Prov.  St.  Catharina, 
Brazil),  sent  me  the  wings  of  another  specimen  of  the  same 
species,  and  Dr.  Staudinger,  of  Dresden,  stated  hj  comparison 
of  these  wings  with  the  Sphingidre  of  his  collection  that  the 
name  of  the  species  is  Macrosilia  cluenHus^  Cramer. 
Lippstadt,  January  9  Hermann  MOllsr 

Meteor 

I  TAKE  the  liberty  of  forwarding  the  following  particulars 
relative  to  a  meteor  which!  saw  on  Sunday  last  at  ^  2Am.  p.m., 
that  is  to  say,  about  twenty  minutes  after  sunset  As,  however, 
the  day  had  been  very  fine,  there  was  not  only  lull  daylight  in 
the  west,  but  only  a  trace  of  twilight  in  the  north-west  direction, 
in  which  I  saw  the  meteor.  I  may  add  that  the  sky  was  slightly 
overcast  by  watery  clouds  in  that  direction : — 

Point  from  which  seen,  Salthill,  near  Kingstown ;  direction 
in  which  seen,  north-west ;  elevation  above  horizon,  10**  to  15^ ; 
length  of  luminous  "tail,"  5°  to  6^ ;  inclination  from  vertical, 
about  (towards  south)  10^ ;  timc^  4h.  24m.  p.m.  ;  colour  of  tail 
and  of  globe  of  explosion,  light  blue. 

Judging  from  the  elevation  and  from  the  fact  of  its  being 
visible  notwithstanding  the  strong  twilight  and  the  interposed 
clouds,  I  conclude  that  this  meteor  must  have  been  remarkably 
brilliant  and  that  it  exploded  over  or  bevond  the  West  Coast  of 
Ireland.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that  I  take  the  liberty  of  calling 
attention  to  it,  as  others  may  have  seen  it  under  more  favourable 
conditions.  P.  W.  Rbilly 

Royal   College   of  Science   for   Ireland, 
Stephen's  Green,  Dublin,  January  15 

Philadelphia  Diploma 

In  Nature,  voL  xvii.  p.  183,  there  appears  a  note>y  Dr.  C. 
M.  Ingleby  on  the  "  Philadelphia  Diplomas."  Permit  me  to 
say  that  the  onlv  institutions  in  Philaaelphia  legally  authorised 
to  grant  medical  diplomas  are  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  a 
school  which  has  long  ago  celebrated  its  centenary,  and  the 
Jefferson  Medical  College.  The  so-called  University  of  Phila- 
delphia is  a  hybrid  concern,  the  medical  department  of  which  is 
unaer  the  management  of  the  Eclectic  Medical  SchooL 

January  10  Richd.  C.  Brandbis 

Great  WaterfaUs 

I  SHALL  be  much  obliged  if  you,  or  any  of  your  readers,  can 
inform  me  in  what  book  I  can  find  accounts  of  any  of  the  follow- 
ing great  waterfalls  :— The  Tequendama  Fall,  near  Sta.  F^  de 
Bogota,  South  America  ;  the  Cauvery  Falls,  near  Seringapatam, 
India ;  the  Alatan  Falls,  Alatau  Mountains,  Central  Asia ;  the 
Gnava,  or  Gnayra  Falls,  on  the  Alto  Parana,  South  Brazil ; 
Falls  of  the  Rio  Grande,  near  Guadalajara,  Mexico.  These 
great  falls,  five  of  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world,  are  shortly 


noticed  in  books  of  geography,  but  I  have  hitherto  been  unablie 
to  obtain  aiw  detailfdp 
Eltham,  January  7 


,  pvticulars  or  description  of  theoL 

Arthur  G.  Guillemard 


BIOLOGICAL  NOTES 

Self-fertilisation  of  Plants.— This  subject, around 
which  the  genius  of  Mr.  Charles  Darwin  has  thrown  a 
halo,  seems  likely  to  give  rise  to  further  controversy. 
The  Rev.  G.  Henslow,  in  a  communication  laid  before 
the  first  meeting  this  session  of  the  Linnean  Society, 
gave  an  exposition  of  the  views  he  had  arrived  at ;  these 
in  many  respects  being  at  variance  with  those  promul- 
gated bv  Mr.  Darwin.  The  author  acknowledged  bow 
mdebted  he  stood  towards  the  latter,  whose  vast  store- 
house of  facts  and  close  reasoning  necessitated  constant 
reference  to  his  writings ;  but  the  author's  own  deductions 
therefrom,  and  additional  researches,  nevertheless,  con- 
firmed him  in  hesitating  to  accept  some  of  Mr.  Darwin's 
conclusions.  According  to  Mr.  Henslow,  the  chief  facts 
and  bearings  of  the  self-fertilisation  of  plants  may  thus  be 
summarised :  i.  The  majority  of  flowering  plants  are 
self-fertile.  2.  Very  few  are  known  to  be  physiologically 
self-sterile.  3.  Many  are  morphologically  self-sterile.  4. 
Self-sterile  plants  become  self-fertile  by  («}  withering  <i(i 


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NATURE 


{Jan.  17,  1878 


the  corolla,  {^)  its  excision,  (^)  loss  of  colour,  {d)  closing, 
\e)  not  opening,  (/)  absence  of  insects,  {g)  reduction  of 
temperature,  (A)  transportation.  5.  Highly  self-fertile 
forms  may  arise  under  cultivation.  6.  Special  adaptations 
occur  for  self-fertilisation.  7.  Inconspicuous  flowers  are 
highly  self-fertile.  8.  Cleistogamous  flowers  are  always 
se&ferdlised.  9.  Conservation  of  energy  in  reduction  of 
pollen.  la  Relative  fertility  may  equal  or  surpass  that 
of  crossed  plants.  11.  It  does  not  decrease  in  successive 
generations.  12.  It  may  increase.  13.  Free  from  com- 
petition self-fertilised  plants  equal  the  intercrossed ;  (a) 
as  seedlings,  iJb)  planted  in  open  ground.  14,  They  may 
gain  no  benent  from  a  cross  from  the  same  or  a  different 
stock.  15.  They  are  as  healthy  as  the  intercrossed.  16. 
They  may  be  much  more  productive  than  flowers  depen- 
dent upon  insects.  17.  Naturalised  abroad  they  gain 
great  vigour;  and  (18)  are  the  Attest  to  survive  in  the 
struggle  for  life. 

Physiological  Action  of  Nicotin.— About  twenty 
years  ago  the  Rev.  Prof.  Haughton  called  attention  to  the 
fact  that  there  was  an  antagonism  between  the  actions  of 
nicotin  and  of  strychnia.  His  experiments  were  on 
frogs.  About  ten  years  afterwards  Dr.  Wormley  experi- 
mented in  the  same  direction  with  cats  ;  and  some  five 
years  ago  Dr.  Reese  performed  a  series  of  experiments 
with  these  df  ugs  on  dogs.  Not  satisfied  with  the  results  of 
any  of  these  experimenters  and  recognising  the  great 
importance  of  the  subject,  Dr.  Haynes  has  made  a  long 
series  of  experiments  on  dogs,  cats,  rabbits,  and  rats, 
and  after  some  143  experiments,  has  come  to  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  : — ^**  The  recorded  cases  of  strychnia 
poisoning  treated  by  tobacco  are  extremely  unsatisfactory. 
If  they  prove  anything  it  is  merely  that  tobacco  is  a 
powerful  emetic**  "  Haughton's  experiments  on  this 
subject  (really  only  two  in  number)  were  performed  in 
such  an  unscientific  manner  as  to  be  utterly  valueless." 
'*  Strychnia  and  nicotin  are  in  no  degree  antagonistic 
poisons."  "Strychnia  increases  the  convulsive  action 
and  does  not  diminish  the  motor  paralysis  of  nicotin." 
"  Nicotin  (even  in  paralysing  doses)  increases  the  con- 
vulsive action  of  sti^chnia."  "  Both  poisons  cause  death 
by  paralysincc  the  respiratory  organs.  They  may  affect 
respiration  in  diflTerent  way^,  but  the  result  is  the  same." 
Animals  may  be  killed  by  injecting  together  doses  of  the 
two  drugs  which,  singly,  are  not  fatal  (Proceedings  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  vol.  xvL,  No.  99.) 

Glassy  Sponges.— Drs.  W.  Marshall  and  A.  B.  Meyer 
have  published  a  memoir,  as  one  of  a  series  of  communi- 
cations to  the  Zoological  Museum  at  Dresden,  "  on  some 
new  or  little-known  sponges  belonging  to  the  Hexacti- 
nellidae  found  in  the  Philippines."  It  seems  but  the 
other  day  since  one  could  have  numbered  on  the  fingers 
of  one  hand  all  the  known  species  of  this  family,  so  well 
known  to  many  by  that  beautiful  typical  form,  the  Venu&'s 
flower-basket  (Euplectella\  and  now  the  number  of 
described  species  is  very  large.  In  1872  one  of  the 
authors  (Dr.  Meyer)  was  staying  at  CebiS  one  of  the 
Philippine  group,  where  EupUctetta  aspergillum  is  a 
regular  article  of  trade,  quoted  at  so  much  a  doxen,  and 
where  it  is  not  surprismg  that  he  should  discover  a 
number  of  other  lovely  forms  in  this  memoir  described 
'  and  figured.  Among  the  more  interesting  forms  are  the 
foUowmg  \—Hyalocaulo5  simplex^  Myitusia  ziiteliU  and 
two  species  of  Aulodictyon^  all  of  these  found  living 
attached  to  the  basal  portion  of  Evflectella.  Semperella 
schultzei  is  figured  of  a  natural  size  from  a  specimen 
twenty-one  indies  in  length,  and  figures  of  the  spicules  of 
the  various  new  species  are  also  given. 

A  Male  NuR8E.^The  interest  of  the  reproduction  of 
Batracfaians  it  by  no  means  yet  exhausted.  A  Spanish 
naturalist!  Jimenez  de  la  Espada,  has  recently  discovered 
additkmal  fiuts  respecting  Minodsrma  darwinii  (of 
Quit),  which  was  nrat  made  known  by  Mr.  Darwin,    Darwb, 


He  finds  that  the  supposed  viviparous  birth  of  the  youii|S^ 
from  the  female  is  a  very  different  phenomenon.  It  is 
the  males  which  are  the  nurses,  and  they  have  an  extra- 
ordinary brood-sac,  developed  as  a  pouch  from  the  throat, 
and  extending  over  a  great  portion  of  the  ventral  sur£eu:e 
of  the  animal  In  this  cavity  a  number  of  living  tadpoles 
were  found,  in  number  of  individuals,  and  the  length  of 
the  tadpoles  was  about  14  mm.  How  these  are  first 
developed  and  nourished  is  not  yet  known.  Dr.  J.  W. 
Spengel  translates  a  portion  of  the  Spanish  paper  in  the 
current  number  of  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  vnssenschaftiichs 
Zoologie^  vol.  xxix.  part  4. 

Structure  of  Cycade^— E.  Warming,  of  Copen- 
hagen, publishes  (in  Danish  with  French  abstract)  some 
fresh  researches  on  this  subject  ("  Recherches  et  Re- 
marques  sur  les  Cycad^es,''  Copenhagen,  1877).  He 
confirms  in  general  the  results  previously  arrived  at  by 
A.  Braun  and  others,  from  the  structure  of  the  ovule  and 
seed,  the  pro-embryonic  characters,  the  mode  of  forma- 
tion of  the  pollen  and  pollen-plant,  and  of  the  growth  of 
the  stem  and  roots,  &c.,  that  the  Cycadese  are  very  nearly 
allied  to  the  Conifers ;  and  in  particular  he  places  them 
near  to  the  Gingko  \Salisburia  adianti/oUd).  Among 
Cryptogams  he  considers  them  to  come  nearest  to 
Marattiacese  and  Ophioglossaceae  among  Filicineae.  He 
proceeds  then  to  discuss  the  homology  of  the  ovule  of 
Phanerogams,  on  which  he  thinks  the  structure  of  that 
of  the  Cycads— intermediate  between  Vascular  Crypto- 
gams and  Angiosperms — throws  much  light  The  pha- 
nerogamic ovule  he  considers  to  be  composed  of  two 
parts,  of  different  morphological  origin,  viz.,  a  nucleus 
which  is  homologous  with  the  macrosporangium ;  and 
a  lobe  of  the  leaf  which  bears  the  nucleus,  consisting 
partly  of  the  funiculus  and  partly  of  the  integuments. 
In  Angiosperms  the  nucleus  rests  on  the  surface  of  the 
leaf ;  in  Gymnosperms  it  is  partly  imbedded  in  it  No 
part  of  the  ovule  is  of  axial  origin  {caulome). 

The  Brain  of  a  Fossil  Mammal.— Prof.  Cope  has 
been  able  to  take  a  cast  of  the  cranial  cavity  of  a  specie  of 
the  Tapiroid  genus  Coryphodon,  from  the  Wahsatch  beds 
of  New  Mexico.  This  has  revealed  remarkable  primitive 
characters  :  (i)  the  small  size  of  the  cerebellum ;  (2)  the 
large  size  of  the  region  of  the  corpora  quadrigemina ; 
(3)  the  cerebral  hemispheres  were  small,  and  (4)  the 
olfactory  lobes  were  very  large.  The  n&edulla  oblongata 
is  wider  than  the  cerebral  hemispheres.  In  profile  the 
brain  closely  resembles  that  of  a  lizard.  These  cha- 
racters are  so  extraordinary  that  Prof.  Cope  considers 
them  sufficient  to  mark  a  primary  division  of  mammalia, 
which  he,  following  Owen,  calls  Protencephala.  Prof. 
Cope  describes  and  gives  figures  of  a  cast,  the  skull 
cavity,  in  the  Proceedings  of  Uie  American  Philosophical 
Society,  vol.  xvi.,  No.  99. 


INSECTIVOROUS  PLANTS^ 

SINCE  the  appearance  of  Mr.  Darwin's  work  on  *'  In- 
sectivorous Plants"  the  want  of  direct  proof  that  the 
plants  profit  by  their  carnivorous  habits  has  been  some- 
what widely  felt.  Thus  we  find  expressions  to  this  effect 
by  MM.  Cassimir  de  CandoUe,  Cramer,  Duchartre, 
Duval-Jouve,  Faivre,  Goppert,  £.  Morren,  Munk,  Naudin, 
W.  Pfeffer,  Schenk,  &c.,  &c 

The  assent  which  many  naturalists  have  given  to  Mr. 
Darwin's  explanation  of  Uie  meaning  of  the  structure  and 
physiological  properties  of  carnivorous  plants  rests  on  a 
sound  Imis,  namely,  the  impofsikulity  of  believing  that 
highly  specialised  organs  are  unimportant  to  their  pos* 
sessor,  and  the  difficulty  of  giving  any  rational  expkaa- 
tion  except  the  one  proposed  in  ^^  Insectivorous  Ptants.* 
Mr.  Darwin  himself  felt  the  desirableness  of  direct  evi- 
dence on  this  head,  and   the  experiments  intended  to 


ya7i.  17,  1878] 


NATURE 


223 


decide  the  question  only  failed  through  an  accident.  The 
present  research  by  Dr.  F.  Darwin  is  practically  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  experiments. 

The  widely-spread  belief  that  insectivorous  plants 
thrive  equally  well  when  deprived  of  animal  food  rests  on 
very  insufficient  grounds.  Many  observers  have  based 
their  opinion  on  the  general  appearance  of  the  plants,  and 
in  no  case  has  observation  been  sufficiently  extended  in 
point  of  time  or  details  of  comparison.  The  plan  of  the 
present  research  was  therefore  (i)  To  cultivate  a  large 
number  of  plants.  (2)  To  continue  observation  for  a 
considerable  space  of  time,  during  which  artificial  starving 
and  feeding  of  two  sets  of  plants  was  to  be  kept  up.  (3) 
To  compare  the  starved  and  fed  plants  in  a  vanety  of 
ways  and  especially  as  to  the  production  of  seed. 

With  this  object  about  2Co  plants  of  Drosera  rotundi- 
folia  were  transplanted  (June  12,  1877),  and  cultivated 
in  soup-plates  filled  with  moss  during  the  rest  of  the 
summer. 

Each  plate  was' divided  into  halves  by  a  low  wooden 
partition,  one  side  being  destined  to  be  fed  with  meat, 
while  Uie  plants  in  the  opposite  half  were  to  be  stc^rved. 
The  plates  were  placed  altogether  under  a  gauze  case,  so 
that  the  *'  starved  "  plants  might  be  prevented  from  ob- 
taining food  by  the  capture  of  insects.  The  method  of 
feeding  consisted  in  supplying  each  leaf  (on  the  fed  sides 
of  the  six  plates)  with  one  or  two  smaU  bits  of  roast  meat, 
each  weighing  about  one-fiftieth  of  a  grain.  This  opera- 
tion was  repeated  every  few  days  from  the  beginning  of 
July  to  the  first  days  of  September,  when  the  final  com- 

garison  of  Uie  two  sets  of  plants  was  made.  But  long 
efore  this  it  was  quite  clear  that  the  **  fed  *'  plants  were 
profiting  by  their  meat  diet  Thus,  on  July  17  it  was 
evident  that  the  leaves  on  the  "fed"  side  were  of  a  dis- 
tinctly brighter  green,  showing  that  the  increased  supply 
of  nitrogen  had  allowed  a  more  active  formation  of  cldo- 
rophyll- grains  to  take  place.  It  may  be  inferred,  partly 
from  microscopical  examination  of  the  starch  in  the 
leaves,  but  more  certainly  from  the  final  comparison  of 
dry  weights,  that  the  increase  of  chlorophyll  was  accom- 
panied by  an  increased  formation  of  cellulose.  From  this 
time  forward  the  "fed"  sides  of  the  plates  were  clearly 
distinguishable  by  their  thriving  appearance  and  their 
numerous  tall  and  stout  flower-stems. 

The  advantage  gained  by  the  fed  plants  was  estimated 
in  many  ways.  Thus,  on  August  7  the  ratio  between  the 
number  of  "starved"  and  "fed"  flower  stalks  was 
100  :  149*1.  Ajid  by  comparing  the  number  of  stems 
actually  in  flower  it  was  clear  that  the  starved  plants 
were  losing  the  power  of  throwing  up  new  flower  stems  at 
an  earlier  date  than  their  rivals.  In  the  middle  of  August 
the  leaves  were  counted  in  three  plates,  and  were  found 
to  be  187  on  the  starved,  and  256  on  the  fed  side— or  in 
the  ratio  of  100  :  1360. 

At  the  beginning  of  September  the  seeds  being  ripe,  all 
the  flower-stems  were  gathered,  and  the  plants  of  three 
plates  were  picked  out  of  the  moss  and  carefully  washed. 
As  it  seemed  probable  that  one  advantage  of  the  fed  over 
the  starved  plants  would  be  the  power  of  laying  by  a 
larger  store  of  reserve-material,  three  plates  were  sulowed 
to  remain  undisturbed  after  the  flower-stems  had  been 
gathered.  The  relative  number  of  plants  which  will 
appear  in  the  spiing  on  the  "fed"  and  "starved"  sides 
will  be  a  means  of  estimating  the  relative  quantities  of 
reserve-material 

The  following  list  gives  the  result  of  counting,  measur- 
ing, and  weighing  the  various  parts  of  the  two  sets  of 
plants.  It  will  be  seen  the  number  of  plants  (judging 
from  the  three  plates  examined)  were  fairly  equal  on  the 
starved  and  fed  sides  of  the  partitions  so  that  a  direct 
comparison  of  their  produce  is  allowable  :— 

Ratio  between  the  number  of  starved  and 
fed  plants  100:101-2^ 

■  In  all  cases  "starved"  =  loa 


Ratio  between  weights  of  ths  plants  ex' 

f/ftf ivr  of  flowcr-stenis 100:121*5 

Total  number  of  flower  stems 1 00  :  1 64  '9 

Sum  of  the  heights  of  the  flower  stems  ...  100  :  159*9  ^ 

Total  weight  of  flower  stems       1 00  :  23 1  -9 

Total  number  of  capsules 100:194*4 

Average  number  of^ seeds  per  capsule     ...  loo  :  122*7 

Average  weight  per  seed 100:157*3 

Total   calculated   number  of  seeds   pro- 
duced        100:241*5 

Total  calculated^w<f*fA/  of  seeds  produced  100  :  379*7 

The  most  important  feature  in  the  general  result  is  that 
the  advantage  gained  by  the  fed  plants  is  far  more  con- 
spicuously shown  in  all  that  relates  to  the  seeds  and 
flower-stems  than  in  any  other  part.  Thus  the  ratio 
between  the  weights  of  the  plants,  exclusive  of  flower- 
stems  were  as  100  to  121*5  ;  while  the  weights  of  the 
flower- stems,  including  seeds  and  capsules,  were  as  100  to 
231*9.  The  highest  ratio  is  seen  to  be  between  the  total 
weights  of  seed  produced,  namely  |ioo  :  3797  ;  and  this 
is  intelligible,  because  a  store  of  nitrogen  is  laid  by  in  the 
albuminous  seeds. 

Another  point  is  that  the  difference  between  the  starved 
and  fed  plants  is  more  clearly  shown  in  the  comparison 
of  weights  than  of  numbers  or  heights.  It  is  clear  that 
increase  of  weight  is  a  better  proof  of  increased  assimi- 
lation than  any  other  character. 

It  may  fairly  be  said  that  the  above  experiments  prove 
beyond  a  doubt  that  insectivorous  plants  are  largely 
benefited  by  a  supply  of  animal  food,  and  it  can  no 
longer  be  doubted  that  a  similar  benefit]  is  gained  in  a 
state  of  nature  by  the  capture  of  insects. 

ALBERT  VON  HALLER 

ON  December  12  last  the  republic  and  city  of  Berne 
celebrated  the  centenary  of  the  death  of  one  who  is 
universally  recognised  as  their  greatest  citizen.  The  im- 
portant part  played  in  science  by  Albert  von  Haller  last 
century  is  a  sufficient  excuse  for  us,  profiting  by  the 
occasion  of  the  recent  celebration,  to  enable  our  readers 
to  appreciate  the  marvellous  aptitude  of  this  eminent  man 
for  every  kind  of  work,  theoretical  and  practical ;  he  was 
at  once  a  statesman,  theologian,  and  poet,  as  well  as  a 
physiologist,  anatomist,  and  botanist 

Albert  Haller  was  bom  at  Berne  in  October,  1708,  of  a 
family  originally  of  St  Gall,  one  of  whose  members 
fell  by  the  side  of  Zwingli  in  1531.  Very  weak  in  body, 
like  Isaac  Newton,  in  his  infancy,  he  exhibited,  like  him, 
an  extraordinary  precocity,  and  his  avidity  for  books  was 
something  indescribable.  Having  finished  his  classical 
studies  bnlliantly  and  rapidly,  he  went  to  Tiibingen  at  the 
age  of  fiifteen  years  to  study  medicine,  then  soon  after  to 
Leyden  to  follow  the  clinic  of  the  illustrious  Boerhaave, 
on  whose  works  he  at  a  later  time  published  a  com- 
mentary which  greatly  contributed  to  his  renown.  Albinus 
taught  him  anatomy  and  J.  Gessner  botany.  At  eighteen 
and  a  half  years  he  obtained  the  degree  of  doctor,  and 
afterwards  attended,  in  London,  the  teaching  of  Dr. 
Winslow.  After  a  sojourn  at  Paris  he  returned  to  Switzer- 
land and  studied  mathematics  with  Jean  Bernoulli,  and 
that  with  such  ardour  that  his  friends  were  constrained 
to  look  after  him. 

In  1728  he  made,  with  Gessner,  his  first  great  Alpine 
excursion,  which,  many  times  repeated,  made  him,  in  an 
eminent  degree,  master  of  the  Swiss  flora.  His  most 
celebrated  poem,  entitled  "Die  Alpen,"  was  another 
result  of  his  mountain  journeys,  which  contributed  to 
diffuse  among  those  far  away  the  magic  charm  of  that 
magnificent  scenery.* 

«  Therefore  the  average  height  of  the  fed  items  is  slightly  less  (too  :  99-9) 
than  that  of  the  fed.  But  since  equal  numbers  of  giants  are  takeo»  the  total 
yield  of  flower  stems  is  the  fair  criterion.  ,     , 

'  Prince  Radnvil,  Commander  of  the  Polish  Confederates,  having  at  a 
later  period  become  acquainted  with  the  i>oem,  could  not  think  of  anjrthing 
better  to  signify  to  the  author  his  satisfactioD,  than  to  send  him  a  commission 
of  Major^jenenl* 


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NATURE 


{Jan.  17.  1878 


^  His  first  anatomical  instruction  was  obtained  at  Bile> 
and  was  continued  during  five  years,  after  which  Haller 
returned  to  his  native  country,  where  an  active  medical 
practice  did  not  hinder  him  from  ever  and  ever  reading  to 
increase  the  field  of  his  already  vast  knowledge.  He  read 
at  table,  in  journeying  on  foot  or  on  horseback,  during  his 
visits  and  consultations,  which  made  those  shake  their 
heads  who  could  not  understand  his  marvellous  clearness 
of  perception. 

His  botanical  labours  were  then  very  extensive,  and 
brought  him  his  first  encouragement  from  abroad.  In 
December,  1733,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  of 
Upsala  received  him  among  the  number  of  its  members, 
and  proposals  were  made  to  him  to  become  a  professor 
there.  At  Berne  his  success  was  not  easy ;  in  1734  he 
obtained  the  modest  position  of  librarian.  This  was  the 
epoch  when,  while  carrying  on  his  work  as  a  practitioner, 
he  gave  himself  especially  to  poetic  composition,  but 
which  came  to  an  end  in  1736. 

It  was  at  this  time  he  received  a  call  from  the  newly- 
founded  University  of  Gottingen,  to  go  there  as  Professoivj 
of  Anatomy  and  Botany.  This  call  was  accepted,  and 
although  it  was  for  him  the  occasion  of  a  great  grief,  in 
the  death  of  his  wife  soon  after  their  arrival,  he  displayed 
in  this  new  centre  a  remarkable  activity  and  capacity. 
His  desire  and  his  plans  for  the  foundation  of  an  ana- 
tomical theatre  were  soon  realised.  Measures  were  taken 
that  subjects  should  not  be  wanting  for  dissection ;  and  at 
the  same  time  conformably  to  his  proposals,  a  botanical 
garden  was  created  which  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
important  in  Germany.  He  was  the  soul  of  his  faculty 
and  of  the  entire  university,  and  his  reputation  caused 
students  to  flock  to  G5ttingen  from  all  countries,  whom 
he  encouraged  in  every  way,  prescribing  to  them  various 
works  in  connection  with  his  own  and  for  the  prompt 
development  of  the  physiological  sciences.  He  founded  at 
GSttingen  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  which  he 
was  appointed  president,  a  position  he  retained  to  the 
end  of  his  life,  notwithstanding  his  return  to  his  own 
cotmtry. 

It  was  at  this  time  he  published  his  commentaries  on 
the  work  of  Boerhaave,  when  he  commenced  his  *'  Ele- 
menta  Physiologise,"  his  "  Anatomical  Plates,"  his  "  Flora 
of  Switzerland,''  and  other  works.  In  1749  the  King  of 
England  appointed  Haller  his  private  physician,  and  con- 
firmed the  titles  of  nobility  which  had  been  conferred  on 
him  by  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  The  Royal  Society  of 
London,  the  Academy  of  Stockholm,  those  of  Berlin  and 
Bologna,  enrolled  him  on  their  lists  of  members.  Fred- 
erick the  Great  of  Prussia  attempted  to  get  him  to  Berlin, 
but  Haller  would  only  leave  Gottingen  to  return  to  Berne, 
and  he  decided  to  do  so  in  1753.  His  zeal  for  public 
affairs  caused  him  to  accept  in  his  native  country  official 
functions  in  which  his  aptitudes  of  every  kind  found  their 
application.  Appointed  Bailiff  of  the  district  of  Aigle, 
near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  he 
explored  and  worked  the  sources  of  salt ;  at  Berne  he 
contributed  to  the  creation  of  an  orphanage  and  a  large 
hospital,  upon  which  he  inscribed  the  beautiful  device, 
"  Christo  in  pauperibus."  In  1754  he  received  from  the 
French  Institute  the  great  distinction  of  being  nominated 
one  of  its  foreign  associates ;  of  the  eight  then  existing, 
three  were  Swiss— Jean  Bernoulli,  Euler,  and  Haller.  He 
regretted  that  his  administrative  occupations  absorbed 
much  of  the  time  he  would  have  wished  to  devote  to 
science ;  and  yet  even  during  this  period  of  his  life  his 
productiveness  was  enormous.  Besides  a  large  number 
of  monographs  and  dissertations  on  subjects  in  the 
domains  of  botany,  medicine,  anatomy,  and  physiology, 
he  published  more  extensive  works,  such  as :  Two  parts 
of  anatomical  plates  in  folio,  a  quarto  volume  of  surgical 
dissertations,  four  volimies  '*  Disputationes  practicae  se- 
lectae,"  and  six  volumes  of  his  "Elementa  Physiologiae 
Corporis  huTiani."    He  occupied  himself  more  especially 


with  the  anatomy  of  the  e3re,  the  formation  of  the  bones, 
and  the  comparison  of  the  brains  of  birds  and  fishes.  He 
was  chiefly  original  in  his  experiments  on  the  move- 
ment of  the  blotxi,  in  his  researches  on  the  development 
of  the  chicken  in  the  egg,  and  on  that  of  the  foetus  of 
quadrupeds,  as  well  as  in  his  teratological  studies. 

In  his  physiology  he  introduced  the  dominant  idea, 
which  was  his  principal  discovery,  of  irritability  consi- 
dered as  a  force  peculiar  to  muscular  fibre,  independent 
of  sensibility  properly  so  called,  and  differently  distri- 
buted. In  his  hands  this  force  became  a  new  law,  with 
which  he  connected  nearly  all  the  animal  functions.  He 
can  only  be  blamed,  perhaps,  for  having  distinguished  it 
too  absolutely  and  in  too  decided  a  manner  from  the 
nervous  force  on  which  it  always  depends.  As  to  genera- 
tion, Haller  maintained  the  doctrine  of  the  pre-existence 
of  germs,  and  he  gave  it  the  most  solid  support  in  his 
studies  on  the  foetal  development  Not  knowing  the 
chemical  action  of  the  air  on  the  blood  he  was  unable  to 
understand  the  exact  idea  of  respiration. 

All  his  writings  show  immense  erudition,  the  fruit  of 
his  extensive  reading,  with  the  assistance  of  a  prodigious 
memory.  In  four  BibUothecse,"  published  under  his 
auspices  at  Berne,  Zurich,  and  BMe,  he  spoke  of  52,000 
different  scientific  works  or  treatises  all  known  by  him 
and  annotated  by  his  hand  to  make  known  the  text,  the 
sources,  and  the  authors. 

A  similar  erudition  rendered  him  eminently  apt  at 
bibliographical  work.  Thus  we  have  from  him  in  his 
"  Methodus  Studii  Medici "  of  Boerhaave  a  classification 
of  works,  in  which  their  degree  of  merit  is  distinguished 
by  one,  two,  or  three  asterisks.  But  few  living  authors 
were  content  with  the  number  of  asterisks  which  he 
accorded  to  their  works,  and  this  attempt  made  him 
numerous  enemies.  He  had  collected  for  his  use  about 
20,000  volumes,  which  were  bought  after  his  death  by 
the  EQiperor  Joseph  II.  and  given  to  the  University  oSf 
Paris. 

On  many  occasions  attempts  were  made  to  bring  Haller 
back  to  Gdttingen.  In  1770  King  George  III.  person- 
ally made  overtures  for  this  purpose ;  but  the  republic  of 
Berne  valued  too  highly  his  presence  to  consent  to  a  new 
departure.  The  Council,  while  assuring  the  king  of  its 
friendship  and  its  desire  to  please  him,  was  opposed  to 
this  departure,  not  being  able  to  be  deprived  of  a  man  so 
necessary  to  the  public  weal  in  a  place  for  life  created 
expressly  for  him,  and  in  view  of  the  general  service  of 
the  state.  The  passionate  love  which  he  had  for  his 
country  made  him  respond  in  the  most  efficacious  and 
the  most  varied  manner  to  the  hopes  which  his  fellow- 
citizens  had  placed  in  his  activity,  more  especially  in  the 
great  start  which  agriculture  took  in  his  xxaat  and  imder 
his  influence. 

However,  in  the  midst  of  so  many  matters,  for  which 
Haller  was  always  of  easy  access,  his  health  was  constantly 
delicate.  With  advancing  age  many  infirmities  presented 
themselves  which  would  have  arrested  a  man  of  less 
energy,  and  which  led  to  very  painful  crises.  Gout  and 
insonmia  tormented  him  more  and  more,  and  he  did  not 
conceal  from  himself  that  the  use  of  opium,  by  means  of 
which  he  combated  them,  had  serious  drawbacks.  One 
of  his  friends  advising  to  change  the  r^inu,  he  replied  in 
Italian: — 

''  Sono  venti  tre  ore  e  mezza.** 

Haller  died  December  12,  1777,  in  his  seventieth  year, 
observing  till  the  last  moment  the  ebbing  of  his  life^  and 
indicating  at  last  by  a  sign  the  moment  when  his  pulse 
stopped.  But  he  saw  the  approach  of  death  with  the 
calmness  of  a  confirmed  Christian,  having  all  his  life  pre- 
served a  sincere  faith,  without  fearing  more  than  Newton, 
Euler,  or  Linn^,  that  that  faith  could  be  contradicted  or 
compromised  by  the  scientific  researches  which  he  had 
pursued  with  a  zeal  which  has  scarcely  b^en  surpassed. 

E.  G. 


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THE  MODERN  TELESCOPE^ 
IV. 

THE  next  point  to  which  Mr.  Grubb  refers  is  one  to 
which  much  interest  attaches.  It  is  now  a  long  time  ago 
since  Sir  J.  Herschel  investigated  the  effects  of  differently 
shaped  apertures  upon  the  imi^es  of  stars.  The  figure 
shows  the  effects  they  produce  due  to  diffraction. 

An  effect  is  also  produced  on  the  ioiage  if  a  round,  or 
triangular,  or  square  patch  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
object-glass.  With  the  former  the  discs  of  the  stars  are 
smaller,  and  the  position  of  the  diffraction  rings  is  changed, 
so  that  double  stars  can  thus  be  measured,  while  in  ordinary 
circumstances  the  companion  is  hidden  by  one  of  the  rings. 

Now  in  a  reflector,  unless,  indeed,  we  use  the  front  view^ 
the  central  patch  is  always  present,  and  it  is  to  this  and 
to  the  arm  which  supports  it  that  the  peculiar  look  of  a 
star  in  a  reflector  is  due.  Mr.  Grubb  does  not  hesitate  to 
ascribe  to  this  the  great  difference  of  opinion  that  exists 
as  to  the  performance  of  the  two  classes  of  instruments, 
and  adds : — 

*'A  veteran  and  well-known  worker  with  refractors 
declared  '  he  never  looked  into  a  reflector  without  drawing 
away  his  eye  in  disgust ; '  and  workers  with  reflectors 
cannot  understand  how  the  refractor  workers  can  bear 
that  dreadful  fringe  of  colour  from  the  secondary  spec- 


trum. The  same  applies  to  other  matters.  Newtonian 
observers  cannot  understand  how-.those  who  observe  with 
refractors  or  Cassegrain  reflectors  can  bear  to  strain  their 
neck  so  in  looking  up  through  the  tube ;  while  the  refrac- 
tor and  Cassegrain  workers  cannot  understand  how  the 
Newtonian  workers  will  break  their  backs  sitting  or 
standing  bolt  upright  when  they  might  be  reclining  com- 
fortably on  an  easy  chair  as  they  do.  After  all,  when  this 
comes  to  be  investigated  it  resolves  itself  into  but  little 
more  than  a  question  of  to  which  telescope  the  observer 
has  been  most  accustomed.  Each  observer  becomes  in 
time  wedded  to  his  own  instrument ;  he  has  done  his 
work  with  it,  the  credit  of  his  discoveries  is  due  to  it,  and 
he  naturally  falls  into  the  idea  that  no  other  can  be  as 
good." 

We  next  come  to  those  points  in  which  the  reflector  is 
stated  to  be  superior  to  the  refractor.  These  are  absence 
of  secondary  spectrum,  superior  applicability  for  physical 
work,  possibility  of  supporting  mirrors  irrespective  of  size, 
and  handiness  of  reflectors  due  to  their  short  focal  length, 
and  especially  if  the  Cassegrain  form  be  employed.  With 
regard  to  the  first  point,  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Vernon 
Harcourt  and  Prof.  Stokes,  in  which  they  attempted  to 
produce  two  kinds  of  stars  with  rational  or  nearly  rational 
spectra,  have  failed  to  lead  to  any  great  hopes  being 
formed  as  to  ultimate  success,  and  the  superior  advantage 


Fic.  10.— Diffraction  cflTccts  produced  by  aptrtures  aad  siop>  of  ditTcrcnt  »h tpe«  ( tier«ch rl). 


of  the  reflector  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no  colour  will 
doubtless  long  remain.  The  superior  applicability  for 
physical  work  is  much  more  doubtful.  At  present  we 
know  too  little  about  reflection  from  metals  and  many 
other  points  to  lay  down  the  law  with  certainty,  and  in 
my  own  opinion  Mr.  Grubb's  dictum  is  far  too  absolute 
with  regard  to  spectroscopic  work. 

In  another  part  of  his  valuable  paper  Mr.  Grubb 
measiires  the  advantage  of  the  reflector  with  regard  to  the 
question  of  support ;  he  shows  that  an  object-^ass  may 
be  supported  by  a  central  arm  without  loss  of  definition, 
and  even  that  the  tube  may  be  filled  with  compressed  air. 
He  says :  "  The  pressure  required  would  be  very  small. 
Suppose  the  objective  to  be  forty  inches  aperture,  and 
600  lbs.  weight,  and  that  it  was  purposed  to  lift  §  of  its 
weight  on  the  air  cushion,  a  pressure  of  about  J  of  a  pound 
to  the  square  inch,  or  say  ^  of  atmosphere  would  suffice, 
even  when  the  telescope  is  at  its  maximum  elevation." 

The  remarks  of  Mr.  Grubb  on  the  practical  diffi- 
culties which  supervene  when  increased  aperture  is 
required,  are  best  given  in  his  own  words  :— 

"  It  may  be  said  that  the  difficulty  of  manufacture  is  a 
question  for  the  instrument-maker  alone,  and  not  to  be 
discussed  by  those  whose  business  it  is  to  decide  on  the 

«  Continued  from  p.  189. 


form  of  instrument  employed ;  but  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  any  advance  in  the  size  of  telescopes,  refrac- 
tors, or  reflectors,  over  those  at  present  in  existence, 
must  be  considered  to  be  to  a  certain  extent,  an  experi- 
ment, and  the  nature  of  the  difficulties  which  will  be 
encountered  can  at  present  only  be  speculated  upon,  even 
by  the  most  experienced  ;  and  therefore  it  behoves  those 
whose  province  it  is  to  decide  on  the  matter  to  inquire 
diligently  into  the  relative  practicability  of  the  various 
forms  of  telescopes  in  order  that  they  may  not  decide  on 
a  form  which  might  be,  if  ever  accomplished,  of  great 
usefulness,  but  which  on  trial  would  be  found  to  be,  in  the 
present  state  of  art,  impossible  to  manufacture. 

**  With  respect  to  refractors,  the  first  great  difficulty  to 
be  met  with  is  that  of  procuring  suitable  discs  of  glass. 
Of  our  glass  manufacturers  only  two  firms  seem  to  pos- 
sess the  secret  of  manipulation  .of  optical  glass,  viz., 
Messrs.  Chance,  Brothers  and  Company,  of  Birmingham, 
and  M.  Feil,  of  Paris,  a  descendant  of  the  celebrated 
Guinand.  Of  these  one  at  least  speaks  confidently  of 
producing  discs  up  to  one  metre  in  diameter  ;  but  when 
I  consider  the  difficulty  which  I  know  was  experienced  in 
moulding  the  27-inch  discs  for  the  Vienna  objective  I 
cannot  say  that  I  feel  the  same  confidence.  These  40- 
inch  discs   would  require  to  be  obtained  in  one  single 


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\7an.  17,  1878 


piece,  just  three  tunes  the  quantity  of  homogeneous  glass 
that  the  Vienna  discs  required,  and  though  I  am  not  of 
course  in  the  secrets  of  the  glass  manufacturers,  it 
appears  to  me  that  the  chances  of  obtaining  40-inch  discs 
in  the  present  state  of  the  art  are  remote. 

''The  other  difficulties  of  manufacture  of  refractors 
consist  in  the  nicety  of  the  operation  connected  with  the 
calculations  of  the  curves,  the  manipulation  of  such 
extremely  costly  material,  and  the  enormous  labour  and 
trouble  of  the  figuring  and  perfecting  of  the  objective. 
All  these,  however,  I  have  no  doubt  will  be  overcome  by 
the  optician  for  any  size  which  the  glass-maker  is  at  all 
likely  to  produce. 

**  Now,  as  to  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  manu- 
facture of  reflectors,  whether  metallic  or  silver  on  glass. 

"  First,  as  to  the  difficulty  of  producing  the  metallic  or 
glass  disc  to  work  upon. 

"Lord  Rosse  has  succeeded  years  since  in  casting, 
annealing,  and  perfecting  discs  of  six  feet  in  diameter, 
and  any  difficulties  he  met  with  were  not  such  as  to  lead 
me  to  the  btlief  that  the  limit  of  possible  size  has  been  by 
any  means  reached.  As  regards  glass  mirrors,  the  oues- 
tion  has  never  been  discussed,  for  in.  any  sizes  that  have 
been  made  up  to  the  present  time,  it  was  only  necessary 
to  go  to  the  plate-glass  manufacturers  and  say, '  I  want  a 
disc  of  crown  glass  of  such  a  diameter  and  such  a  thick- 
ness/ and  forthwith  the  glass  disc  was  delivered  without 
any  trouble  ;  but,  when  we  come  to  these  extraordinary 
sizes,  it  is  quite  a  different  matter.  For  the  4-foot  disc 
of  glass  for  the  Paris  reflector,  in  place  of  that  which  has 
so  recently  resulted  in  failure,  the  Sr.  Gobain  Glass  Com- 
pany require  twelve  months'  time  to  perfect  (although,  be 
it  remembered,  the  quality  of  the  glass  is  here  of  no 
consequence  whatever) ;  and  I  have  l^en  myself  in  corre- 
spondence with  the  principal  glass  manufacturers  here 
and  on  the  Continent,  and  not  one  of  them  is  willing  to 
undertake  even  a  6-foot  glass  disc ;  so  that  it  would 
appear  that,  above  that  size,  the  silver-on-glass  mirrors 
are  out  of  the  question. 

''  This  much,  however,  is  to  be  said  :  If  anyone  were 
to  go  to  a  brass-  or  bell-founder's  and  ask  them  to  under- 
take a  speculum  of  six  feet  in  diameter,  he  would 
almost  certainly  be  met  with  a  refusal ;  and  yet  Lord 
Rosse  has  proved  the  feasibility  of  it.  And  so,  reasoning 
by  analogy,  might  the  manufacture  of  a  six-  or  eight-foot 
glass  mirror  be  possible,  if  undertaken  in  the  same  scien- 
tific spirit  in  which  Lord  Rosse  undertook  his.  I  answer  to 
this — Yes  ;  perfectly  true  ;  but  this  is  too  purely  a  specu- 
lative matter  to  be  considered  at  the  present  day  in  the 
choice  of  telescope? . 

"  The  other  great  difficulty  in  the  manufacture  of  reflec- 
tors is  the  annealin^f  of  the  disc,  and  I  believe  it  is  this 
difficulty  which  limits  to  so  narrow  an  extent  the  produc- 
tion of  glass  discs  for  silver-on-glass  mirrors." 

We  can  abimdantly  gather  from  this  paper  of  Mr. 
Grubb's  that  our  opticians  are  doing  all  that  lies  in  their 
power  to  give  us  increased  power  in  the  future.  The  fact 
that  in  the  last  few  years  one  refractor  of  25  inches,  and 
two  of  26  inches,  have  been  acquired  to  science,  leads  us 
to  hope  that  for  the  present  progress  will  lie  in  increasing 
the  dimensions  of  that  instrument.  Mr.  Grubb,  indeed, 
has  already  in  hand  one  of  27  inches  for  the  Austrian 
Government  The  contreUmps  to  the  four-foot  Foucault 
in  Paris  will  also  help  to  set  the  tide  in  the  same  direction. 

From  what  has  preceded  it  will  be  seen  that  each  in- 
crease in  the  power  of  the  telescope  is  of  little  avail  unless 
we  use  it  in  purer  and  purer  air.  It  is  quite  true  that  in 
the  telescope  much  of  the  injury  to  definition  arising 
from  currents  in  the  tube  may  be  got  rid  of  by  the 
employment  of  lattice-work  ;  but  this,  of  course,  will  not 
lessen  the  atmospheric  effects  of  the  column  of  air  ever 
increasing  in  diameter  between  the  telescope  and  the 
object. 

Prof.   Piazzi    Smyth's     astronomical   experiences   on 


Teneriffe  will  still  be  in  the  minds  of  many .  of  our 
readers.  He  showed  that  an  enormous  advantage 
was  secured  firom  observations  so  soon  as  half  the 
atmosphere  was  below  the  observer.  A  more  recent 
experiment  by  Dr.  Draper,  however,  has  shown  that  it 
will  not  do  to  go  blindly  and  put  the  telescope  on  any 
high  mountain.  The  conditions  of  each  place  from  this 
single  point  of  view  must  be  carefully  studied.  Stunming 
up  his  experiences  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  up  to  heights 
of  10,000  feet,  Dr.  Draper  says  : — 

*'  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  remarked  of  this  motmtain 
region  that  the  astronomical  conditions,  especially  for 
photographic  researches, is  unpromising.  In  only  one  pkice 
were  steadiness  and  transparency  combined,  and  onlj 
two  nights  out  of  fifteen  at  the  best  season  of  the  year 
were  exceptionally  fine.  The  transparency  was  almost 
always  much  more  marked  than  at  the  sea-level,  but  the 
tremulousness  was  as  great  or  even  greater  than  near 
New  York.  It  is  certain  that  during  more  than  half  the 
year  no  work  of  a  delicate  character  could  be  done.  .  •  . 
Apparently  therefore,  judging  from  present  information^ 
it  would  not  be  judicious  to  move  a  large  telescope  and 
physical  observatory  into  these  mountains  with  the  hope 
of  doing  continuous  work  under  the  most  favourable 
circumstances."  J.  Norman  Lockver 

{To  be  continued,) 


W 


ELECTRICAL  ANALOGIES  WITH  NATURAL 
PHENOMENA 
ITHIN  the  last  few  years  M.  Gaston  Plants  has  at 
intervals  described  a  series  of  very  curious  pheno- 
mena produced  by  electric  currents  of  high  tension,  and 
has  pointed  out  numerous  analogies  which  they  present 
with  several  atmospheric  and  cosmical  phenomena.  With- 
out committing  ourselves  to  the  belief  that  these  analogies 
are  real,  the  phenomena  described  are  so  interesting 
that  we  are  glad  to  be  able,  by  the  kindness  of  M.  Plants, 
to  reproduce  some  illustrations  of  them. 

To  obtain  electric  currents  of  high  tension  M.  Plants 
has  employed  secondary  batteries  of  sheets  of  lead, 
which,  as  is  known,  constitute  powerful  accumulators  of 
voltaic  electricity.  By  associating  a  very  great  number 
of  batteries  uniting  from  400  to  800  of  these  secondary 
couples,  a  discbarge  is  obtained  equivalent,  according  to 
M.  Plants,  to  that  of  from  600  to  1,200  Bunsen  couples 
arranged  in  tension. 

Fig.  I  represents  the  arrangement  of  400  secondary 
elements  divided  into  ten  batteries.  This  is  the  source  of 
electricity  employed  for  some  of  the  earlier  experiments 
which  we  are  about  to  describe.  The  more  recent  ones 
have  been  made  with  800  secondary  elements  arranged  in 
twenty  batteries  of  forty  couples.  A  second  series  of  bat- 
teries similar  to  the  first  is  arranged  in  another  room,  and 
the  cunent  which  it  furnishes  is  joined  to  that  of  the  first 
seties  by  conducting  wires  suitably  adjusted.  These  bat- 
teries, associated  at  first  in  simple  circuit  by  means  of  com- 
mutators, do  not  require  to  be  charged  all  at  once  like  two 
Grove  or  Bunsen  couples.  When  they  have  not  been  out  of 
use  for  too  long  a  time  a  few  hours  suffice  to  charge  them. 
We  may  then,  by  turning  the  commutators,  unite  all  the 
secondary  elements  in  tension  and  use  at  will,  either  in  a 
few  seconds  or  in  a  longer  time,  the  enormous  quantity  of 
electricity  resulting  from  the  chemical  work  accunmlated 
during  two  hours  by  Grove  or  Bunsen  batteries. 

Such  was  the  powerfiil  means  adopted  by  M.  Plants  in 
making  his  late  experiments.  In  his  earlier  experiments 
he  used  a  much  simpler  apparatus. 

The  gyratoiv  movements  accompanied  with  luminous 
effects  which  M.  Plants  had  observed  with  a  powerful 
current  of  electricity,  and  the  spherical  and  annular  forms 
manifested  by  bodies  submitted  to  that  action,  suggested 
to  M.  Plants  the  probability  of  the  electric  origin  of  the 
forms  of  some  of^  the  nebulous  masses  of  matter  which 


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are  not  resolvable,  and  particularly  of  those  which  assume 
a  spiral  form. 

He  describes  an  experiment  in  which  a  cloud  of  metallic 
matter  attracted  to  an  electrode  by  the  electric  current 
assumes  in  the  centre  of  the  liquid  a  gyratory  spiral  move- 
ment under  the  influence  of  a  magnet  ^    A  glance  at  Figs. 


2t  3,  and  4,  which  represent  this  experiment,  is  suffi- 
cient to  enable  us  to  recognise  their  similarity  to  the 
forms  of  spiral  nebulae  described  by  Lord  Rosse. 
Some  of  these  have  the  cutvature  of  their  spirals  tend- 
ing in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a 
watch,    like  those   in   Fig.   3,  such   as   in   the  nebula 


Fig.   T.~ArraDgeineL.t  of  400  couplei  in  ten  baiteiiu  for  experiments  with  elecuic  cuirents  or  high  teusioa. 


in  Berenice's  Hair  ;  others  have  their  spirals  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  hands  of  a  watch,  like  that  of  Fig.  4,  as 
in  the  nebula  in  Canes  Venatici.  M.  Plants  is  inchned  to 
believe  that,  in  presence  of  an  analogy  so  striking,  we  are 


authorised  to  think  that  the  nucleus  of  these  nebulae  may 
be  constituted  by  a  true  centre  of  electricity ;  that  their 
spiral  form  may  be  determined  by  the  near  presence  of 
celestial  bodies  strongly  magnetic,  and  that  the  direction 


Fiu  a. 


Fig. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  a.— Qoud  of  metidlic  oxide  formed  in  a  vokameter  before  the  approach  ot  a  magnet.    Figs.  3  and  4.— Gyratory  movement  communicated  to  the  cloud 

of  metallic  matter  by  the  aaion  of  a  magnet. 

of  curvature  of  the  spirals  may  depend  on  the  nature  |  of  the  magnetic  pole  turned  towards  the  nebula.     He 

copper,  and  this  wire  uke«  the  form  of  a  very  sharp  point  The  arrows 
around  the  spirals  in  the  figures  mdicate  the  gv»atory  movement  which  this 
cloud  assumes  under  ilie  influence  of  a  masnet ;  and  the  arrows  around  the 
magnet  represent  the  direction'  of  the  electro-magnetic  currents  ;  b  is  the 
north  and  a  the  south  pole. 


>  It  b  ea»y  to  reproduce  this  experiment  and  even  throw  ihe  effect  on  a 
screen,  by  means  of  an  electric  current  equivalent  to  that  of  fifteen  Bunsen 
elements.  The  electrodes  are  copper  wires :  the  liquid  is  acidulated  with  x-Toth 
of  sulphuric  acid.  From  the  extremity  of  the  positive  wire  escapes,  witha  alight 
hissing  sound,  a  thick  cloud  of  the  protoxide  of  copper  or  of  finelydivided 


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[7an.  17,  1878 


suggests  that  if  we  had  powerful  enough  telescopes,  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  nebulae  should  be  search^  to  dis- 
cover stars  capable  of  exercising  such  a  magnetic  in- 
fluence. If  such  a  star  was  found  likely  to  act  Uius  on 
any  nebula,  then  the  line  passing  through  the  centre  of 
the  nebula  and  the  star  should  be  searched  to  discover  if, 
at  the  other  magprietic  pole  of  the  star,  a  second  nebula 
did  not  exist,  with  its  spirals  in  a  contrary  direction  to  those 
of  the  former. 

M.  Plants  states  that  with  a  much  more  intense  source  of 
electricity  he  has  observed  small  luminous  rings,  composed 
of  incandescent  particles,  altogether  detached  from  the  elec- 


Fiu  5.— Lumiiious  globule  formed  at  the  surface  of  a  liquid  by  an  electric 
current  of  high  ten»ton. 

trode.  These  rings,  the  centre  of  which  was  agitated  by 
a  small  liquid  whirlpool,  moved  in  the  interval  comprised 
between  the  electrode  and  a  very  large  luminous  ring 
formed  round  about  by  the  shock  of  the  electric  current 
against  the  sides  of  the  voltameter. 

TA^  Formation  of  Hail, — In  a  paper  in  the  CompUs 
RenduSy  t.  Ixxxi.  p.  016,  M.  Plantd  had  shown  the  influence 
which  atmospheric  electricity  in  a  state  of  discharge  must 
have  in  the  formation  of  hail,  not  by  producing  the  cold 
necessary  to  congelation,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  but 
by  exercising,  on  the  contrary,  a  powerful  heating  action, 


Fu..  6. — Shower  of  aqueous  j^lobules  produced  by  a  current  of  doub.'e  the 
tension  of  the  preceding. 

capable  of  rapidly  vaporising  the  moisture,  and  of  project- 
ing the  vapour  into  the  cold  regions  of  the  atmosphere. 
To  succeed  in  explaining  the  part  played  by  electricity  in 
this  natural  phenomenon,  it  is  necessary  to  point  out  the 
mechanical  action  which  may  result  from  the  passage  of 
the  electric  fluid  into  the  midbt  of  aqueous  masses,  and 
thus  to  project  into  the  air  liquid  globules  susceptible  of 
being  transformed  into  hailstones. 

In  previous  experiments  M.  Plantd  showed  that  with  an 

intense  source  of  voltaic  electricity,  the  immersion  of  the 

ositive  wire  in  a  conducting  liquid,  such  as  salt  water, 

etermines  the  aggregation  of  aqueous  molecules  around 


the  electrode  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  spheroid,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  double  simultaneous  effect  of  flow  and 
aspiration,  or  of  passage  in  two  directions  which  seems 
peculiar  to  the  electric  current  (Fig.  5). 

But  by  employing  a  current  still  more  intense,  resulting 
from  the  discharge  of  a  battery  of  400  secondary  couples, 
he  obtains,  by  the  immersion  of  the  positive  wire,  instead 
of  a  single  globule,  a  shower  of  innumerable  ovoid 
globules,  which  succeed  each  other  with  excessive 
rapidity,  and  are  projected  to  more  than  a  metre  distance 
from  the  vessel  in  which  the  experiment  is  made.  The 
spark  produced  at  the  same  time  at  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  presents  the  form  of  a  corona  or  aureole  of  many 
points,  firom  which  burst  forth  the  aqueous  globules 
(Fig.  6). 

The  metallic  property  of  the  electrode  is  not  neces- 
sary to  obtain  this  effect.  A  fragment  of  filter  paper, 
moistened  with  salt  water,  in  communication  wim  the 
positive  pole,  also  produces  the  phenomenon,  and  con- 
stitutes a  humid  mass  analogous,  to  a  certain  point,  with 
that  of  a  cloud  from  which  proceeds  an  electric  ctirrent. 
If,  instead  of  encountering  a  deep  layer  of  liquid,  the 
current  meets  with  a  moist  surface  such  as  the  sides  or 
the  inclined  bottom  of  a  basin,  the  heating  effects  pre- 
dominate, the  aureole  is  very  brilliant,  and  the  water  is 
rapidly  transformed  into  vapour  (Fig.  7}. 

The  action  of  the  current  then  differs  according  to  the 
resistance  which  is  opposed  to  it,  and  we  find  here  a  new 

\ 


Fic.   7.^ets  of  vapour  and  luminous  itreAks  produced  'by  an  electric 
current  of  high  tension  on  meeting  with  a  moist  surface. 

example  of  the  reciprocal  substitution  of  heat  and  mecha- 
nical work  resulting  from  the  electric  shock.  When  the 
work  represented  by  the  violent  projection  of  the  liquid 
appears,  there  is  neither  heat  nor  vapour  developed,  and 
when  no  visible  work  is  accomplishea,  when  the  liquid  is 
not  projected,  heat  is  engendered  and  vapour  disengaged. 
^I.  Plantd  sums  up  the  results  of  these  experiments 
thus :— 

1.  Electric  discharges  produced  in  the  midst  of  clouds 
ma^,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  density  of  these 
moist  conductors,  determine  their  reduction  into  vapour, 
or  their  instantaneous  aggregation  into  globules  of  a 
volume  much  greater  than  that  of  the  globules  of  the 
cloud,  and  the  liquid  bombs  thus  formed  may  be  pro- 
jected to  great  heights,  where  the  temperature  is  noUbly 
lower  than  that  of  the  medium  in  which  the  discharges 
are  produced. 

2.  The  formation  of  hailstones,' in  the  case  where  they 
do  not  present  a  series  of  opaque  and  transparent  layers, 
but  a  structure  radiating  from  the  centre,  is  also  explained 
by  such  a  mechanical  action  ;  they  must  be  produced  by  a 
single  jet,  and  congealed  under  the  same  volume  which 
they  had  at  the  moment  when  they  were  shot  forth  by  the 
electric  current. 

3.  The  ovoid  or  pyramidal  form  of  these  hailstones,  as 
also  their  angular  parts,  aspirates  or  protuberances,  are 
due  to  their  electric  origin. 


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4.  The  gleam  sometimes  emitted  by  hailstones  is  due 
also  to  electricity;  for  although  in  the  experiments 
described,  it  could  not  be  distinguished  whether  the 
globules  were  self-luminous  or  shone  by  the  reflection  of 
the  sparky  it  is  probable  that  they  were  also  rendered 
phosphorescent  by  the  electric  current  which  they  con- 
tained. 

M.  Plants  admits  the  action  of  other  agents,  such  as 
wind  currents,  in  the  formation  of  hail,  but  only  as 
accessories  to  the  action  of  electricity.  They  are  con- 
current causes  which  only  prepare  the  conditions  favour- 
able to  its  production,  while  electricity  is  the  efficient 
cause  which,  by  iis  very  presence  in  the  clouds  and  by 
the  instantaneous  power  of  its  discharges,  determines  the 
sudden  formation  and  the  fall  of  the  meteor. 

M.  Plants  is  still  prosecuting  his  researches  on  this 
subject 

{To  be  continued.) 


ENTOMOLOGY  IN  AMERICA 

THE  U.S.  Entomological  Commission  which  was 
organised  and  placed  under  the  auspices  of  Prof. 
Hayden's  Geological  Survey  for  the  purpose  of  invcsti- 
gatmg  and  reporting  the  entire  subject  of  insect  ravages 
throughout  the  western  regions  of  our  continent,  have 
completed  their  field  labour  for  the  present  season. 

The  members  of  the  Commission  have  been  busily 
engaged  in  the  preparation  of  the  several  parts  of  their 
Annual  Report,  and  will  soon  meet  in  Washington,  where 
they  will  have  a  protracted  sitting  to  get  everything  readv 
for  the  printer.  This  report  is  looked  for  with  much 
interest  hy  the  farmers  of  the  west,  and  the  character  of 
the  commissioners  is  a  guarantee  that  it  will  be  creditable 
from  the  scientific,  and  valuable  from  the  practical,  stand- 
point. The  Report  will  contain  sixteen  chapters,  under 
the  following  heads : — Introductioo,  Riley ;  Chronological 
History,  Packard ;  Statistics  of  Losses,  Thomas  ;  Classi- 
fication and  Nomenclature,  Thomas  ;  Geographical  Dis- 
tribution, Thomas  and  Packard ;  Migration  and  Meteoro- 
logy, Packard  and  Thomas ;  Original  Permanent  Breeding 
Grounds,  Riley,  Packard,  and  Thomas ;  Habits  and 
Natural  History,  Riley ;  Embryology,  Packard ;  MeU- 
morphoses,  Riley  and  Packard;  Invertebrate  Enemies. 
RUe^  ;  Vertebrate  Enemies,  Thomas ;  Remedies  and 
Devices  for  Destruction,  Riley;  Prairie  Fires  versus 
Locust  Injury,  Riley  ;  Agricultural  Bearings  of  the  Sub- 
ject, Thomas ;  Ravages  of  other  Locusts,  Packard  and 
Riley ;  Locust  Ravages  in  oUier  Countries. 

These  chapters  wUl  embrace  many  sub-chapters,  and 
the  Report  will  be  as  exhaustive  as  the  limited  time  for 
its  preparation  will  permit. 

In  Chapter  IV.  the  western  extension  and  the  northern 
and  eastern  limit  of  the  species'  range  are  fully  given. 

In  Chapter  V.  the  laws  governing  its  migrations  are 
for  the  first  time  defined.  A  very  large  number  of  data 
have  been  collected  in  reference  to  the  subjects  of  this 
chapter.  Not  only  are  the  general  laws  governing  the 
movements  of  the  insect  now  defined,  showing  a  regular 
miction  southward  and  return  migration  northward, 
which  may  be  counted  on  and  foreseen ;  but  many  im- 
portant and  highly  interesting  facts  in  reference  to  their 
local  flights  are  brought  to  light,  which  will  henceforward 
form  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  insect 

In  Chapter  VII.  several  other  laws  governing  the 
species  are  also  adduced  ;  and  the  importance  of  the 
discovery  of  the  laws  which  regulate  the  doings  and 
movements  of  the  pest,  cannot  be  over-estimated.  In 
said  Chapter  VII.  many  new  facts  will  for  the  first  time 
appear,  and  all  that  is  definite  and  accurate  be  made 
known. 

In  Chapter  X.  many  new  discoveries  will  be  recorded, 
some  of  them  of  great  scientific  interest  and  importance, 
pf  the$e  may  be  mentioned  the  transformation  of   the 


silky  mite  {Trombidium  sericeum).  This  is  an  eight- 
legged  creature,  which  preys  on  the  locust  eggs.  It  is 
proved  to  be  the  mature  form  of  the  little  six-legged  mite 
{A stoma  ^ryllarid)  which  is  parasitic  on  the  locust.  In- 
sects described  .under  different  genera  are  thus  proved  to 
be  specifically  identical  The  life-history  of  the  blister- 
beetles  will  also  be  given,  their  larvae  feeding  upon  locust 
eggs,  and  undergoing  singular  changes  called  hypermeta- 
morphoses.  The  interest  attaching  to  this  discovery 
among  entomologists,  as  well  as  among  farmers,  is  best 
appreciated  when  it  is  considered  that  absolutely  nothing 
has  heretofore  been  known  of  the  larval  habits  of  these 
blister-beetles,  notwithstanding  t^e  fact  that  for  half  a 
century  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  subject  by 
scientific  men,  on  account  of  the  commercial  value  of 
Cantharis,  or  Spanish  fiy,  and  of  the  great  injury  to 
potatoes  and  other  plants  committed  by  several  of  ouj: 
American  species.  ^ 

In  Chapter  XI.  are  given  the  locust  feeding  ^tCEits  of 
many  western  animals  not  heretofore  known  to  have  that 
habit,  and  the  good  offices  of  birds  are  especially  made 
manifest,  examinations  of  the  stomachs  of  over  ninety 
species  and  630  specimens  having  been  made  with  special 
reference  to  their  locust-eatii^  habits.  The  record  in 
reference  to  these  examinations  is  very  full,  giving  the 
dates,  the  locality,  the  common  and  scientific  names  of  the 
species,  and  the  number  of  locusts  and  other  insects 
found  in  each.  The  >^ue  heretofore  placed  on  these 
aids  by  entomologists  is  fiilly  sustained  by  this  record. 

In  Chapter  XII.,  which  will  be  one  of  the  most  ex- 
tended and  most  important  practically,  it  is  clearly  shown 
that  the  young  locusts  may  be  controlled,  and  by  what 
means  ;  while  the  way  is  pointed  out  how  to  better  con- 
trol the  winged  insects.  Many  valuable  devices  for  de- 
struction will  be  illustrated,  among  them  one  invented 
by  Prof.  Riley,  which  gave  great  satisfaction,  and  will,  it 
is  believed,  supersede  all  others  as  a  cheap  and  prac- 
ticable remedy  applicable  at  any  season,  whether  the 
plants  or  the  insects  be  small  or  Isurge. 

In  Chapters  II.  and  IV.  are  given  statistics  showing 
the  immense  losses  inflicted  on  western  agriculturists 
by  the  locust  These  chapters  also  show  what  crops  are 
most  liable  to  injury  and  what  are  most  easily  protected  ; 
also  the  best  methods  of  cropping  in  order  to-reduce  the 
injury  to  a  minimum.  A  chemical  analysis  of  the  dead 
locusts  has  been  made,  and  isimusually  interesting.  The 
insects  furnish  a  new  oil,  which  will  be  christened  Colop- 
tine,  and  a  very  large  per-centage  of  pure  formic  acid. 
Though  this  acid  exists  in  the  ant  and  some  other  insects, 
it  is  with  difficulty  obtained  in  large  Quantities,  whereas 
by  the  action  of  sulphuric  add  upon  the  locust  juices  it 
passes  off  with  great  readiness  and  in  remarloible  quantity 
and  gravity.  The  various  uses  of  this  acid  whether  as  a 
therapeutic  agent  or  as  laboratory  re-agents,  &c.,  are 
capable  of  great  and  valuable  extension  when  it  can  once 
be  obtained  so  readily  and  in  such  quantity* 

The  Report  is  expected  to  make  about  500  pages,  and 
will,  it  is  hoped,  be  published  in  Februaxv  or  March. 
Although  the  Commissioners  have  divided  the  labour 
among  them,  the  Report  will  form  one  complete  whole,  as 
the  work  of  each  will  be  discussed  and  revised  by  the 
Commission  as  a  whole. 

The  Annual  Report,  which  is  intended  more  particularly 
for  the  practical  farming  public,  will  be  followed  by 
memoirs  of  a  more  purely  scientific  nature— one  by  Dr. 
Packard  on  Anatomy  and  Embryology;  one  by  Prof. 
Riley  on  the  Natural  History  of  other  Locusts,  and  one 
by  Prof.  Thomas  on  the  classification  of  the  Acrididce, 

While  it  has  been  the  object  of  the  Commission  to 
cover  as  much  ground  as  possible  so  as  to  make  the 
Annual  Report  as  full  and  valuable  as  the  time  would 
permit,  there  yet  remain  several  important  subjects  that 
it  has  so  far  been  impossible  to  properly  and  exhaustivdy 
study.    The  territory  affected  is  so  vast,  embracing  over 


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\yan.  17,  1878 


a  million  square  miles,  that  much  of  it  was  imper- 
fectly explored,  especially  in  the  north-west.  Mr.  Riley 
had  to  cut  short  his  investigations  in  British  America 
both  for  want  of  time  and  want  of  funds.  For  similar 
reasons,  and  on  account  of  Indian  troubles,  Montana, 
Wyoming,  and  D^ota,  have  been  but  superficially 
explored 

The  year  1877  was  an  abnormal  year,  i>.  the  insect 
had,  the  previous  year,  overrun  a  large  section  of  country 
in  which  it  is  not  indigenous,  hatched  in  such  country  in 
the  spring.  This  was  most  fortunate  for  many  reasons, 
as  it  enabled  the  Commission  to  carefully  study  the 
insects  in  this  their  unnatural  condition,  and  to  carry  on 
experiments  with  a  view  of  learning  how  to  control  them. 
Much  of  the  work  of  the  Commission  was  with  these 
young  insects.  The  losses  sustained  through  the  devasta- 
tion of  the  pest  by  young  and  struggling  u-ontier  popula- 
tions, ill  abk  to  bear  them,  were  immense ;  and  there  was 
so  much  discouragement  that  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
persons  were  on  the  point  of  abandoning  their  new  homes 
last  spring.  At  this  juncture  the  Commission  went  into 
the  field,  and  by  its  encouraging  predictions  (which  were 
all  verified)  and  recommendations,  imbued  the  people  with 
hope  and  confidence,  and  drew  westward  again  the  emi- 
gration that  had  almost  stopped.  All  this  work,  however, 
interfered  with  needed  investigations  into  the  proper 
range,  the  native  home  and  breeding  grounds,  the  source 
of  swarms,  and  many  other  important  questions  which 
can  only  be  properly  studied  during  a  normal  year.  It  is, 
therefore,  very  important  that  the  investigations  be  con- 
tinued until  every  question  is  settled  that  human  investi- 
gation can  settle. 

For  the  proper  settlement  of  some  of  the  c^uestions  the 
co-operation  of  the  Dominion  Government  is  desirable, 
and  has  been  promised  by  the  Canadian  authorities  if  the 
work  of  the  (Commission  should  continue. 

It  will  be  tmwise  to  stop  the  work  of  the  Commission 
before  completed.  The  work  should  be  made  so  thorough 
as  to  obviate  an^  necessity  in  future  years  of  creating 
another  commission  for  the  same  purpose.  After  carefiU 
estimates  it  is  concluded  that  the  work  can  be  satisfac- 
torily completed  only  with  two  more  years'  investigation 
and  experiment.  The  Commission  therefore  ask  for  a 
continuance  of  the  appropriation  of  25,000  dols.  asked  for 
a  year  aga 

There  are  various  other  injurious  insects  of  national 
importance,  of  which  much  has  yet  to  be  learned,  and  in 
addition  to  completing  the  locust  investigation,  the  Com- 
mission contemplate,  during  the  coming  two  years, 
studying  and  reporting  on  some  of  these  worst  enemies 
to  American  agriculture.  They  are  especially  desirous  of 
reporting  on  the  cotton-worm  of  the  south,  which,  though 
often  so  disastrous  to  the  cotton  crop,  has  never  been 
fiilly  studied^  and  in  the  mere  natural  history  of  which 
there  are  yet  many  mysteries  and  conflicting  theories. 

Much  has  yet  to  be  done  in  giving  practical  form  to 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  and  plans  proposed  by  the 
Commission  to  enable  the  work  already  done  to  bear 
proper  fruit.  To  bring  about  the  needed  co-operation  of 
the  two  Governments,  to  cause  proper  laws  to  be  enacted 
in  all  the  states  interested,  and  to  enforce  the  truths  that 
alone  will  make  man  master  of  the  situation,  is  largely 
the  work  of  the  future. 

SOUNDING  APPARATUS 

THAT  Sir  William  Thomson's  recent  application  of 
the  pianoforte  wire  to  sounding  in  small  depths  for 
the  ordinarv  purposes  of  navigation  is  of  great  value,  will 
be  admitted  readily  by  those  who  are  familiar  with  the 
present  process.  But  it  occurs  to  me  that  a  formidable 
objection  to  iu  general  introduction  into  naval  or  mer- 
cantile vessels  is  to  be  found  in  the  necessity  of  using 
chemically-prepared  tubes  for  determining  the  depth  of 
water.  Sir  William's  latest  device  b  (I  believe)  a  straight 


glass  tube  two  feet  long,  open  at  one  end  and  inclosed  in 
a  brass  tube  attached  above  the  sinker,  in  which  air  is 
compressed  by  the  pressure  of  the  water,  the  amount  of 
compression  being  determined  by  the  height  to  which  the 
water  rises  in  the  tube.  This  height  is  marked  by  the 
decolorisation  of  a  coating  of  chromate  of  silver  on  the 
inside  of  the  tube,  effected  by  the  sea- water.  A  number 
of  such  tubes,  properly  prepared,  must 
therefore  be  kept  at  hand,  and  when 
once  used  they  must  be  coated  anew, 
an  operation  ot  no  little  difficulty. 

I  have  suggested  a  form  of  sinker  in 
which  these  objections  are  obviated, 
while  the  principle  is  retained.  The 
sinker  is  of  iron  three  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  bottom,  five  inches  at  the  top, 
and  26*5  inches  long.  It  is  cast  with  a 
cylindrical  cavity,  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter, extending  from  the  top  to  within  an 
inch  of  its  base.  This  cavity  contains 
the  glass  tube  by  which  the  depth  is 
determined.  A  tube  about  forty-eight 
inches  long  is  taken,  closed  at  one  end 
and  bent  back  on  itself  at  its  middle 
point,  so  as  to  make  two  legs  each 
twenty-four  inches  in  length.  This  is 
placed  inside  the  sinker  (the  bend  up- 
ward) and  a  screw  tap,  carrying  a  swivel- 
link  for  the  sounding  line,  is  screwed 
over  it.  Holes  in  the  bottom  of  the 
sinker  and  through  the  screw  tap  allow 
the  water  access  to  the  tube.  As  the 
sinker  descends,  in  sounding,  the  air 
within  the  tube  is  compressed  and  the 
water  rises  in  the  open  leg.  When  the 
column  of  water  reaches  the  highest 
point  of  the  bend,  the  pressure  then 
corresponding  to  a  depth  of  about  five 
and  a  half  fathoms,  any  further  descent 
of  the  sinker  will  cause  the  water  to 
pass  over  into  the  lower  end  of  the 
closed  leg.  The  compression  of  the  air 
will  then  take  place  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  closed  tegy  the  maximum  com- 
pression being  mdicated  by  the  length 
of  the  column  of  water  remaining  in 
that  leg  when  the  sinker  is  lifted  again 
to  the  surface.  As  the  sinker  is  being 
raised^  the  air,  expanding  under  the 
diminished  pressure,  drives*  the  water 
out  of  the  open  leg.  The  inside  and  outside  pressures 
are  therefore  equal  at  any  instant.  The  tube  may  be 
graduated  in  inches  and  tenths,  and  a  table  will  give  the 
depth  from  the  reading  of  the  tube.  The  tube  is  then 
easily  emptied  and  is  ready  for  another  cast.  The  form 
of  the  sinker  is  such  that  the  bend  of  the  tube  is  kept 
at  a  higher  level  than  the  open  end  in  case  the  sinko* 
should  fall  over  when  it  reaches  the  bottom— the  entrance 
of  surplus  water  is  thus  prevented.  An  ordinary  cup 
attachment  for  a  bottom  specimen  can  be  applied  to  the 
end  of  the  sinker. 

The  tube  described  will  not  indicate  a  depth  less  than 
five  and  a  half  fathoms.  If  it  is  desired  to  obtain  casts 
in  shoaler  water  a  tube  with  the  open  leg  shorter  than  the 
closed  leg  may  be  used.  One  in  which  the  length  of  the 
oi)en  leg  is  one-fourth  that  of  the  closed  leg  will  indicate 
depths  of  two  fathoms  and  upwards. 

I  am  aware  that  Sir  Wm.  Thomson  has  a  tube  for 
bringing  up  the  column  of  water,  but  it  requires  the  use 
of  valves^  which  can  never  be  kept  tight  under  such  enor- 
mous pressures  as  those  to  which  the  sounding-tubes  are 
exposed. 

I  inclose  a  sectional  drawing  of  the  above-described 
tube  and  sinker. 

Theo.  F.  Jewell,  Lieut-Com.  U.S.  Navy 


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OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Thb  Variable  Star  R  Aquarii.— Harding  notified 
his  discovery  of  variability  in  this  star  in  181 1,  in 
the  first  volume ,  of  tl^e  Zeitschrift  fur  Astronomies 
The  earliest  attempt  to  determine  the  period  appears  to 
be  that  of  Westphal,  in  the  Zeitschrift  fiir  Astronomie^ 
vol.  iv.  p.  218 ;  he  used  Harding's  observations  between 
October  20,  181 1,  and  Januaiy  19,  181 7,  whicb,  though 
not  numerous,  sufficed  to  give  an  approximate  value, 
while  they  also  indicated  that  the  star  at  times  was  as 
bright  as  67  m.,  and  at  others  was  invisible  in  Harding's 
telescope.  Westphal's  period  is  382'5  days.  Although 
the  variability  of  the  star  has  thus  been  long  known,  it 
would  seem  that  few  of  these  objects  have  been  less  ob- 
served, and  it  may  be  recommended  to  the  attention  of 
those  who  are  interested  in  this  branch  of  astronomy, 
and  whose  positions  enable  them  best  to  command  a  star 
at  16^  south  declination.  In  vol  viL  of  the  Bonn  obser- 
vationsj  Argelander  deduces  the  following  formula  for  the 
maxima : — 

1843,  Sep:cmbcr47  +  388**  on  E., 

which  is  adopted  in  Prof.  Schdnfeld's  second  catalogue 
(Manheim,  1875)  ;  the  maximum  of  the  present  year 
would  therefore  fall  on  September  25,  and  may  be  well 
observed.  In  the  same  catalogue  the  degree  of  bright- 
ness at  minimum  is  set  down  as  ^'11  m  (?)."  Harding 
estimated  tLe  star  67  m.  on  October  20,  181 1,  and  on 
January  24,  181 2,  it  was  not  visible  in  his  telescope,  being 
then  below  what  he  called  a  tenth  magnitude,  so  that 
obseivations  for  determination  of  the  minima  should  pro- 
bably be  commenced  not  later  than  seventy  days  after 
the  maxima,  but  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark  that  in 
the  actusd  state  of  our  knowledge  of  the  variations  of  this 
star,  continuous  observations  Uirough  as  long  a  period 
as  its  position  allows,  will  possess  much  interest.  The 
best  determination  of  the  place  of  R  Ac^uarii  will  be  that 
of  the  Greenwich  Catalogue  of  1864,  giving  for  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  year— 

R.A.  23h.  37m.  303-35,  N.P.D.  105'  If  sf'Z. 

i  INDL — When  may  we  hope  that  some  southern 
observer  will  find  opportunity  of  attacking  the  parallax 
of  this  remarkable  star,  the  large  proper  motion  of  which 
was  first  pointed  out  by  the  late  Prof.  D'Arrest,  and  con<^ 
firmed  by  Moesta  from  the  Santiago  observations  of  1856? 
Mr.  Gill,  who  allows  nothing  to  escape  him,  during  his 
brief  visit  to  the  other  hemisphere,  wherein  Lord  Lindsay's 
heliometer  enables  him  to  do  an  astronomical  service, 
states  that  he  has  measured  the  distance  and  position- 
angle  of  c  Indi  relative  to  five  surrounding  stars,  and 
hopes  "  that  this  may  serve  as  the  foundation  at  some 
future  day  of  a  determination  of  its  parallax  and  proper 
motion,"  but  it  is  obvious  that  the  shortness  of  his  stay  at 
Ascension  does  not  permit  of  an  attempt  to  measure  the 
amount  of  parallax— a  very  interesting  undertaking  in  the 
ca^  of  this  star,  which,  had  time  allowed,  we  do  not  think 
that  Mr.  Gill  would  have  hesitated  to  attempt.  And 
c  Indi  is  not  the  only  star  which  holds  out  prospect  of 
success  in  parallax  investigations  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. 

The  Satellites  of  Mars.— In  the  last  number  of  the 
•  Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  " 
is  a  communication  from  the  director  of  the  Observatory 
at  Melbourne,  giving  the  results  of  a  search  made  for  the 
satellites  of  Mars,  in  consequence  of  a  telegram  notifying 
their  discovery,  and  received  from  Sir  George  Airy  on 
August  22.  At  that  time,  from  an  accident  to  the  declin- 
ation movement,  the  large  reflector  was  not  available,  but 
observations  with  it  were  commenced  on  September  26. 
Mr.  EUery  states  his  search  to  have  been  fruitless,  except 
that  on  one  occasion  it  was  believed  that  one  of  the  satel- 
lites was  seen.  This  was  on  the  night  of  October  16, 
jKrhen  Mars  having  occulted  a  star  of  the  thirt^e^th  mag- 


nitude at  22h.  15m.  sidereal  time,  afler  its  emergence  a 
very  faint  point  was  seen  half  a  diameter  fi-om  Mars  s.p. ; 
''this  was  watched  for  nearly  an  hour,  when  its  position 
indicated  a  motion  with  Mars,"  but  the  sky  becoming 
cloudy,  no  measures  could  be  made,  and,  it  is  added, ''  no 
other  signs  of  satellites  have  been  observed  since." 

If  we  use  the  elements  of  the  exterior  satellite  employed 
for  the  ephemerides  which  have  appeared  in  this  column, 
and  which  agree  precisely  with  measures  x>i  position-angle 
made  by  Mr.  A.  Common,  of  Ealing,  with  hit  eighteen- 
inch  silver-on*  glass  reflector  on  the  date  in  question 
(October  16),  we  have  the  following  angles  and  dis- 
tances :— 


Melbourne 

Sidereal  Time. 

h.    m. 

22  15 

23  15 
O  IS 


Position. 


Distance. 


Distance 
from  Limb. 


2160         ...         34*6         ...         2S'2 
1967  ...  27*1  ...  177 

167-6  ...         23-5  ...  14-1 

Therefore,  although  the  satellite  would  be  in  the  south- 
preceding  quadrant  up  to  about  23h.  45m.  sidereal,  its 
distance  would  be  greater  than  that  estimated  at  Mel- 
bourne,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  this  satellite  was  seen. 

As  regards  the  inner  satellite,  it  is  not  practicable  from 
the  measures  hitherto  published  to  form  so  close  an  esti- 
mate of  the  positions  as  late  as  October  16^  but  on  calcu- 
lation from  elements  which  represent  sufficiently  well  the 
measures  to  September  20,  it  would  appear  that  the  satel- 
lite was  in  the  south-preceding  quadrant  after  about  23h. 
30m.  sidereal  time,  and  its  distance  from  the  limb  at  that 
time  would  be  approximately  a  semi-diameter  of  the 
planet  Thus  if  either  satellite  were  really  observed,  it 
was  most  probably  the  interior  one — which,  indeed,  we 
are  assured,  is  intrinsically  the  brife^htest  But  the  want 
of  better  success  with  the  great  Melboame  reflector  would 
rather  imply  that  however  well  adapted  for  delineation  of 
nebulas  and  similar  purposes,  the  instrument  faib  with 
observations  of  such  objects  as.  the  satellites  of  Mars. 


NOT£S 

We  understand  that  on  the  representation  of  the  Professors 
of  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  and  of  the  Director-General  of  the 
Geological  Survey  as  to  the  want  of  proper  accommodation  for 
geological  teaching  in  the  School  of  Mines  in  Jermyn  Street,  the 
Lords  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Educttion  have  trans- 
ferred the  instraction  in  that  subject  to  the  Science  Schools  at 
South  KensiDgtoD.  As  ProC  Jadd  is  supplied  with  a  complete 
collection  of  specimens  for  teachiog  purposes,  and  as  a  labo 
ratory  is  now  provided  for  him,  he  will  be  in  a  position  to 
give  that  practical  instruction  which  it  is  so  desirable  should  be 
within  the  reach  of  geological  students. 

Students  of  pleistocene  geology  will  be  gratified  to  learn 
that  the  well-known  very  fine  collection  of  Uford  fossils,  formed 
by  the  late  Dr.  Richard  Payne  Cotton,  F.G.S.,  has  been 
bequeathed  to  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  Jermyn  Street. 
The  collection  contains  246  'specimens  of  vertebrate  remains, 
consisting  of  bones  belonging  to  species  of  mammoth,  rhinoceros, 
ox,  aurochs,  hippopotamus,  horse,  deer,  Irish  elk,  lion,  bear, 
beaver,  water-rat,  wolf,  and  several  kinds  of  birds.  A  very  per- 
fect lower  jaw  of  the  beaver  (Castor  europatts),  with  some  well- 
preserved  bones  o(  iht  £tf/Aas  ^mi^eMiMS,  the  Rhinoceros  leptor* 
hinuSf  and  \htBos  priinigeniuSf  are  among  the  gems  of  this  private 
collection,  which  will  form  a  welcome  and  most  valuable  addition 
to  the  contents  of  the  National  Museum  of  British  Fossils— the 
more  so  as  the  series  of  late  tertiary  vertebrates  in  that  collection  is 
by  no  means  so  large  and  complete  as  could  be  desired.  Evtrj 
one  interested  in  the  geology  of  the  .metropolitan  area  is  aware 
that  the  Cotton  collection,  together  with  that  made  by  Sir  Antonio 
Brady,  which  has  Utely  been  acquired  by  the  British  Museum, 


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\yan,  17,  1878 


have  formed  the  basis  of  those  interesting  researches  which  have 
been  carried  on  by  several  distinguished  palaeontologists  concern* 
ing  the  nature  of  the  vertebrate  fanna  which  inhabited  the 
Thames  valley  during  poft-pliocene  times.  The  nation  is  very 
fortunate  in  thus  having  secured  for  the  use  of  students  in  the 
future  both  of  these  remarkably  fine  collections. 

It  is  with  much  regret  that  we  have  to  record  the  deaths  on  the 
loth  inst.,  of  Andrew  Murray,  F.L.S.,  the  eminent  ento- 
mologist In  the  field  of  scientific  botany  and  forestry  and  in 
and  labours.  In  the  field  of  scientific  botany  and  forestry  and  in 
aid  of  our  scientific  intercourse  with  foreign  countries  he  has  done 
good  service,  and  in  his  own  special  line  as  a  practical  entomolo- 
gist, the  Government  collection  at  Bethnal  Green  stands  as  a 
monument  of  patient  labour,  as  well  as  profound  knowledge  of 
his  subject  A  keen  observer  and  unflinchingly  truthful,  the 
records  of  his  original  observations,  or  his  careful  compilations, 
given  in  his  peculiariy  terse  and  condensed  style  are  a  valu- 
able l^acy.  A  valued  naturalist  and  assiduous  worker  he  con- 
tinued at  his  post  till  within  a  few  days  of  his  decease^  and 
sunk  away  quietly  and  gently  after  some  months  of  failing  health. 
In  private  life  he  was  greatly  esteemed  as  a  true-hearted  friend, 
unwearied  in  aiding  wherever  he  could  be  of  assistance,  and  also 
for  his  high  intellectual  powen. 

Thb  death  is  announced,  on  the  7th  inst.,  of  Prof.  William 
Stokes,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  of  Dublin. 

One  of  the  oldest,  best  known,  ^and  most  useful  of  Ame- 
rican naturalists.  Dr.  J.  P.  Kirtland,  died  on  December  la 
In  1848  Dr.  Kirtland  received  the  appointment  of  zoologist 
to  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio,  the  duties  of  which  he 
discharged  with  great  fidelity,  and  his  publications  con- 
nected therewith  constitute  in  a  measure  the  bases  of  subse- 
quent similar  investigations  in  the  West.  His  most  promi- 
nent work  was  that  in  connection  with  the  fishes  of  Ohio,  for 
the  accurate  knowledge  of  which  he  laid  the  foundation,  estab 
lishing  and  identifying  many  of  the  species  of  Rafinesque,  which 
up  to  that  time  had  been  considered  entirely  mythical  He 
described  many  new  species  of  western  fishes,  and  the  discovery 
of  one  species  of  bird  of  Ohio  is  due  to  his  seal 

At  a  meeting  held  last  week  in  Sheffield,  a  resolution  was 
unanimously  passed  to  invite  the  British  Association  to  visit  that 
town  next  jrear.  Conmitttees  were  appointed,  and  it  was 
decided  to  raise  a  guarantee  fund  of  2,500/. 

Dr.  Schukmann  has  been  elected  an  honorary  member  of 
the  Deutsche  anthropologische  Gesellschaft  The  diploma  of 
membership  is  a  liandsome  specimen  of  artistic  work,  being 
encircled  by  allegorical  representations  of  the  excavations  at  Troy 
and  Mycenae,  and  bears  the  signatures  of  Virchow,  KolUnann, 
Fraas,  Schaafhausen,  and  Wfitmsnn. 

The  new  New  York  Natural  History  Museum  was  opened  by 
President  Hayes  on  the  22nd  ult  The  museum.is  in  Manhattan 
Square,  00  a  pk>t  of  land  opposite  Central  Park,  and  the  plan  of 
the  entire  structure  contemplates  a  colossal  enterprise,  which 
cannot  be  completed  within  the  present  century.  It  consists  of 
buildings  arranged  in  a  parallelogram,  of  850  by  650  feet,  and  of 
two  lines  of  buildings  which  divide  the  interior  space  at  right 
angles,  thus  forming  four  equal  courts.  At  the  centre  of  each 
side  of  the  parallelogram,  and  at  its  four  angles,  lofty  towers 
win  be  erected.  At  the  intersection  of  the  cross  in  the  centre  of 
the;  parallelogram,  a  dome  is  designed  to  cover  a  space  of  120 
feet  diameter.  The  portion  of  this  great  structure  which  is  now 
completed  is  a  four-stoiy  building  with  a  double  attic ;  it  has  a 
length  of  200  feet ;  it  will  form  the  southern  one  of  the  arms  of 
the  interior  cross.    The  walls  are  three  feet  thick  at  the  top. 


The  whole  building  is  of  brick,  and  is  regarded  as  strictly  fire- 
proof. The  city  has  appropriated  $700,000  for  it,  besides  giving 
the  land. 

Mr.  Stanley  will  probably  arrive  in  England  this  week. 
He  has  been  received  with  enthusiasm  at  Rome,  Marseilles,  and 
Paris.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  the  Geographical 
Society  of  Marseilles  presented  Mr.  Stanley  with  medals.  No 
doubt  our  own  Geographical  Society  will  take  the  letd  in  the 
warm  reception  which  will  certainly  be  accorded  in  this  country 
to  one  of  the  foremost  of  explorers. 

The  Commission  for  reorganising  the  Observatory  of  Paris  has 
ended  its  sittings,  as  we  have  already  reported.  The  commissioners 
recommend  no  change  in  the  present  organisation  of  the  Inter- 
national MetecMTological  Office ;  but,  taking  into  consideration  the 
actual  wants  of  meteorology,  it  has  advised  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  to  appoint  a  Meteorological  Commission,  in  order  to 
suggest  any  measures  which  might  be  likely  to  promote  the 
interests  of  meteorology  at  large,  without  interfering  with  the 
working  of  telegraphic  weather  forecasts  sent  by  the  Inter- 
national Office  to  the  sea-ports  and  more  than  i,200  parishes  all 
over  France. 

The  Scientific  Association  of  France,  created  by  M.  Leverriert 
after  having  elected  M.  Milne-Edwards  for  its  president,  hsa 
decided  upon  oxganising  a  series  of  lectures  at  the  Sorbonne,  to 
describe  important  new  inventions  and  discoveries.  The  first 
meeting  will  soon  take  places  when  M.  Cailletet's  experiments 
will  be  exhibited  and  explained  by  M.  Henri  St  Claire  Deville. 
M.  Dumas  will  also  ddiver  an  address  summarising  the*  his- 
tory of  the  Association  and  reviewing  the  services  rendered  by 
it  to  science.  It  is  stated  that  M.  Dumas  will  propose  to  the 
Association  to  initiate  a  subscription  for  erecting  a  monument  to 
the  great  astronomer  who  founded  it 

In  several  cities  of  Holland  committees  have  been  formed 
with  a  view  to  collect  sul)scriptions  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
proposed  expedition  to  the  Arctic  regions,  to  which  we  referred 
some  time  since, 

Macmillan  and  Co.  are  about  to  publish  "  A  Monograph  on 
the  Development  of  Elasmobranch  Fidies,"  by  Mr.  F.  M.  Bidfoor, 
M.A.,  Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  The 
work  is  divided  into  twelve  chttpters,  and  conUins  the  remits  of 
much  original  research  on  the  part  of  the  author,  who,  on  certain 
points,  as  on  the  spinal  and  cranial  nerves,  advances  views  which 
are  a  modification  of  those  previously  accepted. 

It  is  announced  that  the  American  NaturaUst^  which  bss 
had  so  long  and  useful  a  career  in  Salem  and  Boston,  will  here^ 
after  be  published  in  Philadelphia  by  Messrs.  M'Calla  and 
Stavdy,  under  the  editordiip  of  Dr.  A.  S.  Packard  and  Prof.  & 
D.Cope. 

Reports  from  the  Island  of  Sylt,  [on  the  west  coast  oC 
Schleswig-Holstein,  state  that  the  storm-flood,  which  caused 
such  serious  damage  along  the  Continental  shores  of  the  Gemum 
Ocean  last  autunm,  has  laid  bare  some  remains  of  the  village  of 
Eidum,  which  perished  in  the  year  1436  by  the  sea  suddenly 
breaking  over  it  and  covering  it  up.  Stone  foundations  of  former 
dwellings,  garden-walls,  and  wooden  remains  of  various  kmds 
are  now  seen  there,  also  numerous  well-openings,  built  of  massivt 
pieces  of  dried  and  baked  peat.  It  is  also  sUted  that  numeroni 
old  coins  and  utensils  have  been  found  there,  as  well  as  a  well* 
preserved,  carved,  and  engraved  metal  bracelet 

Recent  excavations  made  at  Treves,  in  the  so-called  Roman 
imperial  palace,  have  yielded  rich  results  in  Roman  antiquities^ 

On  December  26,  at  8  A.M.,  two  meteorolites  fell  near  the 
village  of  Hobr  (in,  the  Prussian  province  of  Hessen  Nassau). 


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dose  to  the  high  road  leadiDg  from  Neuwied  to  Coblenz.    It  is 
ftated  that  the  noiae  caued  by  the  fall  was  very  characteristic. 

Three  earthquakes  were  observed  at  Kirlibaba,  in  the  Boko- 
wina,  on  December  2S  and  30  respectively.  A  fourth  pheno- 
menon of  this  nature  was  felt  at  Innsbruck,  in  the  Tyrol,  on  the 
3rdinst.,  at8  46p.M. 

Beeun  is  listening  to  an  interesting  series  of  lectures  delivered 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  for  African  Exploration.  On 
the  programme  we  notice  Dr.  Nachtigal,  '*  Ancient  Darfour ;" 
Dr.  Gussfeldt,  *<  The  Arabian  Desert;*'  Dr.  Hildebrandt, 
"  Pictures  from  Equatorial  Africa,"  Prof.  Hartmann ;  '*  Fauna 
of  the  Swedish  Islands,"  &c. 

The  two  African  Societies  at  Berlin,  which  have  hitherto 
existed  independently  of  one  another,  have  now  finally  resolved 
to  unite  into  a  single  society. 

Ws  have  received  the  first  number  of  The  Midland  Naturalist^ 
the  journal  of  the  associated  societies  and  clubs  of  the  Midland 
counties,  the  union  of  which  we  referred  to  some  time  since. 
It  is  a  neat  and  well-printed  journal,  containing  seven  good 
papers,  besides  miscellaneous  matter.  Besides  the  opening 
address,  explaining  the  formation  and  objects  of  the  Union,  there 
are  papers  on  abnormal  ferns,  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Lowe,  F.R.S.  ;  on 
an  improved  aneroid,  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Harrison,  F.G.S. ;  on  the 
marine  zoology  of  Arran,  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Hughes  (giving  the  results 
of  an  excursion  by  the  Birmingham  Natural  History  Society  last 
summer) ;  Lepidoptera  in  the  Midland  Counties,  by  the  Rev.  C. 
F.  Thome  will ;  Entomostraca,  by  Mr.  Edwin  Smith  ;  and  a 
paper  on  some  new  features  in  the  geology  of  East  Nottingham, 
by  Mr.  J.  Shipman.  This  is  a  very  good  start,  and  we  hope 
The  Midland  Naturalist  will  fill  a  useful  place  in  our  scientific 
literature.     Hardwicke  and  B6gue  are  the  London  publishers. 

Reports  from  the  Bernese  Alps  state  that  the  amount  of 
snow  fallen  during  the  present  month  is  much  greater  than  has 
been  experienced  for  a  number  of  years. 

The  wolves  in  Eastern  France  have  become  unusually  bold 
during  this  winter,  and  reports  are  constantly  received  of  their 
depredations  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  Jn  one  instance  a 
letter-carrier  was  driven  back  by  them  from  his  regular  route. 

An  interesting  experiment  was  lately  carried  but  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Emmendingen,  on  the  River  Danube,  to  show  its 
subterranean  connection  with  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  The 
river  is  separated  here  by  a  range  of  Jura  limestone  from  the 
district  drained  by  the  Rhine,  and  it  ho  long  been  suspected 
that  the  Aach,  which  has  its  source  in  this  range  and  flows  into 
Lake  Constance,  was  really  supplied  by  the  Danube.  In  order 
to  solve  the  problem,  recourse  was  had  to  fluoresctn,  the  phtha. 
lein  of  resoreio,  a  compound  which  yields  with  alkalies  magnifi- 
cent green  fluorescent  solutions  capable  of  imparting  this  pro- 
perty to  enormous  masses  of  water.  A  solution  of  this  substance 
was  iPtrodnceri  into  the  Rhine  at  Emmendingen,  and  two  and  a 
half  days  liter  the  bright  green  fluorescence  was  visible  in  the 
Aach,  the  source  of  which  is  about  five  miles  distant,  and  lasted 
for  thirty 'Six  hours.  This  experiment  shows  most  decisively 
that  the  Upper  Danube  shares  its  water  between  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  North  Sea,  and  affords  a  most  interesting  explanation  of 
the  close  similarity  in  the  finny  inhabitants  of  the  two  great 
European  rivers. 

We  not  ce  the  appearance^  in  Paris,  of  a  French  trinslation  of 
the  *'  Organic  Chemistry  "  of  Prof.  Fittig,  of  Strauburg.  This 
work,  which  in  Its  present  form  is  the  tenth  edition  of  the  text- 
book originilly  issued  by  Prof.  Wohler,  has  long  been  a  favourite 
with  the  German  chemist  on  account  of  the  scrupulous  care  and 
fidelity  wV  ich  have  been  exercised  in  preparing  each  successive 


edition.  An  English  t  ranslation  was  prepared  a  short  time' since 
by  ProC  Remsen,  of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  formerly  one  of 
Fittig's  assistants,  the  circulation  of  which  is  confined,  however, 
chiefly  to  America. 

Arrangements  are  being  made  for  the  holding  of  an  Inter- 
national Exhibition  at  Sydney  in  1879,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Agricultural  Society  of  New  South  Wales.  It  is  anticipated  that 
many  of  the  articles  shown  at  the  coming  Paris  Exhibition  will 
be  trans-shipped  to  Sydney. 

A  propos  of  the  remarkable  relation  established  by  Dr.  Kerr, 
a  short  time  ago,  between  light  and  electricity,  an  interesting 
experiment  has  been  made  by  Mr.  J.  Mackenzie^  in  Berlin,  at 
the  instance  of  Prof.  Helmholtz  {Pogg,  Ann,,  No.  11).  A  glass 
plate,  161  mm.  long,  12  mm.  thick,  and  with  tin  foil  00  its 
opposite  sides,  firom  which  proceeded  copper  wires  to  a  Ruhm- 
korff  coil  (with  six  Bunsen  elements),  or  a  Holts  madilne,  and 
to  earth,  was  supported  and  covered  with  larger  glass  plates, 
and  placed  between  two  Nicols,  as  in  Dr.  Kerr's  experiment, 
the  light-source  being  a  lamp.  The  electric  action  gave  no 
perceptible  increase  of  brightness,  nor  was  any  such  obtained 
when  polarised  sunlight  was  used  to  give  greater  sensibility,  and 
a  leaf  of  mica  thick  enough  to  give  the  violet  colour  was  inter- 
posed between  the  glass  plate  and  the  analyser.  Experiments 
with  oil  of  turpentine  likewise  gave  negative  results.  (The  high 
sensibility  of  the  polariscope  is  demonstrated  by  distinct  experi- 
ments.) It  is  therefore  concluded  that  the  phenomenon  observed 
by  Dr.  Kerr  is  not  produced  by  electric  tension  itself,  but  pos- 
sibly in  a  secondary  manner,  through  the  heating  thus  caused. 
Confirmation  of  this  is  found  in  the  fact  that  in  Dr.  Kerr's  ex- 
periments it  was  only,after  about  thirty  seconds  from  closure  of 
the  circuit  that  ,the  action  reached  its  maximum ;  also  it  dis- 
appeared slowly. 

In  a  paper  in  the  Bullain  of  the  Belgian  Academy  of 
Sciences  (Nos.  9  and  10),  Prof.  Van  der  Mensbrugghe  dis- 
cusses the  causes  of  the  seemingly  spontaneous  movements 
of  bubbles  of  air  in  levels  and  of  vaporous  bubbles  in 
the  microscopical  cavities  of  mineral?,  these  researches  beii^ 
part  of  those  into  the  teiuion  of  surfaces  of  liquids.  Prof. 
Mensbrugghe  explains  these  movements,  as  Mr.  Hartley  also 
does,  by  changes  of  tension  in  the  surfaces  of  liquids  produced 
by  changes  of  temperature ;  when  the  temperature  of  the  liquid 
at  one  end  of  the  bulb  becomes,  for  some  reason,  higher  or  lower 
than  at  the  other  end,  however  small  the  difference,  the  tension 
of  the  surface  decreases  at  the  warmer  end,  and  the  bubble  moves 
towards  it.  But,  a  thin  film  of  water  remaining  on  the  glass,  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  is  enlarged  at  the  warmer  end,  and  diminished 
at  the  opposite  end,  and  this,  according  to  experiments  of  the 
author,  lowers  the  temperature  and  increases  the  tension  at  that 
end  ;  so  that  if  the  temperature  now  ceases  to  rise  the  motion  of 
the  bubble  is  not  only  stopped,  but  the  bubble  also  returns  back- 
wards. Thus  each  displacement  of  the  bubble  immediately  gives 
ri»e  to  such  forces  as  tend  to  produce  a  motion  in  an  opposite 
direction  ;  and  the  variations  of  teiuion  produce  the  more  obvious 
motions  the  smaller  the  masses  of  liquid  in  which  the  bubble  is 
swimming.  The  same  explanation  may  be  applied  also  to  the 
movements  of  bubbles  in  microscopical  cavities  of  minerals  filled 
with  liquids.  In  that  case^  the  bubble  being  produced  by  the 
vapours  of  the  liquid,  its  movements  are  yet  more  rapid,  as  every 
change  of  temperature  is  followed  by  further  evaporation  of  the 
liquid,  or  by  condensation,  both  which  alter  the  dimensions  of 
the  surfaces  of  the  liquid  and  their  tension.  The  author  supposes 
also  that  the  Brownian  motions  of  powders  suspended  in  liquids 
maybe  explained  in  the  same  way,  and  that  those  powders 
wbidi  absorb  most  gas  will  best  display  this  kind  of  motion. 

Prof.'Emilio  Cornalia,  an  eminent  nataralist  end  Director 


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NATURE 


\Jan,  17,  1878 


of  the  Museum  of  Natural  liistory  at  Milan,  has  been  decorated 
by  the  Emperor  of  Russia  with  the  order  of  St.  Ann  for  his 
efficient  co-operation  in  the  foundation  of  the  institute  for 
"  Bachicoltura  "  at  Moscow  and  Tashkend. 

The  scientific  expedition  to  Lake  Lob-Nor,  sent  out  by  the 
St.  Petersburg  Geographical  Society,  under  command  of  Col. 
Prjewalski,  and  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  has  yielded 
most  interesting  results  in  every  direction  and  is  of  particular 
importance  with  regard  to  the  exploration  of  Kashgar.  The 
new  details  obtained  in  reference  to  Lake  Lob-Nor  are  re- 
uMurkable.  The  expedition  contiuued  its  way  from  Korla, 
following  the  course  of  the  Tarim  River  down  to  its  confluence 
with  the  Rokala  Darja.  On  their  way  to  the  Lob-Nor  the 
travellers  passed  the  ruins  of  three  cities.  Lake  Lob-Nor  is  of 
a  marshy  nature ;  its  length  is  some  100  kilometres,  by  only  20 
kilometres  breadth.  Col.  Pijewalski  explored  the  western 
and  southern  shores,  and  through  the  current  of  the  Tarim 
River  reached  the  middle  of  the  lake.  There  the  shallowness 
of  the  water  and  impenetrable  vegetation  prevented  further  pro- 
gress ;  almost  the  whole  sur&ce  of  the  lake  b  thickly  covered 
with  reedy  vegetation.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Kara  Kurchintz 
district,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Lob-Nor,  are  on  the  lowest  step 
of  civilisation.  They  live  along  the  shores  as  well  as  on  islands 
in  the  lake,  in  miserable  huts  constructed  of  reeds  and  branches 
twisted  together.  The  whole  of  their  possessions  are  their 
clothes,  which  barely  cover  their  nakedness  and  are  made  of  the 
fibres  of  a  kind  of  lake  weed,  their  nets,  and  their  canoes,  which 
are  hollow  trunks  of  trees.  Metal  objects,  such  as  knives, 
hatchet?,  &c.,  are  extremely  rare  among  them.  CoL  Pije- 
walski, besides  his  ethnographical  results,  has  collected  rich 
materials  for  ornithological  investigations.  He  reports  that  it  is 
impossible  to  conceive  the  enormous  number  of  migratory  birds 
which,  on  their  journey  from  southern  countries  to  the  north,  or 
vice  v<rsd^  select  Lake  Lob-Nor  as  a  halting  place.  At  present 
the  Russian  traveller  has  wended  his  way  southward  and  is 
engaged  in  the  exploration  of  Tibet. 

In  an  interesting  paper,  published  hy  M.  Ph.  Plantamour  in 
the  December  number  of  the  Archives  des  Sciences  Physiques  ei 
Naiurdles  (Geneva),  regarding  the  earthquake  experienced  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  on  October  8 
last,  the  author  proves  most  conclusively  that  the  phenomena 
known  under  the  name  of  '*  Seiches,"  and  consisting  in  occa- 
sional and  sudden  alterations  in  the  level  of  the  lake,  have 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  upheavals  or  depressions  in  the  bed 
of  the  lake.  During  the  earthquake  referred  to,  not  the  least 
movement  of  the  surface  was  perceptible,  and  had  an  alteration 
of  only  one  millimetre  taken  place  in  the  level,  the  instruments 
empU^ed  by  MM.  Plantamour  and  Forel,  which  continually 
register  these  alterations,  would  have  most  certainly  shown  them. 
The  expknation  of  these  "  Seiches,"  therefore,  is  still  a  matter 
of  considerable  uncertainty,  and  it  even  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  barometrical  pressure  has  any  influence  upon  them 
or  not 

Two  enterprising  men  in  Paris,  a  merchant  'and  a  doctor  of 
medicine,  whose  names  will  be  surely  blessed  by  future  genera- 
tions, have  made  the  valuable  discovery  that  the  different  ele- 
ments contained  in  sea-water  are  infallible  preservatives  against 
all  possible  diseases,  and  at  the  same  time  are  never-fidling 
remedies  against  existing  illnesses.  These  two  philanthropists 
have  therefore  not  only  issued  a  seductive  prospectus  and  widely 
circulated  it  In  France  and  abroad,  but  have  also  prepared  a 
large  quantity  of  hygienic  products,  such  as  bread,  biscuits,  dry 
cakes  of  all  descriptions,  liqueurs,  &&,  which  are  all  prepared 
with  sea-water,  and  aie  endowed  with  the  most  marvellons 
healing  properties.  In  the  prospectus  it  is  stated  distinctly  that 
the  use  of  these  preparations  renders  all  other  medicines  or 
medical  treatment  unnecessary.    There  is  only  one  liftle  point 


which  requires  explanation.  The  ''  inventors  "  state  that  their 
preparations  are  made  with  distilled  sea-water ;  we  would  ask 
them  what  becomes  of  the  mineral  and  oiganic  matter  contained 
in  sea-water  during  this  distillation  ?   But  mundus  vuU  deci^  / 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  White-handed  Gibbon  {Hylobates  iar)  from 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  a  Brown  Monkey  (Afacacus  arcicides)  from 
Burmah,  presented  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Newman ;  two  Black 
Francolins  (Francolimis  vufgaris)  from  India,  a  Chnkar  IBt^* 
iridgp  {Caccadis  chukar)  from  North- West  India,  presented  by 
Major  Newton  Paul! ;  four  Common  Marmosets  (Hapale  jcuxhus) 
from  Brazil,  deposited ;  two  Rough  Terrapins  {Clemmys punctw 
/aria),  a  Scorpion  Mud  Tortoise  (Cinosternon  scorpotdes)  from 
Trinidad,  purchased. 


CERTAIN  MOVEMENTS  OF  RADIOMETERS^ 

T^HIS  morning  (Dec.  20)  I  received  from  Mr.  Crookes  an  account 
-^  of  the  behaviour  of  a  kind  of  radiometer  which  he  was  so  good 
as  to  construct  at  my  suggestion.  The  consideration  of  an  experi- 
ment mentioned  in  a  paper  of  his  presented  to  the  Royal  Society, 
which  will  shortly  be  read,  and  which  he  has  kindly  permitted 
me  to  refer  to,  suggested  to  me  the  desirability  of  mvestigating 
the  effect  of  mere  roughness  of  surface^  all  other  circumstances 
being  alike,  and  the  disc  of  the  radiometer  being  metallic,  so 
that  the  two  faces  may  be  r^arded  a.«  practically  at  the  some 
temperature.  Mr.  Crookes's  experiment  above  inferred  to,  led 
me  to  suspect  that  mere  roughness  might  increase  the  efficiency  of  a 
surface,  and  I  suggested  to  him  some  experiments  with  heated  glass 
shades,  or  with  a  hot  poker  presented  to  the  radiometer,  the  bulb 
bdng  covered  with  a  cool  tumbler  to  defend  it  from  being  heated 
by  the  rays  easily  absorbed  by  glass.  The  result  in  every  cose 
answered  my  expectation ;  and  it  may  be  stated  shortly  that  the 
law  of  the  motion  is  that  when  the  fly  is  hotter  than  the  bulb 
the  rough  surface  is  repelled,  or,  say,  the  motion  is  positive ; 
when  cooler,  negative. 

I  subjoin  Mr.  Crookes*s  memorandum  of  the  results  of  experi- 
ment : — 

**  Aluminium  RadiomeUr  (1326),  one  side  of  the  vanes  bein^  mitd 
clostly  with  a  sharp  knife, 

'*  I .  Exposed  to  standard  candle  three  inches  ofl*.  Continuous 
positive  rotation  (mled  side  repelled)  at  rate  of  3i  revolutions  a 
minute. 

''  2.  Exposed  to  non-luminous  flame  of  a  Bnnsen  burner  three 
inches  oS^  Continuous /^xi/ir^  rotation  at  the  rate  of  7|  turns  a 
mioute. 

''3.  The  Bunsen  burner' removed.  The  positive  rotation 
gradually  diminished  till  it  stopped.    No  negative  rotation. 

"4.  The  bulb  heated  with  Bunsen  burner.  Good  negative 
rotation  ;  then  stopped,  and  toiaXtd,  posiHvdy  till  quite  coldl 

*'  5.  Bulb  covered  with  a  cold  glass  shade,  and  a  la'-ge  red-hot 
ring  applied  round  equatorially.  Positive  rotation,  but  not  very 
strong. 

"6.  On  removing  the  shade  and  ring  the  positive  movement 
soon  comes  to  rest. 

"  7.  Covered  with  a  hot  glass  shade,  negative  rotation,  with 
positive  rotation  on  cooling  (the  same  as  4). 

**  8.  Plunged  into  hot  water.    Negative  rotation. 

*'9.  Removed  from  the  hot  water,  and  immediately  plunged 
into  cold.    Positive  rotation." 

Results  nearly  identical  were  obtained  with  another  radiometer 
described  as  ''silver  radiometer  (1327),  one  side  coated  with 
finelv  divided  silver,  electro-deposited. 

We  must  accordingly  recognise  three  distinct  conditions  under 
which  motion  may  be  obtslned  in  a  radiometer,  namely,  (1) 
difference  of  temperature  of  the  two  faces,  as  in  a  pith  radio- 
meter, coated  on  one  face  with  lampblack ;  (2)  more  favourable 
presentation  of  one  face  than  the  other,  as  in  a  radiometer  with 
curved  disks ;  (3)  roughneu  of  surface  on  one  face  (if  this  be 
really  different  from  2).  These  three  conditions  may  be  variously 
combined  so  as  to  assist  or  oppose  each  other,  as  the  case  may 
be,  in  producing  motion. 

'  Paper  raad  at  the  Royal  Sodetj,  Dccenber  ao^  by  Prof.  G.  C  Slokci. 
Sec.R.S.    Ccntinued  from  p.  175. 


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NATURE 


235 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

London.— At  %  meeting  of  Convocation  of  the  UniTersity 
of  London  held  on  Taeiday,  the  sapplemental  charter  empower- 
ing the  granting  of  degrees  to  women  was  considered.  After  a 
long  and  warm  discussion  a  resolution  appoving  of  the  draft  of 
the  supplemental  charter  was  canied  by  242  agSnst  132. 

Edinburgh.— A  letter  has  been  received  from  the  Treasury 
intimating  that  20,000/.,  the  first  instalment  of  the  grant  by  the 
Government  for  the  buildings  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
will  be  inserted  in  the  estimates  for  this  year. 

Leeds. — ^A  coarse  of  ten  lectures  in  connection  with  the 
Gilchrist  Educational  Trust  will  be  delivered  in  the  Albert 
Hall,  Mechanics*  Institution,  Leeds,  on  Friday  evenings,  com- 
mencing Friday,  January  25,  by  Prof.  A.  H.  Green,  M.A.,  on 
"TheGeology  of  Coal  ;^'  Prof.  L.  C.  Miall,  F.G.S.,  on  "  Coal 
Plants  and  Animals  ;"  ProC  T.  E.  Thorpe,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  on 
"The  Chemistry  of  Coal ;"  Prof.  A.  W.  Rucker,  M.A.,  on 
"  Coal  as  a  Source  of  Power ; "  and  Prof.  J.  Marshall,  M.  A., 
on  "The  Coal  Question."  An  extra  lecture  will  be  given  by 
Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  F.R.S.,  on  the  "General  Results  of  the 
Challenger  Expedition. "    The  admission  is  one  penny, 

Hallb. — The  winter  attendance  at  the  University  is  887, 
including,  under  theology,  189,  law,  112,  medicine,  106,  philo* 
sophy  and  science,  48a  Prussia  is  represented  by  711.  The 
attendance  of  foreigners  is  umtsually  small — England,  2, 
America,  5,  Russia,  11,  Austria,  20,  &c  The  corps  of 
instructors  nnmbers  at  present  9a  The  University  library,  one 
of  the  most  valuable  in  Germany,  possesses  over  100,000 
volumes. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
Royal  Society,  December  13,  1877.— On  electrostriction,  by 
ProC  Mills,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.  If  the  bulb  of  an  ordinary  thermo- 
meter be  coated  chemically  with  silver,  and  then  electrically  with 
a  metallic  deposit,  the  mercury  will  traverse  some  portion  of  the 
scale,  and  finally  take  up  a  definite  position  independently  of 
temperature.  Of  the  metals  hitherto  worked  with,  copper, 
silver,  iron,  and  nidcel,  constrict  the  bulb  ;  zinc  and  cadmium 
distend  it.  The  author  shows  that  if  ^^  be  the  total  obtainable 
effect  after  a  time  x;  Z>  the  portion  of  it  due  to  diametral  con- 
striction ;  L  the  portion  of  it  due  to  longitudinal  constriction  ;  dl 
two  geometrical  factors,  we  have,  in  the  case  of  the  cylindrical 
thermometer — 

y  =  /></*  +  Z/', 

D  being  always  greater  than  Z.  For  a  spherical  thermometer 
receiving  more  metal  on  its  equatorial  region  than  on  its  poles, 

y  =  Dd'  -  Ll\ 
For  a  spherical  thermometer,  with  tmiform  deposition, 
y  =  Dd*. 

The  author  determines  m  atmospheres  pressure  the  total  electro- 
strictive  effect ;  and  points  out  that,  since  the  deposited  metal 
can  be  removed  by  a  chemical  solvent,  we  are  thus  able  to 
measure  diemical  efiTect  in  atmospheres  pressure. 

Linnean  Society,  December  20,  1877. — Prof.  Allman, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— Dr.  Maxwell  Masters  made 
some  remarks  on  aa  interesting  specimen  of  CoUetia  cruciata 
received  firom  Sig.  Fenzi,  of  Florence.  In  this  case,  from  the 
same  branch  there  proceeded  shoots  with  broad,  flattened,  deltoid 
spines  characteristic  of  C.  cruciata^  but  also  others  with  slender 
or  cylindrical  spines  very  similar  to^  but  more  cylindrical  than, 
those  of  C.  spinosa.  It  would  thus  seem  this  interesting  speci- 
men may  tend  to  clear  doubts  which  have  arisen  respecting  the 
relation  of  these  two  species  and  that  of  C*.  bUionensis^  Lindl. 
=  C  cruciata^  Hook. — Mr.  Worthington  G.  Smith  made  some 
remarks  on  a  fossil  fungus,  its  zoospores  being  shown  under  the 
microscope.  He  also  exhibited  drawings,  among  others  sections 
of  Boletus  mbtonuntosus^  stating  that  in  a  specimen  five  inches 
in  diameter  there  are  17,000  pores  or  tubes.  Each  pore,  when 
cut  across,  shows  2,000  cells  on  the  surface.  •  The  number  of 
surface  cdls  on  the  underside  of  a  specimen  is  36,000,000.  The 
cells  in  an  entire  plant  are  eKlculated  to  be  61,500,000^000, 
and  the  number  of  spores  produced  by  the  same  specimen, 
5,000,000^000. — Mr.  S.  W.  Silver  exhibited  a  series  of  vegetable 


products,  arrows,  and  other  weapons,  &c.,  from  the  Fiji  Islands 
and  New  Caledonia,  collected  by  Consul  Edgar  Layard.  Among 
the  specimens  was  a  mass  of  the  poison  said  to  tip  the  native 
arrows  with.  Tbe  composition  of  this  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  that  described  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Powell  in  the  Society's 
Journal  of  last  year. — A  paper  was  read  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
Elk  {.Alces  machlis)  by  Prof.  M.  Watson  and  Dr.  A.  H.  Young. 
In  this  a  full  account  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  generative 
system,  myology,  &c  ,  was  given,  preceded  by  remarks  on  Uie 
literature,  &c.,  of  the  subject. — An  abstract  of  a  communica- 
tion, "Descriptions  of  new  genera  and  species  of  phytopha- 
p;ous  coleoptera,*'  by  Dr.  T.  S.  Baly,  was  read  by  the  secretary 
m  the  absence  of  the  author. — ^The  Algse  of  the  Arctic  expe- 
dition, by  Prof.  Dickie,  was  a  paper  deaung  with  the  collections 
made  by  Capt.  Feilden,  Dr.  Moss,  and  Mr.  Hart,  who  accom- 
panied Capt.  Sir  G.  Nares.  It  is  noted  that  of  fresh-water  species 
there  are  representatives  of  fourteen  genera,  many  of  which  are 
common  to  Europe.  Of  Diatomacesei  thurty-one  genera  and 
seventy  spedes  have  been  identified,  most  being  marine.  Seven 
species  ot  olive-coloured,Alg»  are  given,  but  it  seems  no  marine 
examples  belonging  to  the  red  series  were  obtained.  The  col- 
lection embraces  an  area  between  78°  and  83°  north  latitude. 
Then  followed  a  memoir  on  the  minute  structure  of  Stromatopora 
and  its  allies,  by  ProC  A.  Nicholson  and  Dr.  J.  Murie.  This 
interesting  form  (or  group)  has  long  been  a  puzzle ;  different 
writers  a^gning  it  a  place  respectively  among  Corals,. Hydro- 
zos,  Forammifera,  Sponges,  and  Polyzoa.  i^The  authors  treat 
the  subject  by  discussing  at  length  history  and  literature,  the 
general  and  minute  structure  of  a  typical  stromatoporoid,  mode 
of  occurrence  and  original  constitution,  classification,  affinities, 
and  systematic  position.  The  following  genera  are  defined : — 
Stromatopora^  Caunopora,  Clathrodictyon^  Stylodictyon^  StrO' 
tuatocermmj  Pachystroma^  and  Dictyostroma^  and  a  number  ot 
new  species  described.  They  believe  it  (or  them)  to  have  been 
originally  calcareous  and  not  siliceous,  as  has  been  maintained 
by  some,  substantiating  this  by  weighty  facts  and  reasons.  They 
discard  the  notion  of  its  alliance  with  the  NuUipores  or  belong- 
ing to  the  Corals,  Hydrozoa,  or  Foraminifera,  showing  wherefore 
in  absolute  essentials  it  is  deficient  and  theref«^e  untenably  asso- 
ciated with  either.  To  certain  of  the  Polyzoa  some  examples 
hold  a  striking  resemblance  in  many  respects  (as  likewise  is 
specially  the  case  with  certain  of  the  corals),  and  possibly  further 
research  may  bridge  difficulties  in  the  way  of  classing  it  with  the 
former  group,  but  their  researches  do  not  completely  justify  this 
step.  Neither,  strictly,  does  it  belong  to  the  homy,  siliceou?,  or 
calcareous  sponges,  as  at  present  understood,  thougn  the  tendency 
of  the  data  point  to  the  probability  of  sponge  organisation  pre- 
dominating. In  thb  case,  however,  by  absence  of  spicules,  &c, 
the  existing  group  of  Calcispongia  could  not  contain  the  stroma* 
toporoids  wMch,  under  negative  evidence,  would  form  a  new 
order  of  calcareous  sponges — Slromatoporoidea. — Messrs.  A.  S. 
Bicknell,  E.  A.  Floyer,  and  Capt.  Legge  were  elected  Fellows 
of  the  Society. 

Meteorological  Society,  December  19,  1877.— Mr.  S.  H. 
EatoUf  M.A.,  president,  in  the  chair.— Coinmander  £.  G. 
Bourke,  R.N.,  J.  A.  Douglas,  W.  H.  La  Touche,  B.A.,  G.  J. 
Pearse,  W.  S.  Rogers,  and  W.  Tyxcr  were  elected  FeUows.— 
The  following  papers  were  read : — Notes  on  the  meteorology 
and  physical  geography  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  from  Cape 
Vera  to  the  Cape  of  c£:x)d  Hope,  by  Commander  £.  G.  Bourke, 
R.N.  This  paper  gives  the  results  of  the  observations  which 
the  author  made  dming  the  five  years  he  was  stationed  on  the 
above  coast— On  the  meteorological  observations  made  by  the 
Norwegian  Deep  Sea  Exploring  Expedition  in  the  North 
Atlantic  in  1876  and  1877,  by  Prof.  H.  Mohn.  This  expedition 
has  been  organised  in  order  to  carry  out  for  the  North  Atlantic 
and  the  Arctic  Ocean  an  inquiry  similar  to  that  conducted  by 
the  Challenger  Expedition.  The  vessel  employed  was  the 
Voringen,  of  400  tons  burthen,  and  the  period  the  summer 
months  of  1876  and  1877.  The  barometrical  observations  were 
taken  at  first  with  a  mercurial  barometer  and  afterwards  with  an 
aneroid  which  was  compared  daily  with  the  mercurial  barometer 
on  board.  The  tempmture  was  obtained  by  a  special  screen 
hoisted  up  on  the  fore-sts^.  It  was  found  that  this  gave  very 
satisfactory  results.  The  experiments  conducted  with  a  screen 
similar  to  that  used  by  our  Meteorological  Office  on  ship-board 
gave  readings  too  high  when  the  sun  shone  on  it  The  sling 
thermometer  was  auo  tried,  and  gave  a  temperature  on  the 
mean  a  shade  below  the  screen  .in  the  rigging.  The  wind 
observations  were  taken  with  an  anemometer,  and  Prof.  Mohn 


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336 


NATURE 


{Jan,  17,  i  8  78 


describes  his  own  anemometer  at  length,  and  deals  with  its  cor- 
rections in  detail.  The  speed  of  the  ship  was  determined  by 
a  special  logging  machine^  and  by  this  means  and  the  anemo- 
metxical  observations,  the  true  motion  of  the  wind  was  ascer- 
tained. The  part  of  the  paper  which  presented  most  novelty 
was  that  referriog  to  the  evaporation  of  the  sea-water.  Two 
different  forms  of  atmometers  were  described,  both  of  them 
devised  by  Prof.  Mohn,  and  the  theory  of  their  action  and  of  the 
errors  to  which  the  experiments  were  exposed  are  carefully  con- 
sidered. The  paper  concluded  with  tables  of  the  diurnal  range 
of  the  various  meteorological  elements  for  the  period  of  observa- 
tion.— Report  on  the  phenological  observations  during  1877,  by 
the  Rev.  T.  A.  Preston,  M.  A.  As  a  rule,  the  same  order  of 
flowering  of  plants  is  ot)served  this  year  as  in  1876,  viz.,  that 
plants  came  mto  flower  first  in  the  south-west  of  England  and 
then  in  regular  order  to  the  north  of  Lincolnshire,  where  plants 
were  latest  in  coming  into  flower.  From  the  tables  accompany- 
ing the  report  may  be  deduced  the  general  state  of  the  weather 
as  regards  temperature,  and  to  a  certain  extent  moisture.  There 
is  no  doubt  but  that  damp  acts  more  powerfully  than  cold  in 
retarding;  the  flowering  of  some  plants  and  this  has  been  particu- 
larly evident  this  year.  The  year,  as  a  whole,  has  been  very 
unfavourable  to  vegeUtion  ;  the  bitter  cold  of  May  checked  the 
growth  of  plants,  and  by  the  autumn  there  was  comparatively 
little  new  wood,  and  that  not  properly  ripened. — Note  on  a 
peculiar  fog  observed  at  Kew  on  October  18,  by  G.  M.  Whipple, 
B.Sc.,  F.R.A.S. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  January  2. — Dr.  J.  Millar  in 
the  chair.  A  paper  was  read  by  Dr.  Bartlett  on  the  detection 
of  toxic  matter  connected  with  typhoid  and  other  enteric  diseases, 
in  Uie  course  of  which  he  gave  an  account  of  his  attempts  to 
trace  to  its  ultimate  source  the  cause  of  a  recent  outbreak  of 
typhoid  fever,  and  showed  that  whilst  chemical  analysis  had 
failed  to  discover  any  impurity  either  in  the  water  or  milk,  he 
had  been  able,  by  means  of  microscopical  examination,  to  detect 
in  the  water  certain  bodies,  presumably  of  a  fungoid  character, 
which  were  identical  with  those  found  in  the  bowels  of  persons 
who  had  succumbed  to  the  disease.— Mr.  Slack  brought  before 
the  notice  of  the  meeting  a  section^  of  bone  of  Megalosaums 
btuklandii  and  its  remarkable  resemblance  to  the  structure  now 
identified  as  peculiar  to  birds,  was  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Charles 
Stewart 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  January  J.^M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair. 
«-M.  Daubr^  was  elected  vice-president,  from  the  Section  of 
Physical  Sciences  (the  other  candidates  being  MM.  Wurtz, 
Chevreul,  and  Blanchard).— M.  Peligot  reported  on  volumes  just 
published,  or  being  published,  by  the  Academy.  Vol  xxxix.  of 
the  Mhnoira  is  devoted  chiefly  to  researches  by  M.  Chevreul, 
vol.  xli.  to  researches  by  MM.  Becquerel ;  a  second  volume  on 
the  transit  observations,  relating  those  at  Pekin  and  St. 
Paul's  Island,  has  be<m  published ;  a  memoir  on  Phylloxera  vas- 
iatrix,  by  ,M.  Comu,  appears  in  vol  xxvi.  of  the  Mimoira  da 
Savants  Etrangers,  The  Academy  lost  by  death,  in  1877,  one 
member,  M.  L^errier,  and  five  correspondents,  MM.  Santini, 
Hofmeister,  Braun,  Weddell,  and  Gintroc.— M.  Faye  presented, 
in  the  name  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes,  the  first  volume  of  its 
Annales,  In  these  Annalts  will  be  inserted,  with  additions,  the 
memoirs  which  the  Bureau  formerly  published  in  the  Connais' 
sance  des  Temps,  its  circle  of  activity  having  been  enlai]ged.— On 
persniphnric  acid,  a  new  oxygenated  acid  of  sulphur,  by 
M.  Berthelot  Tliis  is  obtained  pure  and  anhydrous,  by 
making  the  electric  effluue  act,  with  strong  tension,  on  a 
mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  dry  sulphurous  acid  and  oxygen ; 
it  is  got  in  the  dissolved  state  by  electrolysis  of  concen- 
trated solutions  of  sulphuric  add,  or  by  mixmg  with  care  a 
solution  of  oxygenated  water  with  sulphuric  acid,  concentrated, 
or  diluted  withlcM  than  one  equivalent  of  water.  At  a  tempe- 
rature near  zero,  it  crystallises,  and  resembles,  in  iu  genoral 
aspect,  anhydrous  sulphuric  acid,  only  it  has  longer,  and  thinner, 
and  transparent  needles.  The  formula,  determined  variously,  is 
SsO,.  Heated  in  a  flame^  the  sutxtance  is  immediately  de« 
composed  into  oxygen  and  anhydrous  sulphuric  add.  In  air  it 
gives  off  thick  fumes.  In  concentrated  suphnric  add  it  dissolves 
without  liberating  oxygen.  In  water  it  dissolves,  giving  thick 
toica  and  eflGBrvesoenoe,  &c — On  a  new  flat  r^guUting  spiral  for 
difociometers  and  watches,  by  M*  Phillipi*  The  theory  of  this 
is  explaifietlt  ^ — On  SQtije  new  modifiCAUons  in  the  tel  pbone,  by 
M.  Brcgurt.  Accordjj^^  to  indicatiijns  by  MM.  G^ter  and 
PoUard,  a  thin  plate  of  theet  iron  15  arranged  with  the  end  of  a 


blacklead  pencil  pressing  slightly  on  the  central  part ;  plate  and 
pencil  are  connected  by  wires  of  ordinary  lines  with  the  two  ends 
of  the  bobbir  wire  of  a  Bell  tdephone,  which  has,  instead  of  the 
magnetic  bar,  a  bar  of  soft  iron.  A  battery  of  two  Laclanch^ 
elements  is  placed  in  the  drcnit.  The  plate,  vibrated  by  the 
voices  causes  variations  in  the  blacklesd,  and  so  in  the  resistance 
of  the  circuit  and  the  intensity  of  the  permanent  current,  which 
produces  alternative  attractions  and  non-attractions  in  the  electro- 
magnet of  the  recdving  telephone ;  thus  the  voice  is  reproduced. 
&f.  Breguet  is  hopeful  of  an  increased  intensity  of  effect  by  such 
a  methcKL — On  the  production  and  properties  of  a  new  suction- 
ram  without  air-reservoir,  capable  of  drawing  water  from  all 
depths,  by  M.  de  Caligny. — Density  of  liquid  oxygen,  by  M. 
Pictet.  The  author  experimentally  confirms  M.  Dumas'  view, 
who  obtained  the  expression  {}  =  i  =  8,  for  the  solid,  and 
probably  the  liquid  sute  also.  The  jet  of  oxygen  showed  a 
strong  polarisation  of  the  electric  light,  indicating  the  presence 
of  soUd  dust,  probably  small  crystals  of  solid  oxygen. — On  the 
quartic  of  Steiner,  by  M.  Amigues. — On  a  single  principle  con- 
taining the  whole  theory  of  curves  and  of  sumces  of  any 
order  or  class,  by  M.  Serret — On  a  theorem  of  M.  Villarceau ; 
remarks  and  consequences,  by  M.  Gilbert — On  phenomena 
of  dispersion  in  metallic  reflection  of  polarised  luminous  or 
calorific  rays,  by  M.  Mouton.  The  greater  the  wave-len^h 
the  longer  is  the  interval  during  which  mirrors  act^  like 
glass  on  light,  simply  impressing  a  certain  rotation  in  the  original 
plane  of  poluiiation,  and  the  shorter  therefore  is  that  in  which 
the  original  rectilinear  polarisation  of  the  inddent  ray  is  changed 
by  the  fact  of  reflection  into  elliptic  polarisation. --On  normal 
ethyloxybutyric  add  and  its  derivatives,  byM.  Duvillier. — Re- 
searches on  the  intracellular  alcoholic  fermentation  of  plants,  by 
M.  Muntz.  Plants  kept  in  air  give  no  trace  of  alcohol ;  those  kept 
in  nitrogen  give  a  qmte  appreciable  quantity,  and  they  continue 
to  live  and  grow.  These  facts  are  a  confirmation  of  M.  Pasteur's 
views. — On  the  inversion  and  alcoholic  fermentation  of  cane- 
sugar  by  mouldiness,  by  M.  Gayon. — Some  remarks  on  the 
origin  of  alcoholic  yeast,  by  M.  Tr^uL — Verbal  response  of  M. 
Pasteur. — On  a  new  gorilla  from  Congo,  by  MM.  Alix  and 
Bouvier.  This  seems,  like  chimpanzees,  to  nave  more  arbori- 
colar  habits  than  the  Garilla  gena.  The  name  of  G.  Mayema  is 
given  it  from  that  of  the  negro  chief  of  the  village  near  which  it 
was  kiUed. — On  the  formation  of  fibrine  of  the  blood  studied 
with  the  microscope,  by  M.  Hayem. — On  a  process  for  obtain- 
ing recomposition  of  the  light  of  the  solar  spectrum,  by  M. 
Lavand  de  Lestrade. 


CONTENTS  Pacb 

Thb  LiQuar action  or  thb  Casks 17 

Fkankland's  RxsBAacHBS  IN  Chbmistrv.    By  Prof.  J.  Smbxsom 

RsYNOLOs ai8 

Oux  Book  Shklt  :— 

The  Silesian  Sodety S19 

Merriman's  "  List  of  Wridngs  relating  to  the  Method  of  Least 

Squares,  with  Historical  and  Critical  Notes'* S19 

LsTTSaS  TO  THB  fioiTOX  :— 

The  Radiometer  and  iu  Lestoos.— Prof.  Osbornb  Rbynolos 

F.R.S sso 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism.— Prof.  Piazji  Smyth.    .    •  sac 

On  the  insecu  o  Chili  and  New  Zealand. — Edwin  Birchall      .  aai 

Macrosiliaduentius.— Dr.  Hbrmann  MOllbr aai 

Meteor— P.  W.  Rbilly       sat 

Philadelphia  Diploma. — Dr  Richd.  C  Bramdbis eai 

Great  Waterfalls.— Arthur  G  Guillbmard      .......  a» 

Bioux:iCAL  NoTBS : 

Self-Fertilisaiion  of  Plants asi 

PhjTfciolocical  Action  of  Nioocin ass 

Glassy  Sponges %%^ 

A  Male  Nurse aaa 

Structure  of  Cycadeao  .    .    .    .    • ssa 

The  Bimin  of  a  Fossil  Mammal. saa 

Insbctivorous  Plants.    By  Franos  Darwin,  M.B. ^n 

Albert  von  Hallbr .  ssj 

Thr  Modbrn  Tblrscopb,  IV.    By  J.  Norman  Loocvbr,  F.R.S. 

{H^iik  lUmtratum) »«5 

Elbctrical  Analogiis  with    Natural  Phbnombna      By  M. 

Gaston  Plants  (ITiVA  JliuttratUns)     • aad 

Entomology  IN  Ambrica »t> 

Sounding  apparatus.    By  Lieut.  T.  F.  Jbwbll  {JIViik  lOmtiraHm)  aje 
Our  Astronomical  Column  :«- 

The  Variable  Star  R  Aquarii ajt 

<  ludi Bix 

TheSttellilwofMars  ,    ...         .     .    ,                   ^artct 

Notes  ......    t    *.*»#,*,.«,••    .  ^1 

Cbhtain  Movkmbnts  op  RAdlOMStaaa    3f  ^^,  Ci«  C  Sftiigi^ 

Sk-RS .,,,.........  an 

UNtVKUrrYAHb  SnVCATfOWAt  lVTKLU6ni9  ff} 

SocrrriBs  ans  ACAnSiciSi    ,,/».«  *%\ 


NATURE 


^%1 


THURSDAY,  JANUARY   24,  1878 


RAYLETGWS  "" THEORY  OF  SOUND"* 

The  Theory  of  Sound.    By  J.  W.  Strutt,  Baron  Rayleigh, 
F.R.S.    Vol  I.    (London  :  Macmillan  and  Co.,  1877.) 

THE  author,  who  abready,  by  a  series  of  interesting 
treatises  belonging  to  different  branches  of  mathe- 
matical physics,  has  acquired  a  respected  name  in  the 
domain  of  science,  undertakes  to  give  a  complete  and 
coherent  theory  of  the  phenomena  of  sound  in  the  work 
above  mentioned,  the  first  volume  of  which  has  recently 
been  published  ;  and  he  does  this  with  the  application  of 
all  the  resources  furnished  by  mathematics,  since  without 
the  latter  a  really  complete  insight  into  the  causal  con- 
nection of  the  phenomena  of  acoustics  is  altogether  im- 
possible. We  must  confess  that,  even  in  spite  of  the 
most  intense  exertion  of  the  powers  of  mathematical 
analysis,  in  the  present  state  of  its  development  several 
problems  remain  unsolved,  for  which,  indeed,  the  condi- 
tional equations  are  known,  but  for  which  it  has  not  yet 
been  found  possible  to  carry  out  the  calculation. 

The  author  will  merit  in  the  highest  degree  the  thanks 
of  all  who  ^study  physics  and  mathematics  if  he  con- 
tinues his  work  in  the  manner  in  which  he  has  begun 
it  in  the  first  volume.  The  separate  treatises  in  which 
the  acoustic  problems  that  have  been  solved  hitherto  are 
discussed,  are  for  the  most  part  dispersed  in  the  publica- 
tions of  academies  or  of  scientific  societies,  which  can  be 
found  only  in  larger  libraries,  and  which  frequently  are  not 
at  all  easily  traced.  But  even  if  one  has  found  a  treatise  of 
this  kind  and  reads  it,  it  happens  often  enough  that 
the  author  refers  in  his  quotations  to  other  works  quite  as 
difficult  of  access,  the  knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  for 
understanding  his  treatise.  Thus  the  zeal  of  the  student  is 
paralysed  by  a  number  of  purely  external  difficulties,  and 
the  ordinary  result  at  which  an  intelligent  student  arrives 
after  a  few  attempts  in  this  direction,  is  that  for  problems 
in  which  he  takes  great  interest  he  prefers  starting  anew 
to  find  the  solution,  rather  than  trying  to  hunt  for  it  in 
libraries.  Even  if  we  must  admit  that  the  insight  into  the 
essence  of  a  problem  for  which  one  has  found  the  solution 
oneself  is  much  deeper  and  clearer  than  when  one  has 
obtained  the  solution  from  some  other  author,  yet  an 
enormous  amount  of  time  is  thus  lost,  and  the  survey  of 
the  whole  extent  of  solvable  problems  remains  incomplete. 
A  survey  of  this  kind,  however,  is  necessary  for  all  who 
wish  to  work  at  the  progress  of  science  themselves. 
For  in  order  to  obuin  decisive  results  by  new  scien- 
tific investigations  it  is  necessary  above  all  things  to  be 
quite  clear  with  regard  to  the  question  for  which  forms  of 
experiment  or  of  observation  the  theoretical  deduction 
from  principles  can  be  carried  through  as  purely  as 
the  experiment  itself.  I  know  by  experience  that  a 
number  of  yoimg  physicists  lose  their  time  and  their 
xcal  by  trying  to  solve  problems  which,  taken  by  them- 
selves, are  very  interesting,  but  for  which  at  present  the 
deductions  from  the  theoretical  principles  for  the  given 
case  can  only  be  drawn  in  coarre  approximation,  and 
where  the  experiments  cannot  be  freed  from  important 
tooicct  ol  <nw. 

Lord  Rayleigh's  book  as  a  means  of 
OTtl*<-M<x  4)0 


overcoming  the  difficulties  described,  I  do  not  at  all  wish 
to  designate  it  as  a  mere  compilation.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  a  perfectly  coherent  deduction  of  the  special  facu 
from  the  most  general  principles,  according  to  a  uniform 
method  and  in  a  consequent  manner.  The  mechanical 
principles  of  the  doctrine  of  minute  oscillations  are  con- 
tained in  the  present  volume  and  are  developed  in  greater 
generality  than  in  any  other  book  known  to  me.  For  this 
purpose  the  author  in  the  first  chapter  explains  the 
general  physical  principles  of  sound,  of  its  propagation,  of 
pitch  and  its  dependence  on  the  rapidity  of  vibration,  ot 
the  musical  scale,  of  the  quality  of  sound  and  its  depend- 
ence on  the  harmonic  over-tones ;  and  in  the  second 
one  the  doctrine  of  the  composition  of  harmonic  motions 
of  either  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  or  consonant  numbers 
of  vibrations,  and  further  illustrates  them  by  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  physical  phenomena  and  methods  in  which 
the  principles  developed  are  applied,  and  to  which 
belong  the  doctrines  of  musical  beats  and  of  the  physical 
methods  to  render  the  forms  of  vibrations  visible. 

Then  follows  the  development  of  the  most  general 
peculiarities  of  oscillating  motions,  first,  in  the  third  chap- 
ter, for  mechanical  systems  to  the  motion  of  which  only  one 
degree  of  freedom  is  allowed,  and  then,  in  the  fourth  chap- 
ter, for  systems  with  a  finite  number  of  degrees  of  freedom. 
There  is  a  great  multitude  of  peculiarities  common  to 
the  most  heterogeneous  sounding  bodies,  which  up  to  the 
present  have  mostly  been  found  in  certain  instances  only, 
but  which  can  also  be  deduced  from  the  most  universal 
form  of  the  motion-equations  of  systems  of  one  or  more 
degrees  of  freedom  of  motion.  The  author  in  the  form  of 
the  equations  and  in  the  manner  of  denotation,  closely 
follows  the  "  Natural  Philosophy ''  of  Thomson  and  Tait ; 
in  fact  the  whole  manner  of  treatment  of  the  mathematical 
problems  corresponds  so  closely  to  that  adopted  in  the 
work  just  mentioned,  that  Lord  Rayleigh's  book  may  be 
looked  upon  as  the  acoustic  part  of  the  excellent  hand- 
book of  the  two  celebrated  physicists  named. 

With  all  systems  of  this  kind  if  there  are  no  exterior 
forces  acting  upon  them,  we  find,  on  the  whole,  a  number 
of  proper  tones  equal  to  the  number  of  degrees  of  free- 
dom, and  the  pitch  of  which  does  not  depend  on  the 
amplitude  of  the  vibrations  as  long  as  this  one  remains 
small  enough.  Exceptionally,  however,  several  of  these 
proper  tones  may  be  of  equal  pitch.  If  there  is  no 
friction  or  dissipation  of  energy  the  amplitude  of  every 
kind  of  oscillation  remains  constant  To  each  separate 
proper  tone  a  certain  form  of  motion  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem belongs ;  so  that  the  directions  and  magnitudes  of 
the  displacement  of  the  separate  points  of  the  system  are 
different  in  each  case.  Each  arbitrary  motion  of  the  sys* 
tem  produced  in  any  arbitrary  manner,  may  be  regarded 
as  a  superposition  of  these  forms  of  vibrations  belonging 
to  the  various  proper  tones  of  the  system.  In  order  to 
find  the  amplitude  and  phase  of  these  difierent  vibrations 
for  a  given  original  displacement  and  of  given  velocities 
of  its  different  parts,  quite  similar  methods  are  adopted 
as  those  which  are  employed  to  develop  a  given 
periodical  function  into  one  of  Fourier's  series;  only 
the  whole  method  here  becomes  far  more  intelligible 
and  has  a  thoroughly  certain  foundation,  because  we 
have  to  do  with  a  finite  number  of  unknown  factors 
instead   of  with  the   infinite   ntmiber  of  continuously 


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'succeeding  values  of  a  function,  with  finite  sums  in- 
stead 6f^  with  integfnds  or  with  infinite  series.  Of 
courses  fbr  Fourier**  series  as  well  as  for  the  devdopments 
of  Laplace  by  means  of  spherical  harmonic  functions  the 
proof  fbr  the  correctness  of  their  values  can  also  be  fur- 
nished in  the  case  o!  continuous  functions.  For  a  large 
nuinber  of  other  functions  which  are  given  by  differential 
equations  of  the  second  degree  this  proof  results,  under 
certain  suppositions  regarding  the  continuity  of  the  func- 
tions and  the  limit  conditions,  from  the  theorems  of  Sturm 
and  Liouville,  which  Lord  Rayleigh  explains  when  speak- 
ing of  the  vibrations  of  strings  of  unequal  thickness.  Yet 
in  mathematical  physics  we  are  still  compelled  to  employ 
a  great  number  of  series-developments  of  functions  which 
do  not  belong  to  this  class  ;  and  even  the  vibrations  of 
rods  and  plates  are  cases  in  point  In  this  respect  the 
treatment  of  the  problems  mentioned  with  a  finite  but 
arbitrarily  large  number  of  degrees  of  freedom  of  motion 
is  interesting  also  with  regard  to  analysis. 

For  vibradng  systems  of  one  degree  of  freedom^  the 
oscillations  of  which  are  subjected  to  damping,  the 
doctrine  of  the  laws  of  resonance  is  developed  in  the 
third  chapter.  The  author  calls  the  vibrations  which  are 
continuously  maintained  by  the  influence  of  a  periodical 
force  acting  externally,  forced  vibrations.  In  all  cases 
their  intensity  is  greatest  when  their  period  of  vibration, 
which  equals  the  period  in  which  the  force  changes,  is 
also  equal  to  the  period  of  the  system  vibrating  freely 
and  without  friction.  For  the  relations  between  the  in- 
tensity and  the  phase  of  the  co-vibration,  between  the 
breadth  of  the  co-vibration  in  case  of  small  alterations 
in  the  pitch  and  the  degree  of  damping,  which  I  had 
myself  proved  for  certiain  instances  and  used  for  certain 
observations,  the  general  proof  is  given  here.  The 
author  has  further  employed  these  chapters  to  set  up 
certain  general  maxims  respecting  the  direction  and 
magnitude  of  the  corrections  which  must  be  made  in 
cases  where  one  cannot  completely  solve  an  acoustic 
problem,  but  can  only  find  the  solution  for  a  somewhat 
altered  vibrating  system.  These  are  like  the  outlines  of  a 
''  theory  of  perturbations  ^  applied  to  acoustic  problems. 
The  author  iUustrates  these  maxims  by  many  various 
examples.  Thus,  for  instance,  he  replaces  a  string  by 
an  imponderable  stretched  thread  which  carries  weights 
either  in  the  middle  only  or  at  certain  distances  from 
each  other';  or  a  tuning-fork  by  two  imponderable  springs 
with  weights  at  the  ends. 

For  vibrations  of  very  small  amplitude,  the  forces 
which  tend  to  lead  the  moving  points  back  to  their  posi- 
tion of  equilibrium  may  always  be  considered  propor- 
tional to  the  magnitude  of  their  distance  from  the  position 
of  equilibrium.  As  long  as  this  law  holds  good,  the 
motions  belonging  to  different  tones  are  superposed,  with- 
out disturbing  one  another.  But  when  the  vibrations 
become  more  extensive,  so  that  the  law  of  proportion- 
ality just  named  no  longer  applies,  then  perturbations 
occur  which  become  manifest  by  the  appearance  of  new 
tones,  the  combination  tones.  In  my  book  on  acoustic 
sensations  C'  Die  Lehre  von  den  Tonempfindungen  ")  I 
have  myself  explained  this  manner  of  origin  of  the  com- 
bination tones,  only  for  the  motion  of  but  a  single  material 
point  In  Lord  Rayleigh's  book  this  explanation  is  given 
with  reference  to  any  compound  vibrating  system  of  one 


degree  of  freedom,  and  it  is  further  amplified  with  regard 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  forces  deviawwteh  the  dis. 
placements  firom  the  law  of  proportionality. 

Certain  laws  of  reciprocity,  of  which  I  had  given  single 
instances  in  my  investigations  on  the  vibration  of  the  air  in 
organ  pipes,  may  be  proved  in  a  general  way  for  all  kinds  of 
vibrating  elastic  systems.  If  on  the  one  hand  at  point  A 
an  impulse  is  given,  and  the  motion  at  point  B  is  deter- 
mined after  the  time  /  has  elapsed,  and  if  on  the  otker 
hand  an  impulse  is  given  at  point  B  in  the  direction  of  the 
motion,  which  occurred  there,  and,  after  the  time  /,  the 
motion-component  falling  into  the  direction  of  the  first 
impulse  is  examined  at  point  A,  then  the  two  motions  in 
question  are  equal  if  the  impulses  were  equaL 

Chapters  VI.  to  X  of  Lord  Rayleigh's  book  treat  of  the 
vibrations  of  strings,  rods,  membranes,  and  plates.  The 
vibrations  of  stringy  have  played  an  important  part  in 
acoustics  ;  their  laws  are  simple,  and  the  physical  condi 
tions  whidi  the  theory  demands  are  fulfilled  with  com- 
parative facility,  different  modes  of  producing  die  tones 
may  be  employed,  and  a  number  of  various  motions  may 
thus  be  produced.  It  is  just  because  the  physical  pheno- 
mena in  connection  with  strings  were  well  known,  that 
the  observation  of  the  way  in  which  the  ear  is  affected  by 
their  various  modes  of  vibration  has  materially  facilitated 
the  solution  of  the  problems  of  physiological  acoustics. 
The  musical  importance  of  strings  rests  on  the  circum- 
stance that  the  series  of  their  proper  tones  corresponds 
to  that  of  the  harmonics,  the  vibration-numbers  of  which 
are  entire  multiples  of  those  of  the  fundamental  tone. 
For  this  reason,  if  the  motions  of  many  proper  tones  are 
superposed  on  one  string,  a  periodical  motion  again 
results,  and  this  is  the  cause  why  on  strings  we  can  pro- 
duce notes  of  the  most  varied  quality.  We  need  only 
remember  how  differently  the  same  string  sounds  ac 
cording  to  whether  it  is  plucked  with  the  finger  or  with  a 
metallic  point,  whether  a  violin  bow  is  drawn  across  it  or 
iriiether  it  is  caused  to  vibrate  by  means  of  a  tuning-foik 

In  this  chapter  less  new  work  remained  to  the  author  ; 
however,  this  example  shows  how  much  easier  it  is  to 
understand  all  these  separate  problems  if  they  are  not 
treated  separately  but  developed  in  coherent  represenU- 
tion,  after  the  most  general  principles,  the  validity  of 
which  is  independent  of  the  special  peculiarity  of  the 
case,  have  been  first  explained. 

The  short  chapter  VII.  gives  the  laws  for  the  longi- 
tudinal and  torsional  vibrations  of  rods ;  the  laws  are 
simple  and  resemble  those  of  the  open  and  stopped  organ 
pipes.  The  lateral  vibrations  of  rods,  during  which  these 
bend,  give  more  complicated  analytical  expressions ;  their 
proper  tones  do  not  form  a  harmonic  series,  but  are  given 
by  the  roots  of  a  transcendental  equation.  The  tones  are 
different  according  to  whether  one  or  both  ends  of  the  rod 
are  free  to  rotate  and  to  move,  or  free  to  rotate,  but  hindered 
from  movmg  (supported),  or  hindered  from  rotating  and 
moving  (damped).  With  this  more  complicated  problem 
the  advantage  of  first  treating  of  the  general  principles 
becomes  clearly  apparent  The  forms  of  the  simplest 
vibrations  are  calculated  and  represented  graphically. 
The  mode  of  vibration  of  a  stretched  rod,  for  which 
Seebeck  and  Donkin  have  already  given  the  solution,  is 
also  treated  here  in  order  to  determine  the  influence  of 
rigidity  upon  the  vibrations  of  strings. 


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Then  the  vibrations  of  a  unifonnly-stretched  m^nbrane 
are  invesUgated.  This  investigation  is  of  more  theoretical 
than  physical  importance,  since  it  shows  in  a  case  which 
may  be  treated  in  an  easier  way,  the  peculiarities  of  vibra- 
tions which  are  capable  of  spreading  in  two  dimensions. 
Unfortunately  we  have  not  yet  succeeded  up  to  the  pre- 
sent in  obtaining  good  membranes  which  would  be  fit  for 
experiments  of  measuring  in  order  to  investigate,  with 
some  degree  of  exactness,  how  far  theory  corresponds 
with  the  experiment. 

On  the  contrary,  in  the  case  of  elastic  plates,  the  vibra- 
tions of  which  the  author  treats  in  the  last  chapter  of  the 
present  volume,  the  experiments  can  be  made  with  more 
accuracy,  while  the  analytical  difficulties  are  so  great  that, 
on  the  whole,  only  few  cases  permit  of  a  solution  of  the 
problem.  Indeed,  even  the  formulae  expressing  the  con- 
ditions which  must  be  fulfilled  at  the  edge  of  the  plate 
have  given  rise  to  discussions.  Poisson  had  thought  that 
three  conditional  equations  were  necessary  for  the  edge ; 
Kirchhoff  has  shown  that  in  reality  only  two  are  required. 
Lately  M.  Mathieu  opposed  this  view.  Lord  Rayleigh  has 
adopted  Kirchhoff's  views,  and  no  doubt  with  perfect 
light.  He  gives  the  analysis  of  the  latter  of  the  vibra- 
tions of  a  circular  plate,  and  has  made  an  important 
addition  of  his  own  to  the  solvable  cases,  by  teaching  us 
how  to  deduce  theoretically  a  series  of  vibration  forms  of 
square  plates,  at  least  for  that  case  where  they  consist  of 
an  elastic  substance  the  resistance  of  which  to  change  of 
volume  may  be  neglected ;  and  these  theoretical  deduc- 
tions sufficiently  correspond  with  the  forms  observed. 
Also  for  elastic  rings  and  for  cylinders  vibrating  in  the 
manner  of  bells,  he  has  improved  the  theory  in  an 
essential  point,  by  proving  theoretically  and  experi- 
mentally, that  the  node  lines  of  such  plates  execute 
vibrations  in  a  tangential  direction.  These  tangential 
vibrations  are  the  ones  which  are  first  produced  if  the 
edge  of  a  drinking-glass  is  rubbed  with  the  wet  finger. 

The  above  [survey  will  give  an  idea  of  the  numerous 
contents  of  the  book.  As  in  the  treatment  of  the  separate 
problems  it  touches  everywhere  the  limits  of  our  present 
knowledge,  it  cannot  but  demand  sound  mathematical 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  reader.  Yet  the  author  has 
rendered  it  possible,  by  the  very  convenient  systematic 
arrangement  of  the  whole,  for  the  most  difficult  pro- 
blems of  acoustics  to  be  now  studied  with  far  greater 
ease  than  hitherto.  He  thus  proves  himself  to  be  a 
philosopher  who  does  not  lose  the  liberty  of  intellectual 
supervision,  even  when  he  is  occupied  with  the  most 
abstruse  calculations.  H.  Helmholtz 


HINDUISM,  BUDDHISM,  AND  ISLAM 
I.  Hinduism,  By  Monier  Williams,  D.C.L.   2.  Buddhism, 
By  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids.    3.  Isldm  and  iU  Founder. 
By  J.  W.  H.  Stobart,  B.A.     (London :   Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  1877.) 

IT  is  a  sign  of  the  times  that  a  ''  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge "  should  undertake  a  series  of 
works  on  "  non- Christian  religious  systems."  Nor  is  it  a 
less  striking  characteristic  of  our  day  that  it  should 
entrust  the  work  to  scholars  of  so  liberal  a  faith  as  Prof. 
Monier  Williams  and  Mr.  Rhys  Davids.  Dr.  Monier 
Williams's  volume  on  Hinduism  forms  a  model  of  a 


popular  exposition  of  a  religious  system.  He  explains 
with  great  clearness  the  historical  catena  of  the  sacred 
writings  on  which  the  Sanskrit  religion  was  based.  He 
delineates  the  various  movements,  from  the  Buddhistic 
reformation  2,500  years  ago,  down  to  the  modern  revivals 
among  the  Sivaite  and  Vishnuvite  sects,  which  have 
developed  the  Vedic  worship  into  that  complex  structure 
of  ritual,  dogma,  and  social  institutions,  which  we  call 
Hinduism.  To  the  ordinary  English  reader,  this  little 
volume  will  reveal  a  different  aspect  of  Hindu  faith  and 
morals  from  that  which  he  has  been  accustomed  to  hear 
from  the  pulpit  or  missionary  platform.  He  will  find  that 
the  great  questions  of  how  a  man  should  rule  his  life,  and 
what  prospect  lies  before  him  after  he  has  done  with  this 
world,  have  formed  the  subjects  of  religious  thought  and 
practical  experience,  not  less  anxious  nor  less  deep  among 
the  people  of  India  than  among  the  western  races.  The 
ethical  replies  which  they  have  given  to  those  questions 
differ  moie  in  form  than  in  spirit  from  the  higher  beliefs 
of  Christendom.  The  hard  and  narrow  judgments  of  the 
elder  Mill  and  the  zealous  statements  of  missionaries, 
have  too  long  possessed  the  popular  mind.  Prof.  Williams 
does  not  appear  as  the  advocate  or  admirer  of  Hinduism. 
In  fact  he  tacks  on  to  the  end  of  his  book  a  proselytising 
page  or  two,  which,  however  in  accord  with  the  object  of 
the  Society  for  which  he  writes,  form  a  strange  contrast 
to  the  scholarly  tone  of  his  volume. 

Dr.  Monier  Williams's  tours  in  India  have  enabled  him 
to  deal  with  the  modem  phases  of  Hinduism  from  a  prac- 
tical, as  well  as  from  the  professorial  point  of  view.  Three 
features  of  Hinduism  must  be  distinctly  realised  in  order 
to  understand  its  vitality  and  influence  on  the  people. 
Hinduism  represents,  in  the  first  place,  a  very  ancient 
growth  of  woiship  .and  belief;  and  is  invested  with  all 
the  authority  of  age  and  unquestioned  prescription.  In 
the  second  place,  it  is  a  very  modern  religion,  whose  later 
developments  have  neither  been  rMuced  to,  nor  are 
restrained  by,  any  systematic  theology;  which  is,  there- 
fore, plastic,  sensitive  to  every  change  in  the  popular 
beliefs  or  modes  of  thought ;  and  which,  in  each  province 
of  India,  takes  on  a  local  colouring  adapted  to  the  neces- 
sities or  customs  of  the  local  population.  In  the  third 
place,  Hinduism  is  not  only  a  rdigious  system,  but  an 
all-powerful  social  institution.  It  forms  the  outcome  of 
religious  and  philosophical  thought  in  India  during  several 
thousands  of  years ;  it  also  represents  the  'organised 
modes  of  life  at  which  a  great  variety  of  tribes  and  races 
have  slowly  arrived.  This  threefold  source  of  strength 
makes  itself  felt  in  every  detail  To  take  one  instance : 
Caste  is  enforced  alike  by  the  sanctions  of  ancient  pre- 
scription, modem  religion,  and  social  utility.  It  articulates 
the  population  into  conmiunities,  each  bound  together  by 
ties  of  a  useful,  not  less  than  of  a  doctrinal  sort  Caste, 
with  the  feelings  of  kindred  and  family  on  which  it  rests, 
forms  the  substitute  for  a  Poor-Law  in  India  ;  it  supplies 
a  bond  something  like  that  which  in  America  is  felt  by 
people  who  attend  the  same  meeting-house  or  chapel ; 
and  it  discharges  many  of  the  functions  of  the  mediaeval 
guilds  of  Europe,  together  with  others  which  are  effected 
less  smoothly  by  modem  Trades'  unions.  It  has  its 
disadvantages  —some  of  them  very  serious  ones ;  but  it 
curiously  resembles,  in  several  of  its  judicial,  social,  and 
charitable  aspects,  the  ekklesia  of  the  early  Christians. 


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Prof.  Monier  Williams  might  not  accq>t  thii  view,  but  we 
recommend  his  book  as  at  once  a  scholarly  and  a  practical 
exposition  of  Hinduism,  in  a  cheap  and  popular  form. 

Mr.  Rhys  Davids  has  done  his  work  well,  but  with  a 
difference,  in  his  little  volume  on  Buddhisnu  He  has 
rightly  separated  the  facts  (so  far  as  we  can  ascertain 
them)  of  the  history  of  the  founder  from  the  modem  legends 
regarding  him.  He  gives  a  careful  and  interesting  nar- 
rative of  the  life,  explains  the  doctrines  which  Gautama 
Buddha  taught,  and  the  system  of  morals  which  was  sub- 
sequently based  upon  his  precepts  and  example.  Nothing 
could  be  better  than  some  of  the  passages  which  bear 
upon  the  aspects  of  Buddhism  in  Ceylon,  China,  and 
Tibet  But  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  plan  of  the  work 
permitted  of  so  little  space  for  its  influence  upon  the 
mediaeval  forms  of  Indian  ritual  and  bdie£  One  of  the 
most  interesting  pictures  which  we  possess  of  a  ttmggle 
between  two  great  faiths  is  to  be  found  in  Hiouen 
Thsang's  itinerary  through  India  in  the  seventh  century. 
The  narratives  of  the  Chinese  travellers  form,  indeed,  the 
first  historical  evidence  of  eye-witnesses  with  regard  to 
Indian  manners  and  beliefs.  They  supply  a  key  to  the 
subsequent  religious  developments  among  the  Hindus, 
and  well  merit  a  fuller  notice.  Another  point  of  deep 
interest  on  which  Mr.  Rhys  Davids'  volume  is,  perhaps 
necessarily,  silent,  refers  to  the  industrial  aspects  of 
Buddhism.  It  is  well  known  that  architecture  in  India 
began  with  the  requirements  of  Buddhism,  and  that  those 
requirements  profoundly  affected  its  whole  subsequent 
history.  Moreover,  the  Buddhist  monks  were  not  only 
missionaries ;  they  were  artists,  or  at  any  rate  artisans, 
who  carried  a  nemr  civilisation  as  well  as  a  new  faith  to 
the  Asiatic  races.  Thus  it  was  a  Buddhist  monk  of  Corean 
ancestry  who,  between  662  and  672  a.d.,  published  the 
secret  of  making  translucent  pottery  in  Japan.  The  ritual 
of  Buddhism  stamped  its  influence  on  the  characteristic 
national  industry  both  of  Japan  and  China  ;  and  as  late 
as  1 2 12  we  hear  of  a  celebrated  Japanese  potter,  accom- 
panied b/  a  Buddhist  mook,  going  on  a  mission  to  the 
mainland  to  acquire  the  deeper  mysteries  of  ceramic  art 
The  vast  number  of  Buddhist  records  did  much  to  develop 
the  art  of  writing,  while  the  circumstance  that  its  theology 
centres  around  a  single  human  life,  gave  a  biographical 
and  historical  impulse  to  the  nations  who  adopted  it, 
which  is  unknonrn  among  the  followers  of  the  older 
Brdhmanical  faith.  Mr.  Rhys  Davids'  book  is  silent  on 
these  points.  But  it  is  only  just  to  him  to  add  that  he 
has  managed  to  compress  a  vast  amount  of  thought  and 
iaformation,  of  a  kind  perhaps  more  important  from  the 
Society's  point  of  view,  into  his  250  pages. 

Mr.  Stobart's  Isldm  is  conceived  in  a  less  philosophical 
spirit  "  Light  and  darkness,**  he  says,  "  are  not  more 
opposed  than  the  loving  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
vengeful  spirit  of  the  Koran."  **  Darkness  and  retro- 
gression are  engraved  on  every  page  of  the  Preserved 
Book."  This  is  his  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,  but 
it  fails  to  explain  the  secret  of  one  of  the  great  his- 
torical movements  which  has  deeply  influenced  man- 
kind. Scraps  of  piety  are  scattered  throughout  the  book, 
sometimes  with  a  curious  effect  Here  is  Mr.  Stobart's 
conception  as  to  how  a  chapter  on  the  Ancestry  of  Ma- 
homet should  begin  : — ^'*  We  have  the  assurance  that 
Noah  was  '  a  perfect  man  and  walked  with  God'  (Gen. 


viL  9) ;  and  as  a  'preacher  of  righteousness'  (2nd  Peter, 
ii.,  5),  having  with  his  sons  been  witness  of  the  flood, 
handed  down  to  his  posterity  the  worship  of  the  True 
God."  Further  quotation  is  unsuitable.  Mr.  Stobarfs 
book  will  supply  a  convenient  but  misleading  com- 
pendium for  those  who  wish  to  know  a  litde  about  the 
subject  It  reproduces  the  bigotry  which  disfigured  Sir 
William  Muir's  '^Life  of  Mahomet,"  on  which  it  is  chiefly 
based,  without  the  scholarship  which  rendered  that 
Indian  civilian's  four  volumes  the  standard  English  work 
on  Islim. 


OUR  BOOR  SHELF 

Physical  Cheniistry,    By  N.  N.  Lubavin.    Part  IL     8vo. 
460  pp.  (Russian).    (St  Petersburg,  1877.) 

We  are  glad  to  notice  the  appearance  of  the  second 
and  last  part  of  M.  Lubavm's  most  valuable  work, 
which  b  devoted  to  the  most  important  depart- 
ments of  physical  chemistry.  In  this  part  the  author 
deals  with  chemical  reactions  in  general  and  dis- 
cusses under  this  head  some  of  the  various  theories 
advanced  as  to  the  distinctive  characters  of  chemical 
processes ;  the  stechiometrical  laws  of  Dalton,  Gay- 
Lussac,  Faraday,  Dulong  and  Petit,  &c.,  all  figures 
relative  to  these  laws  being  given  in  a  tabular  form; 
chemical  combinations,  1.^.,  the  formation  of  compounds 
by  heat,  light,  and  electricity,  and  under  the  influence  of 
other  bodies ;  the  development  of  energy  duiing  chemical 
processes,  this  chapter  containing  nineteen  very  useful 
tables ;  changes  of  properties  of  bodies  when  entering 
into  chemical  combinations ;  the  decomposition  of  bodies 
by  heat,  electricity,  and  light;  mutual  decomposition; 
and  chemical  isomerisnt  Under  each  of  these  heads  we 
find  a  considerable  aniount  of  most  valuable  information, 
skilfully  selected  from  the  already  immense  literature  of 
that  subject,  and  always  giving  the  last  results  of  recent 
investigations.  The  work  will  be  thus  of  a  great  value 
for  the  student,  giving  in  one  volume  of  800  pages  of 
compact  print  a  reliable  and  often  very  complete  exposk 
of  the  results  reached  by  science  in  this  most  important 
department. 

Elementary  Theorems  Relating  to  the  Geometry  of  a  Sfiace 
of  Three  Dimensions^  and  of  Uniform  Positive  Cur^ 
vature  in  the  Fourth  Dimension,  By  Simon  Newcomb. 
(From  the  *}ournal  fUr  Mathematik^  Band  Ixxxiii., 
Heft  4,  1877.) 

This  is  an  interesting  contribution  to  the  subject  treated 
of  by  Riemann,  Helmholtz,  and  others,  and  in  this  country 
by  Prof.  Cliflord.  The  question  is  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  elementary  geometry  instead  of  by  the 
analytic  method  which  has  been  commonly  employed  by 
writers  on  non-Euclidian  Geometry. 

Quatre  Modiles^  reprhentant  des  Surfaces  diveloppables^ 

avec  des  Renseignements  sur  la  Construction  des  ModiUs^ 

et  sur  les   Singularites   quHls  reprhentent.    Par  V. 

Malihe-Bruun  et  C.  Crone ;  avec  Quelques  Remarques 

sur  les   Surfaces   diveloppadles   et  sur  V  Utility  des 

Modules.   Par  M.  le  Dt.  H.  G.  Zeuthen.    (Copenhague, 

1877.) 

In  the  third  edition  of  Salmon's  "Geometry  of  Three 

Dimensions  "  there  is  (p.  289)  a  description  of  a  simple  way 

of  making  a  model  of  a  developable  surface,  attributed 

by  Prof.  Cayley  to  Mr.  Blackburn.  This  suggested  to  Dr. 

Zeuthen  the  idea  of  drawing  on  the  same  model  curves 

having  contact  of  diflerent   orders    with   the  edge    of 

regression  (Variie  de  retrousse nient)  and  of  constructing 

new  models  of  a  very  elementary  nature,  showing  the 

principal  singularities  of  developable  surfaces. 

Full  accounts  are  given  in  a  pamphlet  ( 15  pp.)  and  direc- 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Jan.  24,  1878] 


NATURE 


241 


tions  for  putting  the  models  together,  which  consist  of  flat 
cardboard  marked  in  accordance  with  the  printed  descrip- 
tions. The  whole  is  contained  in  a  neat  quasi-envelope 
(nine  inches  by  seren). 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[Thi  EdUor  does  not  hold kitiuelf  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertcLke  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  refected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  apiiarance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  ana  novel  facts,] 

Glaii  for  Reflectors 

Your  last  number  (voL  xvIL  p.  226)  contains  a  very  interest- 
ing paper  by  Mr.  Norman  Lockyer,  in  which  that  gentleman 
quotes  the  followiDg  passages  from  Mr.  Grubb*s  paper  : — 

"  For  tbe  4-foot  disc  of  glass  for  the  Paris  reflector,  in  place 
of  that  which  has  so  recently  resulted  in  failure,  the  St.  Gobain 
Glass  Company  require  twelve  months'  time  to  perfect  (although, 
be  it  remembered,  the  quality  of  the  glass  is  here  of  no  conse- 
quence whatever) ;  and  I  have  been  myself  in  correspondence 
with  the  principal  glass  manufacturers  here  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent»  and  not  one  of  them  is  willing  to  undertake  even  a  6-foot 
glass  disc ;  so  that  it  would  appear  that,  above  that  size,  the 
silver-on-glass  mirrors  are  out  of  the  question."  ....*'  The 
other  great  difficulty  in  the  manufacture  of  reflectors  is  the  an- 
nealing of  the  disc,  and  I  believe  it  is  this  difficulty  which  limits 
to  so  narrow  an  extent  the  production  of  glass  discs  for  silver*  on- 
glass  mirrors." 

It  may  be  interesting  to  your  readers  to  know  that  an  attempt 
is  now  being:  made  to  entirely  overcome  the  apparently  insur- 
mountable difficulties  so  clearly  pointed  oat  by  Mr.  Grubb,  and 
to  obuin  at  any  time  without  delay,  and  at  a  very  small  cost, 
discs  of  glass  suitable  for  making  sUvered  reflectors  from  6  to  8, 
or  even  10  feet  in  diameter. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  over-rate  the  difficulty  of  producing 
massive  discs  of  glass  such  as  the  one  employed  for  the  47|-inch 
reflector  of  the  Paris  Observatory,  weighing,  as  it  did,  no  less 
less  than  1,546  lbs.  in  the  rough,  for,  however  carefully  annealed 
such  a  mass  of  brittle,  slow-conducting  material  may  be,  it  will 
always  he  liable  to  unequal  expansion,  deflection,  and  fracture. 

Fortunately,  however,  we  have  commercial  plate  glass  to  fall 
back  upon ;  plates  of  l  to  1 4  inch  in  thickness  can  be  readily 
made  and  perfectly  annealed,  and  it  is  to  the  substitution  of 
these  large  and  comparatively  thin  sheets  of  glass,  in  lieu  of 
thick  cast  masses,  that  my  attention  has  been  chiefly  directed. 

It  is  perfectly  well  known  that  plates  of  i  to  i}  inches  in 
thickness,  if  of  large  area,  are  subject  to  a  great  amount  of 
deflection  and  consequent  distortion  of  the  image,  which  no 
ordinary  support  or  backing  can  prevent  Sevend  modes  of 
converting  such  thin  discs  of  commercial  plate  glass  into  efficient 
reflectors  are  about  to  be  put  to  the  test  of  practical  experiment 
for  the  5o|-inch  silver-on-glass  reflecting  telescope  which  I  am 
making  and  erecting  at  my  residence  on  Denmark  Hill. 

Any  attempt  to  support  a  disc  of  this  diameter  of  i^  inch  in 
thickness  against  a  cudieon  of  any  kind,  or  loosely  against  a 
plane,  must  end  in  failure  ;  nor  can  we  hope  to  escape  the  diffi- 
culty by  cementing  the  glass  to  any  foreign  substance  whose 
power  of  conducting  heat  and  rate  of  expansion  diflers  from  that 
of  glass,  as  a  giving  way  of  the  cement  would  be  only  a  question 
of  time,  while  distortion  would  result  from  unequal  expansion  of 
the  two  difierent  materials.  An  intermediate  course  has  there- 
fore been  adopted. 

A  strongly  ribbed  hollow  cellular  casting  is  made  of  iron  52} 
inches  in  diameter,  and  13  inches  in  thickness,  weighing  1,400 
lbs. ;  after  slowly  cooling  in  its  mould,  it  will  be  again  heated  to 
about  900^  F.,  and  then  be  again  slowly  cooled ;  the  whole  of  the 
external  skin  of  the  casting  will  be  turned  off"  in  the  lathe,  and 
its  fiice  made  into  a  true  plane,  less  the  flnal  process  of  scraping ; 
it  will  then  be  thrice  annealed  in  oil,  each  time  slowly  raising 
the  temperature  from  60*  up  to  600**  F.,  and  each  time  slowly 
cooling  it  again.  When  all  undue  tension  has  thus  been  got  rid 
of,  its  face  will  be  Anally  scraped  to  a  true  plane,  and  a  small 
spiral  channel  -jV  of  an  mch  deep,  and  the  same  in  width,  will 
be  formed  on  the  flat  face,   the  channels  being  about   ^  an 


inch  apart  from  each  other,  and  extending  from  the  centre 
nearly  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  metal  surliace.  One  side 
of  the  glass  disc  having  been  previously  ground  flat  by 
the  plate-glass  manufacturer,  will  have  a  second  grinding 
on  the  grooved  plane,  so  as  to  insure  perfect  contact  all 
over  its  surface ;  the  emery  having  been  all  carefully  removed* 
the  surface  of  Uie  iron  plane  is  to  be  slightiy  moistened  with 
olive  oil,  and  the  disc  of  glass  replaced  upon  iL  A  flanged  iron 
ring  will  then  be  placed  around  the  glass  disc,  and  screwed  flrmly 
to  the  iron  surface,  leaving  a  clear  annular  space  of  about  J  of 
an  inch  wide  between  the  periphery  of  the  glass  disc  and  the 
ring ;  a  permanently  tenacious  viscous  matter  (of  the  character  of 
soft  marine  glue)  will  then  be  poured  into  this  annular  space, 
forming  an  air-tight  junction  between  the  iron  plate  and  the  glass 
surface,  and  at  the  same  time  admitting  the  glass  to  expand  or 
contract  freely.  A  partial  vacuum  will  then  he  formed  beneath 
the  glass  by  exhausting  the  air  through  a  central  hole  communi- 
cating with  the  spiral  groove ;  the  glass  disc  will  then  be  held 
flrmly  in  contact  with  the  entire  surface  of  the  iron  plane,  which, 
however,  is  free  to  slide  under  the  glass  when  imdergoing 
expansion  or  contraction.  I  have  found  by  repeated  experi- 
ments (many  years  ago)  that  plate  glass  (say  of  ^  of  an  inch  only 
in  thickness)  so  held  on  to  an  unyielding  plane,  may  be 
repeatedly  struck  by  the  rounded  face  of  a  heavy  wooden  mallet, 
with  the  greatest  violence,  without  producing  a  single  fracture, 
so  complete  is  the  support  thus  afibrded. 

It  b  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  a  glass  disc  so  held  does 
not  rest  on  its  lower  edge  when  placed  in  a  vertical  position,  nor 
are  the  upper  portions  of  the  plate  allowed  to  press  on,  and  be 
supported  by  the  lower  ones,  as  is  inevitably  the  case  with  a 
mirror  loosely  suspended  in  a  sling  in  the  ordinary  manner,  but 
on  the  contrary,  every  portion  of  me  glass  disc  is  sustained  aod 
supported  in  position  by  atmospheric  pressure,  and  held  flady 
and  flrmly  agamst  a  corresponding  portion  of  the  unyielding  iron 
plane,  free  from  any  accumulated  downword  pressure. 

The  expansion  by  heat  of  plate-glass  and  cast-iron  are  in 
round  numbers  as  19  is  to  22,  and  the  differential  amount  of  this 
expansion  between  the  extreme  range  of  summer  and  winter 
temperatures,  would  cause  the  iron  to  exceed  the  diameter  of 
the  glass  by  about  ^^^  of  an  inch  ;~this  minute  sliding  motion  of 
the  two  smooth  plaiies  upon  each  other  would  not  in  the  slightest 
degree  alter  the  curved  face  of  the  mirror. 

The  glass  disc  having  been  thus  finally  and  permanently 
attached  to  the  iron  plane,  the  latter  would  be  supported  in  its 
cell  by  bands  passing  round  it  as  usual,  and  with  a  system  of 
triangular  supports  at  the  back.  The  weight  of  this  strong-ribbed 
hollow  cellular  plane^  of  13  inches  in  thickness,  is  only 
1,400 lbs.,  while  a  disc  of  equal  diameter  in  speculum  metal,  if 
only  44  inches  in  thickness,  would  weigh  about  2,700  lbs.  ; 
hence  such  a  compound  metal  and  glass  reflector  is  lighter  than 
a  solid  cast  glass  one,  and  but  little  more  than  one-half  the 
weight  of  a  reflector  made  of  ordinary  speculum  metal,  while  its 
thickness  being  three  times  as  great  as  the  latter,  it  would,  when 
in  use,  and  also  while  undergoing  .the  polishing  operations,  be 
perfectiy  free  from  deflection. 

Hitherto  I  have  spoken  only  of  the  mode  of  mounting^  the 

Slass  disc  on  its  iron  support ;  it  now  remains  to  convert  the 
at  surface  of  the  glass  disc  into  a  shallow  concave  reflector. 
For  this  purpose  I  have  made  experiments  in  turning  glass  con- 
caves with  a  diamond-cutting  tool  mounted  on  a  slide-rest,  and 
I  have  found  that  in  this  way  glass  affords  nearly  the  same 
facilities  for  shaping  in  the  lathe  that  iron  or  brass  would  do 
under  similar  conditions  ;  it  therefore  fallows  that  lenses  of  all 
shapes  and  sizes  may  be  brought  approximately  to  a  true  figure 
with  very  great  ease  and  rapidity. 

Satisfied  with  this  result,  I  am  now  erecting  in  my  laboratory 
a  lathe  of  peculiar  construction  and  specially  adapted  to  thU 
purpose  with  a  bed  fifry  feet  in  length,  and  having  a  fifty-four 
inch  diameter  face  plate  at  each  end  of  the  mandril  A  massive 
radius-bar  or  frame  of  double  the  intended  focal  length  of  the 
reflector,  moves  on  an  adjustible  pivot  attached  to  the  lathe-bed, 
while  the  other  end  of  the  radius  frame  carries  a  slide*  rest  in 
whidi  a  diamond-cutting  tool  is  mounted,  and  by  means  of 
which  a  spherical  concavity  is  rapidly  and  truly  turned  over  the 
whole  face  of  the  glass  disc,  and  of  any  desired  radius,  while  a 
second  plate  of  glais  or  metal  is  turned  into  a  convex  surface  on 
the  other  face-plate  of  the  lathe,  thus  fiimishing  a  convex  grinder 
of  the  exact  same  radius  as  the  concave  reflector.  Special 
arrangements  are  made  to  neutralise  any  diffierence  in  the  length 
of  the  radius-frame  by  expansion  or  contraction  during  the 
tummg  operation,  and  provision  is  also  made  for  gauging  to  the 

Jigitized  by  i^ 


242 


NATURE 


\yan.  24,  1878 


y^th  of  mn  inch  the  focal  length  of  the  convex  and  concave 
sar&ces  tinder  operation. 

Although  I  have  heretofore  described  the  cellular  casting  as 
having  a  flat  face,  it  will  be  obvious  that  if  made  into  a  concave 
corresponding  with  the  intended  focal  length  of  the  reflector  that 
much  thinner  sheets  of  glass  than  those  before  named  may  be 
employed  by  first  bending  them  to  the  required  curve  and  fitting 
them  by  grinding  to  the  concave  iron  surface,  so  that  a  glass 
reflector  can  on  this  principle  be  made  just  as  large  as  a  plate- 
glass  manufacturer  can  produce  an  ordinary  thin  plate. 

A  description  of  the  novel  arrangements  which  I  employ  for 
grinding  and  polishing  the  spherical  concave  reflector,  and  its 
conversion  into  a  paraboloid  of  revolution  would  carry  me  far 
beyond  the  already  too  lengthy  remarks  I  have  made,  and  which 
had  for  their  primary  object  simply  to  show  that  we  may  still 
have  good  reason  to  hope  that  silver-on-glass  reflectors  of  large 
diameters  are  within  our  reach.  Henry  Bessemer 

Denmark  Hill,  January  21 

A  Telephone  Without  Magnetism 

For  some  time  past  I  have  been  experimenting  with  the  view 
of  transmitting  articulate  sounds  through  wires  without  the  aid 
of  electricity  or  magnetism. 

I  have  now  been  quite  successful,  my  experiments  proving  that 
the  sounds  of  the  human  voice  can  be  carried  by  vibrations 
through  considerable  lengths  of  wire. 

Last  night  conversation  was  carried  on  with  ease  between  y^Mr 
individuau,  situated  in  different  rooms.  Piano  music,  singing, 
lauehing,  and  breathing,  were  all  dearW  transmitted  to  the  ear. 

The  whole  distance  would  be  about  nfty  yards. 

The  communication  was  effected  by  means  of  a  mouth-piece 
with  a  vibrating  disc  in  connection  with  the  wire. 

Glasgow  W.  J.  Millar 

Change  of  Habits  in  Toads 

While  prosecuting  my  field-work  as  Palaeontologist  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories,  under  the 
direction  of  Prof.  F.  V.  Hayden,  in  Colorado,  during  last  season, 
I  had  the  opportunity  to  make  some  very  interesting  observations 
in  relalii  n  to  a  change  of  habits  in  the  common  toad  yBufo  ame- 
rtfOMaY    The  district  referred  to  is  that  portion  of  the  Rreat 

Slaioff  which  lies  immediately  adjacent  to  the  eastern  base  of  the 
ocky  Mountains,  and  which  is  traversed  by  the  South  Platte 
River  and  its  tributaries  there. 

The  valleys  of  these  streams  are  broad  and  shallow,  and  the 
streams  heading  in  the  immediately  adjacent  mountains  have  an 
abundant  flow  of  water  ;  so  that  large  tracts  of  land  in  all  those 
valleys  have  been  brought  under  cultivation  by  irrigation.  Irri* 
gation  is  necessary  in  all  that  region,  for  it  lies  wiUiin  that  por- 
tion of  the  United  Sutes  domain  upon  which  the  annual  rainfall 
is  insufficient  for  the  purposes  of  agricnlture. 

With  the  irrigation  of  the  land  came  increased  and  perennial 
vegetation ;  with  that  came  increased  insect-life,  and  with  that 
an  increase  of  birds  and  toads.  The  irrigating  ditches  are  every- 
where nnmerous,  and  during  the  season  of  growing  crops  they 
are  frequently  visited  by  men  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water  to  the 
land. 

This  and  other  circumstances  disturb  the  toads  that  frequent 
the  shades  of  the  herbage  which  grows  upon  the  borders  01  the 
water.  It  is  no  unoommoo  thing  for  toads  as  well  as  frogs,  to 
jump  into  the  water  when  disturbed,  bat  the  habit  of  the  former 
is  to  make  a  shallow  dive,  rise  immediately  to  the  surlace,  and 
swim  upon  it  by  a  sweeping  curve  to  the  shore  again,  not  resting 
until  the  brink  is  gained,  upon  which  they  tarry  a  while  before 
coming  upon  the  land. 

Fron  on  the  contnuy,  when  disturbed,  make  a  strong  dive 
direct^  to  the  bottomt  npoa  which  they  lie  prone,  with  the  legs 
flexed  agamst  the  body*  and  into  the  mnd  of  which  they  setue 
themselves  a  little.  Here  they  remain  and  exhaust  the  patience 
of  one  idio  may  attempt  to  wait  Ux  them  to  rise.  Now  the 
toads  in  thii  irrieated  region  have  adopted^predsely  these  common 
habits  of  the  frogs  when  distnrbed  upon  the  borders  of  the 
ditches^  as  I  repeatedly  witnessed.  I  regard  this  as  the  resump- 
tk)n  of  an  instinctive  timit  that  has  been  potentially  transmitted 
from  a  former  race  of  Attomaas  that  were  less  differentiated  than 
frogs  and  toads  are  now  from  each  other ;  and  that  the  lately 
inUoduced  change  of  physical  conditioBS  in  the  region  has  caused 
the  toads  to  resome  habits  which  the  frogs  have  never  abandoned^ 
Washington,  D.C.,  January  6  C.  A.  White 


Talking  Photographs 

The  article  from  the  Scientific  American  on  the  phonograph 
which  is  quoted  in  Nature,  voL  xvii  p.  190,  concludes  as 
follows  :— ••  It  is  'already  possible,  by  ingenious  optical  con- 
trivances, to  throw  stereoscopic  photographs  of  people  on  screens 
in  full  view  of  an  audience.  Add  the  talking  phonograph  to 
counterfeit  their  voices  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  carry  the 
illusion  of  real  presence  much  further." 

Ingenious  as  this  suggested  combination  is,  I  believe  I  am  in 
a  position  to  cap  it  By  combining  the  phonograph  with  the 
kinesigraph  I  will  undertake  not  only  to  produce  a  talking  picture 
of  Mr.  Gladstone  which,  with  motionless  lips  and  unchanged 
expression  shall  positively  recite  his  latest  anti-Turkish  speech  in 
his  own  voice  and  tone.  Not  only  this,  but  the  life-size  photo- 
graph Itself  shall  move  and  gesticulate  precisely  as  he  did  when 
maxlng  the  speech,  the  words  and  gestures  correspondmg  as  in 
real  life.  Surely  this  is  an  advance  upon  the  conception  of  the 
Scientific  American  ! 

The  mode  In  which  I  eflect  this  is  described  in  the  accom- 
panying provisional  specification,  which  may  be  briefly  summed 
up  thus:  Instantaneous  photographs  of  bodies  or  groups  of 
bodies  in  motion  are  taken  at  equal  short  intervals— say  quarter 
or  half  seconds — ^the  exposure  of  the  plate  occupying  not  more 
than  an  eighth  of  a  second.  After  fixing,  the  prints  firom  these 
plates  are  taken  one  below  snother  on  a  long  strip  or  ribbon  of 
paper.  The  strip  is  wound  from  one  cylinder  to  another  so  as 
to  cause  the  several  photographs  to  pass  before  the  eye  suc- 
cessively at  the  same  intervals  \o{  time  as  those  at  which  they 
were  taken. 

Each  picture  as  it  passes  the  eye  is  instantaneously  lighted  up 
by  an  electric  spark.  Thus  the  picture  is  made  to  appear  sta- 
tionary while  the  people  or  things  in  it  appear  to  move  as  in 
nature.  I  need  not  enter  more  into  detail  bejond  saving  that  if 
the  intervals  between  the  presentation  of  the  successive  pictures 
are  found  to  be  too  short  the  gaps  can  be  filled  up  by  duplicates 
or  triplicates  of  each  succeeding  print.  This  will  not  perceptibly 
alter  the  general  effect 

I  think  it  will  be  admitted  that  by  this  means  a  drama  acted 
by  daylight  or  magnesium  light  may  be  recorded  and  reacted  on 
the  screen  or  sheet  of  a  magic  lantern,  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  phonograph  the  dialogues  may  be  repeated  in  the  very 
voices  of  the  actors. 

When  this  is  actually  accomplished  ihe  photography  of  colours 
will  alone  be  wanting  to  render  the  representation  absolutely 
complete,  and  for  this  we  shall  not,  I  trust,  have  long  to  wait. 
Wordsworth  Donisthorpb 

Prinre's  Park,  Liverpool,  January  12 


Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism 

I  BIG  to  direct  Prof.  Piazzi  Smyth's  attention  to  an  article  in 
the  Anfwaire  du  Bureau  des  Longitudes  for  1878  by  M.  Faye, 
entitled  "  La  Mei^orologie  Cosmlque,"  in  which  thisd»tinguished 
astronomer  and  meteorologist  says : — ^"  La  p^riode  des  tacher, 
portee  k  1 1*^*1  par  M.  Wolf  n'etant  pas  egale  hi  celle  des  varia- 
tions magnetiques  (io'^*45),  ces  deux  phenom^nes  n'oot  ancun 
rapport  entre  eux."  It  thus  appears  rather  premature  to  supp*»e 
that  the  sun«spot  cycle  and  the  terrestrial  magnetic  diurnal  oscil- 
lation cycle  are  intmiately  connected.  A.  W.  Downing 

Greenwich,  January  21 

Great  Waterfalls 

In  reply  to  Mr.  Guillemard's  inquiry  in  NAxaRE  (voL  xvii* 
p.  221 )  he  will  find  some  account  of  the  Kavari  or  Cauvery  Falls 
m  the  '*  Mysore  Gazetteer,"  recently|compiled  under  orders  of  the 
Indian  Government,  voL  ii.  pp.  271-273  (Bangalore,  1876).  A 
copy  is  doubtless  to  be  seen  at  the  India  Office  Library. 

Edinburgh,  January  21  W.  W.  HUMTSR 

Mechanical  Analysis  of  the  Trevelyan  Rocker 

Almost  every  physical  cabinet  possesses  one  of  Trevelyan*a 
rockers,  and  yet  it  is  rare  to  find  one  which  always  works  well 
and  ^ves  complete  satisfaction.  Some  two  vears  ago  having 
experienced  tms  difficulty  in  New  York,  where  I  was  CImb 

Vmh-'X  of  Phyilc^,  I  icfiiscster!  Mf,  Rob*rt  Spice,  F.CS-t  cif 
Sjo,  ikiJ^c  Stf«t,  Bfooklyn,  U.S.,  a  very  tkiliul  comtrvetiar  of 
s€<ousiic  iostrumentt,  and  a  thorcpugh  phytictsf ^  ici  make  fa  wm 
tcver ai  uf  Oieie  r^ick^n  and  s^criUia,  II  posil^^n  tie  cob 


Jan.  24,  1878] 


NA  TURE 


^43 


of  success.  After  many  experiments  with  rockers  of  different  sixes 
and  angles,  Mr.  Spice  obtained  a  formula  by  which  a  perfectly 
satisfactory  rodcer  can  be  constructed,  as  several  trials  since 
then,  both  in  America  and  Europe,  have  convinced  me.    Be- 


lieving that  there  are  many  other  professors  who  feel  interested 
in  this  matter  I  communicate  to  the  readers  of  Naturb,  at  Mr. 
Spice's  request,  his  analysis  of  the  rocker. 

Let  A  B  c  D  be  the  principal  section  of  the  rocker.    Draw  an 
indefinite  base>llne  through  the  points  c  and  D.     From  the  point 


B  let  fall  the  perpendicular  B  E,  and  from  P  the  perpendicular 

FD. 

When  the  lead  support  raises  (by  expansion)  the  point  d 
the  point  c  becomes  the  fulcrum,  and  the  hue  d  b  represents  the 
complimentary  arm  of  an  imaginary  lever  CDB  of  the  third 
order.  In  proportion  as  the  dulance  C  D  is  very  small  in  com* 
parison  with  the  distance  D  B,  in  a  like  proportion  will  greater 
force  be  rec^uired  to  raise  the  rocker,  and  xnce  versa. 

By  expenment  on  a  right-angled  prismatic  rocker'  {jLt,  if  the 
lines  AC  and  bd  be  produced  the  angle  at  their  intersection 
would  be  a  right-angle)  it  was  found  that  the  most  certain  and 
pleasing  effect  was  obtained  when  the  distance  c  D  was  to  the 
distance  D  E  as  2  :  5. 

In  the  case  of  a  right-angled^  rocker  as  above,'of  course  the 
distance  D  B  —  the  distance  D  F. 

By  making  the  rocker-angle  less  than  a  right-angle,  the 
distance  D  F  would  exceed  the  distance  D  b.  This,  it  is  believed, 
would  be  an  advantage,  as  the  leverage  would  remain  constant 
aad  the  additional  weight  would  have  the  effect  of  rabing 
the  note. 

The  length  of  the  rocker  should  be  equal  to[twice  A  b.    The 


length  of  the  handle  should  be  four  times  a  b.    Finally,  in  prac* 
tice,  the  angles  c  and  D  are  slightly  flattened,  b^  filing,  to 

grevent  adhesion  to  the  lead  by  siakage,  also  to  gam  .a  larger 
eating  surface. 


The  lead  should  have  the  form  shown  in  the  section  below, 
and  should  weigh  from  three  to  four  pounds. 

Samubl  H.  Frisbee 
1 1,  rue  des^R^coUeta,  Lonvaim 


No  Butterflies  in  Iceland 

A  FEW  months  ago,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Linnean  Society,  Mr. 
McLachlan,  when  apeakine  of  the  various  species  of  butterflies 
brought  to  England  from  the  far  north  by  the  last  English  Arctic 
expedition,  mentioned  incidentally  that  .there  were  no  butterflies 
in  Iceland. 

On  looking  up  some  old  books  on  the  subject,  in  which  I  had 
the  most  able  assistance  of  Mr.  Erickr  Magnussen,  of  Cam* 
bridge,  we  found  at  folio  602  of  a  book  entitled,  Olaf&on 
(Eggert)  Rdae  giennem,  Island.    Soro,  1772. 

,  Lepidopteba. 

L,  phalana, 
,,  tnaxwta, 
„  fluctuaia, 

„  iotaaurea, 

A^ain,  in  a  work  by  R.  Mohr,  1786,  folios  90-91 ,  under  the 
head  **  Lepidoptera,"  wc  have — 

Z.  phcUana, 

„  graminis, 
*  „  betularia, 

„  oUvacea, 

„  lucenna, 

„  vaccinii, 

„  fiuetuata, 

„  pratdla^  &c.,  &c., 

all  of  which  are  named  as  butterflies  of  Iceland. 

Mr.  McLachlan  is  a  very  high  authoritv,  and  not  at  all  likelv 
to  assert  as  a  fact  that  there  are  nc/w  *'  no  butterflies  in  Iceland, ' 
unless  it  were  true. 

The  only  possible  way  in  which  these  perfectly  opposite  autho- 
rities can  be  reconciled  (unless  we  throw  aside  those  of  a  hundred 
yean  a^ o  as  worthless),  is  to  suppose  that  in  the  interval  the 
butterflies  and  their  larvse  have  Dc«n  destroyed— not  an  impot* 
sible  drcumstance  in  Iceland,  which  has  been  almost,  if  not 


whoUy^  covered  withypoisonoua  volcanic  ashes  from  time  to 
time.  John  Rae 

Kensington,  January  18 


The  Great  Pyramid 

I  HAVE  been  reading  in  Mr.  Piazzi  Smyth's  book  on  this 
subject  ("Our  Inheritance,"  &c).  From  the  meamrements 
made  or  dtr d  by  the  author  it  appears  tolerably  clear  that  if  the 
vertical  height  of  the  pyramk),  as  originally  built,  be  taken  as  i ', 
the  total  length  of  the  four  base  lines  will  be  twice  3*14159,  &c., 
the  number  which  expresses  the  circumference  of  a  circle  whose 
diameter  is  i.  At  first  sight  thir  statement  seems  startling,  but 
I  think  it  may  readily  be  acceded  to,  and  that  neither  Mr.  P. 
Smyth  nor  anyone  need  believe  that  by  inspiration  or  otherwise, 
the  architect  knew  the  above  relation  of  diameter  to  circumfer- 
ence, or  was  a  drde-squarer  in  any  special  sense.  I  conceive 
the  architect  to  have  done  something  like  the  following : — 
Deciding  first  upon  the  vertical  height  of  his  intoided  pyramid, 
he  took  a  cord,  equal  in  len^  to  that  vertical  height,  and  with 
it  as  a  radius  described  a  circle  on  level  ground.  Along  the 
drcumferenoe  of  this  circle  he  laid  [another  cord,  the  ei&  ot 
which  met  and  were  fisstened :  together.  The  circle  being  thus 
formed,  he  drove  four  pegs,  at  equal  distances  inside  the  cord, 
so  as  to  stretch  it  out  mto  a  square.  The  square  thus  formed 
gave  the  lines  for  the  base  of  tne  pyramid ;  and  it  is  obvious 
that  thus  the  ratio  of  diameter  to  drcumferenoe  would  necessarily 
be  built  into  the  pyramid,  however  ignorant  Uie  arohitect  might 
be.  Working  drawings  (actual  size)  of  surfaces,  angles,  cham* 
bers,  passages,  and  other  things  would  easily  be  laid  out  on  tha 
ground.  The  dimensions  of  the  so-oalled  King's  chamber,  and 
of  a  cofier  or  stone  chest  therein,  which  appear  to  involve  the 
above  ratio  of  i  to  3*14159,  &c,  were,  I  thmk,  arrived  at  by  a 
somewhat  similar  process  of  construction. 

Now  as  to  the  religious  aspect  of  the  case  and  an  easy  bit  of 
"development**  A  cone  is  a  well-known  ancient  religious 
symbol  (of  the  kind  denounced  by  Mr.  P.   Smyth  as  unclean), 


Digitized  by 


Google 


244 


NATURE 


\yan.  24,  1878 


and  no  doabt  cones  had  been  erected  before  the  time  of  Cheops, 
and  had  their  meaning  and  uses.  Probably  they  were  first  made 
of  earth,  and  the  circular  base  would  no  doubt  be  set  oat  by  a 
cord,  as  above  described.  Cheops,  by  hi^  architect,  squared  the 
circular  base,  getting  thereby  lines  much  better  adapted  to  stone 
work,  whilst  still  keeping  the  old  sacred  emblem,  though  in  a 
developed  form.  It  may,  I  believe,  be  traced  down  to  many 
modem  forms  not  often  suspected  of  bearing  any  relation  to  it. 
Bdper,  January  17  J.  G.  Jackson 

Acoustical  Effects  of  Atntiosphenc  Pressure 

On  tapping  an  ordinary  bell-jar  receiver  alter  exhaustion,  the 
following  was  noticed.  The  note  derived  from  percussion  after 
exhaustion  was  sensibly  of  a  higher  grade  than  that  obtained 
from  the  glass  containing  air.  On  gradually  letting  the  air  in, 
the  note  sank  directly  as  the  amount  of  air  so  introduced.  We 
conclude  that  the  phenomena  here  recorded  are  connected  with 
the  atmospheric  pressure,  and  that  the  note  yielded  is  a  function 
of  the  atmospheric  pressure.  Can  any  of  your  readers  suggest  a 
method  for  the  investigation  of  the  observed  facta,  if  no  investi- 
gations have  been  before  made  on  the  subject 

Rugby,  January  19  G.  Raylbigh  Vicars 


TRANSATLANTIC  LONGITUDES' 

IT  will  be  remembered  that  a  preliminary  account  of 
the  results  of  the  transatlantic  longitude  determina- 
tion of  1872  was  published  in  VoL  xxii.  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science.  We  have  now  received  the  final  report  of  Mr. 
Hilgard,  which  embodies  not  only  the  results,  but  also  the 
observations,  and  which  sets  forth  concisely  the  manner 
in  which  the  former  were  deduced  from  the  latter. 

The  importance  of  fixing  witii  the  greatest  precision 
achievable,  the  longitude  of  some  point  in  the  coast  survey 
triangulation  with  reference  to  Greenwich,  led  the  U.S. 
Government  promptly  to  make  use  of  the  means  afforded 
by  the  completion  of  the  Atlantic  telegraph  cable  from 
Ireland  to  Newfoundland. 

The  first  telegraphic  longitude  determination  through 
it,  made  under  mt  direction  of  Dr.  B.  A.  Gould,  in  18^, 
although  it  surpassed  in  exactness  all  results  obtained  by 
different  methods  was  subject  to  a  small  but  indeterminate 
correction,  the  "  personal  eqniation  "  between  the  American 
and  the  standard  Greenwich  observer. 

Use  was  tiierefore  made  of  the  French  cable  in  1870  to 
make  another  determination  under  different  circtmistances, 
and  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  Dean  the  longitude  difference 
between  Brest  and  Cambridge,  U.S.,  as  before,  was  obtained ; 
but  as  at  that  time  no  cable  was  in  operation  between 
Brest  and  England,  the  connecting  link,  Brest-Greenwich, 
remained  imdetermined  until  1872,  when  Mr.  Hilgard 
took  charge  of  the  work  necessary  to  supply  this  deficiency, 
and  since  the  opportunity  was  afforded,  to  repeat  the 
Transatlantic  determination.  This  time  an  intermediate 
station,  St.  Pierre,  on  the  American  side,  was  introduced, 
thus  varying  still  more  the  conditions  under  which  this 
third  determination  was  made. 

The  general  plan  of  operations  was  to  unite  at  Brest 
time  signals  from  St  Pierre,  Greenwich,  and  Paris.  The 
co-operation  at  the  last-named  stations  of  the  Astronomer- 
Royal,  Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  and  of  M.  Delaimay,  and  the 
generosity  of  the  telegraph  companies,  enabled  Mr. 
Hilgard  to  finish  the  work  successfully  in  September  of 
that  year. 

We  can  only  advert  briefly  to  one  or  two  points  of 
interest.  The  accordance  of  the  results  appears  to  have 
been  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  attention  given  to  the 
accurate  determination  of  the  relative  personal  errors  of 
the  observers,  which  gave  also  indirectly  the  ^'  personal 
equation  ^  correction,  lacking  in  the  longitude  determina- 
tion of  1866. 

^  Final  Report  on  the  Delermination  of  1873,  with  a  Review  of  Previoui 
Dctcrminatioos.  By  J.  E.  Hilgard.  From  inc  United  States  Coast  Surxey 
Report  for  1874. 


Incidentally,  the  *'  wave-time"  of  the  cable  signals  was 
deduced,  and  on  the  assumption  of  equality  in  time  in 
either  direction,  the  resulting  wave-time  from  Brest  to  St 
Pierre,  through  a  length  of  cable  equal  to  2,979  statute 
miles,  is  given  as  os.'35i  ±  s.'ooj. 

The  final  results  are  given  as  follows,  and  the  author 
remarks  ''that  the  close  agreement  of  the  three  indepen- 
dent determinations  made  in  different  years  is  no  less 
surprising  than  it  is  satisfactory.''  Even  if  we  assume,  as 
Mr.  Hilgard  evidently  does,  the  identity  of  the  results  as 
accidental  within  the  limits  of  the  probable  errors  assigned, 
the  determination  must  be  characterised  as  being  of  Uie 
highest  order  of  precision. 

Longitude  of  Cambridge  {^Harvard  College  Observatory  dome^  west 
of  Greenwich  (meridian) : — 

h.     m.        s.  ft. 

1866 4    44    30-99±o-io 

1870 30  98±ox)6 

1872 30  98±ox>4 

Meaa        4    44    30*98±ox>4 

Referring  this  mean  value  to  Paris  (meridian  of  France) 
we  have  : — 

Cambridge — Paris       ...        4h.  5301.  5is*95  :t  08.*o6 

These  results,  combined  with  elaborate  determinations 
of  the  longitude  difference,  Washington- Cambridge, 
give  :— 

h.  m.         s.  I. 

Washington  (Naval  Observatory) 

—Greenwich  5    8    12X)9  ±  ox)5 

Washington  (Naval  Observatory) 


— Paris 


5  17    33-06  ±007 


We  may,  therefore,  consider  the  geographical  position 
of  the  Washington  Observatory  as  one  of  the  best  deter- 
mined in  reference  to  odiers. 

One  'of  the  incidental  but  highly  important  results  of 
this  expedition  is  the  longitude  difference  Greenwich* 
Paris,  the  accuracy  of  which  was  checked  by  the  condi- 
tions involved  in  the  closing  of  the  longitude  triangle 
Greenwich-Paris-Brest  The  result,  9m.  20s. '97  must 
now  supersede  the  value  obtsdned  by  Mr.  Leverrier  in 
1854,  which  it  exceeds  by  nearly  half  a  second. 


ANTOINE  CtSAR  BECQVEREL 

IT  is  with  regret  that  we  record  the  death  of  the  noted 
French  physicist,  Prof.  Becquerel,  which  occurred  on 
January  18,  in  Paris.  Antoine  C^ar  Becquerel  was  bom 
at  Chitillon-stir-Loing,  in  the  Loiret  department,  March  8, 
1788.  After  completing  a  course  in  the  Paris  Polytechnic, 
he  entered,  in  1808,  the  Imperial  Engineer  Corps.  It 
was  no  time  of  idleness  for  young  officers,  and  he  was 
shortly  in  active  service,  taking  part  in  the  entire  Spanish 
campaign  under  General  Luchet.  Here  he  was  present 
at  the  sieges  of  Torbosa,  Tarragona,  Lagonte,  and  Va- 
lencia, and  manifested  such  marked  abilities  that  in  181 2 
he  returned  to  Paris  to  receive  the  rank  of  captain,  and 
be  presented  with  the  Cross  of  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  from  Napoleon's  own  hands.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  sent  by  the  Emperor  to  complete  the  fortifi- 
cations on  the  German  frontier.  At  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  in  181 5,  he  resigned  his  position  as  chief  of 
battalion  in  the  Engineer  Corps,  and  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  physicsd  and  chemical  research,  accepting 
a  position  as  teacher  in  the  Musde  d'Histoire  Naturelle, 
of  Paris.  In  1837  he  was  made  professor  in  this  insti- 
tution and  occupied  this  position  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death.  Shortly  after  entering  upon  his  scientific  career 
he  commenced  the  remarkable  series  of  investigations  in 
electricity  and  magnetism  which  have  been  uninter- 
ruptedly continued  during  the  past  half-century,  and  have 
liiiked  his  name  closely  with  every  branch  of  these  two 
leading  departments  of  physics.  In  thermo-dectricity 
Becquerel  carried  out  a  laJnge  number  of  experiments  on  the 


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currents  caused  by  heating  both  a  single  metal  and  two 
metals  in  contact,  and  formulated  the  well-known  thermo- 
electric series,  bismuth,  platinum,  lead,  tin,  gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, zinc,  iron,  and  antimony.  In  his  studies  on  atmospheric 
electricity  he  proved  that  the  water  of  the  ocean  and  the 
solid  crust  of  the  earth  are  in  opposite  electrical  con- 
ditions, a  fact  which  explains  the  positive  state  of  the  air 
immediately  above  the  sea,  while  at  a  distance  from  the 
ocean  the  positive  change  is  noticeable  only  at  a  certain 
height  above  the  earth.  The  physiological  effects  of  the 
electric  current  formed  likewise  the  subject  of  numerous 
observations,  and  by  means  of  delicate  apparatus  he  was 
able  to  demonstrate  the  development  of  minute  currents 
by  the  various  operations  of  life,  the  movement  of  the 
muscles,  &c.  In  view  of  the  purely  chemical  character  of 
these  operations  these  observations  harmonised  perfectly 
with  the  theory  which  he  advanced  that  electric  currents 
were  produced  by  all  chemical  unions  and  decompositions. 
The  effects  of  electricity  on  the  colours  of  flowers,  he 
showed  to  consist  chiefly  in  a  mechanical  bursting  of  the 
cells  containing  colouring  matter,  and  not  in  a  chemical 
change.  The  conductive  powers  of  a  number  of  elements 
and  compounds  for  the  electric  current,  as  well  as  the 
thermal  phenomena  in  bad  conductors,  formed  likewise 
the  subject  of  numerous  investigations.  In  magnetism 
Becquerers  researches  were  conflned  chiefly  to  the  demon- 
stration of  the  ability  of  all  bodies  to  be  piagnetised,  and 
to  the  phenomena  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  His  favourite 
fleld  of  discovery,  and  that  in  which  he  obtained  the  most 
brilliant  results,  was  electro-chemical  action ;  in  the 
variety  and  value  of  his  contributions  in  this  department 
he  is  certainly  surpassed  by  no  other  physicist,  while  he  was 
the  first  to  grasp  and  sum  together  the  scattered  observa- 
tions, and  fairly  mould  them  into  a  science.  In  1834  he 
observed  the  deposition  of  metal  on  the  negative  elec- 
trode when  the  two  poles  of  a  pile  were  introduced  into 
solutions  of  the  salts  of  various  metals.  Shortly  after  he 
discovered  that  by  using  feeble  currents  the  metal  could  be 
deposited  very  evenly  and  equally  on  the  surface  of  the 
electrode,  and  that  the  two  solutions  required  for  the 
purpose  could  be  kept  from  mingling  by  the  use  of  gold- 
beater's skin  or  animal  membranes,  without  hindering  the 
current.  These  facts  were  at  once  made  use  of  by  De  la 
Rive,  of  Geneva,  who  based  on  them  his  technical  process  of 
gilding  in  1840.  Although  not  the  first  to  make  the  prac- 
tical application  of  his  discoveries,  Becquerel  rapidly  im- 
proved the  methods  derived  from  them,  and  contributed  in 
swift  succession  an  enormous  number  of  facts  which  serve 
as  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  art  of  galvano-plastic. 
These  are  to  be  found  in  a  compact  state  in  Smee's 
Elements  of  Electro-metallurgy.  Becquerel's  famous 
Oxygen- circuity  discovered  at  this  time,  made  his  name 
known  at  once  to  a  large  circle,  on  account  of  its  simple, 
practical  quantities.  It  consists  of  a  glass  tube  covered  at 
one  end  with  linen,  which  supports  a  layer  of  kaolin,  and 
designed  for  the  solution  of  the  metallic  salt  to  be 
reduced.  This  is  placed  in  a  vessel  containing  a  dilute 
acid,  and  the  object  to  be  electro- plated  is  immersed  in 
the  solution  after  being  connected  by  a  wire  with  a 
platinum  plate  in  the  acid.  The  action  begins  instan- 
taneously, and  is  both  rapid  and  regular.  Another  well- 
known  apparatus  is  his  depolariser^  an  arrangement 
designed  to  obviate  the  reverse  currents  produced  by  the 
gaseous  deposits  on  platinum  electrodes,  and  consisting 
essentially  in  a  continuous  shifting  of  each  of  the  plates 
to  the  liquid  of  the  other,  so  that  they  have  no  opportunity 
to  become  polarised.  The  oxygen-circuit,  with  its  gentle 
regular  current,  was  used  by  Becquerel  for  the  decomposi- 
tion of  a  large  variety  of  chemical  compounds.  Among 
the  more  noteworthy  preparations  by  its  action  can  be  men- 
tioned aluminium,  silicium,  beryllium,  sulphur,  and  the 
various  earthy  and  metallic  phosphates.  Equally  extensive 
were  the  preparations  of  crystalline  salts,  notably  those  oc- 
curring in  nature,  by  the  action  of  the  electric  current  on 


mixed  solutions  or  on  solutions  of  soluble  salts  in  con- 
tact with  insoluble  substances.  Daring  the  past  ten  years 
his  attention  has  been  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the 
novel  and  remarkable  electro- capillary  phenomena  first 
observed  by  him  in  1867.  These  can  be  observed  in  their 
simplest  form  when  a  cracked  test-tube  containing  a 
solution  of  cupric  sulphate,  for  example,  is  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  sodic  sulphide.  A  deposition  of  metallic 
copper  takes  place  at  once  on  the  crack.  Tnis  elementary 
fact  has  been  elaborated  in  a  variety  of  directions  with 
numerous  solutions,  and  the  laws  regulating  the  develop- 
ment of  electric  currents  by  capillary  action  partially 
enunciated.  The  study  of  these  phenomena  is,  however, 
still  in  its  infancy,  Becquerel  regarded  them  as  explana- 
tory of  the  deposition  of  metals  in  veins  in  the  rocks  and 
of  many  physiological  reactions  taking  place  in  the  vege- 
table and  animal  tissues.  A  very  detailed  account  of 
the  experiments  is  to  be  faund  in  vol.  xxxvi.  of  the 
Mimoires  de  PInstitut 

Desp  te  his  manifold  experimental  investigations,  Bec- 
querel was  an  indefatigable  author,  and  contributed  a 
most  valuable  series  of  standard  works  to  the  physical 
literature  of  the  past  forty  years.  In  the  seven  volumes 
of  his  **  Traits  experimental  de  I'Electricit^  ct  du  Mag- 
ndtisme,  et  de  leurs  Ph^nom^nes  naturels,"  1834-40,  he 
presented  these  two  sciences  with  a  comoleteness  and 
systematic  arrangement  which  has  been  hitnerto  wanting 
in  physical  literature.  This  work  was  followed  by 
"  Elements  d'^lectro-Chimie  appliqu^e  aux  Sciences  natu- 
relles  et  aux  Arts,"  1843;  "Traits  de  Physique  consi- 
ddrde  dans  ses  Rapports  avec  la  Chimie,"  1844,  2  vols.  ; 
"Elements  de  Physique  tenrestre  et  de  M^t^orologie," 
1847;  "Traits  de  rtlectricit^  et  du  Magn^tisme;  leurs 
Applications  aux  Sciences  physiques,  aux  Arts,  et  k 
rindustrie,"  1856,  3  vols. ;  R^sum^  de  THistoire  de 
r^lectricit^  et  du  Magn^tisme,"  1858  ;  and  "  Des  Forces 
physico-chimiques  et  de  leur  Interpretation  dans  la  Pro- 
duction des  Phdaom^nes  naturels,"  1875 

In  1829  Becquerel  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  received  in  1874  the  Medaille  Cinquante- 
naire,  although  he  had  been  but  forty-five  years  a 
member.  His  scientific  communications  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Comptes  Rendus  of  the  Academy  and  in  the  Annates 
de  Chimie  et  Physique,  The  Royal  Society  elected  him 
as  a  corresponding  member  a  number  of  years  ago,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  three  French  savants  who  have  been 
recipients  of  the  Copley  Medal.  In  1865  Napoleon  III. 
decorated  him  with  the  Cross  of  Commander  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour. 

Prof.  Becquerel  leaves  behind  him  a  son,  Edmond 
Becquerel,  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Conservatoire  des 
Arts  et  Metiers,  who  has  assisted  his  father  for  a  long 
series  of  years  in  the  compilation  of  his  numerous  works, 
and  whose  researches  in  electricity  fairly  rival  those  of 
the  latter.  The  funeral  ceremonies  took  place  on 
Monday  in  the  church  of  St  Medard,  at  Paris. 


DAVYUM^ 

BOUT  the  middle  of  this  year  (1877)  I  succeeded  in 

.    isolating  a  new  metal  belonging  to  the  platinum 

group.     I  named  it  Davyum,  in  honour  of  Sir  Humphry 

Davy,  the  eminent  English  chemist. 

The  platiniferous  sand  from  which  it  has  been  extracted  * 


A^ 


«  From  an  article  by  SrrKius  Kern  in  La  Nature. 
■  The  sand  treated  had  the  foUowiog  composition  :^ 

Platinum     

Iridium        

Rhodium 

Osmium      

Palladium 

Iron 

Ruthenium  

Copper        


80  03 
061 

I '20 

645 

o'2i 
x'oa 


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[^an.  24,  1878 


was  treated,  for  the  separation  of  the  metal,  by  the  analy- 
tical method  of  Prof.  Bunsen.  The  mother-liquor  obtained 
after  the  separation  of  the  rhodium  and  iridium  was  heated 
with  an  excess  of  chloride  of  ammonium  and  nitrate  of 
ammonium.  A  dark  red  precipitate  was  obtained  after 
calcination  at  red  heat  It  yielded  a  greyish  mass 
resembling  spongy  platinum.  The  ingot  resulting  from  600 
grammes  of  mineral  weighed  027  kil. 

The  metal  was  dissolved  in  aqua  regia,  in  order  to 
examine  the  action  of  different  reagents  on  the  solution. 
Potash  gave  a  clear  yellow  precipitate  of  the  hydrate  of 
davyum,  which  is  easily  attacked  by  acids,  even  by  acetic 
acid.  The  hydrate  of  davyum  dissolved  in  nitric  acid 
gave  a  brownish  mass  of  nitrate  of  davyum ;  by 
calcining  this  salt  a  black  product  is  obtained,  which  is 
probably  the  monoxide. 

The  chloride  of  davyum,  dissolved  in  a  solution  of 


potassic  c>anide,  gave,  by  gently  evaporating  the  solution, 
beautiful  crystals  of  a  double  cyanide  of  davyum  and 
potassium.  In  this  salt  the  potassium  may  be  replaced 
by  several  metallic  elements.  The  cyanodavic  acid  is 
very  unstable;  it  is  isolated  by  passing  a  current  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  through  a  solution  of  the  double 
cyanide  of  lead  and  davyum.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen 
produces,  in  the  acid  solutions  of  davyum,  a  precipitate 
of  sulphide  of  davyum,  which  is  easily  attacked  by  the 
alkaline  sulphides,  yielding  probably  a  series  of  sulpho 
salts. 

A  concentrated  solution  of  chloride  of  davyum  yields, 
with  potassic  sulpho- cyanide,  a  red  precipitate,  and  whoi 
gently  cooled,  produces  large  red  crystals.  If  the  same 
precipitate  is  calcined  the  sulpho-cyanide  of  davyum  takes 
the  form  of  a  black  powder.  These  reactions  show  that 
this  salt  is  allotropic. 


A   «.  a    e 

0  fO  ',0 

'^MltT1't»r'rfj<MliujliMji,.>L,.,[ 


Spectrum  of  davyum  accordiag  to  the  data  of  Sergius  Kern. 


The  chloride  of  davyum  is  very  soluble  in  water, 
alcohol,  or  ether ;  the  crystals  of  this  salt  are  not  deli- 
quescent. The  calcined  salt  gives  the  monoxide  as  a 
residue.  Chloride  of  davyum  forms  double  salts  with  the 
chlorides  of  potassium  and  ammonium.  They  are  inso- 
luble in  water  and  very  soluble  in  absolute  alcohol.  The 
double  salt  of  sodium  and  davyum  is  almost  insoluble  in 
water  and  alcohol ;  this  reaction  is  very  characteristic, 
because  many  sodic  salts  of  the  platinum  group  are  very 
soluble  in  water. 

This  chloride  of  davyum  is  the  only  one  which  exists, 
as  the  second  iproduct,  containing  more  chlorine,  is 
decomposed  during  the  evaporation  of  the  solution,  disen- 
gaging chlorine. 

I  have  made  some  new  researches  on  the  density  of 
melted  davyum ;  three  experiments  gave  the  following 
numbers  :— 9,383  9,387,  9,392  at  24°.  These  results  agree 
very  sensibly  with  those  of  my  first  researches ;  the  density 


of  davyum  given  in  my  first  note  to  the  Academy  being 
9,385  at  25*. 

M.  Alexejeff  has  undertaken  the  determination  of  the 
equivalent  of  davyum  ;  but  as  the  quantity  of  davyum 
which  I  possess  is  very  small,  exact  researches  are  diffi- 
cult. Preliminary  experiments  have  shown  that  the 
equivalent  is  greater  than  100,  and  probably  about  150- 
154. 

Some  newplatiniferous  sands,  which  are  to  be  placed  at 
our  disposal,  will  yield  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  new 
metal  for  additional  experiments.  We  hope  to  have  in 
time  nearly  1*2  gr.  of  davyum. 

Finally  I  have  investigated  the  spectrum  of  davynm  by 
vaporising  the  metal  in  powder  between  the  carbons  of 
the  electric  lamp.  The  spectroscope  at  my  disposal  is 
not  powerful  enough  to  show  precisely  all  the  secondary 
lines.  This  is  why  I  have  only  indicated  the  principal 
lines  easily  visible  in  my  spectroscope.' 


TNE     GREAT    DETONATING    METEOR    OF 
NOVEMBER  23,    1877 

HAVING  fully  discussed  the  whole  of  the  accounts  of 
the  great  meteoi  that  have  reached  me,  consisting 
of  some  ninety  direct  communications  and  forty  or  fifty 
newspaper  cuttings,  I  have  the  pleasure  to  forward  to 
Nature  a  condensed  description  of  it. 

The  points  of  most  importance  to  be  determined  are — 
I.  The  true  orbit  which  is  obtained  from  a  knowledge  of 
the  radiant  and  velocity  of  motion.  2.  The  height  at 
which  it  first  became  luminous,  as  our  knowledge  of  the 
real  extent  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  depends  exclusively 
upon  such  determinations.  3.  The  height  at  which  it 
exploded  and  came  to  an  end.  That  this  last  is  connected 
with  the  physical  condition  and  constitution  of  the  body 
cannot  be  doubted.  The  brightness  of  meteors  seems 
always  to  depend  upon  the  distance  they  penetrate  into 
the  air.  Generally,  when  they  get  below  30  or  40  miles, 
they  are  very  remarkable. 

The  Greenwich  mean  time  was  8h.  24m.  30s.  on 
November  23. 

There  are  but  few  descriptions  of  the  path  of  the  great 
meteor  in  question  from  which  to  derive  the  radiant 
point     Five  of  the  fully-described  tracks  meet  almost 


exactly  in  R.A.  62**,  N.P.D.  69*.  The  others  tend  to 
support  this  position  rather  than  to  alter  it,  but  many  are, 
as  is  usual,  extremely  wild,  passing  20%  and  even  30*^ from 
it.  To  an  observer  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  north 
coast  of  Wales,  this  radiant  would  bear  south  74®  £.,  at 
altitude  37°. 

The  meteor  first  came  visible  to  Mr.  T.  B.  Barkas,  at 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  to  another  observer  at  Tynemouth, 
to  the  Rev.  G.  lliff,  at  Sunderland,  and  Mr.  E.  Pikard,  at 
York,  at  the  great  height  of  96  statute  miles.  The 
observers  agree  very  closely.  1 1  is  probable,  of  course,  that 
had  any  one  been  actually  looking  in  the  right  direction,  it 
might  have  been  seen  a  little  earlier  when  it  was  still 
higher.  A  height  exceeding  90  miles  is  certain.  The 
meteor  was  then  vertically  over  a  point  13  miles  north 
of  Derby,  and  its  appearance  was  that  of  an  ordinary 
shooting  star.  Descending  in  the  air  at  the  inclination  of 
39"*  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  when  48  miles  exactly  over 
Liverpool,  it  became  intensely  brilliant,  so  suddenly,  that 
many  observers  speak  of  this  as  the  first  explosion. 

It  was  at  this  instant  that  it  attracted  universal  attenr 
tion.  People  as  far  distant  as  Essex,  Roscommon, 
Edinburgh,  Bristol,  and  Queenstown,  200  miles  from  it, 

'  Comftes  Rtndm  and  Chemical  AVnv. 


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describe  it  as  being  nearly  as  large  as  the  full  moon  and 
greatly  exceeding  it  in  brilliancy.  An  observer  at  Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch  first  noticed  his  shadow,  and  those  of  nei|^h- 
bouring  trees  thrown  towards  the  moon,  then  shining 
brilliantly  in  the  east  Persons  much  nearer  the  scene, 
sitting  in  rooms  with  the  blinds  down,  were  frightened 
by  the  flood  of  light  that  suddenly  found  its  way  in.  The 
meteor  exploded  with  great  violence  at  the  height  of  14 
miles  over  the  Irish  Sea,  20  miles  N.N.W.  (true)  of 
Llandudno.  The  total  length  of  path  was  135  miles, 
which  was  traversed  in  about  8  seconds  of  time,  or  with  a 
velocity  of  17^  miles  per  second,  as  determined  from 
twenty-three  estimations  of  its  duration. 

The  streak  left  in  the  air  extended  for  40  miles  along 
the  track,  and  was  not  less  than  2,000  feet  in  diameter. 

The  violence  of  the  explosion  was  such,  that  at  Bangor, 
Beaumaris,  Conway,  and  Llandudno,  doors  and  windonrs 
rattled,  and  people  ran  out  to  see  what  was  the  matter. 
As  far  as  Chester  the  sound  resembled  **  thunder  not  very 
far  distant,"  or  "  a  salvo  of  artillery." 

It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  thoughtful  consideration  that  the 
body  which  was  capable  of  producing  this  convulsion,  pro- 
bably exceeding  the  discharge  of  the  8  i-ton  gun  in  the 
proportion  of  a  hundred  to  one,  was  converted  into  im- 
palpable powder  in  eight  seconds  of  time,  merely  by  the 
rapidity  of  its  transmission  through  very  attenuated  air. 
After  the  explosion  nothing  remained  but  dully  incan- 
descent dust  or  ashes,  which  slowly  fell  a  short  distance 
vertically  downwards.  That  is  to  say,  there  was  not 
one  remnant  sufficiently  heavy  to  continue  in  the  same 
direction,  or  to  retain  the  original  velocity,  because  such  a 
renmant  would  have  been  visible  itself  as  a  bright  meteor. 
A  momentum  which,  estimated  in  foot-tons,  would  reach 
some  enormous  figure,  was  instantaneously  reduced  to 
nothing,  or,  rather,  converted  into  atmospheric  waves— 
and  dust  1 

The  exact  position  and  height  of  the  explosion  is  fixed 
by  the  singular  observation  of  Mr.  Petty,  at  Llandudno 
(Nature,  voL  xvil  p.  183),  who  did  not  even  see  the 
meteor  itself^  but  its  light  on  the  hearthrug  coming 
through  a  chink  in  the  bhnd. 

Mr.  J.  Ismay,  the  superintendent  of  telegraphs  at 
Liverpool,  who  observed  the  explosion  from  the  beach 
at  Llandudno,  measured  the  sound-interval,  and  found  it 
between  2  min.  and  2  min.  15  sees.  From  the  spot  where 
I  have  assumed  the  explonon  took  place  to  his  position 
is  25  miles,  which  sotmd  would  traverse  in  two  minutes 
exactly. 

The  orbit  deduced  from  the  apparent  position  of  the 
radiant  point  is — 

f  =  o 
»  =  153* 
9  -  '47 
Mution  direct. 

The  relative  velocity  obtained  by  assuming  a  parabolic 
orbit  is  19  miles  per  second,  agreeing  very  closely  with 
that  found  by  observation. 

If  the  longitude  of  the  radiant  be  diminished  3<>  or 
4%  the  orbit  is  so  far  modified  as  to  almost  coincide 
with  that  of  the  comet  of  1702.  The  comet  was  not  very 
well  observed.  The  meteor  belonged  to  the  well- 
known  shower  of  Taurids^  first  discovered  by  Mr.  R.  P. 
Greg,  encountered  by  the  earth  with  great  regularity  about 
November  21-23.  In  1877  it  appears  to  have  been  very 
prolific  of  bright  and  of  detonating  meteors. 

G.  L.  TUPMAN 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Comets  of  1618.— The  year  1618  presented  a 
phenomenon  which  is  perhaps  unique  in  the  history  of  the 
appearances  of  comets,  two  of  these  bodies  having  been 
conspicuously  visible  at  the  same  time  in  certain  parU  of 
he  eatth,  and  for  several  days,  at  least,  in  the  same 


quarter  of  the  heavens,  with  trains  of  thirty  or  forty 
degrees  in  length,  and  upwards.  Cometographers  pre- 
vious to  Pingr^  had  been  much  exercised  with  reference 
to  the  comets  of  this  year ;  Comiers.  in  "  La  Nature  ct 
Prestige  des  Com^tes,''  had  supposed  that  six  comets  in 
all  were  observed  in  1618 ;  this  number  was  reduced  by 
Pingr^  to  three,  which  appears  to  have  been  beyond 
doubt  the  correct  number,  though  another  cometographer, 
Struyck,  disputed  the  distinctness  of  Pingr^'s  second. 

The  first  comet  was  discovered  at  Cascbau,  in  Hungary, 
on  August  2$,  and  two  days  later  by  Kepler,  at  Lintz, 
where  it  rose  in  the  morning  about  three  o'clock,  with  a 
tail  directed  towards  the  west.  Kepler  observed  it  on 
several  occasions,  and  for  the  last  time  on  the  morning  of 
September  25,  and  from  his  rough  indications  of  its 
positions  Pingrd  calculated  the  elements  which  figure  in 
our  catalogues,  and  which  it  will  be  found  represent  the 
track  of  the  comet  pretty  nearly ;  there  can  be  no  con- 
fusion between  this  object  and  the  second  or  third  comets 
of  the  year. 

The  third  comet,  as  Pingr^ '  remarks,  "  eut  autant 
d'observateurs  qu'il  y  avoit  alors  d'astronomes  en  Eu- 
rope.'' It  was  nrst  seen  in  Europe  in  the  last  days  of 
November,  and  was  observed  by  Cysat  at  Ingoldstat  till 
January  21,  he  having  used  optical  aid,  though  other 
observers  lost  it  at  the  beginning  of  the  month,  or  even 
earlier.  The  elements,  first  calculated  by  H alley,  were 
more  accurately  investigated  by  Bessel,  whose  orbit, 
published  in  1805,  agrees  with  the  observations  as  closely 
as  the  errors,  with  ^ich  they  are  obviouslv  affected,  will 
allow.  There  is  no  difficulty,  therefore,  in  fixing  upon  the 
position  of  the  third  comet,  with  sufficient  approximation 
m  the  month  of  November  previous  to  its  discovery  in 
Europe. 

It  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  finest  comets  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  apparently  hardly  exceeded  in  the 
imposing  character  of  its  appearance  by  the  celebrated 
comet  of  1680.  The  tail  gradually  increased  in  length 
until,  on  the  morning  of  December  10,  the  Danish 
astronomer,  Longomontanus,  estimated  its  extent  at  104", 
with  marked  coruscations. 

Tho  second  comet  of  1618,  according  to  Pingr^,  to 
which  these  remarics  are  intended  more  particulariy  to 
refer,  was  discovered  in  Silesia,  and  also  at  Rome,  on  the 
morning  of  November  1 1,  as  Kepler  tells  us  (De  Cotnetis 
lib,  /.).  The  nucleas  was  lost  in  the  twilight,  but  the  tail 
was  visible  from  4h.  20m.  to  6h.  40m.  at  Rome.  On  the 
following  mornings  the  tail  was  seen  at  other  places  in 
Europe^  and  by  Kepler  himself  at  Lintz,  at  5h.  30m.  a.m. 
on  November  20 ;  he  then  describes  it  as  a  train  of  milky- 
white  light,  passing  below  the  stars  in  the  quadrilateral  of 
Corvus,  and  reaching  the  extremity  of  Crater.  He  saw 
this  train  for  the  last  time  on  the  morning  of  November 
29,  when  "  inter  atras  nubes  et  ventos  vehementes,  cum 
campi  essent  picti  nivuta,  apparuit  tamen  tractus  iste 
secundi  cometae,  sed  valde  dilutus  nee  aequans  albe dinem 
nubium  a  luna  iUuminatarum.''  This  was  at  5  A.M.,  and 
an  hour  and  a  half  later,  the  clouds  having  somewhat 
dispersed,  he  obtained  his  first  view  of  the  third  comet, 
which  was  then  in  longitude  221'',  with  between  9®  and 
10"  north  latitude.  Thus  we  see  that  Kepler  saw  both 
comets  on  the  same  morning,  though  he  failed  to  detect 
the  nucleus  of  the  second  in  the  strong  twilight ;  and  it 
may  be  added  that  Blancanus,  at  Parma,  had  similar 
experience. 

In  more  southern  latitudes  the  second  comet  was  pretty 
favourably  situated  for  observation,  and  its  nucleus  was 
observed.  Figueroes,  ambassador  of  Spain,  at  Ispahan, 
and  the  Jesuits  at  Goa,  saw  both  comets  simultaneously, 
and  determined  positions  of  the  nucleus  of  the  second. 
Riccioli  mentions  that  Father  Kirwitzer,  an  Austnan,  was 
sent  out  to  China,  and  died  at  Macao  in  1626,  adding 
that  he  wrote  of  observations  made  in  India  on  the 
comets  of  161 8. 


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\Jan.  24,  1878 


In  a  communication  to  Baron  de  Zach  early  in  182 1, 
Olbers  states  that  Brandes  had  sent  him  a  work  by  this 
Father  Kirwitzer,  which  it  appeared  had  become  very 
scarce,  containing  observations  of  the  second  comet  of 
16 1 8,  but  so  disBgured  by  faults  either  in  copying  or 
printing,  that  he  had  found  it  impossible  to  deduce  from 
them  a  tolerable  orbit.  According  to  these  observations 
*'  la  com^te  sautille  d'un  jour  k  Tautre  9a  et  Ik  dans  le  ciel, 
tant6t  en  avant,  tantot  en  arri^re,  de  sorte  qu'k  peine 
peut-on  reconnaitre  quelle  a  ii€  la  vraie  direction  de  son 
mouvement."  Kirwitzer,  who  had  observed  the  comet 
from  November  14,  reports  that  on  November  26  he  was 
joined  in  the  observations  by  Father  Schall,  and  Olbers 
drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  Zach's  Monatliche  Cor- 
respondenz^  vol.  xxviii.,  it  had  been  stated  that  fourteen 
volumes  of  SchalFs  manuscripts  were  in  existence  in  the 
library  of  the  Vatican,  and  engaged  Zach  to  use  his 
interest  towards  having  them  examined.  This  was  soon 
after  effected  by  Conti,  but  unfortunately  no  allusion  to 
the  second  comet  of  16 18  was  found  in  them,  indeed  these 
manuscripts  proved  so  worthless,  that  Zich  considered 
them  "  que  de  la  poudre  chinoise  jetde  aux  yeux 
europ^ens."  It  does  not  appear  that  a  more  accurate 
copy  of  the  Goa  observations  has  been  found  since  Olbers 
wrote  on  the  subject.  There  arc  two  works  by  Kirwitzer 
in  the  British  Museum,  but  they  afford  no  assistance.  It 
thus  happens  that  there  is  as  yet  no  orbit  of  the  comet  in 
question. 

In  a  further  note  we  shall  briefly  recapitulate  other 
circumstances  in  the  history  of  the  comet,  and  examine 
one  or  two  points  in  which  the  known  elements  of  the 
third  comet  assist  in  establishing  the  absolute  distinctness 
of  the  second,  notwithstanding  the  idea  advocated  by 
Kepler  that  a  comet  had  divided  into  two — and  which 
led  Pingr^  to  say  of  him — aliquando  bonus  dormitat 
Homeriis^ 


METEOROLOGICAL   NOTES 

Contribution  to  the  Climatology  of  the 
Spanish  Peninsula. — ^An  interesting  and  able  contri- 
bution to  the  climatology  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula  has 
been  made  by  Dr.  Hellmann  in  a  discussion  of  the 
humidity  and  clouds  of  that  region,  published  in  the 
Dutch  Meteorological  Year^Book  for  1876,  being  one  of 
the  results  of  the  author's  recent  prolonged  meteorological 
tour  in  the  Peninsula,  One  of  the  broad  results  arrived 
at  is  this  :  the  small  variation  in  the  annual  humidity  of 
places  on  the  west  coasts  of  Europe,  as  contrasted  with 
the  large  variation  in  the  humidity  of  the  east  coasts  of 
Asia,  together  with  the  striking  climatic  contrasts  resulting 
therefrom  is  essentially,  though  less  intensely,  reproduced 
in  t^e  climates  of  the  Peninsula  of  the  west  bordering  the 
Atlantic  as  contrasted  with  those  of  the  east  washed  by 
the  Mediterranean.  As  regards  the  relative  humidity  of 
the  air,  the  climate  is  moister  in  May  than  it  is  imme- 
diately before  and  after,  and  it  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  thunderstorms,  rain,  and  cumulus,  cirro-cumulus,  and 
cumulo-stratus  clouds  show  an  increase  in  May  as  com- 
pared with  March  and  April  on  the  one  hand,  and  June 
and  July  on  the  other.  The  annual  variation  in  the 
rdative  humidity  increases  from  about  four  to  nine  per 
cent  on  the  coasts,  to  about  forty  per  cent,  at  such  inland 
places  as  Madrid  and  Campo  Maio.  Those  who  are 
familiar  with  the  weather-maps  of  Europe  are  aware  how 
often  atmospheric  pressure  is  so  distributed  as  to  give 
rise  to  winds  blowing  outwards  from  the  Peninsula  to  the 
ocean  in  all  directions,  being  easterly  on  the  west  coast, 
southerly  on  the  north,  westerly  on  the  east,  and  northeily 
on  the  south.  They  are  everywhere  dry  winds,  and  are 
known  in  the  various  provinces  as  the  Terrain  or  land- 
wind.  The  desert-wind  of  the  Spanish  Mediterranean 
coast  is  the  Leveche^  and  not  the  Solano^  as  it  is  almost  uni- 


versally stated  to  be  by  non- Spanish  writers.  The  Solano 
is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  simple  east  wind  which  blows 
everywhere  over  the  east  coasts,  and  is  a  rain-bringing^ 
wind,  but  in  no  sense  a  desert-wind,  malignant  and 
prostrating  in  its  effects.  The  true  desert- wind  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Leveche,  which  is  usually  loaded  with 
fine  sand  and  dust,  and  is  hot  and  stifling,  is  productive 
of  violent  headaches,  and  prostrates  even  the  most  robust 
with  a  feeling  as  if  every  member  of  the  body  were 
oppressed  under  a  load  of  lead.  Dr.  Hellmann  describes 
the  effects  of  the  passage  of  one  over  a  vineyard  in  August, 
1876,  the  appearance  being  as  if  a  scorching  flame  had 
passed  over  it.  The  Leveche  is  felt  on  the  coast  only  from 
Cabo  de  Nao,  to  Cabo  de  Gata  in  the  south,  and  in  a  less 
severe  form  as  far  as  Malaga  ;  but  it  extends  inland  no 
farther  than  from  forty  to  fifty  miles. 

Climatology  of  the  Fiji  Islands.— A  valuable 
contribution  to  this  subject  from  data  collected  by  the 
Meteorological  Office  has  appeared  in  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  the  Meteorologicil  Society  for  July,  1877. 
From  the  position  of  the  Fiji  Ulands  in  the  South  Pacidc, 
the  climate  is  strictly  tropical,  the  year  being  divided  into 
a  hot  moist  season,  extending  from  November  to  April, 
and  a  cool  dry  season  from  May  to  October,  The  pre- 
vailing winds  are  S.E.  and  E.,  but  during  the  hot  season, 
particularly  from  January  to  March,  N.E.  winds  prevail. 
These  N.E.  winds  are,  in  Mr.  Strachan^s  opinion,  pro- 
bably due  to  the  heated  land  of  the  large  island,  Viti 
Levu,  giving  rise  to  a  wind  of  aspiration.  The  annual 
rainfall  on  an  average  of  six  years  was  no  inches.  The 
heaviest  falls  occur  in  the  summer  months  of  January, 
February,  and  March,  when  thunderstorms  are  frequent, 
and  in  the  same  months  hurricanes  occur,  though  fre- 
quently several  years  pass  in  succession  without  the 
occurrence  of  any  hurricane.  In  the  cool  season  the 
rainfall,  though  considerable,  is  reduced  in  amount  and 
frequency,  and  in  all  seasons  there  is  a  considerable 
difference  as  regards  moisture  and  rainfall  between  the 
windward  and  lee  sides  of  the  different  islands,  the  effect 
being  strikingly  shown  by  the  difference  of  vegetation. 
The  working  out  of  this  question  of  the  distribution  of  the 
rainfall  by  such  a  multiplication  of  gauges  over  the  islands 
as  has  been  so  successfully  done  in  the  Mauritius  and 
Barbadoes,  is  most  desirable  from  the  scientific  and 
practical  importance  of  the  subject.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  is  about  77°'5,  and  tie  difference  between  the 
hottest  and  the  coldest  months  scarcely  reaches  5^  In 
the  wet  season  atmospheric  pressure  is  about  29870 
inches,  and  vapour  tension  o'86o  inch,  but  in  the  dry 
season  30020  inches,  and  0700  inch,  thus  sho\ving 
considerable  variation  through  the  year  in  the  pressure 
and  vapour  tension  of  a  climate  characterised  by  com- 
paratively so  little  variation  as  that  of  Fiji 

Extension  of  Volunteer  Weather  Service  in 
THE  United  States. — We  are  greatly  gratified  to  see 
that  the  marked  success  which  has  attended  the  volunteer 
weather  service  in  the  State  of  Iowa,  so  vigorously 
prosecuted  by  Dr.  Hinrichs,  and  which  now  numbers 
about  100  observers,  is  leading  other  states  to  adopt  a 
similar  system.  Prof.  Francis  E.  Nipher,  of  the  Wash- 
ington University  of  St.  Louis,  has  already  secured  the 
services  of  fifty-five  observers,  chiefly  in  the  northern  and 
western  parts  of  Missouri,  for  the  regular  observations, 
particularly  of  rainfall,  but  also,  where  possible,  of  tem- 
perature pressure  and  humidity  ;  and  for  observations  of 
irregularly  recurring  phenomena,  such  as  storms,  the  aim 
being  to  collect  together  as  full  and  accurate  an  account  of 
the  different  phases  of  these  phenomena  as  it  is  possible 
to  make,  particularly  their  commencement,  culmination, 
and  termination.  The  investigation  of  the  climatology 
of  the  state  is  also  to  be  undertaken.  The  observations 
are  to  be  according  to  local  time.  Regular  reports  will 
be  furnished  to  the  newspaper  press.    The  work  is  under- 


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taken  under  the  auspices  of  the  university,  and  it  is 
not  intended  that  it  supersede,  as  regards  this  State,  the 
work  of  the  central  office  at  Washington  (D.C),  but  to 
supplement  that  work  in  collecting  data  for  a  more  satis- 
factory treatment  of  the  climatology  and  storms  of  that 
state.  We  strongly  commend  this  scheme,  and  earnestly 
hope  that  Prof.  Nipher  will  succeed  in  extending  his 
network  of  stations  till  all  parts  of  the  state  be  adequately 
represented,  especially  since  telegraphic  stations  every- 
where are  by  far  too  few  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  more  important  and  pressing  problems  of  meteoro- 
logy. We  have  the  further  satisfaction  in  learning  that 
a  similar  weather  service  is  contemplated  in  the  State  of 
Kentucky. 

High  Temperature  of  November  Last.— M. 
Brounoff,  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Physical  Observatory, 
publishes  in  the  Russian  GoUs,  December  10,  an  interest- 
ing note  as  to  the  unusually  high  temperature  of  St. 
Petersburg  durine  November  last.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture of  that  month  was  as  high  as  39*^*4,  or  io°*3  higher 
than  the  mean  temperature  deduced  from  ninety  years' 
observations,  and  4  '9  above  the  very  high  mean  tempera- 
ture of  November  observed  at  St  Petersburg  in  1851. 
Throughout  the  month  the  thermometer  never  fell  below 
32^*0.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  during  all  the  other 
months  of  this  year  the  temperature  was  lower  than  the 
means  deduced  from  ninety  years'  observations.  An 
unusually  high  temperature  prevjuled  in  November  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  Europe  and  Western  Siberia,  except 
North  Scotland,  Southern  Italy,  the  middle  Danube,  and 
the  two  shores  of  the  Caspian.  The  highest  above  the 
average,  15*^7,  was  observed  at  Archangel,  and  the  line 
of  9°'o  runs  from  the  Upper  Volga  to  Stockholm,  and 
thence  straight  north.  The  proximate  cause  of  such  un- 
usually high  temperature  was  the  abnormal  predominance 
of  barometrical|minima  with  south-westerly  winds,  which 
passed  over  Europe  during  November  last.  Thus,  the 
number  of  these  minima  in  November  has  been  forty-two 
during  the  last  five  years,  whereas  there  occurred  thirteen 
during  November  la^t,  the  one  thus  following  the  other 
almost  without  interruption. 

Temperature  of  Vienna.— Among  other  points 
treated  in  a  recent  paper  by  Dr.  Hann  to  the  Vienna 
Acadc»ny,  *'  On  the  Temperature  of  Vienna,  according  to 
a  Hundred  Years'  Observations,"  is  the  influence  of  the 
frequency  of  sun-spots  on  the  mean  temperature  of 
summer,  winter,  and  the  year.  Neither  in  the  tempera- 
tures arranged  according  to  the  separate  cycles  of  sun- 
spot  freouency,  nor  in  the  averages  of  these  from  all  the 
nme  cycles  (1775  to  1^7^)  ^s  there  recognisable  a  distinct 
periodicity  of  the  heat  variations,  which  can  be  connected 
with  the  period  of  sun-spot  frequency.  Placing  in  the 
individual  cycles  the  averages  of  every  three  years'  tem- 
peratures, corresponding  to  the  minimum  and  maximum 
of  the  spots,  opposite  each  other,  it  is  found  that  in  five 
cycles  out  of  nme  the  minimum  years  have  indeed  a  con- 
siderably greater  heat  than  the  corresponding  maximum 
years.  But  in  three  cycles  precisely  the  opposite  is  the 
case,  and  in  one  cycle  the  difference  is  almost  nil.  Dr. 
Hann  further  inquires  whether  one  may  with  any  proba- 
bility draw  inferences  from  the  temperature  character  of 
one  season  withlregard  to  that  of  the  next,  and  the  next 
again.  He  finds  that  if  the  temperature-anomaly  of  one 
season  reach  a  considerable  amount  (a  divergence  of  1°  C. 
or  upwards),  the  probability  that  the  following  season  wiU 
diverge  in  the  same  sense  from  the  average  value  is  0*68  ; 
the  probability  that  a  very  cold  or  warm  winter  will  lie 
followed  by  a  cold  or  hot  summer  respectively,  is  even 
070.  On  the  other  hand,  the  probability  of  an  agreement 
of  the  temperature-anomaly  of  a  winter  with  that  of  the 
previous  summer  is  only  0*45.  In  his  paper  Dr.  Hann 
also  gives  a  comparison  of  the  temperatures  of  the 
meteorological  and  astronomical  observatories. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Mr.  Stanley. — Mr.  Stanley  arrived  in  London  on 
Tuesday.  From  the  time  that  he  emerged  at  Emboma 
from  his  ever-memorable  dash  into  the  unknown  region 
west  of  Nyangw^  to  his  arrival  at  Folkestone,  his  journey 
homewards  has  been  a  well-earned  ovation.  Everyone, 
from  the  Governor  downwards,  at  the  Cape  vied  in  doing 
him  honour  ;  at  Cairo  the  Khedive  conferred  upon  him 
two  of  the  highest  orders  of  merit ;  at  Rome  he  received 
the  Victor  Emmanuel  Gold  Medal  of  Merit,  arriving  too 
late,  alas !  to  receive  it  from  the  hands  of  its  donor, 
though  it  was  accompanied  by  a  sealed  letter  from  the 
late  King,  speaking  in  high  terms  of  Mr.  Stanley's  dis- 
coveries and  his  services  to  humanity  and  civilisation ; 
Turin,  Milan,  and  Naples  sent  welcomes  to  him;  at 
Marseilles  the  Geographical  Society,  the  Chamber  ot 
Commerce,  and  the  Municipality  presented  him  each  with 
a  medal ;  at  Paris  the  Geographical  Society  f^ted  him  in 
splendid  style,  the  President  of  the  Republic  sending  his  re- 
presentative the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  presenting 
him  with  the  high  honour  of  the  palms  of  Officier  de  I'ln* 
struction  Publique,  and  the  President  of  the  Geographical 
Society  telling  him  he  should  be  gold  medallist  of  the 
Society  for  1878.  We  expressed  confidence  last  week 
that  our  own  Geographical  Society  would  lead  the  move- 
ment in  this  country  for  giving  Mr.  Stanley  a  reception 
worthy  of  the  great  work  he  has  achieved,  and  we  rejoice 
to  see  that  our  confidence  has  been  justified.  The  Society 
are  to  invite  Mr.  Stanley  to  dinner,  and  also  to  read  a 
paper  on  his  discoveries,  "at  St.  James's  Hall  or  else- 
where." We  feel  sure  that  St.  James's  Hall  will  be  quite 
inadequate  for  the  acconmiodation  of  all  who  will  wish  to 
see  and  listen  to  the  story  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  pioneer- 
explorers  ;  so  that,  after  all,  the  announcement  made  in 
the  Times  last  week,  that  the  Albert  Hall  was  to  betaken 
for  the  purpose,  is  likely  enough  to  be  correct  There 
will  certainly  be  no  difficulty  in  filling  it.  Everyone  will 
wait  with  impatience  the  publication  of  Mr.  Stanley's 
work  ;  for  although  a  fair  idea  of  what  he  has  done  has 
been  obtained  from  his  occasional  letters  in  the  Telegraphy 
there  must  be  many  things  to  tell  that  could  not  oe  set 
down  in  the  circumstances  under  which  these  letters  were 
written. 

The  Marquis  Antinori.— From  another  telegram 
received  by  the  Geographical  Society  at  Rome,  it  appears 
that  the  Marquis  Antinori,  contrary  to  his  first  inten- 
tion, does  not  return  to  Italy,  but  has  started  again  with 
his  companions. on  a  new  tour  southward  from  Shoa. 
Signor  Martini  alone  comes  home  with  the  scientific 
collections. 

African  Exploration.— Reports  from  Berlin  state 
that  in  the  budget  for  the  current  year  the  sum  of  loo^ooo 
marks  (5,000/.)  is  asked  for  the  continuation  of  the  explo- 
ration of  Central  Africa.  This  is  considerably  more 
than  in  the  preceding  years ;  the  rise  in  the  sum  demanded 
is  justified  by  reference  to  the  efforts  of  German  private 
societies  and  scientific  men. 

The  Northern  Pamir.— The  last  number  of  the 
Izvestia  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society  contains 
some  new  and  valuable  information  on  the  little-known 
tracts  of  the  Northern  Pamir,  which  have  hitherto  been 
a  blank  on  our  best  maps.  This  information  has  been 
compiled  from  notes  taken  last  summer  by  M.  Koros- 
tovtseff  during  his  journey  to  the  Alai  Valley  and  the 
Northern  Pamir  highlands.  The  valley  of  Alai,  visited 
first  by  M.  Fedchenko,  runs  north-east  andsoutk-west  for 
forty-five  miles,  and  is  from  thirteen  to  twenty  miles  wide. 
It  is  inclosed  between  high  mountains,  the  Kaupmann 
Peak  reaching  25,000  feet  Forests  are  found  only  in  the 
north-eastern  part  of  the  valley  (i  1,000  feet  above  the 
sea)  which  is  part  of  the  dominions  of  the  Khan  of  Kash- 
gar,  while   the   south-western  part  (8,000   feet   high), 


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watered  by  the  Kyzyl-stt  River»  is  covered  with  luxurious 
Alpine  pasturage,  and  therefore  becomes  in  summer  the 
feeding  ground  for  immense  herds  of  cattle  belonging  to 
the  Fergana,  Kashgar,  Shungan,  and  Karateghin  Kir- 
ghizes. A  sandy  deft,  Tash-kurgan,  leads  from  the  Alai 
Valley  to  the  Pamir  Highlands.  After  a  journey  of  forty- 
five  miles  along  this  cleft,  and  after  having  crossed  the 
Kyzyl-art  Pass,  14,017  feet  high,  M.  Korostovtseff  reached 
the  salt-lake,  Kara-kul,  twenty-seven  miles  long  and 
twelve  miles  wide,  13,194  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Its 
sandy  banks  are  quite  bare,  and  the  surrounding  stony 
hills  bear  no  traces  of  vegetation  ;  it  is  only  close  by  the 
deep-blue  waters  of  the  lake  that  the  traveller  discovers 
here  and  there  a  low  and  dry  bush.  Thence  M.  Koros- 
tovtseff turned  south-east,  entered  the  cleft  Alabaital,  and 
reached,  by  a  gentle  slope,  the  pass  of  the  same  name, 
I5>3i4  ^<cct  high,  whence  he  had  to  descend  on  the  very 
steep  southern  slope,  to  the  valley  of  the  Chan-su  River, 
quite  bare  and  covered  with  snow-white  deposits  of  salt 
The  valley  of  a  rivulet,  Uz-bel,  tributary  of  Chansu— a 
sandy  desert  twenty  mUes  long— and  the  Uz-bel  Pass, 
15,195  feet  high,  were  followed  east  to  reach  the  valley  of 
Sary-kol,  14,300  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  covered  with  a 
very  scarce  vegetation ;  here  some  small  rivulets  give  rise  to 
the  Kashgar-daria  River.  Thus  the  general  characters  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  Pamir  table-land  are  high  val- 
leys, flat,  open,  bare,  and  sandy,  never  descending  below 
some  13,000  feet,  wiUi  blue  salt  lakes  and  salt  deposits  on 
their  dry  bottom ;  relatively  low  mountains,  the  passes 
between  which  are  only  some  1,000  or  2,oco  feet  above 
the  bottom  of  the  valleys,  the  peaks  being  covered  with 
perpetual  snow  when  they  exceed  an  altitude  of  15,000  or 
16,000  feet ;  no  inhabitants,  and  a  very  scarce  v^etation. 
Such  is  the  hitherto  mysterious  ''roof  of  the  world" 
(Pamir).  From  Sary-kol  M.  Korostovtseff  was  compelled 
to  return.  He  died  a  short  time  after  his  return,  without 
being  able  to  publish  the  results  of  his  most  interesting 
journey  or  describe  the  valuable  collections  he  obtained. 

The  •'Nerthus*'  of  Tacitus.— Dr.  Michelsen,  of 
Schleswig,  has  just  published  a  pamphlet  in  which  he 
discusses  that  remarkable  and  often-mentioned  Nerthus- 
island,  which,  according  to  the  description  of  Tacitus, 
with  its  sacred  lake  and  forest,  formed  the  centre 
of  a  divine  service  of  seven  closely  connected  communi- 
ties. Formerly  the  island  of  RUgen,  or  the  so-called 
^Land  Oldenburg,"  was  thought  to  be  the  island  in 
cjuestion.  Dr.  Michelsen,  however,  points  out  that  the 
island  of  Alsen  is  the  one  meant  by  Tacitus.  He  states 
that  the  name  signifies  ''sanctuary"  or  ''temple-island," 
and  that  the  sacred  lake  and  forest  still  exist  in  the  north- 
west of  Norburg  on  the  Alsensund,  under  the  names  of 
"  Hellewith  and  Hellesd  "  {heilige  Waid  und  heilige  See 
— ^holy  wood  and  holy  sea).  The  inhabitants  of  that  dis- 
trict still  call  the  vilhtge  of  Hellewith,  situated  near  the 
forest,  Hellod  {heiliges  Eigen-^'Yioly  own) ;  and  in  the 
existing  remains  of  the  old  forest  there  is  a  well-preserved 
sacrificial  altar  consisting  of  enormous  blocks  of  granite. 
Dr.  Michelsen  gives  a  number  of  other  interesting  proofs  for 
the  correctness  of  his  conjecture,  and  also  remarks  that 
he  has  partly  discovered  the  names  of  the  seven  Nerthus 
people  m  villages  of  the  Simdewitt  district 

Venezuela.— In  the  January  session  of  the  Berlin 
Geographical  Society,  Dr.  Sachs  gave  a  description  of 
his  recent  journey  to  Venezuela,  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing the  gymnottis  in  its  native  haunts.  Humboldt's 
sketch  of  the  Llanos  was  completed  and  corrected  in 
some  points.  This  great  plain,  formerly  an  inland  sea, 
is  600  feet  above  the  sea  in  its  upper  part,  and  but  200  in 
its  lower  part,  a  difference  which  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
the  grass,  but  i  to  2  feet  in  height  in  the  upper  portion, 
rises  above  the  head  of  the  nver  in  the  lower  region. 
The  decrease  in  the  ntmiber  of  cattle  on  the  Llanos  of 
late  years  has  led  to  a  rapid  extension  of  the  arboreal 
growth.     The  Uaneros  are  a  peculiar  people,  arising  from 


a  mixture  of  the  white,  red^  and  black  races,  and  standing^ 
on  a  low  grad^  of  civilisation,  their  reli^on  consisting  in 
the  adoration  of  a  few  saints,  and  marriages  being  rare. 
Humboldt's  familiar  description  of  the  capture  of  the 
electric  eel,  by  driving  horses  into  the  streams  frequented 
by  it,  as  the  customary  method  in  the  land,  is  regarded  as 
resting  on  an  error.  No  one  in  the  region  was  acquainted 
with  it,  and  it  was  found  impracticable  to  carry  out  The 
scientific  results  of  Dr.  Sach's  observations  will  be 
published  shortly. 

The  Indus.— The  course  of  the  Indus  river  from  the 
point  where  it  leaves  Cashmere  down  to  where  it  enters 
English  territory,  about  120  miles  below  Darband,  has 
recently  been  explored  in  detail  by  a  Punjaub  surveyor, 
and  our  geographical  knowledge  of  the  river  has  thus 
been  considerably  augmented,  while  valuable  topo- 
graphical material  has  been  obtained.  Of  course  Capt. 
Carter  had  previously  determined,  in  a  general  way,  the 
course  of  the  river  in  the  districts  named,  by  his  trigono- 
metrical measurements  of  the  heights  of  the  mountain 
summits  on  both  banks  of  the  Indus. 

New  Guinea.— Dr.  E.  T.  Hamy,  in  the  just  issued 
November  part  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  Paris  Geographical 
Society,  descrit>es  Jn  considerable  detail  the  results  of 
his  examination  of  an  old  map  of  New  Guinea,  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  how  much  had  been  done  for  its 
discovery  by  the  Spanish  navigators  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  (1528-1606).  The  map,  which 
serves  as  the  basis  of  Dr.  Hamy's  paper,  is  contained  in 
the  atlas  of  Pierre  Martier,  publishea  at  Amsterdam  in 
170a  The  data  for  this  and  other  maps  in  the  atlas  had 
been  collected  by  Frdmont  d'Ablancourt  while  in 
Portugal,  and  the  many  names  on  New  Guinea  would 
show  that  by  the  sixteenth  century  its  coasts  had  been 
pretty  well  explored  all  round,  though  its  shape  is  very 
inaccurately  laid  down. 


NOTES 

We  give  some  account  to>day  of  the  life  and  work  of  the  kte  M. 
Beoquerel,aiid  next  week  we  hope  to  do  the  same  for  M.Regnault. 
who  died  two  days  after  M.  Becquerel,  in  his  68th  year.  M« 
Victor  Regnault  was  bom  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1810.  He  was 
Professor  of  Physics^in  the  College  of  France^  and  of  Chemistry 
in  the  Polytechnic  School;  he  also  hdd  for  some  time  the 
Directorship  of  the  Porcelain  Manu&ctory  of  Sevres.  His 
researches  in  the  several  branches  of  physics  and  chemistry 
published  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sdenoe^ 
and  many  other  scientific  jonmals,  are  numerous,  and  of  the 
greatest  ^ue.  Of  these  perhaps  his  publications  on  the  expan- 
sion of  elastic  fluids,  the  determination  of  the  densities  of  gases, 
the  measurement  of  temperatures,  and  the  determiDatioos  of  the 
specific  heats  of  liquids,  solids,  and  gases,  are  the  most  im- 
portant^ and  have  brought  his  name  most  prominently  before  the 
world.  He  has  also  written  many  valuable  papers  on  physio* 
logical  questions.  M.  Regnault  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1840,  and  in  1850  was  created  an  officer 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

The  Council  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  have 
awarded  the  Neill  medal  to  Dr.  Ramsay  Traquair,'  for  his 
paper  on  the  Structure  and  Affinides  of  THstichppteris  alalus, 
Egerton,  being  one  of  an  important  series  of  contributions  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  recent  and  fossil  fishes. 

Wx  are  informed  that  the  Pennsylvania  Railway  Company  are 
disposed  to  grant  very  favourable  terms  to  any  European  astrono- 
mers who^  in  their  private  capacity,  may  wbh  to  go  to  America 
to  observe  the  approaching  edipse  of  the  sun.  It  is  stated  that 
for  less  than  half  the  usual  fiiures  astronomers  will  be  conveyed 
from  New  York,  Washington,  or  Baltimore  to  Denver.    We 


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hope,  however,  to  be  able  in  an  eaily  number  to  publish  definite 

information  on  the  matter. 

• 

The  German  Military  Department,  always  on  the]  watch  to 
inake  use  of  the  latest  scientific  discoveries,  has  naturally  de- 
voted its  attention  at  once  to  the  telephone.  la  the  last  number 
of  the  MUitair  Wochenblatt  we  notice  a  report  on  the  practica- 
bility of  its  use  in  warfare  for  maintaining  communication  with 
pickets  and  outlying  posts.  The  experiments  were  carried  out 
mt  a  temperature  of  —3*  C,  and  during  a  violent  wind,  and 
showed  most  conclusively  its  availability  for  the  purposes  in 
question. 

It  is  gratifying  to  know  that  at  last  Cleopatra's  Needle  has 
safely  reached  the  Thames.  It  is  proposed  to  moor  the  inge- 
niously-constructed vessel  containing  the  obelisk  at  a  convenient 
part  of  the  Thames  embankment  for  some  days,  to  enable  the 
public  to  inspect  it. 

Th£  lately  formed  society  for  the  protection  of  the  interests  of 
chemical  manufactures  in  Germany,  begins  with  the  present  year 
the  publication,  at  Berlin,  of  a  monthly  organ  entitled  Die 
chemiscke  Industrie^  under  the  editorship  of  Br.  Emil  Jacobsen. 
It  is  intended  to  make  it  a  complete  record  of  everything  of 
interest  in  the  department  of  technical  chemistry. 

Ths  Academy  of  Sciences  will  hold  its  anniversary  meeting 
next  Monday,  when  M.  Bertrand  will  deliver  an  doge  of  Lame, 
a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  a  physicist,  who  died 
twenty  years  ago.  He  had  travelled  in  Russia  like  Becquerel, 
but  not  as  an  officer  belonging  to  an  invading  force.  He  had 
been  appointed  by  the  Russian  Government  to  establish  the 
Military  School  of  Odessa. 

The  second  part  of  Signor  Mantegazza's  studies  on  the 
Ethnology  of  New  Guinea  is  published  in  the  December  num- 
ber of  his  Arfhh'.Of  illustrated  by  a  number  of  plates. 

A  GfiOGEAPHiCAL  Society  has  been  formed  at  Metz,  based  on 
the  model  of  those  in  other  German  cities. 

The  German  Patent  Office  reports  that  it  has  received  during 
the  past  year  6,424  applications,  a  larger  number  than  any  other 
country  can  boast  of  except  the  United  States. 

The  Association  for  the  Improvement  of  Geometrical  Teach- 
ing held  its  ammal  meeting  at  University  College,  Gower  Street, 
on  Friday,  January  11,  and  at  this  meeting,  in  addition  to 
proceeding  with  the  work  already  taken  in  hand,  it  was  resolved 
that  sub'Committees  should  be  appointed  to  draw  up  syllabuses 
of  solid  geometry  and  of  higher  plane  geometry,  and  also  that 
the  Association  should  take  into  consideration  the  subject  of 
geometrical  conies,  with  a  view  to  expressing  its  opinion  on  the 
best  order  of  teadiing  it  The  president  (Du  Hirst,  F.R.S.) 
delivered  an  address,  and  subsequently  tendered  his  resignation 
of  the  presidentship  on  the  ground  of  the  pressing  nature  of  his 
other  duties ;  the  Rev.  E.  F.  MacCartby,  one  of  the  secretaries, 
also  was  obliged,  for  a  like  reason,  to  resign  his  office.  The 
vacancies  were  filled  up  by  the  election  of  Mr.  R.  B.  Hayward, 
F.R.S.,  as  president,  and  of  Mr.  R.  Tucker  as  secretary  (in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  R.  Levett,  the  principal  originator  of  the 
movement).  Mr.  J.  M,  Wilson  and  Dr.  Jones  were  re-elected 
vice-presidents.  Mr.  H.  C.  Watson,  Clifton  College,  was 
elected  Treasurer  in  the  room  of  Mr.  H,  Weston  Eve. 

It  appears  that  beer  is  adulterated  to  a  great  extent  with 
glycerin.  An  easy  and  exact  method  of  its  determination  in  this 
connection  is  wanting,  and  a  prize  of  3>ooo  marks  has  been 
offered  by  the  Verein  fur  deuUchcn  Ccwerbfleiis  for  the  best 
lolution  of  this  problem. 

The  DitUuhe  ornithologiiche  Gesdlschajt  was  lately  re- 
quested by  the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire  to  express  its  opinion 
00  a  proposed  lav  for  the  protection    of  birds.      A  duly 


appointed  commission  under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Brehm, 
has  recently  presented  a  report  on  tlds  subject,  in  which  thecon« 
templated  law  is  regarded  as  unnecessary.  There  is  at  present, 
according  to  their  information,  no  general  diminution  in  the 
number  of  useful  birds,  and  where  a  local  disappearance  has 
been  observed,  it  is  to  be  traced  to  the  present  development  of  the 
agriculture  and;forestry  of  the  land,  and  is  not  due  to  the  direct 
attempts  Of  man. 

The  German  botanist,  Regel,  has  discovered  in  the  Himalayas 
a  variety  of  wild  onion,  which  he  regards  as  the  original  source 
of  our  ordinary  garden  onion.    It  is  called  Allium  cepa  syhestre. 

Berlin  is  becoming  the  centre  of  an  extensive  system  of  sub- 
terranean telegraphic  lines  radiating  in  various  directions.  Cables 
have  been  already  laid,  or  are  in  process  of  being  laid,  on  the 
routes  Berlin-Cologne,  [Berlin-Frankfort,  Berlin-Strassbmrg, 
Berlin-Breslau,  Berlin-Konigsberg,  and  Berlin-Hamburg  and 
Kiel.  As  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show,  the  military  element 
plajrs  an  important  part  in  the  selection  of  these  routes.  Most  of 
the  lines  are  [buried  alongside  the  substantial  roadways  which 
traverse  the  empire.  The  work  of  excavation  is  carried  on 
rapidly  by  means  of  enormous  portable  engines  which  dig  a 
trench  one  metre  in  depth  and  half  a  metre  broad,  lay  in  it  the 
cables  (generally  two  in  number,  containing  each  seven  wires), 
and  cover  them  by  a  continuous  movement 

A  DOG-FISH  became  entangled  in  the  net  of  some  French  fisher- 
men near  Cape  Agde  lately,  and  after  having  dragged  their  boat 
about  during  the  entire  night  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles  an  hour, 
was  finally  captured  and  brought  to  land.  It  measured  over 
sixteen  feet  in  length  and  weighed  about  2,500  lbs.  Its  enormous 
stomach  contained  the  head,  feet,  and  several  other  portions  of 
a  mule,  as  well  9a  two  half*digested  tunny-fish. 

We  notice  in  the  last  number  of  the  Jifurnal  of  the  Russian 
Chemical  and  Physical  Societies  (vol.  ix.  No.  9),  two  interesting 
chemical  papers  by  M.  Eltekoff,  on  the  regularity  of  elimination 
of  the  elements  of  the  haloid*  hydric  acids  from  chlorates  of 
hydro-carbonates,  and  on  the  structure  of  different  amylencs 
which  are  found  in  the  amylene  supplied  by  trade. 

Prof.  C.  Heemanauz,  of  Vienna,  died  recently  in  Japan, 
while  engaged  on  a  voyage  round  the  world,  chiefly  for  th 
purpose  of  agricultural  observation. 

Fiw  national  scientific  associations  have  grown  so  rapidly  e 
the  French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science. 
Although  but  in  its  seventh  year,  we  notice  from  the  recently 
issued  report  of  the  secretary  that  the  number  of  the  members  is 
already  nearly  3y4oa  In  this  short  time  the  association  has 
accumulated  a  capttal  of  223,000  francs,  and  has  granted  26,000 
francs  to  various  scientific  objects.  Each  member  pays  annually 
20  francs,  and  receives  a  handsome  copy  of  the  report.  The  last 
issued  (for  the  Session  of  1876)  forms  a  bulky  volume  of  i,2oo 
pages,  illustrated  by  seventeen  well  executed  plates.  According 
to  the  statutes,  Paris  is  excluded  from  the  place  of  session,  en, 
much  the  same  ground  that  London  is  never  chosen  by  the 
British  Association.  The  present  year  forms,  however,  an 
exception,  on  account  of  the  Exhibition,  and  Paris  will  welcome 
the  Association  far  the  first  time. 

In  the  eighth  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Russian  Chemical 
Society  is  a  paper  by  Prof.  Meorshutkin  on  the  influence 
of  isomerism  on  the  formation  of  ethers  between  acids  and 
alcohols  (Nature,  vol  xvU.  p.  151)  (also  published  separately 
in  French) ;  a  note  by  M.  Zilofif,  on  the  influence  of  the  medium 
on  the  electro-dynamical  induction  ;  a  paper  by  M.  Borgmann  , 
on  thermo-electricity ;  and  a  note  by  M.  Kraevich,  on  his  new 
portable  barometer,  which  is  intended  to  avoid  the  usual  boiling 
of  mcrcu7  in  barometrical  tubes,  and  was  highly  approved  some 


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time  ago  bf  offioen  of  the  Rturian  gentral  ttaff,  who  have  had 
the  opportonitj  of  makiog  use  of  it  on  tniTels. 

M.  Chikolsff,  who  has  made,  at  St  Petenburg,  sereral 
experiments  on  electrical  lights,  by  order  of  the  Miniitrj  of  War, 
confirms,  in  the  ninth  number  c^  the  Journal  of  the  Russian 
Chemical  and  Physical  Societies,  the  results  of  the  experiments 
of  TyndalL  He  observes  also,  that  a  galvano-plastic  copper 
coating  of  the  carbon  pxores  to  be  very  usefuL 

At  a  recent  lecture  held  at  the  Rudolphinum,  at  Vienna, 
before  a  large  audience.  Dr.  £.  Lewy  proved  that  the  human 
skin  is  completely  impenetrable  for  the  chemical  contents  of 
mineral  waters,  and  that  therefore  the  explanation  of  the  effects 
of  baths  in  these  waters,  at  the  numerous  badiing-plaoes,  has  to 
be  sought  exdusively  in  the  domain  of  physics  and  not  in  that 
of  chemistry.  This  important  discovery  annuls  all  common 
views  regarding  the  bathLog  cures  effected  by  the  various  mineral 
springs,  and  explains  in  the  simplest  manner  that,  from  a  chemical 
point  of  view,  the  action  of  the  most  different  waters  must  be> 
one  and  the  same. 

The  French  Government  has  recently  appointed  a  mixed 
commission  of  leading  scientific  men  and  engineers  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  a  thorough  examination  into  the  best  means 
of  preventing  the  explosions  of  firedamp  in  coal-pits.  Among 
it4  members  are  MM.  Daubr^  B^thelot,  Tb^nard,  and 
H^Hert,  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Professors  Bert,  Burst, 
Haton  de  la  Goupilliire,  Fouqn^,  and  other  well-known  names. 
Although  the  French  mines  have  suffered  comparatively  little  in 
this  direction,  the  terrible  disasters  in  our  English  mines  have 
taught  the  necessity  of  throwing  about  the  miner's  dangerous 
occupation  the  utmost  safeguards  at  the  command  of  modem 
science,  and  an  active  and  thorough  programme  is  being  pre- 
pared by  the  Commission. 

A  REQUISITION  has  been  sent  to  the  French  Ministry  by  the 
Soci^i^  de  Physique,  asking  that  it  should  be  incorporate^],  or 
'^reconnue  con  me  d*utilit^  publique."  It  is  stated  that  a 
favourable  reply  may  be  expected  from  M.  Bardonx. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  French  Physical  Society,  M. 
Dutcr  prestnted  magnets  obtained  by  subjecting  circular  steel 
pUtes  to  the  ac  i<  n  of  an  electro-magnet  terminated  with  a 
conical  point  applied  to  the  centre  of  the  disc.  In  these 
magnets  the  neutral  line  is  a  concentric  circle  of  the  disc,  with 

radius  ^.    To  study  the  free  magnetinn  distributed  over  them, 

M.  Duter  used  a  small  soft  iron  cylinder  (a  few  centigrammes  in 
weight),  fixed  in  the  centre  to  the  rod  of  an  areometer  floating 
in  water.  The  force  of  detachment  of  this  was  estimated  by  the 
weight  of  water  which  had  to  be  let  off  from  the  cylindrical 
vessel  containing  the  areometer  before  the  contact  was  detached. 
The  precise  instant  of  contact  and  detachment  was  indicated  by 
an  electric  signal.  M.  Duter  thus  demonstrated  experimentally 
that  the  quantities  of  free  austral  and  boreal  magnetism  were 
equal  in  the  two  portions  (of  contrary  name)  in  the  same  plate. 
He  sought  to  represent  by  an  empiric  formula,  the  results  relative 
to  forces  of  detachment  for  plates  of  different  diameter.  These 
forces  depend  simply  on  one  specific  coefficient  variable  with  the 
nature  of  the  steel  siid  with  the  thickness. 

Thb  influence  on  the  animal  organism  of  breathing  pure 
oxygen  gas  of  density  corresponding  to  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure^  has  not  hitherto  been  adequately  determined.  The 
Royal  Society  of  Gottingen,  therefore,  offer  a  prize  for  new 
researches  on  the  subject,  made  both  on  homoiothermal,  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  on  poikilothermal  animals ;  in  these  researches, 
while  certain  externally  visible  phenomena  in  the  animal  will 
have  to  be  considered^  special  a^tentipn  i$  desirfd  to  be  given  to 


the  nature  of  the  Uood  and  the  exchange  of  material  (excretioa 
of  carbonic  add,  and  nature  of  urine).  The  oxygen  used  should 
be  carefully  freed  from  all  foreign  matters  apt  to  occur  in  manu- 
facture ;  while  a  limited  (and  perhaps  hardly  avoidable)  ad* 
ndxture  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  would  not  compromise  the 
results.  In  the  mathematical  dass,  the  G5ttingen  sodety  desires 
(and  offers  a  prise  for)  new  researches  on  the  nature  of  the 
unpolarised  light-ray,  "  fitted  to  bring  the  conceptions  of  natural 
light  of  any  origin,  near  (in  definiteness)  to  those,  which  theory 
connects  with  the  various  kinds  of  polarised  light"  (For  further 
particulars  see  the  Society's  NachrichUn^  Na  26,  1877.) 

HiTHi&TO  water  has  been  regarded  as  possessing  a  greater 
specific  heat  than  any  other  body,  with  the  exception  of  hydrogen. 
In  a  recent  session  of  the  Vienna  Academy  M.  £.  Ledier  com- 
municated the  results  of  experiments  showing  that  in  this  respect 
vrater  alone  is  surpassed  by  various  mixtures  of  methylic  alcohol 
and  water,  which  will  accordingly  take  the  second  position  in 
regard  to  hydrogen. 

The  Report  of  the  Berlin  Academy  o(  Sciences  for  September 
and  October,  whidi  has  just  appeared,  contains,  among  other 
papers,  "  Comparison  of  the  Tidal  Hdghts  in  the  East  Sea  from 
1846-1875,"  by  H.  Hagen ;  «« Anatomy  of  the  Appendicularia," 
by  Prof.  Virchow  and  H.  Langerhaus ;  « Atomic  Weight  of 
Molybdenum,"  by  ProC  Rammelsberg ;  "  Movement  of  the 
Electridty  in  Submarine  and  Subterranean  Telegraphic  Wires," 
by  Prof:  Kirdihoff ;  and  *<  Catalogue  of  the  Fishes  and  Amphibia 
fit>m  Chinchoxo  (Africa),  presented  to  the  Berlin  2^1ogical 
Museum  by  the  Afrikaniuhe  GaeUschaft*^  by  Prof.  Peters. 

The  electromotive  force  produced  by  the  flow  of  water  through 
capillary  tul)es  has  lately  been  investigated  both  by  M.  Haga 
at  Strassburg  University,  and  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Clark  at  Hdddberg 
(Pog^*  Ann,^  No.  ii,  1877).  Both  observers  used  a  quadrant 
electrometer  instead  of  a  galvanometer  (as  in  former  experiments 
with  diaphragms  and  capillary  tubes)  to  measure  the  difference 
of  potential  This  difference,  according  to  M.  Haga,  is  propor- 
tional to  the  pressure^  independent  of  the  length  of  the  tubes, 
dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  tubes,  in- 
creases with  the  resistance  of  the  vrater,  and  probably  also  with 
the  temperature.  Mr.  Clark  finds  (i)  that  the  narrower  the 
tube  the  greater  is  the  dectromotive  force  when  liqukls  are  forced 
through,  (a)  In  very  narrow  tubes  the  electromotive  force  is 
independent  of  the  length ;  in  wider  tubes  it  decreases  with  the 
length.  (3)  If  the  inner  tube-surface  be  coated  with  different 
substances,  different  electromotive  forces  are  obtained,  whose 
amounts  entirdy  agree  with  Quincke's  former  results  with  regard 
to  diaphragm  currents.  (4)  The  dectromotive  force  decreases 
with  the  time ;  and  this  whether  still  water  or  flowing  water 
occupy  the  tube  between  the  experiments.  If  the  tube  be  cleaned 
anew  with  sulphuric  add  and  distilled  water,  the  original  dectro- 
motive force  is  re-established.  (5)  The  seat  of  the  dectromotive 
force  is  the  limiting  surfiice  of  the  liquid  and  the  solid  tube- wall. 

The  Russian  newspaper  published  in  Turkestan  reports  that 
the  sdentific  explorations  in  the  Semirechensk  District  were 
continued  uninterruptedly  during  the  year  1877.  Special  atten- 
tion was  bestowed  upon  the  investigation  of  the  line  of  coral 
reefs  which  remained  from  the  prehistoric  Central  Asian  Sea. 
This  line  extends  from  the  Dalashik  Mountains  over  the  Tuluk 
Tau  and  Temirlik  Tau,  and  further  eastward  as  £ur  as  the  fron- 
tier of  the  Kuldsha  District  Large  quantities  of  the  finest 
corals  and  beds  of  fresh-water  shells  were  found ;  marine  shells 
were  discovered.onlylin  small  quantities.  The  silurian  forma- 
tion of  these  dirtricts  may  now  be  considered  as  proved  beyond 
doubt. 

The  new  ethnologicd  museum  opened  at  the  H6td  des 
Invalides,  Pari%  contains  a  collection  of  warriors  bdonging  to 
several  nations  and  tribes,  dvilisci^  and  undvilised.  These  models 


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253 


luiTe  been  ezecnted  in  an  artistic  manner  and  give  a  dear  idea  of 
the  variety  of  destructive  agencies  resorted  to  by  mankind  for 
warlike  purposes. 

Wb  have  received  a  useful  little  manual  of  dates,  "  Drury's 
Chronology  at  a  Glance"  (Haxdwicke  and  Bogue),  containing 
much  well- packed  information.  In  the  next  edition  the  author 
should  omit  all  expression  of  opinion  on  events  and  men,  and 
utilise  the  space  for  additional  information. 

In  the  January  number  of  Petermann's  MittheiUmgen^  Dr. 
Mohn  describes  in  detail  the  results  as  to  soundings  and  tem> 
peratures  of  the  Norwegian  North  Sea  Expedition '  of  1876. 
Dr.  Oscar  Drude  has  an  important  article  on  the  geographical 
distribution  of  palm%  and  a  detailed  programme  is  given  of  the 
new  expedition  of  Gerhard  Rohl^  to  which  we  referred  last 
week.  A  brief  sketch  is  given  of  the  ten-years'  expkiiatton  in 
South  America  of  Doctors  Reiss  and  Stiibd*  tome  of  the  results 
of  wfaidi  have  appeased  at  various  times  in  Globut  and  else* 
wfaene^battlKfin  dGtaOf  of  which  wOl  JKOBMiri]ir>kc  some 
» to  publish. 


Db.  Raddb,  in  a  letter'from  Tiflis  to  Dr.  Petermann,  speaka 
of  the  brothers  Brotheus,  from  Helsingfors  and  Wasa,  who  spen 
last  suomier  in  bot«nisiog  in  the  Caucasus,  taking  back  with 
them  a  varied  collection  of  mosses  and  a  rich  herbarium  of 
phanerogams. 

Thb  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Javan  Chevrotain  (Tragulus  Javamiems),  a 
Stanleyan  Chevrotain  {7>a^ulus  stanUyanus),  from  Java,  pre 
sented  by  Mrs.  Leslie  Walker ;  a  Grivet  Monkey  (Cerc&^thecus 
griseo'viridis)  from  North-East  Africs,  presented  by  Madame 
Patey;  an  Arabian  Gaaelle  {Gcxdla  arabica)  from  Arabia, 
presented  by  Mr.  Mark  Whyley;  three  Summer  Ducks 
{Aix  4^i««ua)  from  North  America,  presented  by  Lord  Bnqr- 
brooke ;  two  Mandarin  Ducks  {Aix  gaUrieulata)  from  China, 
two  Whlte^belUed  Storks  (Abdimia  spkmorhynsha)  from 
West  Africa,  puichasad  ;  two  Silky  Cow  B'utU  {Afotothrus 
kmarientii)  from  South  America,  a  Superb  Tanager  {CallisU 
fasiuosa)^  two  Violet  Tanagers  {Eu/Aonia  violaeio)  from  Brazil, 
deposited. 


NEW  FORM  OF  GAS-HOLDER 

]1J  AVING  found  the  neoesrity  of  a  gas-holder  which  shouki 
'-  *'  yieM  a  steady  flow  of  gas  and  be  under  control  from  the 
lecture-room,  at  some  distance  from  the  onlv  available  spot  where 
the  gas-holder  could  be  pkced,  I  devised  the  following  pkn, 
which  was  carried  out  for  me  by  Mr.  Yeates,  to  whom  I  am 
indebted  for  one  or  two  excellent  suggestions.   The  arrangement 


is,  I  believe,  novel,  it  is  mexpoisive,  and  it  answers  admirably  ; 
it  may,  therefore,  be  of  convenience  to  put  before  some  of  your 
readers  the  foUowiog  sketch,  which  needs  but  little  explana- 
tion:— 

A  is  a  bell-shiped,  gas-ti^t  holder  of  galvanised  iron  or  stout 
rinc  B  is  a  water-supply  astern  with  adjustible  ball-cock  valve, 
in  fact,  an  ordinary  kitchen  boiler  supply-cistern,  in  connection 
with  the  water*fflam  through  V.    c  is  a  small  reservoir  fixed  to 


the  dome  of  the  gas-holder  ;  when  filled,  once  for  aU,  the  vrater 
overflows  into  the  holder ;  to  avoid  splashing  it  is  better  to 
convev  a  pipe,  D,  near  to  the  bottom  of  the  holder.  The  water- 
pipe  from  the  dstem,  b,  passes  ahr-tight  into  the  gas-holder,  and 
IS  furnished  with  a  cock,  H,  to  shut  off  the  pressure  when  neces- 
sary. The  pressure  on  the  gas  within  the  holder  obviously 
depends  on  the  difference  of  the  vrater-level  in  the  dstems  B  and 


c  To  give  a  brilliant  lime-light  some  ten  inches  head  of  water  is 
required.  Tliis  corresponds  to  about  2  cwt  on  the  usual  wed^e- 
shaped  gas-bag.  To  give  a  sensitive  flame  with  a  steatite  gas-jet 
havmg  an  ormce  the  size  of  Na  19  wir^  B  w  g  (0*04  ixich 
diameter),  a  pressure  of  some  nine  indies  of  water  is  required. 
The  depth  of  the  cistern,  B,  allows  the  ball-float  a  range  of 
adjustment,   and  hence  of  gas-pressure^  of  some  six  inches. 


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NATURE 


{Jan.  24,  1878 


B  S"  ara  cocks  for  the  cotnmoe  or  exit  of  CU|  and  F  is  •  float 
marking  Uie  quantity  of  gas  in  the  holder. 

When  the  gas  has  all  been  expelled  from  the  holder' it  is  full 
of  water,  and  hence  conTcniently  ready  for  refilling  with  gas. 
For  this  purpose  the  cock  H  is  closed,  and  G  partially  turned  on ; 
the  water  escapes  as  the  gas  enters  x.  A  delivery  tube  is  carried 
from  x'  to  the  lecture  tsa)le,  and  can,  of  course,  be  used  as  an 
entrance  as  well  as  an  exit  pipe.  After  the  holder  is  filled  with 
gas,  G  b  shut  off  and  H  and  e'  are  turned  on.  All  is  now  ready 
for  use,  for  as  soon  as  the  cock  at  the  burner  attached  to  the 
lantern  or  other  arrangement  in  the  lecture-room,  is  turned  on, 
the  gas  is  displaced  from  the  holder  bjT  the  entrance  of  a  corre- 
sponding quantity  of  water  from  the  dstem  B.  No  weights  are 
required  to  be  taken  on  and  off,  an  equable  flow  of  gas  is  secured, 
the  turning  on  of  the  gas-cock  in  the  lecture-room  puts  the 
whole  apparatus  in  action,  and  the  employment  of  a  single 
cylinder  considerably  diminishes  the  original  cost  of  the  gas- 
holder. W.  F.  Barreit 

Ro]^  College  of  Science^  Dublin 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL      ^ 
INTELUGENCE 

Berlin. — The  Prussian  budget  contains  provisions  for  four 
new  professorships  in  the  university,  including  two  in  medicine, 
one  in  philology,  and  one  in  botany.  The  appropriations  for 
most  ot  the  laboratories,  &c,  in  connection  with  the  universitv 
have  likewise  been  notably  increased.  The  **  Gewerbe-Akademie" 
is  to  receive  an  important  addition  in  the  shape  of  a  department 
for  the  examination  of  iron,  in  which  the  physical  and  mechanical 
properties  of  the  various  sorts  of  Prussum  iron— unwrought  as 
well  as  manufactured~-can  be  thoroughly  tested,  and  officially 
approved.  A  similar  institute,  and  ue  only  one  hitherto  in 
Germany,  has  existed  for  a  number  of  years  at  Munich,  and  has 
been  of  great  value  to  the  iron  industry  in  South  Germany.  The 
lectures  of  Prof.  Du  Bois-Rcymond  on  physiology  liave  become 
so  popular  that  no  lecture-room  in  the  umveriity  is  of  sufficient 
size  to  accommodate  his  numerous  heareis. 

Innsbruck.— The  winter  attendance  at  the  university  is  605, 
an  increase  of  27  on  the  past  semester.  The  philosophical 
faculty  includes  159,  the  medical  55,  the  legal  206,  and  the 
theological  185. 

Jena.— The  university  is  attended  at  present  by  488  students, 
a  diminution  of  102  on  the  number  of  the  past  summer.  Of  the 
219  in  the  philosophical  faculty  64  study  philosophy  and  history, 
73  mathematics  and  natural  sciences,  62  chemistry  and  phannacy, 
and  20  political  economy  and  agriculture.  The  attendance  from 
foreign  countries  is  but  35,  and  Jena  is  one  of  the  few  European 
universities  where  England  is  not  represented. 

SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Annalen  der  Phviik  und  Chemie^  No.  II,  1877.— The  residual 
charge  of  the  Leyden  jar,  in  its  relation  to  the  nature  of  the  insu- 
lating substance,  bv  M.  von  Oettingen.— On  the  electromotive 
force  produced  by  flow  of  water  in  capillary  tubes,  by  M.  Haga. 
— On  the  same  subject,  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Clark. — On  the  connection 
between  electromagnetic  rotation  and  unipolar  induction,  by  M. 
Edlund.— On  Dr.  Kerr's  recently-found  relation  l>etween  light 
and  electricity,  by  Mr.  Mackenzie.— Calorimetric  researches,  by 
MM.  Schuller  and  Wartha. — Apparatus  for  demonstrating  the 
different  heat-conducting  powers  of  gases,  by  M.  Kundt.— Ob* 
servations  by  Adolf  Rosencranz,  on  the  influence  of  temperature 
on  internal  Iriction  of  liquids,  by  M.  O.  £.  Mever.— On  a  method 
of  investigating  the  ghding  friction  of  solid  bodies,  by  MM. 
Warburg  and  v.  Babo.— Determination  of  the  velocity  of  sound 
by  the  method  of  coincidences,  by  M.  SzathmarL— Velodt]^  of 
wave  motion  in  soft  string,  by  M.  Abt— Studies  on  chemical 
volumes,  by  M.  Ostwald. — On  miargyrite,  by  'M.  Weisbach 
Lime,  strontium,  and  baryta  in  the  crystalline  state,  by  M. 
Biiigelmann.— On  numeriod  determination  of  the  constants  of 
Weber's  fuiulamental  law,  by  M.  Voigt — On  a  simple  experi- 
ment for  subjectively  showiiig  the  reversal  of  the  coloured  lines 
of  flame-spectra,  especially  we  sodium  line,  by  M.  Gunther. — On 
completeness  of  exdiision  of  aqueous  vapour  from  air-pumpS) 
bv  M.  laspeyres.— On  the  appUcab^ity  ot  laity  gases  in  blow- 
pipe operations,  by  It.  Lohse. 

K9smn,  JuW,  iSyy.-^O.  Owpari,.  on  the'philosophy  of  Dar. 
wifiism.— Prof.  Haeckeli  hrdiicussing  Batbybtus  andthe  Moaera, 


is  very  littk  inclined  to  give  up  the  ots^anic  iiatwe  of  Batfaj^iins. 
— G.  Jager,  on  Heredity,  part  a. — Cams  Sterne  (Dr.  Kranae) 
on  the  taming  of  the  old  by  the  young,  discusses  the  influence  of 
children  from  the  Darwinian  standpomt  He  calls  Bret  Harte 
"  probably  the  psychologist  of  deepest  insight  in  our  time." — 
Fraulein  von  Hellwald  writes  on  the  speechless  primitive  man. — 
Fritz  Schultze  on  the  origin  of  the  culinary  art 

Au^t,  1877.— Mr.  Darwin's  biographical  sketch  of  a  little 
child  IS  translated  here. — Fritz  Miiller  contributes  observations 
on  Brazilian  butterflies  on  evolutional  principles. — A.  Dddel- 
Port  writes  on  the  cokxir  and  size  of  Alpine  flowers — A.  Lan^;:, 
on  Lamarck  and  Darwin,  part  4,  considers  Lamwrck's  views  on 
the  relation  of  crganic  to  inorganic  nature. — Hugo  Magnus  treats 
on  the  development  of  the  colour  sense, 

September,  1877. — Otto  Caspari  continues  his  discussion  of 
the  Darwinian  philosophy,  dealing  with  the  problem  of  evil,  the 
idea  of  individuation,  the  conditions  of  pleasure  and  disgust. — 
Prof.  Jager  treats  of  colour  and  the  colour-sense.  ^Prof.  Krame 
discusses  the  origin  of  the  legend  of  Iphis  (Ovid,  "Metain.,'' 
book  ix. )  with  regard  to  its  beatings  on  a  morpnological  qnestion. 
— Dr.  A.  Lang,  in  his  flfth  paper  on  Lamarck  and  Darwin, 
conies  to  Lamarck's  theory  of  descent. — A  comprehensive  notice 
of  Darwinian  literature  up  to  the  present  time  is  given  by  Dr.  G. 
Seidlitz. 

October,  1877. — Dr.  B.  Vetter,  on  derign  in  nature. — H. 
Miiller,  on  the  variation  in  size  of  the  coloured  envelopes  of 
flowers  in  relation  to  natural  selection  ;  a  valuable  paper. — Pro^ 
Jager,  the  origin  of  organs.  Part  lU.,  locomotive  organs. — Fritz 
Miiller,  on  Brazilian  butterflies.  Part  2.— Dr.  F.  Weinland,  on 
the  language  of  primitive  man. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  wissemchafUuhe  Zoologit,  vol.  xxix..  Part  4. — 
W.  Schmankewitsch,  on  the  influence  of  external  coodttions  on 
the  organisation  of  animals.  This  is  a  long  and  valuable  paper, 
especially  having  to  do  with  the  influence  of  different  degrees  of 
concentration  of  salt  water  and  varying  temperatures  on  a  number 
of  Crustacea,  as  Artentia  sa/wa,  Daphnia,  Branchipus.— J.  W. 
Spengel,  on  the  reproduction  of  Rhinodenna  darwinu  (am- 
phibian), a  translation  from  the  Spanish  of  X.  Jimenez  de  la 
Espodi ;  a  very  remarkable  case  of  a  male  brood- cavity. -i^-B. 
Hatschek,  on  the  embryonic  history  of  the  budding  of  PediceUina 
echinata  (polyzoan),  forty-eight  pages,  three  plates. — A.  Wier- 
zejski,  on  the  Crustacea  parasitic  on  cephalopods,  twenty-one 
pages,  three  plates. — H.  von  Ibering,  coutribution  to  the  mor 
phology  of  the  kidncvs  of  molluscs* 

Thx  current  number  ol  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopic 
Science  commences  with  a  paper  by  Mr.  C  S.  Tomes,  on  the 
hinged  teeth  of  the  common  pike,  the  existence  of  which,  in 
other  than  the  angler  and  one  or  two  other  fish,  was  unknown. 
— ^The  Rev.  Thomas  Hinks  has  notes  on  the  movements  of  the 
vlbracula  in  Caberea  boregi^  and  on  the  supposed  common  nervous 
system  in  the  Polyzoa,  in  which  the  synchronous  movement  of 
the  vibracula  is  shown  to  render  the  existence  of  a  common  ner- 
vous system  almost  essential.— Dr.  A.  M.  Maur^hall  describes  the 
development  of  the  cranial  nerves  in  the  chick,  in  continuation  of 
his  earlier  papers  in  ih^  Philosophical  Transactions  and  the^*''^''* 
nal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology. — Prof.  E  van  Beneden  contributes 
to  the  history  of  the  embryonic  development  of  the  Teleosteans, 
showing  that  the  germ-layers  do  not  proceed  exclusively  from 
the  blastodisc  :  that  extra  blastodic  cuis  are  developed  on  the 
deuteroblastic  globe,  and  that  there  is  no  segmentation  cavity. — 
Mr.  S.  H.  Vines  writes  on  the  homologies  of  the  suspensor  of 
the  ovule,  showing  its  unity  with  the  seta  and  foot  of  mosses, 
liverworts,  and  vascular  cryptogams. — Prof.  Lankester  describes 
the  corpusculated  nature  of  the  red  vascular  fluid  of  the  earth- 
worm.— Dr.  F.  Darwin  describes  the  contractile  filaments  of 
Anusnita  {Agaricus)  muscaria  and  Dipsacns  sylvestris, — ^The  last 
paper  is  a  short  one  by  Mr.  Dowdeswell,  on  atmospheric  bacteria. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
Mmthematical  Society,  January  la^I^rd  Rayleigh, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  F.  B.  W.  Phillips  was 
elected  a  member,  and  Mr.  R.  R.  Wtbb  was  admitted  into  the 
Society."*-The  following  papers  were  read  : — Mr.  J.  Hammond, 
on  the  meaning  of  the  differential  symbol  Z^«,  when  n  is  frac- 
tionaL  (Prof.  Cayley  gave  a  few  references  to  papers  on  the 
^ubject  by  Riemann,  Schroeter,  and  others,  and  expressed  bis 


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•^D 


opinion  that  the  matter  had  not  yet  been  saiisfactorilv  ftetlUd.) 
— Prof.  Lloyd  Tanner,  on  partial  differential  eqnanons  with 
several  dependent  variables. — Lord  Rayleigh,  on  the  relation 
between  the  functions  of  Laplace  and  Bessel  (in  §  783  of  Thom- 
son and  Tait's  "Natural  Philosophy/'  a  sng^tion  is  made  to 
examine  the  transition  from  formulae  dealing  with  Laplace's  spheri- 
cal functions  to  the  corresponding  formulae  proper  to  a  plane). 
It  is  evident  at  once,  from  this  point  of  view,  that  Bessel's 
functions  are  merely  particular  cases  of  Laplace's  more  general 
functions,  but  the  £act  seems  to  be  very  little  known.  — Mr.  Ferrers, 
in  his  elementary  treatise  on  Spherical  Harmonics,  makes  no 
mention  of  Bessel's  functions,  and  Mr.  Todhunter,  in  his  work 
on  these  functions,  states  expressly  that  Bessel's  (unctions  are 
not  connected  with  the  main  subject  of  the  book.  The  object 
of  the  present  paper  was  topoint  out  briefly  the  correspondence 
of  some  of  the  formulae.  The  author  showed  that  the  Bessel's 
function  of  zero  order  {J^  is  the  limiting  form  of  Legendre's 
function,  P^  (/i),  when  n  is  indefinitely  great  and  /u  (=  cos  9) 
such  that  IV  sin  (^  is  finite,  equal  (say)  to  Z,  This  was  proved  by 
taking^urphy's  series  for  P^  (Todhunter,  $  23).  In  like  manner 
Bessd's  functions  of  higher  order  are  limits  of  those  Laplace's 
functions  to  which  Todhunter  gives  the  name  of  associated  func- 
tions. A  theorem  was  found  for  the  general  functions  corre- 
spond ng  to  the  relation  subsisting  between  three  consecutive 
Bessd's  functions  [▼»2.,  i^/,^  _  ,W+/^^  ,W}=  *» /J«)]! 
Prof.  Cayley  stated  that  the  results  obtained  were  very  interest- 
ing)*— Mr.  S.  Roberts  gave  some  results  bearing  upon  his 
paper  read  at  the  December  meeting. —Prof.  Cayley  gave  an 
expression  for  the  surface  of  an  ellipsoid  communicated  to  him 
by  Prof.  Tait— The  Chairman,  Professors  Cayley,  Tanner,  and 
Mr.  Webb  spoke  upon  the  subject 

Chemical  Society,  January  17.— Dr.  Gilbert  in  the  chair. 
—It  was  announced  that  a  ballot  for  the  election  of  Fellows 
would  take  place  at  the  next  meeting  of  Uie  Society  (February 
7).— The  following  papers  were  r^ :— On  the  luminosity  of 
benzol  when  burnt  with  non-luminous  combustible  gases,  by  £. 
Frankland  and  L.  T.  Thome.  After  many  unsuccessful  attempts 
to  bum  benzol  with  a  smokeless  flame,  the  authors  determined 
the  luminosity  of  benzol  vapour  after  dilution  with  hydrogen, 
carbonic  oxide,  and  marsh-gas.  These  gases  were  passed  through 
a  benzoliser  kept  at  a  constant  temperature  and  bumt  in  a  fi&* 
tail  burner.  The  following  results  were  obtained  :— i  lb.  avoir- 
dupois of  benzol  gives,  when  bumt  with  hydrogen,  the  light 
yidded  by  5*792  Vo&,  of  spermaceti  with  carbonic  oxide,  that  of 
6'ioo  lbs.  of  spermaceti  with  marsh-gas,  that  of  77  lbs.  of 
spermaceti.  The  authors  point  out  that  this  dmerence  is 
probably  due  in  part  to  the  difierent  pyrometric  thermal  eflects 
of  the  gaseous  mixtures. — On  the  action  of  redudng  agents  on 
potassium  permanganate,  by  F.  Jones.  Hydrogen  reduces  per- 
mangsmate,  soquioxide  of  manganese  being  form^ ;  ammonia  pro- 
duces in  addition  a  nitrate,  a  nitrite^  and  free  nitrogen ;  phosphme, 
arsine,  and  stibine  give  somewhat  similar  reactions  ;  oxalic  add 
forms  mansjanese  sesquioxide,  carbonic  add,  and  oxygen  ;  strong 
solutions  ol  permanganate  and  manganese  chloride,  when  mixed, 
form  sesquioxide  of  manganese,  dilorine  and  oxygen  being 
evolved. — On  the  action  ol  sulphuric  add  on  copper,  by  Spencer 
Pickering.  According  to  the  author  there  are  only  two  primary 
reactions,  in  one  of  which  copper-sulphate,  sulphurous  acid,  and 
water  are  the  products,  in  the  other  subsulphide  of  ^pper, 
copper  sulphate,  and  water  are  formed.  The  author  has 
studied  the  action  at  various  temperatures  and  has  investi- 
gated the  (quantity  of  sulphuric  add  actually  used,  the  effect 
of  an  electnc  current,  the  action  of  impurities  in  tiie  copper, 
the  variations  produced  by  diluting  the  acid,  &c — On  the 
analysis  of  sugar,  by  G.  Jones.  The  author  proposes  to 
estimate  sucrose  volumetrioiUly  by  adding  a  ci  per  cent, 
solution  to  a  boiling  detinormal  solution  of  permanganate, 
addulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  until  the  dirty-brown  hydrated 
peroxide  of  manganese,  which  is  at  first  formed,  is  reduced  and 
dissolved. — On  the  decomposition  products  of  quinine,  by  W. 
Ramsay  and  J.  Dobbie.  Th^  authors  oxidised  quinine  with 
permanganate  and  obtained  a  new  add,  which  they  have  identi- 
fied with  Dewar's  dicarbopyridenic  acul,  and-  a  red  amorphous 
substance.  The  sAme  add  was  Obtained  by  oxidising  Marchand's 
quinetin. 

^  Qeologicml  Society,  December  [19,  1877.— Prof.  P.  Martin 
Duncan,  F.R.S.,  preddoit,  in  the  chair.— Messrs.  William 
Fream,  J.  G.  Hochstatter  Godfrey,  Herbert  Goss,  and  John 
Fowke  Lancelot  Rolleston  were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Society. 


— The  following  communications  were  read  : — On  ArpihVnis 
loHgipennis,  Owen,  a  laige  bird  of  flight,  fhnn  the  eocene  day  of 
Sheppey,  bjr  Prof.  Owen,  C.B.,  F.R.S.  In  thb  paper  the 
author  described  some  remains  of  a  large  bird  obtained  by  Mr. 
W.  H.  Shrubsole  ftrom  the  London  day  of  Sheppey  (already 
referred  to  in  Naturb),  consisting  of  parts  of  fractured  humeri 
belonging  to  the  right  and  left  sides  o^  the  same  species  or 
perhaps  individual,  and  indudiog  the  head  of  the  bone,  with 
portions  of  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  shaft.  The  texture 
of  the  shaft,  the  thinness  of  its  bony  wall,  and  the  large  size  of 
the  cavity  recall  the  characters  of  the  wing-bones  of  the  large 
cretaceous  pterodactyles.  The  author  concliKled  that  the  bones 
obtained  by  Mr.  Shrubsole  furnished  indications  df  a  new  genua 
and  spedes  of  flying  birds,  for  which  he  proposed  the  name  of 
ArgUlomis  lon^ipennis.  He  regarded  it  as  probably  a  long- 
winded  natatorial  bird,  most  nearly  related  to  Diomedm,  but 
considerably  exceeding  the  Albatross  (/>.  exulans)  in  size. — 
Contributions  to  the  history  of  the  deer  of  the  European  miocene 
and  pliocene  strata,  by  Prof.  W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  F.R.S.  The 
author  commenced  by  referring  to  the  difficulties  attending  the 
study  of  the  European  miocene  and  pliocene  deer,  and  indicated 
that  the  majority  of  the  known  antlers  may  be  referred  to  two 
categories — an  earlier  or  capreoline,  and  a  kter  or  a»dine  type. 
To  the  Capreoli  he  referrea  the  following  spedes  x^Dicroeeros 
deganSf  Lart.  ( =  Prox  furccUus^  Hemd),  Cervus  dicranoceros^ 
Kaup  (induding  C  anoceros  and  trigonoceros^  Kaup),^  and  Cervus 
Matktronis^  Gerv.  (=  C,  bravardi)^  from^  the  miocene,  and 
Cervus  austratis^  Gerv.,  and  C.  cusanus,  Croizet  and  Jobert, 
from  the  pliocene.  To  the  Axddes  belong  Cervus  Perriert,  Cr, 
and  Job.  (including  C.  issiodorensis  and  pardinensis,  of  the  same 
authors),  C,  elneriarum,  Cr.  and  Job.  (=3  C.  rusoides^  Pom.,  and 
C,  peroUensis  and  stylodus,  Brav.),  C,  suitonensis,  sp.  n.,  and  C, 
cyhndroceros^  Brav.  (including  C  gracilis,  Brav.),  all  from 
pliocene  deposits.  Besides  these,  the  author  noticed  a  spedes 
inserts  sedis  under  the  name  of  Cervus  tetraceros,  Dawkins, 
which  he  regards  as  coming  nearest  to  the  Virginian  deer,  or 
cariacou  (Cariacus  virginianus).  From  the  examination  of  the 
antlers  of  these  spedes  he  indicates  that  in  the  middle  miocene 
age  the  cervine  antier  consisted  of  a  simply  forked  crown,  whilst 
in  the  upper  miocene  it  becomes  more  complex,  although  still 
small  and  erect,  like  that  of  the  roc  deer.  In  the  pliocene  it 
becomes  larger  and  more  complex,  some  forms,  such  as  the 
Cervus  dicram'os,  Nesti,  being  the  most  complicated  of  known 
antlers.  The  successive  changes  are  analogous  to  those  observed 
in  the  devdopment  of  the  antiers  of  the  living  deer  with  increase 
of  age.  In  the  miocene  we  have  the  zero  of  antier-development, 
and  the  capreoline  type  is  older  than  any  other.  The  nearest 
living  analogue  of  the  miocene  deer  is,  according  to  the  antler, 
the  muni  jak  [S/y/oceros),  now  found  only  in  the  oriental  region  of 
Asia,  along  with  the  tapir,  which  also  co-existed  with  Cervus 
dtcranoceros  in  the  miocene  forests  of  Germany*  The  pliocene 
deer,  again,  are  generally  most  nearlv  allied  to  the  oriental  axis 
and  msa  deer,  the  only  exception  being  Cervus  cusanus,  the 
antlers  of  which  resemble  those  of  the  roe,  an  animal  widdy 
spread  over  Europe  and  Northem  and  Central  Asia.  The 
alliance  of  these  pliocene  deer  with  those  now  living  in  the  Indian 
r^on  is  regarded  by  the  author  as  a  further  proof  of  the  warm 
climate  of  Europe  in  miocene  times,  confirmatory  of  the  con- 
clusions arrived  at  by  Saportafrom  the  study  of  the  v^taiion. — 
On  the  occurrtnce  of  Branchifus  (or  Chirocephaius)  in  a  fossil 
state,  associated  with  Archaontscus,  and  with  numerous  insect- 
remains  in  the  eocene  freshwater  limestone  of  Gurnet  Bay,  Isle 
of  Wight,  by  Henry  Woodward,  F.R.S.  The  remains  of  crus« 
tacea  and  insects  noticed  in  this  paper  were  obtained  by  Mr.  £. 
J.  A'Court  Smith  from  a  thin  bed  of  limestone  belonging  to  the 
Osborne  or  Sl  Helen's  series  at  Thomess  and  Gurnet  Bay  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  The  colliection  is  the  result  of  about  twenty  years* 
Work.  The  insect- remains  comprise  about  fifty  spedmens  of 
diptera,  including  wings  of  tipulidae  and  culiddae,  and  the  pupa 
apparenUy  of  a  gnat,  one  wing  of  a  hemipterous  insect,  and  a 
flattened  homopterous  insect  identified  by  Mr.  F.  Smith  with 
Triecphora  saftguin^ettta ;  two  spedmens  referred  to  Ae  lepi- 
dopterous  genus  LUh^iia  ;  only  three  orthoptera,  one  a  Grytlo- 
taipa,  the  other  two  bdongiug  to  a  grasshopper;  thirty-five 
hyroenopterous  wings,  thirty-three  of  which  are  referred  to  ants 
of  the  genera  Myrmica,  Formica,  voA' Camponottu  ;  twenty- three 
examples  of  neuroptera  referred  to  Termes,  Peria,  LUeilu/a, 
Agrion,  Phryganea,  zxA  Hemerobius ;  and  twdve  of  coleoptera, 
induding  species  of  Hydrophiius,  Dyticus,  Cureuiio,  Anobium, 
Dorcus,  and  Staphylinus,  There  were  also  two  spiders.  Several 
spedes  of  bividved  entomostxaca  haveals«  been  obtained  froni 


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\yan.  24,  1878 


these  depotiti,  and  identified  by  Pio£  fenpert  Jones.  Of  the 
branchipod  crustacean  both  sexes  are  fossihsed  and  beantifally 
preserved,  the  males  showing  their  large  clasping  antennae^  and 
the  females  their  egg-pooches,  with  lam  and  very  distinct  disc- 
like bodies  representing  the  compressedeggSi  Dr.  F.  Goldenbeig 
notices  a  fossil  from  the  ooal-measnres  of  Saarbriick  which  he 
regards  as  a  branchipod,  and  describes  and  figures  onder  the 
name  of  Branehi^usiUs  {ttcih  Branchipodites)  anthradnus  ;  but 
this  int^retation  of  it  is  at  least  donbifuL  The  author  names 
his  species  BranchipodiUs  vectensis.  The  isopods  accompanying 
this  species  are  referred  to  the  genus  ^rr^^mi^Mr,  M.-£dw.,  and 
one  of  them  is  identified  wi&  the  Palaoniscus  brongmarti  of 
Milne-Edwards.  The  other  is  probably  a  new  species,  perhaps 
nearly  allied  to  the  existing  Spiaroma  serraium, — The  chrono- 
logical value  of  the  pleistocene  deposits  of  Devon,  by  W.  A.  £. 
Ussher,  F.G.S.,  of  H.M.  Geological  Survey. 

Entomological  Society,  January  16. — Anniversary  Meet- 
ing.—Prof.  J.  O.  Westwood,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  president,  in  the 
chair. — The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  members  of  the 
council  for  the  present  year,  vix.  :— Henry  Walter  Bates,  F.L.S., 
F.Z.S.,  G.  C.  Champion,  W.  L.  Distant,  J.  W.  DougUw,  Rev. 
A.  E.  Eaton,  M.A.,  E.  A.  Fitch,  Ferdinand  Grut,  F.L.S., 
George  Lewis,  R.  Meldola,  F.R.A.S.,  F.C.S.,  Ewd.  Saunder<(, 
F.L.S.,  Frederick  Smith,  J.  Jenner  Weir,  F.L.S.,  Prof.  J. 
O.  Westwood,  M.A.,  F.L.S.— Henry  Walter  Bates,  F.L.S., 
F.Z.S.,  was  elected  president,  and  Messrs.  J.  J.  Weir,  treasurer, 
F.  Grut,  librarian,  and  R.  Meldola  and  W.  L.  Distant,  secre- 
taries.— An  address  was  read  by  the  outgoing  president,  in  which 
reference  was  made  to  many  of  the  less  accessible  entomological 
memoirs  of  the  past  year.  The  address  vras  ordered  to  be 
printed,  and  the  meeting  terminated  with  a  vote  of  thanks  to 
the  officers  of  the  Society. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  January  14.— M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair. 
•  -The  following  papers  were  read  :— On  the  presence  of  oxygen 
in  metallic  silver,  by  M.  Dumas.  He  shows  that  in  the  numerous 
experiments  where  silver  has  been  used  in  determination  of 
equivdents,  the  chemists  who,  after  careful  purification,  converted 
it  into  minute  grains  after  fusion  in  presence  of  borax,  nitre,  and 
air,  have  made  it  liable  to  absorb  oxygen  varying  from  50  to  200 
cubic  centimetres  per  kilogramme.  Hence  much  discrepancy.  — 
On  the  formation  of  oxygenated  water,  ozone,  and  persulphuric 
acid  during  electrolysis,  by  M.  Berthelot.  The  oxidising  sub- 
stance formed  in  electrolysis  of  sulphuric  solutions  is  not  oxy- 
genated water,  as  commonly  supposed,  nor  ozone  in  simple 
solution,  but  (as  proved  by  the  face  of  its  not  being  formed  in 
other  solutions,  and  by  its  reactions  positive  and  negative) 
persulphuric  acid«  It  is  formed  with  absorption  of  heat. 
The  three  substances  named  may  be  simultaneously  formed 
in  electrolysis.  The  ozone  may  be  changed  into  oxygenated 
water  by  means  of  ether  ;  the  oxygenated  water  may  be  changed 
into  persulphuric  acid  by  concentrated  sulphuric  acid ;  and  per- 
sulphuric add  liberates  gradually  in  the  cold  state  the  whole 
of  lU  oxygen  at  the  ordinary  state  without  presenting  any  finite 
tension  of  dissociation. — On  the  stability  of  ozone,  by  M.  Ber- 
thelot.—Experimental  researches  on  the  fractures  traversing  the 
earth's  crust,  especially  those  known  as  joinu  and  faults,  by  M. 
Daubr^  One  end  of  a  long  rectangular  plate  of  the  substance 
to  be  examined  was  seized  between  wooden  jaws,  and  the  other 
end  by  a  wrench  whidi  gave  torsion.  The  natuie  of  the  frac- 
tures (in  gypsum  and  glass)  are  described ;  geological  deductions 
will  follow  in  another  paper.— On  the  recent  tornado  of  Erdl- 
doun  (Chester  Ca,  Pennsylvania),  by  M.  Faye.  He  finds 
evidence  in  it  that  these  great  gyratory  movemenU  arise  in  the 
upper  currenU  and  travel  witn  them;  they  are  propagated 
downwards  to  the  ground. — On  a  new  bed  of  Adamine^ 
by  M.  De  Cloiz^aux.  This  hydrated  arseniate  of  zinc, 
found  previously  only  at  Chanardllo,  Chili,  and  in  a  mine 
of  the  Garonne^  has  now  been  found  among  the  zinc 
ores  of  Laurium.— Note  on  the  official  report  of  last  sAince,  by 
M.  Pasteur.— The  vibrations  of  matter  and  waves  of  ether ; 
probable  consequences  of  the  (act  which  serves  as  base  of  the 
mechanical  theory  of  heat,  by  M.  Fav^  Inter  a/ia,  the  author 
gives  an  interpretation  of  the  law  of  radiation  and  absorption, 
slightly  differing  from  that  given  by  Prof.  Stokes.— On  the 
liquefaction  of  gAse)>,  by  M  Cailletet  Indot^mg  in  the  gLss 
tuoe  dry  air  freed  iroca  carbonic  add,  he  cooled  with  protoxide 
of  nitrogen  the  upper  part  of  the  tube  only.  When  the  pressure 
Fas  200  atmosphmsi  streams  of  liquid  (air)  were  seen  flowing 


down  the  lower  parts.  When  they  met  the  mercnxy  they  seemed 
totnmback.  At  310  atmospheres,  the  mercury  being  in  contact 
with  the  cooled  part  of  the  tnbc^  was  frocen,  and  on  quickly 
removing  the  refr^erating  apparatus  It  was  seen  to  be  covered 
vrith  whit  was  probably  JrineH  air.— Observations  of  the  solar 
protubetances  during  the  first  six  months  of  1877,  by  P.  Secdir. 
The  figures  are  simply  tabulated.— P.  Secchi  presented  a  copy 
of  his  new  work  (in  Italian)  entitled  *'The  Stars;  Essay 
in  Sidereal  Astronomy." — On  tdephooy,  by  M.  Breguet.  The 
variations  in  conductivity  of  retort  carbon  have  been  utilised 
by  M.  Salet  in  a  similar  way  to  that  of  MM.  Gamier  and 
Pollard  (see  last  week's  report)  with  graphite,  and  with 
better  results. — Study  of  the  ultra  violet  soUr  spectrum,  by 
M.  Comu.  llie  first  part  of  the  memoir  presented  treats  of  the 
ultra  violet  spectrum  from  the  line  i'  to  the  line  O,  observed  with 
ordinary  spectroscopes  having  glass  objectives  and  prisms ;  the 
second  part,  from  O  to  U,  the  ultra  violet  extremity  observed 
photographically  with  a  spectroscope  with  objectives  of  quartz 
and  prism  of  Iceland  spar.  The  limitation  of  the  ultra  violet 
spectrum  is  found  to  be  cansed  by,  and  to  vary  with,  the  aqueous 
vapour  in  the  atmosphere.  The  maxima  maximorum  of  extent 
b  at  the  summer  solstice ;  but  with  equal  height  of  the  sun  the 
spectrum  is  incomparably  more  extensive  m  winter  than  in 
summer. — On  the  fertility  of  volcanic  sdls,  by  M.  Tmchof. 
Phosphoric  acid  is  the  chief  element  of  it. — Liquefaction  of 
hjrdrogen,  by  M.  Pictet. — On  the  question  of  the  special  con- 
ditions of  contour  of  elastic  plates,  by  M.  Boussinesq. — On  an 
industrial  application  of  Gauss's  theorem  regarding  the  curvature 
of  surfaces,  by  M.  Levy.— On  the  function  arising  from  develop- 

ment  of  the  expression  (i  —  2  «  j:  +  a'  a')  «  ,  by  M.  Escary. 
— On  a  theorem  of  Af.  Chasleii,  by  M.  Serret — On  the  function 
of  Jacob  Bemouilli  and  on  the  interpo^iion,  by  M.  Lipschitz. — 
On  the  preparation  of  curare,  b^  M.  Jobert. — Palaeimtolc^ical 
contributions,  by  M.  Meuuier. — Effect  of  a  low  temperature  on 
a  mixture  of  oxygenated  water  and  sulphuric  acid,  by  M. 
Boillot. 

CONTENTS  FAca 

Raylbigu*s  "THtoar  or  Sound."  By  Prof.  H.  Hblmholtz,  F.R.S.    937 

Hinduism,  Buddhism,  amd  Islam a^ 

Oua  Book  Shklt  >- 

Lubavin't  *' PhystaJ  ChemistO' **  •    • •    •    .    t|0 

Newoomb's  *'  ElemeaUry  Theoremsi  Relatiag  to  Um  Geometry  of 
a  Space  of  Three  Uimeiisions  aod  of  Uniform  potiiive  Corratura 

in  the  Fourth  Dimension " afo 

Maltbe-Bruun  and  C  Clone's  Four  Models  representing  Deve- 
lopable  Surfaces.  &c  :  and  Zeuthen's  Remarks  on  Developable 
Surfaces  and  tha  Utility  of  Models 940 

LBTTSaS  TO  THB  EoiTOK  :— 

Glass  for  Reflectors  — Hbnrv  Bissbmbs 941 

A  Telet>houe  without  Magnetism. — W.  J.  Millar *^% 

Change  of  Habits  in  Toads.— C  A.  Whitb    ........  941 

Talking  Photographs. ->  Wordsworth  DoitiSTHORrB.    ....  949 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism  —A.  W.  Downing  ....  949 

Great  Waterfalls.— Dr.  W.  W,  HoNTBR 941 

Mechanical  Analysis  of  the  Tievelyan  Rocker.— Rev.  Samitbl  H. 

FttiSBmrn  {If^iik //iustrmtims) 9«« 

No  Butterflies  in  Iceland.— Dr.  John  Rab 943 

TheGrcatPyramid.— J.  G.  Jackson 943 

Acoustical    Effects   of   Atmospheric    Pressure.— G.    Ravleigh 

Vicars    ......    •.■..•*..    .....  944 

Transatlantic  Longitudes 944 

Antoinb  CisAR  Becqubrel 944 

DawuM.    By  Sergius  Kern  (ff^/M  IfhuiraHam) 945 

The  Great  Detonating  Meteor  or  November  93,  1877.    By 

Capt  G.  L.  Tupman 846 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  ComeU  of  z6i8     .    .  • 947 

Meteorological  Notes:—  . ._  «    .      . 

Co.itribution  to  the  Climatology  of  the  Spamsh  Pcomsula    .    .    .  948 

Climatology  o*  the  Fiji  I«Und«i  • .  948 

F.xtensioo  of  Volunteer  Weather  Service  in  the  Umied  States  .    .  948 

High  Temperature  of  November  last 949 

Temperature  of  Vienna 949 

Gbocraphical  Notes  :— 

Mr  Stanley , 949 

The  Marquis  Antinori  .    .        « 949 

African  Exploration 949 

The  Northern  Pamir    .    . 949 

The ''Nerthus"  of  Tacitus 950 

Venezuela 950 

The  Indus 950 

New  Guinea aso 

Notes «50 

New  Form  or  Gas-Holdbr.     By  Prof  W.  F.  Barrett  (»7M 

lUmatratiom) «S3 

Univbrsitv  AffD  Educational  Intblugbmcb 954 

SciENTiPic  Serials .•    ...  954 

SOCIBTIBS  and  ACAOBMIBS 954 


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THURSDAY,  JANUARY    31,   1878 


TAirS  ''THERMODYNAMICS'* 

Sketch  of  Thif-modyfiatnics.  By  P.  G.  Tait,  M.A.,  for- 
merly Fellow  of  St  Peter's  College,  Cambridge,  Pro- 
fessor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  Second  Edition,  revised  and  extended. 
(Edinburgh  :  David  Douglas,  1877.) 

THIS  book,  as  we  are  told  in  the  preface,  has  grown 
out  of  two  articles  contributed  in  1864  by  Prof. 
Tait  to  the  North  British  Review.  This  journal,  about 
that  time,  inserted  a  good  many  articles  in  which  scien- 
tific subjects  were  discussed  in  scientific  language,  and  in 
which,  instead  of  the  usual  attempts  to  conciliate  the 
unscientific  reader  by  a  series  of  relapses  into  irrelevant 
and  incoherent  writing,  his  attention  was  maintained  by 
awakening  a  genuine  interest  in  the  subject 

The  attempt  was  so  far  successful  that  the  publishers 
of  the  Review  were  urged  by  men  of  science,  especially 
engineers,  to  reprint  these  essays  of  Prof.  Tait,  but  the 
Review  itself  soon  afterwards  became  extinct 

Prof.  Tait  added  to  the  two  essays  a  mathematical 
sketch  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  thermodynamics, 
and  in  this  form  the  book  was  published  in  1868.  In  the 
present  edition,  though  there  are  many  additions  and 
improvements,  the  form  of  the  book  is  essentially  the 
same. 

Whether  on  account  of  these  external  circumstances, 
or  from  internal  causes,  it  is  impossible  to  compare  this 
book  either  with  so-called  popular  treatises  or  with  those 
of  a  more  technical  kind. 

In  the  popular  treatise,  whatever  shreds  of  the  science 
are  allowed  to  appear,  are  exhibited  in  an  exceedingly 
diffuse  and  attenuated  form,  apparently  with  the  hope 
that  the  mental  faculties  of  the  reader,  though  they  would 
reject  any  stronger  food,  may  insensibly  become  saturated 
with  scientific  phraseology,  provided  it  is  diluted  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  more  familiar  language.  In  this 
way,  by  simple  reading,  the  student  may  become 
possessed  of  Uie  phrases  of  the  science  without  having 
been  put  to  the  trouble  of  thinking  a  single  thought 
about  it  The  loss  implied  in  such  an  acquisition  can 
be  estimated  only  by  those  who  have  been  compelled  to 
unlearn  a  science  that  they  might  at  length  begin  to 
learn  it 

The  technical  treatises  do  less  harm,  for  no  one  ever 
reads  them  except  under  compulsion.  From  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  general  equations  to  the  end  of  the  book, 
every  page  is  fiill  of  symbols  with  indices  and  suffixes, 
so  that  there  is  not  a  paragraph  of  plain  English  on 
which  the  eye  may  rest 

ProC  Tait  has  not  adopted  either  of  these  methods. 
He  serves  up  his  strong  meat  for  grown  men  at  the 
beginning  of  the  book,  without  thinking  it  necessary  to 
employ  the  language  either  of  the  nursery  or  of  the 
school;  while  for  younger  students  he  has  carefully 
boiled  down  the  mathematical  elements  into  the  most 
concentrated  form,  and  has  placed  the  result  at  the  end 
as  a  bonne  douche^  so  that  the  beginner  may  take  it  in  all 
at  once,  and  ruminate  upon  it  at  his  leisure. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the 
Vol.  xvii.— Na  431 


history  6f  thermodynamics,  and  here  it  is  evident  that 
with  Prof.  Tait  the  names  of  the  founders  of  his  science 
call  up  the  ideas,  not  so  much  of  the  scientific  documents 
they  have  left  behind  them  in  our  libraries,  as  of  the  men 
themselves,  whether  he  recommends  them  to  our  reverence 
as  masters  in  science,  or  bids  us  beware  of  them  as 
tainted  with  error.  There  is  no  need  of  a  garnish  of 
anecdotes  to  enliven  the  dryness  of  science,  for  science 
has  enough  to  do  to  restrain  the  strong  human  nature 
of  the  author,  who  is  at  no  pains  to  conceal  his  own 
idiosyncrasies,  or  to  smooth  down  the  obtrusive  antinomies 
of  a  vigorous  mind  into  the  featureless  consistency  of  a 
conventional  philosopher. 

Thus,  in  the  very  first  page  of  the  book,  he  denounces 
all  metaphysical  metho;ls  of  constructing  physical  science 
and  especially  any  d  priori  decisions  as  to  what  may 
have  been  or  ought  to  have  been.  In  the  second  page  he 
does  not  indeed  give  us  Aristotle's  ten  categories,  but  he 
lays  down  four  of  his  own  :— matter,  force,  position,  and 
motion,  to  one  of  which  he  tells  us, ''  it  is  evident  that 
every  distinct  physical  conception  must  be  referred,"  and 
then  before  we  have  finished  the  page  we  are  assured  that 
heat  does  not  belong  to  any  of  these  four  categories,  but 
to  a  fifth,  called  energy. 

This  sort  of  writing,  however  unlike  what  we  might 
expect  from  the  conventional^man  of  science,  is  the  very 
thing  to  rouse  the  placid  reader,  and  startle  his  thinking 
powers  into  action. 

Prof.  Tait  next  handles  the  caloric  theory,  but  instead 
of  merely  showing  up  its  weak  points  and  then  dismissing 
it  with  contempt,  he  puts  fresh  life  into  it  by  giving  (in  the 
new  edition)  a  characteristic  extract  from  Dr.  Black's 
lectures,  and  proceeds  to  help  the  calorists  out  of  some  of 
theur  difficulties,  by  generously  making  over  to  them  some 
excellent  hints  of  his  own. 

The  history  of  thermodynamics  has  an  especial  inter  est 
as  the  development  of  a  science,  within  a  short  time  and 
by  a  small  number  of  men,  from  the  condition  of  a  vague 
anticipation  of  nature  to  that  of  a  science  with  secure 
foundations,  clear  definitions,  and  distinct  boundaries. 

The  earlier  part  of  the  history  has  already  provoked  a 
sufficient  amount  of  discussion.  We  shall  therefore 
confine  our  remarks  to  the  methods  employed  for  the 
advancement  of  the  science  by  the  three  men  who  brought 
the  theory  to  maturity. 

Of  the  three  founders  of  theoretical  thermodynamics, 
Rankine  availed  himself  to  the  greatest  extent  of  the 
scientific  use  of  the  imagination.  His  imagination,  how- 
ever, though  amply  luxuriant,  was  strictly  scientific. 
Whatever  he  imagined  about  molecular  vortices,  with 
their  nuclei  and  atmospheres,  was  so  clearly  imaged  in 
his  mind's  eye,  that  he,  as  a  practical  engineer,  could  see 
how  it  would  work. 

However  intricate,  therefore,  the  machinery  might  be 
which  he  imagined  to  exist  in  the  minute  parts  of  bodies, 
there  was  no  danger  of  his  going  on  to  explain  natural 
phenomena  by  any  mode  of  action  of  this  machinery 
which  was  not  consistent  with  the  •general  laws  of 
mechanisnu  Hence,  though  the  construction  and  dis- 
tribution of  his  vortices  may  seem  to  us  as  complicated 
and  arlntrary  as  the  Cartesian  system,  his  final  deduc- 
tions are  simple,  necessary,  and  consistent  with  (acts. 

Certain  phenomena  were  to  be  explained.    Rankine 


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NATURE 


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set  himself  to  imagine  the  mechanism  by  which  they 
might  be  produced.  Being  an  accomplished  engineer^  he 
succeeded  in  specifying  a  particular  arrangement  of 
mechanism  competent  to  do  the  work,  and  also  in 
predicting  other  properties  of  the  mechanism  which 
were  afterwards  found  to  be  consistent  with  observed 
facts. 

As  long  as  the  training  of  the  naturalist  enables  him  to 
trace  the  action  only  of  particular  material  systems 
without  giving  him  the  power  of  dealing  with  the  general 
properties  of  all  such  systems,  he  must  proceed  by  the 
method  so  often  described  in  histories  of  science— he 
must  imagine  model  after  model  of  hypothetical  apparatus 
till  he  finds  one  which  will  do  the  required  work.  If  this 
apparatus  should  afterwards  be  found  capable  of  account- 
ing for  many  of  the  known  phenomena,  and  not  demon- 
strably inconsistent  with  any  of  them,  he  is  strongly 
tempted  to  conclude  that  his  hypothesis  is  a  fact,  at  least 
until  an  equally  good  rival  hypothesis  has  been  invented. 
Thus  Rankine,'  long  after  an  explanation  of  the  properties 
of  gases  had  been  founded  on  the  theory  of  the  collisions 
of  molecules,  published  what  he  supposed  to  be  a  proof 
that  the  phenomena  of  heat  were  invariably  due  to  steady 
closed  streams  of  continuous  fluid  matter. 

The  scientific  career  of  Rankine  was  marked  by  the 
gradual  development  of  a  singular  power  of  bringing  the 
most  difiicult  investigations  within  the  range  of  elemen- 
tary methods.  In  his  earlier  papers,  indeed,  he  appears 
as  if  battling  with  chaos,  as  he  swims,  or  sinks,  or  wades, 
or  creeps,  or  fiies, 

"  And  through  the  palpable  obscure  finds  out 
His  oncoato  way ; " 

but  he  soon  begins  to  pave  a  broad  and  beaten  way  over 
the  dark  abyss,  and  his  latest  writings  show  such  a  power 
of  bridging  over  the  difficulties  of  science,  that  his  pre- 
mature death  must  have  been  almost  as  great  a  loss 
to  the  diffiision  of  science  as  it  was  to  its  advancement 

The  chapter  on  thermodynamics  in  his  book  on  the 
steam-engine  was  the  first  published  treatise  on  the 
subject,  and  is  the  only  expression  of  his  views  addressed 
directly  to  students. 

In  this  book  he  has  disencumbered  himself  to  a  great 
extent  of  the  hypothesis  of  molecular  vortices,  and  builds 
principally  on  observed  facts,  though  he,  in  common  with 
Clausius,  makes  several  assumptions,  some  expressed  as 
axioms,  others  implied  in  definitions,  which  seem  to  us 
anything  but  self-evident  As  an  example  of  Rankine's 
best  style  we  may  take  the  following  definition  :^ 

"  A  PERFECT  GAS  is  a  substance  in  such  a  condition 
that  the  total  pressure  exerted  by  any  number  of  portions 
of  it,  at  a  given  temperature,  against  the  sides  of  a  vessel 
in  which  they  are  inclosed,  is  the  sum  of  the  pressures 
which  each  portion  would  exert  if  inclosed  in  the  vessel 
separately  at  the  same  temperature.'' 

Here  we  can  form  a  distinct  conception  of  every  clause 
of  the  definition,  but  when  we  come  to  Rankine's  Second 
Law  of  Thermodyfiamics  we  find  that  though,  as  to 
literary  form,  it  seems  cast  in  the  same  mould,  its  actual 
meaning  is  inscrutable. 

"  The  Second  Law  of  Thermodynamics, ^\{  the  total 


»  On  ihe  Second  Law  of  Thermodynanuci.  Pkii.  Mag.  Oct  1865,  f  la, 
p  344  ;  but  in  his  paper  00  the  Thermal  Knergy  of  Molecular  Vortices,  TraH*» 
K  S.  Edin  ,  xxv.  p.  357  [ilC^A  he  admits  that  the  explanation  of  gaseous 
prctMirt  by  the  impocu  of  molecules  has  been  prov«d  to  be  pooiblc. 


actual  heat  of  a  homc>geneous  and  uniformly  hot  sub- 
stance be  conceived  to  be  divided  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  the  effects  of  those  parts  in  causing  work  to 
be  performed  are  equal** 

We  find  it  difficult  enough,  even  in  1878,  to  attach  any 
distinct  meaning  to  the  total  actual  heat  of  a  body,  and 
still  more  to  conceive  this  heat  divided  into  equal  parts, 
and  to  study  the  action  of  each  of  these  parts,  but  as  if 
our  powers  of  deglutition  were  not  yet  sufficiently  strained, 
Rankine  follows  this  up  with  another  statement  of  the 
same  law,  in  which  we  have  to  assert  our  intuitive  belief 
that— 

"  If  the  absolute  temperature  of  any  uniformly  hot 
substance  be  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  the 
effects  of  those  parts  in  causing  work  to  be  performed  are 
equal" 

The  student  who  thinks  that  he  can  form  any  idea  of 
the  meaning  of  thb  sentence  is  quite  capable  of  explaining 
on  thermodynamical  principles  what  Mr.  Tennyson  says 
of  the  great  Duke  : — 

"  Whose  eighty  winters  freeze  with  one  rebuke 
All  great  sell-seekers  trampling  on  the  right" 

Prof.  Clausius  does  not  'ask  us  to  believe  quite  so  much 
about  the  heat  in  hot  bodies.  In  his  first  memoir,  indeed, 
he  boldly  dismisses  one  supposed  variety  of  heat  from  the 
science.  Latent  heat,  he  tells  us,  "is  not  only,  as  its 
name  imports,  hidden  from  our  perceptions,  but  has 
actually  no  existence ; "  ''  it  has  been  converted  into 
work." 

But  though  Clausius  thus  gets  rid  of  all  the  heat  which, 
after  entering  a  body,  is  expended  in  doing  work,  either 
exterior  or  interior,  he  allows  a  certain  quantity  to  remain 
in  the  body  as  heat,  and  this  remnant  of  what  should 
have  been  utterly  destroyed  lives  on  in  a  sort  of  smoulder- 
ing existence,  breaking  out  now  and  then  with  just  enough 
vigour  to  mar  the  scientific  coherence  of  what  might  have 
been  a  well  compacted  system  of  thermodynamics. 

Prof.  Tait  tells  us  :— 

''  The  source  of  all  this  sort  of  speculation,  which  is  as 
old  as  the  time  of  Crawford  and  Irvine— and  which  was 
countenanced  to  a  certain  extent  even  by  Rankine— is  the 
assumption  that  bodies  must  contain  a  certain  quantity  of 
actual,  or  thermometric,  heat.  We  are  ouite  ignorant 
of  the  condition  of  energv  in  bodies  generally.  We  know 
how  much  goes  in,  and  how  much  comes  out,  and  we 
know  whether  at  entrance  or  exit  it  is  in  the  form  of  heat 
or  of  work.    But  that  is  all" 

If  we  define  thermodynamics,  as  I  think  we  may  now 
do,  as  the  investigation  of  the  dynamical  and  thermal 
properties  of  bodies,  deduced  entirely  from  what  are  called 
the  First  and  Second  laws  of  Thermodynamics,  without 
any  hypotheses  as  to  the  molecular  constitution  of  bodies, 
aU  speculations  as  to  how  much  of  the  energy  in  a  body 
is  in  the  form  of  heat  are  quite  out  of  place. 

Prof.  Tait,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  noticed  that 
Prof.  Clausius,  in  a  footnote  to  his  sbcth  memoir,^  tells  us 
what  he  means  by  the  heat  in  a  body.  In  the  middle  of  a 
sentence  we  read : — 

*'....  the  heat  actually  present  in  a  unit  weight  of 
the  substance  in  question— in  other  words,  the  vis  viva 
of  its  molecular  mcklons  "  .  .  .  . 

Thus  the  doctrine  that  heat  consists  of  the  vu«Aw  «f 

'  Hust's  translatloQ.  p.   svh  German  tdikioa»  tf 
vorhandene  WArme,  dh.  die  Mbeodige  Kraft  h  ' 


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molecular  modons,  and  that  it  does  not  include  the 
potential  energy  of  molecular  configuration — the  most 
important  doctrine,  if  true,  in  molecular  science — is  intro- 
duced in  a  footnote  imder  cover  of  the  impretending 
German  abbreviation ''  dsh." 

J,  Clerk  Maxwell 
{To  be  continued,) 


IVOLF'S  HISTORY  OF  ASTRONOMY 

Geschichte  der  Astronomic.     Von  Rudolf  Wolf.    (Mun- 

chen  :  R.  Oldenbourg,  1877.) 

THE  "  History  of  Astronomy,"  by  Prof.  Rudolf  Wolf, 
of  Zurich,  a  volume  of  800  pages  issued  at  a  very 
moderate  figure,  is  a  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the 
science  of  no  ordinary  value  to  the  student.  The  pro- 
duction of  such  a  work,  involving  an  outline  of  the  pro- 
gress of  astronomy  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present 
period,  must  have  been  a  labour  of  great  extent,  requiring 
much  research,  notwithstanding  the  assistance  that  might 
be  afTorded  by  historical  treatises  previously  in  the  hands 
of  astronomers,  and  it  is  only  due  to  Prof.  Wolf  to 
acknowledge  the  very  able  and  complete  manner  in 
which  he  has  accomplished  the  heavy  task  he  had 
imposed  upon  himself  some  years  since. 

Those  of  our  readers  who  may  have  been  desirous  of 
acquainting  themselves  with  the  general  history  of  prac- 
tical astronomy,  and  of  familiarising  themselves  with  the 
names  and  the  nature  of  the  services  of  the  principal 
workers  who  have  successively  contributed  to  advance 
our  knowledge  of  the  science,  more  especially  during  the 
last  three  centuries,  will,  we  think,  have  experienced 
difficulties  which  the  volume  before  us  is  well  calculated 
to  obviate.  The  English  reader  has,  it  is  true,  Prof. 
Grant's  classical  work,  the  "  History  of  Physical  Astro- 
nomy,'' but  there  is  much  to  be  found  in  this  volume, 
which  it  was  hardly  within  the  scope  of  Prof.  Grant's 
work  to  incorporate.  The  writer  of  these  lines  very  well 
remembers  the  fragmentary  manner  in  which,  some 
thirty-five  years  since,  an  English  student  of  practical 
astronomy  was  under  the  necessity  of  obtaining  informa- 
tion, more  especially  in  private  reading ;  and  it  is  one  of 
the  most  happy  circumstances  for  the  astronomical  stu- 
dent of  the  present  day  that  this  want  of  suitable  guides 
has  been  to  a  great  extent  removed,  and  his  time  there- 
fore need  not  be  wasted  in  a  search  for  knowledge  in 
second-rate  or  doubtful  authorities,  mistakes  which  he 
would  be  not  infrequently  led  into  thereby,  being  cor- 
rected only  after/vexatious  delay  and  trouble. 

Prof.  Wolf  divides  his  work  into  three  books.  The 
first  deals  with  ancient  astronomy  and  progress  down  to 
the  fifteenth  century,  including  theories,  instruments,  and 
writings.  The  second  commences  with  ''  the  reformation 
of  astronomy"  consequent  on  the  publication  of  the  great 
work  of  Copernicus,  ^  De  Revolutionibus  Orbium  Coeles- 
tium,"  and  treats  of  the  advances  made  to  the  time  of 
Newton  ;  we  find  therefore  in  this  division  a  simunary  of 
the  labours  of  Galileo,  Apian,  Tycho  Brahe,  Kepler, 
Fabricius,  Harriot,  Hevelius,  Huyghens,  Gascoigne,  and 
many  others,  including  notices  of  the  more  important 
publications  of  the  period,  which  are  of  interest  and  value. 
The  third  book  treats  of  "the  new  astronomy,"  com- 
mencing with  the  discovery  of  universal  gravitation  and 


brings  down  the  history  of  astronomical  research  and 
discovery  to  the  present  epoch.  A  very  great  amount  of 
information  is  compressed  into  this  last  section  of  the 
work,  and  it  is  here  that  the  care  and  research  of  the 
author  are  more  particularly  evidenced  There  is  much 
to  be  found  in  it,  for  which  we  should  look  in  vain  in  a 
collective  and  compendious  form  elsewhere.  It  is  well 
and  accurately  put  together,  the  few  errors  we  have  re- 
marked being  of  comparatively  trifiing  nature  ;  thus  the 
Satumian  satellite  Tethys  appears  as  Thetis,  The 
biographical  notes,  which  are  extended  to  contemporary 
astronomers,  will  be  a  welcome  feature  to  many  readers. 

Students  and  others  interested  in  the  history  of  the 
most  ancient  of  the  sciences,  who  can  command  a  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  German  language,  will  find  their 
advantage  in  the  possession  of  Prof.  Wolf's  elaborate  work, 
and  we  must  not  omit  to  say  that  that  gpreat  desideratum 
in  all  works  of  the  kind — a  very  sufficient  index,  at  least 
as  regards  names  mentioned  in  the  history,  will  render  it 
of  easy  reference.  J.  R.  Hind 

{To  be  continued^ 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Photographic  Spectra.  136  Photographs  of  Metattic^ 
Gaseousy  atid  other  Spectra  printed  by  the  Pertnaiunt 
A utotype  Process,  With  Introduction,  Description,  &a, 
by  J.  R.  Capron,  F.R.A.S.    (E.  and  F.  N.  Spon.) 

We  gather  from  the  author's  introduction  that  he  has 
chiefly  aimed  "  to  popularise  a  subject  hitherto  somewhat 
of  a  sealed  book,  confined  to  the  laboratories  of  workers  in 
special  research."  In  this  he  should  certainly  succeed, 
though  we  think  that  his  readers  would  not  have  been 
driven  away  if  they  had  found  a  little  more  reference 
to  the  explanations  of  the  various  phenomena  and  the 
conclusions  which  have  been  drawn  from  them.  As  it  is, 
the  book  is  a  good  companion  to  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran's 
"  Spectres  Lumineux."  The  spectra  are  sharp  and  clear, 
and  the  autotype  process  has  lent  itself  well  to  this 
reproduction.  The  results  are  all  the  more  commend- 
able because  Mr.  Capron  has  not  had  advantages  of 
considerable  dispersion. 

The  account  of  the  method  employed  is  full  and  clear, 
and  will  make  the  book  a  very  usefiil  one  to  beginners  in 
spectrography. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

\T%i  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  of imons  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return, 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  refected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communicaiions. 

The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts,] 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism 

Prof.  Fiazzi  Smyth  will  no  doubt  welcome  from  any  quarter  a 
satisfactory  answer  to  his  question  about  the  discrepancy  between 
Dr.  Wolf  s  sun-spot  period,  ii'l  years,  and  the  supoosed  10*5 
years'  period  for  the  magnetic  needle.  If  Mr.  Smytn  unll  refer 
to  Prof.  Loomis's  chart  of  magnetic  oscillations  given  in  Prof. 
Balfour  Stewart's  paper  on  the  subject  in  Nature  (vol  xvi. 
p.  10),  he  will  see  that  there  are  exactly  seven  minimum- 
periods  from  1787  to  187 1,  the  mean  of  which  is  twelve  years  ; 
the  mean  of  the  seven  corresponding  maximum-periods  is  1 1  '8 
years.  The  true  magnetic  decUnation-period  is  then  the  mean  of 
these,  viz.,  11*9  years.  In  exactly  the  same  manner  I  have 
found  that  the  mean  period  of  sun-spots  is  1 1  '9  years.  Tlie 
auroral  displays  also  have  the  same  period. 

But  what  is  this  period  of  1 1  *9  years  ?    It  is  Jupiter's  anomal- 


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istk  yetr,  or  the  time  which  eUpses  between  two  perihelion 
ptstages. 

Prof.  Wolf  and  Messrs.  Dc  la  Rue,  Stewart,  andiLocwy  have 
all  distinctly  stated  their  belief  that  Japiter  is  the  chief  cause  in 
the  prodnction  of  son-spots.  This  11*9  years'  period  will  then, 
I  bdiere^  remoYC  what  little  doabt  remains  in  some  minds  on 
the  subject  Mr.  John  Allan  Bronn,  F.R.S.,  has  already  shown 
in  Nature  (voL  xvi  p.  62)  that  Dr.  Wolf,  to  be  consistent 
with  his  own  relatlTe  nnmbers,  ought  to  take  a  period  of  11*94 
years  rather  than  one  of  1 1*1,  and  while  be  himself  favours  a 
lo'5  years'  period,  he  admits  that  there  is  no  combination  of 
planetary  positions  which  would  produce  such. 

I  may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  state  here  that  in  a  paper  I  have 
just  forwarded  to  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  I  have  given 
what  I  believe  are  satisfactory  reasons  for  the  variations  of  these 
curves,  and  such  as  will  enable  us  for  the  future  to  calculate  with 
considerable  accuracy  the  lengths  of  the  periods,  and  guided  by 
these  reasons  I  have  ventured  to  state  my  belief  that  we  are  now 
passing  through  a  long  minimum-period — one  very  similar  to  that 
which  occurred  at  the  dose  of  the  last  century,  and  that  the  next 
maximum  of  sun-spots  will  fall  in  the  year  1887. 

I  make  this  statement  from  an  exammation  of  the  causes  which 
produce  the'sun-spots ;  and  it  is  so  far  remarkably  confirmed  by 
the  bdiavionr  of  the  magnetic  needle.  Mr.  Broun,  in  Naturs, 
vol  xvii.  p.  183,  q>eaking  of  the  very  gradual  manner  in  which 
the  curve  has  wen  going  to  a  minimum  during  the  last  three  and 
a  half  years,  remarks  tl^t  "  no  such  constant  state  of  the  sun's 
magnetic  action  will  have  been  observed  since  the  last  years  of 
the  eighteenth  century."  To  this  I  would  add  that  immediately 
prior  to  the  commencement  of  that  long  sun-spot  minimum 
period,  the  mean  of  the  magnetic  interval,  which  occurred  then 
(reckoning  the  interval  from  minimum  to  maximum),  fell  in  the 
year  1785,  and  cocresponded  with  the  time  of  Jupiters  perihelion 
passage.  Suppose  now  we  represent  this  synchronism  by  o,  it 
vrill  be  found  that  the  mean  point  in  the  next  period  lagged 
behind  the  perihelion  1*6  year;  next,  5*3  years;  nexr,  5-3 
years.  Having  reached  its  ma»imnm  of  lagging,  in  the  next 
period  it  lagged  3*0  years ;  next,  i*a  year ;  next,  0*6  year ;  and 
m  the  last  period  the  mean  point  fell  in  the  year  1868,  coinciding 
for  the  first  time  since  1785  with  Jupiter's  perihelion,  and  will 
be  represented  by  a  So  that  the  magnetic  oscillation  in  1868 
was  just  where  it  was  in  1785.  Is  it  not  a  natural  inference, 
then,  that  we  have  commenced  another  cycle  of  magnetic 
declination  ? 

What  produces  this  lagging?  This  is  a  very  important 
question,  and  one  which  Ihave  reason  to  believe  can  be  satis- 
factorily answered.  B.  G.  Jenkins 

January  19 

On  A  Means  for  Converting:  the  Heal  Motion  Poasessed 
by  Matter  at  Normal  Temperature  into  Work 

My  attention  has  just  been  directed  to  Mr.  S.  Tolver  Preston's 
two  papers  in  Nature,  vol.  xvii  p.  31  and  p.  202,  in  which  he 
points  out  what  appears  to  be  an  exception  to  the  second  law{of 
thermodynamics.  Some  years  ago  I  illustrated  the  same  subject 
in  a  somewhat  different  manner  by  an  experiment  which  is  in 
some  respects  better  suited  for  lecture  purposes,  and  while  the 
subject  is  beng  considered  may  be  useful  to  your  readers. 

into  the  cork  of  a  large  bottle  were  fitted  two  glan  tubes. 
One  tube  went  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle,  its  upper  end  being 
terminated  in  a  fine  jet.  The  other  tube  only  passed  a  short 
distance  into  the  bottle,  and  its  upper  end  termmated  about  an 
inch  above  the  cork.  To  its  lower  end  was  fixed  some  pieces  of 
blotting-paper,  to  its  upper  end  was  attached  a  small  test-tube^ 
the  two  t)cng  connected  by  means  of  a  piece  of  india-rubber 
tube.  Some  water  was  put  in  the  bottle  and  the  cork  fitted  close 
in  its  place.  The  test-tube  was  then  filled  with  ether  or  some 
volatile  fluid,  and  fitted  to  the  end  of  the  india-rubber  tube. 

After  the  apparatus  had  attained  a  uniform  temperature^  the 
test-tube  was  inverted,  so  as  to  cause  the  ether  to  flow  down  the 
tube^  and  enter  the  bottle,  where  it  spread  itself  over  the  blotting 
paper  and,  rapidly  evaporating,  produced  a  pressure  inside  the 
bottle.  Ilie  addition  of  the  ether  vapour  to  the  air  already  at 
atmospheric  pressure,  produced  a  pressure  sufficient  to  force  the 
water  up  the  tube  and  out  of  the  jet,  causing  it  to  rise  to  a  con- 
siderable h^ht  into  the  air.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experiment 
all  the  apparatus  was  at  a  uniform  temperature,  and,  according 
to  the  generally  received  opinion,  ought  to  have  been  incapable 
of  developing  energy,  yet  on  account  of  the  ether  vapour  not 


beii^  difinted  through  the  mteni»  it  was  able  to  do  work  at  tbs 
expense  of  part  of  the  heat  in  the  sjsteoi.         John  Aitkbn 
Danoch,  Falkirk,  January  18 


No  Butterflies  in  Iceland 

Allow  me  to  point  out  that  the  lepidopterous  insects  said  b^ 
Olafsen  (not  Olaoon)  and  N.  (not  K.)  Mohr,  to  be  found  ia 
Iceland,  are  not  butterflies  at  all,  but  moths,  as  shown  by  the 
generic  term  Phaiana  applied  by  each  of  those  authors  to  ever^ 
one  of  them — a  term  whose  meaning  your  correspondent  and  his 
informant  have  fisiled  to  see.  Those  venerable  authors^  though 
dead  and  buried  long  before  I  ever  heard  of  them,  are  old 
frieiKls  of  mine,  and  I  feel  it  incumbent  on  me  to  ask  your 
readers  not  to  impute  to  them  this  and  other  mistakes  in  Or. 
Rae's  letter.  Whether  there  have  been  or  still  be  butterflies  in 
Iceland  I  am  not  competent  to  declare.  I  did  not  see  any 
when  I  was  there,  but  they  may  have  got  out  of  my  way.  I 
have^  however,  yet  to  leam  that  th^  exist  in  that  country,  and 
therefore  I  am  inclined  to  believe  Mr.  McLachlan  is  right  when 
he  said  that  there  are  none.  We  have  the  testimony  of  the 
kee  Sir  William  Hooker  ('*  Tour,"  &c,  ed.  3,  voL  L  p.  3^3)  that 
no  butterfly  had  ever  been  met  with  in  Iceland  up  to  1809,  the 
year  in  which  he  visited  that  island.  Gliemann  (**  Geogr. 
Bescbreib.  IsL,"  p.  165)  in  1824  was  unable  to  add  to  Mot^s 
list  of  twelve  species  of  moths,  and  included  no  butterflies.  If 
any  of  the  latter  have  since  been  found  ii  would  be  well  for  Dr. 
Rae  to  give  his  authority  for  the  fact,  othowise  his  ingenious 
supposition  that  Icelandic  butterflies  and  their  larvae  have  been 
destroyed  since  1786,  is  unnecessary,  and  his  "only  possible 
way  "  of  reconciling  "  perfectly  opposite  authorities  "  ulJs  to  the 
grcMind  through  the  absence  of  any  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities  he  has  cited.  Alfred  Nkwton 

Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  January  35 

[Dr.  Rae  writes  "to  explain  and  correct  a  mistake  which,  by 
a  little  care  and  attention  on  my  part  could  and  should  have 
been  so  easily  avoided."] 

On  some  Peculiar  Points  in  the  Insect-Pauna  of  Chili 

My  friend  Mr.  Birchall  misconstrued  the  meaning  of  my 
notes  (Nature,  voL  xviL  p.  162)  in  a  manner  incomprehensible 
to  me,  when  peimin^  his  own  (p.  aai).  I,  and  many  others, 
will  share  his  "  surprise  "  when  he  can  produce  aiiy  species  of 
the  genera  CarahtSt  Argynnis^  and  Colias,  or  any  of'^the  Limno* 
phUida  from  Australia  or  New  Zealand.  If  he  will  do  me  the 
favour  to  again  read  my  notes  he  will  find  that  I  refer  solely 
to  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  forms  occurring  in  the  Chilian  sub- 
region  and  (unless  by  exception)  nowhere  else  in  the  southern 
hemisphere. 

Mr.  Wallace's  rebuke  (p.  182)  is  to  some  extent  merited.  I 
did  not  give  sufficient  attention  to  the  chapter  in  his  work,  to 
which  he  refers,  in  consequence  of  its  gtneral  character.  Mr. 
Wallace  greatly  extends  the  number  of  genera  published  by  me 
as  a  sample.  Some  of  these  were  perfectljr  familiar  to  me ;  others, 
I  think,  will  fail  to  stand  the  test  of  mmute  application,  jMirtly 
because  their  distribution  is  more  extended,  partly  because  generic 
definitions  are  vague.  I  could  add  several  interesting  and  marked 
genera.  Colias  may  possibly  be  repreiented  by  more  than  one 
species  on  the  Northern  Andes;  but  it  is  the  opinion  of  naturalists 
wluH  from  practical  acquaintance  with  the  fauna  of  South  America, 
and  who,  on  a  special  point  like  this,  are  more  competent  than 
I  to  judges  that  most  of  the  verv  marked  forms  upon  which  I 
especially  rely  do  not  occur  on  the  Northern  Andes,  which  of 
late  have  been  most  assiduouslv  worked  by  entomologists  hunt- 
ing insects  for  sale  and  perfectly  alive  to  the  value  of  such 
forms. 

Mr.  Darwin's  theory  alluded  to  by  Mr.  Birchall  had  not  been 
overlooked.  I  was  dealing  with  insects,  and  with  a  few  marked 
genera,  &&,  of  them,  only.  In  pUnts  there  appears  to  be  a 
tendency  towards  the  appearance  of  analogous  or  idendcal  forms 
all  over  the  world  when  a  sufficient  altitude  (varying  according 
to  the  latitude)  is  reached.  The  laws  that  govern  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  one  ought  equally  to  affect  the  other.  Still  the 
fricts  alluded  to  in  my  former  letter  remain  unexplained.  Tne 
southern  portion  of  South  America  forms,  as  it  were,  an  ialand, 
with  a  large  admixture  of  Palaearctic  and  Nearctic  faunistic 
elements  existing  in  no  other  part  of  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Lewiiham,  January  19  Robert  McLacklan 


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261 


The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons 

Prof.  OsBORi«B  Reynolds  arranges  His  last  letter  (Naturb, 
▼oL  xviL  p.  220) 'under  four  numbered  heads,  and  in  the  reply 
which  I  appear  called  on  to  make  I  will  follow  this  division. 

I.  In  tne  first  section  he  says,  "  There  is  nothing  in  m^  earlier 
papers  that  is  'admittedly  erroneous.'  If  there  is  error  m  these 
papers  I  am  not  aware  of  it"  This  is  strange.  In  his  first 
paper  {Proctedings^  Royal  Society,  vol.  xxlL  p.  40)  Prof.  Rey- 
nolds declares*  its  object  to  be  *'to  point  out  and  to  describe 
experiments  to  prove  that  these  effects  (the  motions  observed  bv 
Mr.  Crookes)  are  the  results  of  evaporation  and  condensation.'' 
Now  they  are  not  the  results  of  evaporation  and  condensation : 
and  it  might  have  been  seen,  ab  initio^  that  evaporation 
and  condensation  could  have  had  nothing  to  do  with  them ; 
for  evaporation  and  condensation  can  only  produce  a  tempo- 
rary force,  ceasing  so  soon  as  the  distillation  is  complete, 
and  caimot  therefore  be  any  part  of  the  cause  of  a  per- 
sistent force  such  as  that  detected  by  Mr.  Crookes,  which  lasts 
for  any  length  of  time  during  which  the  heat  is  applied.  In  the 
same  paper  Prof.  Reynolds  further  says,  "  The  reason  why  Mr. 
Crookes  did  not  obtain  the  same  results  within  a  less  perfect 
vacuum  [than  that  of  the  Sprengel  pump],  was .  because 
he  had  then  too  lar^e  a  proportion  of  air,  or  non-con- 
densing gas,  mixed  with  the  vapour,  which  was  also  not 
in  a  state  of  saturation."  All  this  is  manifest  error.  But 
this  is  not  all,  for  the  whole  of  the  theory  of  those  papers 
is  erroneous;  neither  condensable  vapour  nor  residual 
pas  acts  in  the  way  described  by  Prof.  Osborne  Revnolds.  In 
investigating  the  force  arising  from  evaporation  aad  condensa- 
tion, he  has  overlooked  the  circumstance  that  the  evaporation 
from  the  disc  wOl  keep  back  part  of  the  vapour  which  would 
otherwise  have  reached  it,  and  in  investigating  the  effect  of  con- 
densation he  tacitly  assumes  that  it  does  keep  it  back.  Now 
in  both  cases  the  reverse  of  the  assumption  is  what  takes 
place,  and  he  actually  arrives  at  the  absurd  result  that  "if 
the  opposite  sides  of  a  pith  ball  in  vapour  were  in  such 
different  conditions  [Le.^  one  surface  evaporating^,  the  other  con- 
densing] the  ball  would  be  forced  towards  the  colder  side" 
(p.  404).  Hb  conclusion  amounts  to  this  :  that  the  recoil  of  a 
caimon  would  be  doubled  if  it  were  struck  from  behind  by  a 
missile  at  the  same  moment  that  it  discharges  an  equal  mass  with 
eaual  velocity  forwards!  If  he  had  not  made  these  mis- 
takes he  would  have  got  out  only  the  forces  which  result 
from  "the  perceptible  motion  of  the  vapour,"  which  he 
states  "  would  be  insensible  "  (p.  403),  along  with  altera' ions  in 
the  general  tension  of  the  vapour  whkh  would  aet  equally  on 
both  sides  tf  the  disc.  Those  errors  vitiate  the  whole  of  his 
mathematical  reasoning,  so  that  the  value  for/  which  he  gets,  is 
not,  as  he  supposes,  "  the  force  arising  from  evaporation,"  and 
his  law  connecting  it  with  the  heat  falls  to  the  ground.  I  have 
.  all  along  supposea,  from  Prof.  Reynoldb's  having  long  ceased  to 
mention  his  toeory  of  evaporation  and  condensation,  ^t  he  was 
aware  of  some  of  its  errors. 

The  same  error  vitiates  his  reasoning  in  reference  to  the  action 
of  residual  gas.  If  the  error  is  corrected,  and  if,  as  he  assumes, 
the  gas  coming  up  to  the  disc  had  been  unpolarised  (ue.  had 
brought  to  the  disc  e^ual  numbers  of  molecules,  and  with  equal 
velocities  firom  all  directions  in  front),  his  investigation  would 
only  have  given  him  an  increase  in  the  general  pressure  of  the 
gaSf  acting,  as  I  pointed  out  in  paragraph  5  of  my  first  paper 
(Phil,  Mag,t  March,  1876,  p.  179),  equally  on  the  front  and  back 
of  the  disc,  except  during  the  almost  inappreciable  instant  of 
adjustment.  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  therefore  wliolly  missed  the 
source  of  the  persistent  force  with  which  Mr.  Crooked  s  experiments 
deal. 

2.  Prol  Osborne  Reynolds  next  says  that  his  second  paper 
"does  not  conclude  with  his  own  expression  of  op'nion  that 
residual  &a  is  not  the  cause  of  the  force  observed  by  Mr.  Crookes." 
In  reply  I  have  only  to  quote  the  concluding  words  of  that  paper 
(Phil,  Ma§,,  November,  1874,  p.  391).  After  passing  under 
review  the  two  agencies  (condensable  vapour  and  residtud  gas), 
which  he  supposes  are  to  be  considered,  he  decides  in  favour  of 
the  former  in  the  following  words  :  "  hence  in  such  cases  [ie.^ 
under  the  conditions  whioi  he  supposed  to  prevail  in  Mr. 
Crookes's  experiments]  it  seems  to  me  that  the  effects  must  be 
due  to  the  forces  of  condensation." 

3.  In  the  next  section  of  his  letter  Pro£  Reynolds  states  that 
Qausius  and  Maxwell  "  established  the  law  tbiat  the  only  condi- 
tion of  thermal  equilibrium  in  a  gas  is  that  of  uniform  tempera- 
ture."   I  am  not  aware  that  they  have  ever  established  this  law. 


The  converse  of  it  is  obviously  true,  and  has  often  been  used, 
and  the  law  itself  has  sometimes  been  assumed,  but  has  never, 
so  far  as  I  know,  been  proved.  I  am,  however,  disposed  to 
concur  with  those  who  thmk  that  it  is  probably  true,  and  the 
conclusion  in  my  paper  on  penetration  (which  is  the  reverse  of 
that  attributed  to  me  by  Prof.  Reynolds)  is  in  conformity  with  it. 
My  conclusion  is  expressed  in  the  following  words  (PMl,  Mcte.^ 
December,  1877,  §  4) :~"  Hence  there  must,  in  the  cases  that 
really  arise,  be  some  escape  of  heat  which  may  be  small  but 
cannot  vanish."  And,  I  may  remark,  there  will,  according  to 
my  view,  be  two  other  sources  of  escape  of  heat,  viz.,  conduction 
by  diffusion,  which  was  excluded  from  my  investigation ;  and 
conduction  by  radiation,  which  was  excluded  both  from  Clausins's 
investigation  (Phil.  Mag,^  June^  1862,  p.  422,  footnote)  andfiK>m 
mine. 

Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  a  second  time  objects  to  my  having 
excluded  conduction  when  investigating  the  penetration  of  heat. 
As  he  attaches  weight  to  authority  he  will  perhaps  be  reconcUed 
to  my  doing  so,  by  the  example  of  Clausius,  as  cited  above,  and 
by  lus  justification  of  it  in  the  following  words  (loc.cU,) : — "  In 
any  case,  however,  it  is  allowable  to  consider  separately  each  of 
these  two  ways  in  which  heat  moves." 

Before  passing  from  this  subject  I  wish  to  take  the  opportunity 
ofstatingthatDr.  Schuster's  letter  (Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  143) 
has  satisfied  me  that  I  have  hitherto  erred  in  my  estimate  of  the 
relative  efficiency  of  penetration  and  conduction  as  agents  for 
conveying  heat  I  am  now  convinced  that  penetration  is 
usually  feeble  compared  with  conduction,  and,  in  the  figures  re- 
presenting De  la  Prevostaye  and  Desains'  experiments,  is  to  be 
sought  in  those  portions  of  the  curves  which  slope  steeply  down- 
wai^s.  The  second  part  of  my  paper  on  penetration,  that  in 
which  I  apply  the  theory  to  experiment,  will  accordingly  require 
considerable  modification ;  and  some  of  the  statements  which  I 
made  in  my  papers  on  Crookes's  force  will  need  amendment. 
The  corrections  that  are  required  do  not,  however,  affect  any  of 
the  material  parts  of  my  theories  of  Crookes's  force  and  of  pene- 
tration, whicQ  depend  essentially  on  the  fact  that  there  is  a  layer 
in  the  gas  extendmg  to  a  limited  distance  from  a  heater  or  cooler, 
throughout  which  the  effects  of  the  discontinuity  in  the  gaseous 
motions  at  the  sur£sce  will  be  felt,  and  that  withm  that  layer  the 
stresses  and  the  communication  of  heat  follow  special  laws. 

4.  I  have  to  express  my  great  satisfaction  at  the  explicit 
admission  made  bv  Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds  in  the  fourth  section 
of  his  letter,  in  the  following  sentences : — "There  is  one  state- 
ment in  Mr.  Stone/s  letter  vriiich  is  not  erroneous.  He  says, 
*I  cannot  find  anywhere  in  Prof.  Osborne  Reync^ds's  writings  an 
explanation  of  the  thing  to  be  explained,  viz.,  that  the  stress  in 
a  Crookes's  layer  is  di&rent  in  one  direction  from  what  it  is  at 
right  angles  to  that  direction.'  I  ^Prof.  .Osborne  Reynolds]  do 
not  at  all  admit  that  this  is  '  the  thing  to  be  explained,'  and  I 
am  quite  sure  that  Mr.  Stone^  would  find  no  explanation  of  it 
in  my  writings."  This  admission  disposes  finally  of  all  con- 
troversy as  to  priori^  between  us. 

I  need  hardly,  after  this  admission,  follow  Prof.  Osborne 
Reynolds  through  the  rest  of  his  letter.  His  supposed  invariable 
law  "  that  the  [Crookes's]  force  always  tends  to  drive  the  vanes 
or  bodies  in  the  direction  of  their  colder  faces,"  does  not  seem 
to  be  true.  A  familar  exception  occurs  when  a  spheroidal  drop 
is  supported  over  a  platinum  dish.  The  Crookes  s  force  actiiig 
upon  the  platinum  dish  is  eaual  to  the  weight  of  the  drop,  and 
acts  downwards,  i,e.  in  the  direction  of  the  hottest  surface  of  the 
dish. 

In  applying  his  hypothetical  case  of  a  heater  and  cooler,  a 
and  B,  within  an  envelope  of  intermediate  temperature,  to  prove 
that  *'  the  force  that  causes  the  motion  in  the  bodies  cannot  be 
due  "  to  the  stresses  of  my  theory,  he^  has  overlooked  the  very 
obvious  circumstance  that  the  envelope,  as  well  as  B,  is  a  cooler 
in  reference  to  A,  and  the  envelope,  as  well  as  A,  is  a  heater  in 
reference  to  B. 

Prof.  Revnolds  observes  that  I  have  not  defined  polarisa- 
tion. I  described  the  kind  of  polarisation  that  exists  in 
radiometers  in  my  first  two  papers,  and  I  will  give  a  formal 
definition  of  the  term  as  applied  generally  to  gases  in  an  article 
which  I  am  preparing^  and  which  I  hope  will  be  admitted  into 
the  pages  of  Nature,  giving  as  clear  an  account  of  my  theory  as 
I  can,  compatiblv  with  brevity  and  the  omission  of  mathematics. 

The  v^y  in  which  ProC  Reynolds  has  excluded  polarisation 
from  his  explanation  is  by  assuming  that  the  state  of  the  gas 
close  to  the  heated  disc  may  be  adequately  represented  by  un- 
polarised gas  of  one  temperature  coming  up  to  the  disk,  and 
unpolarised  gas  of  another  temperature  leaving  it,  1./.,  by  mole* 


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NATURE 


{Jan.  31,  1878 


cules  coming  up  to  the  heater  in  equal  numbers  and  with  eaual 
velocities  from  all  directions  in  front,  and  by  molecvdes  recemng 
from  the  heater  equally  in  idl  directions,  although  widi  augmented 
velocities.  Under  these  circumstances  there  would  be  no  diflfer- 
ence  in  the  pressure  on  the  front  and  back  of  the  disc,  except 
during  the  very  brief  period  of  adjustment. 

By  making  this  assumption  Prof.  Revnolds  leaves  the  part  of 
Hamlet  out  of  the  play ;  for  Crookes  s  force  arises  out  of  the 


very  circumstance  wnich  has  been  omitted,  viz.,  that  the  mole- 
cules that  come  up  to  the  heater  or  cooler,  arrive  in  the  form  of  a 
rain  which  predominates  in  a  definite  direction,  a  direction  which 
is  normal  to  the  heater  and  cooler  in  the  simple  case  of  their 
being  paiallcl.  G.  Johnstone  Stoney 

A  Doable  Rainbow 

On  the  28th  inst.,  at  about  6.30  p.m.  while  m^elf  and  some 
ten  or  twelve  other  gentlemen  were  playing  cricket,  we  were 
surprised  to  see  what  we  all  considered  a  most  novel  phenome- 
non^/i  eUmbU  rainbow.  The  sky  was  cloudy  and  the  weather 
was  thundery.  At  the  time  referred  to  a  shower  of  rain  fell ; 
the  sun  was  about  lo**  above  the  horizon,  shining  out  very  bril- 
liantly and  reflecting  upon  the  waters  of  Sl  Vincent's  Gulf. 
Great  wonder  was  expressed  at  the  strange  appearance,  and 
much  curiosity  as  to  the  cause. 

The  appearance  was  as  follows  : — ^There  were  two  distinct  and 
well-defined  bows ;  the  feet  were  united^  but  the  apices  were  a 
considerable  distance  apart. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  the  lower  bow  was  caused  by  the  direct 
light  of  the  sun,  ^ile  the  light  reflected  from  the  sea  produced 
the  upper  one.  Thomas  Novi 

Wumnga,  South  Australia,  November  30 


SCIENCE  IN  TRAINING  COLLEGES 

THE  Science  and  Art  Department  has  just  issued  a 
circular  having  an  important  bearing  on  the  teach- 
ing of  science  is  to  take  m  our  training  colleges^  and 
therefore  also  in  elementary  schools. 

The  Lords  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education 
believe  that  the  time  has  arrived  when  a  special  exami- 
nation should  be  instituted  at  a  period  of  the  year  better 
adapted  to  the  training  colleges  than  May,  and  that  the 
nature  of  the  examination  and  the  payments  made  on  the 
results  should  be  modified  to  suit  the  circumstances  of 
those  colleges.  They  have  therefore  determined  that  in 
future  a  special  examination  in  science  shall  be  held  in 
training  colleges  in  December,  immediately  before  the 
ordinary  Christmas  examination. 

The  examination  will  not  be  open  to  acting  teachers. 
It  will  be  held  in  those  subjects  only  for  which  a  special 
course  of  instruction  is  provided  in  the  time-table  of  the 
College,  and  will  be  conducted  by  one  of  her  Majesty's 
inspectors  or  by  an  officer  of  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment Special  committees  will  no  longer  be  required  for 
the  training  colleges  ;  such  returns  as  are  necessary  will 
be  made  by  the  principal.  No  student  in  a  training  col- 
lege will  be  allowed  to  attend  the  May  examinations  of 
the  Science  and  Art  Department,  except  in  physical 
geography  in  May,  1878. 

The  examination  wUl  be  confined  to  the  following  nine 
subjects  : — i.  Mathematics.  2.  Theoretical  Mechanics. 
3.  Applied  Mechanics.  4.  Acoustics,  Light,  and  Heat. 
^.  Ma^etism  and  Electricity.  6.  Inorganic  Chemistry, 
mcludmg  Practical  Chemistry.  7.  Animal  Physiology. 
8.  Elementary  Botany.    9.  Phrsiography. 

No  student  will  be  permitted  to  take  up  more  than  two 
subjects  in  any  one  year,  and  women  will  not  be  per- 
mitted to  take  more  than  one  subject  in  a  year. 

The  examination,  except  for  mathematics,  will  be  based 
on  the  syllabus  of  the  several  subjects  given  in  the  Science 
Directory ;  but  the  two  stages,  elementary  and  advanced, 
will  be  treated  as  a  whole— one  paper  only  being  set. 
These  examination  papers  will  be  framed  much  as  the 
present  May  papers  are  framed,  that  is  to  say,  with  a 


certain  number  of  compulsory  questions  and  a  certain 
number  of  optional  questions,  some  of  the  latter  being 
more  difficult  and  more  highly  marked  than  the  rest. 
Questions  will  also  be  set  on  the  method  of  teachings 
various  branches  of  the  subject. 

The  successful  students  will  be  placed  in  the  first  or 
second  class,  the  standard  for  a  second  class  being  as 
high  as  that  of  a  good  second  class  in  the  present  advanced 
stage,  and  for  the  first  class  of  a  ^ood  first  class  in  the 
advanced  stage.  All  students  who  pass  will  be  registered 
as  qualified  to  earn  payments  on  results  and  will  receive 
certificates,  but  no  prizes  will  be  given.  A  payment  of 
3/.  will  be  made  on  account  of  each  first  class,  and  i/.  lox. 
on  account  of  each  second  class  obtained  by  a  student  in 
a  training  college. 

In  addition  to  the  pajrments  for  theoretical  chemistry, 
payments  will  be  made  for  practical  chemistry,  of  the 
same  amounts  and  on  the  same  conditions  as  those 
detailed  in  the  Science  Directory,  §  XLV.  The  circular 
contains  an  appendix  with  a  syllabus  of  the  subjects  for 
mathematics  in  training  colleges.  We  should-  advise  all 
interested  in  this  matter  to  obtain  a  copy  of  the  circular. 


SUNSPOTSAND  TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM 

I  HAVE  seen  only  to-day  the  number  of  Nature  (voL 
xvii.  p.  220)  containmg  a  letter  from  ProC  Piazzi 
Smyth  on  the  above  subject.  I  have  ^o  just  now  seen 
for  the  first  time  a  communication  from  ^l.  Faye  to  the 
French  Academy  of  Sciences  on  July  30  last,  in  which 
there  is  a  reference  to  the  same  subject ;  this  I  r^ret 
much,  as  M.  Faye,  through  an  incomplete  acquaintance 
with  my  investigations,  has  drawn  conclusions  from  one 
of  them  which  are  not  exact  I  shall  at  present  refer 
only  to  the  subject  of  Prof.  Smyth's  letter. 

M.  Faye  considers  the  difference  of  the  periods  found 
by  Dr.  Lamont  and  myself  for  the  diurnal  oscillation^  of 
the  magnetic  needle  (io'45  years)  and  by  Dr.  Wolf  from 
the  sun-spots  (11*11  years),  a  sufficient  proof  that  these 
cycles  are  not  synchronous,  and  therefore  that  there  is  no 
causal  connection  between  the  two  phenomena.  Prof. 
Smyth  asks  an  explanation  relatively  to  this  difference, 
upon  the  supposition  that  the  two  periods  found  are  the 
true  mean  durations  of  the  cycles  for  the  respective  phe- 
nomena. This  supposition,  however,  is  erroneous,  and 
consequently  M.  Faye's  deductions  from  it  faiL 

I  have  shown  in  a  paper  cited  by  M.  Faye  >  that  if  we 
determine  the  epoch  of  the  maximum  diurnal  oscillation 
of  the  needle  from  Cassini's  observations  made  at  Paris, 
and  from  Gilpin's  observations  made  at  London,  we  find 
it  to  have  occurred  in  I787'25.  This  epoch  agrees  very 
nearly  with  that  deduced  by  Dr.  Wolf  for  the  maximum  of 
sun-spots.  If  we  compare  this  epoch  with  that  of  the 
last  maximimi  which  occurred  for  both  phenomena  near  the 
end  of  1870,  we  shall  obtain  a  mean  duration  of  10*45 
vears,  upon  the  assumption  that  eight  c>^cles  happened 
between  these  two  epochs.  There  is  no  difference 
between  Dr.  Wolf  and  the  magneticians  excepting  upon 
the  question  whether  there  were  eight  or  only  seven 
cycles.  Dr.  Lamont  considers  that  the  data  existing 
between  1787  and  1 818  are  worthless  for  a  decision  upon 
this  point  and  by  induction  from  the  known  cycles  has 
concluded  that  three  cycles  must  have  occurred  in  tJ^c 
thirty-one  years  1787  to  18 18.  Dr.  Wolf  believes  there 
were  only  two.  I  have  given  the  evidence  which  makes 
the  existence  of  three  extremely  probable.  This  question 
has  no  relation  whatever  to  the  synchronism  of  the  two 
phenomena. 

If  we  could  accept  Dr.  Wolfs  view  we  should  find, 
as  I  have  shown,  that  the  mean  duration  of  a  cycle  for 
^M  phenomena  since  1787  would  be  11*94  years,  while 
the  sun-spot  results  for  eight  cycles  determined  by  Dr. 

*  ''On  the  Decennial  Period,"  Edimb.  Trans  ,  vol.  xxvU. 


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Jan.  31,  1878]  NATURE 


263 


Wolf  during  eighty  years  before  1787  give  10*23  years  (or, 
if  we  take  nine  cydes,  10*43  years)  for  the  mean  duration. 
It  is  by  mixing  these  two  very  different  means  that  the 
Zurich  astronomer  finds  ii'i  years,  a  mean  that  can  evi- 
dently have  no  weight  given  to  it.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
Dr.  Wolf  is  in  error  (as  I  believe  he  is)  as  to  the  existence 
of  a  maximum  in  1797,  the  mean  durations  for  the 
eighty  years  after,  and  for  the  eighty  years  before  1787 
agree  as  nearly  as  the  accuracy  of  the  determinations  for 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  will  admit 

I  bc^,  then,  to  repeat  that  since  the  time  when  regular 
series  of  magnetic  observations  were  commenced,  till  now. 
there  is  no  difference  whatever  between  Dr.  Wolf  and 
the  magnetidans  as  to  the  synchronism  of  the  two 
phenomena. 

Under  these  circumstances  we  come  to  the  question — 
Are  the  sun-spot  maxima  and  minima  really  synchronous 
with  those  of  the  magnetic  diurnal  oscillations  ?  I  have 
already  said  that  this  was  so  in  1787  ;  and,  considering 
only  the  cases  for  which  we  have  complete  materials  for 
comparison,  beginning  with  Schwabe's  observations  of 
sun-spots,  it  was  so  for  the  maxima  of  1829,  1837, 1848, 
i860,  and  1870^  and  for  the  minima  of  1824, 1833-4  {q*p\ 
1844,  1856, 1866,  and  it  is  the  case  for  the  minimum  at  the 
present  time.  These  coinddences  are  far  more  im- 
portant, as  showing  a  common  cause,  than  may  appear  at 
first  sight  from  this  summary. 

The  successive  oscillations  of  the  sun-spot  variations 
are  not  performed  in  equal  times,  neither  are  those 
of  the  magnetic  variations.  Was  the  duration  of  the 
oscillation  for  the  sun-spots  only  eight  years,  as  from 
the  masdmum  in  1829  to  that  of  1837,  so  was  that 
for  the  magnetic  variations  ;  did  it  amount  to  12^ 
years  nearly,  for  the  sun-spots,  as  from  the  minimum 
of  1844  to  that  of  1856,  this  was  also  the  case  for 
the  oscillations  of  the  needle.  Does  the  sun-spot 
variation  proceed  from  a  minimum  to  a  maximum  within 
about  three  and  a  half  years  as  from  1833-4  to  1837,  so 
does  the  magnetic  oscillation.  Does  the  sun-spot  varia- 
tion occupy  nearly  eight  years  between  a  maximum  and 
the  following  minimum,  as  from  1848  to  1856,  so  does  the 
diurnal  osciUation  of  the  needle. 

It  will  be  difficult  to  persuade  physidsts  that,  during 
nearly  a  century  the  sun-spot  cycle  has  been  shortened  or 
lengtnened,  and  the  sun-spot  variations  have  been  accele- 
rated or  retarded,  so  nearly  together  with  those  of  the 
diurnal  oscillations  of  the  magnet,  by  acddental  coinci- 
dences. No  doubt  the  admission  of  the  existence  of  a 
causal  connection  between  the  two  phenomena  is  opposed 
to  the  hypothesis,  which  many  other  facts  render  now 
wholly  untenable,  that  the  magnetic  variations  are  due  to 
the  heating  action  of  Uie  sun. 

I  am  olniged  to  Prof.  Piazzi  Smyth  for  giving  me  the 
occasion  to  explain  a  difficulty  which  has  troubled  others 
as  well  as  himself.  John  Allan  Broun 

January  23 

HENRI  VICTOR  REGNAULT 

THE  death  of  M.  Becquerel,  alluded  to  in  our  last 
issue,  was  followed  on  the  19th  inst  by  that  of  his 
friend  and  fellow-physicist,  M.  Regnault,  whose  name  is 
associated  so  intimatdy  with  the  elementary  principles 
of  our  knowledge  of  heat.  Henri  Victor  Regnault  was 
bom  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  July  .21, 1810.  His  youth  was 
spent  in  a  hard  battle  against  i>overty  in  the  effort  to 
maintain  not  only  himself,  but  his  sister.  While  still  a 
lad  he  wandered  to  Paris,  and  there  obtained  a  position 
as  assistant  in  the  large  drapery  establishment  known  as 
Le  Grand  Coude,  a  name  familiar  at  the  present  day  to 
the  lady  visitors  of  Paris.  Here  ability  and  fidelity  won 
for  him  friends,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  he  was  enabled 
to  gratify  his  longings  for  a  scientific  education,  and  enter 
the  Ecole  Polytechmque  of  Paris,  tiie  Alma  Mater  of  so 
mapy  &mous  French  savants.    After  a  course  of  two 


yeais  here,  in  1832  he  entered  upon  active  duties  in  the 
department  of  mines,  and  was  absent  from  Paris  for  the 
next  eight  years.  During  the  latter  portion  of  this  time 
he  occupied  a  professor's  chair  at  Lyons,  and  had  a 
laboratory  at  his  disposal.  Here  he  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunity to  enter  upon  the  field  of  research  in  organic 
chemistry,  which  had  just  sprung  into  existence  as  a 
branch  of  chemical  sdence,  under  the  hands  of  Liebig, 
W6hler,  Laurent,  Dumas,  and  others.  While  many  of 
the  chemists  of  the  day  were  engaged  in  theoretical 
disputes,  and  the  battle  between  the  electro-chemical 
theory  and  the  newly-advocated  type-theory  was  being 
hotly  waged,  Regnault  devoted  himself  to  the  accu- 
mulation of  the  facts  so  sorely  needed  as  founda- 
tion-stones by  the  disputants  on  both  sides.  Among 
his  investigations  at  this  time  may  be  mentioned  those 
on  the  composition  of  meconine,  piperine,  canihari- 
dine,  and  other  alkaloids,  composition  of  pectic  acid, 
identity  of  esquisetic  acid  with  maleic  aci<^  proper- 
ties of  naphthaline-sulpho-acid,  &c.  By  the  action  of 
sulphuric  anhydride  on  ethylene,  he  obtained  the  carbyl- 
sulphate,  C^H4S20e,  which  Magnus  prepared  later  from 
alcohol.  His  most  valuable  researches,  however,  were  on 
the  halogen  derivatives  in  the  ethyl-group,  especially 
interesting  at  the  time  of  their  appearance,  when  the 
theories  of  substitution  were  timidly  being  advocated. 
Among  these  compounds  now  familiar  reagents  to  the 
organic  chemists  were  mono-chloro-ethylene- chloride, 
CHjClCHCl,,  obtained  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on 
ethylene  chloride,  as  weU  as  the  higher  chlorinated 
derivatives,  which  offered  one  of  the  most  striking 
instances  of  substitution.  These  were  followed  shortly 
after  (1838)  by  the  classical  investigations  on  the  actions 
of  chlorine  on  ethyl- chloride  CgHjCi,  in  which  one  by  one 
all  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  were  successively  substituted 
by  chlorine,  until  the  limit,  C^Clo  was  reached.  Of  im- 
portance also  was  the  change  of  ether,  QHi^^O,  into 
perchloroether,  C4XIIX0O.  Another  interesting  series  of 
preparations  gave  the  substituted  ethylenes  by  the  action 
of  alkalies  on  saturated  halogen  derivatives,  ethylene- 
bromide  for  example,  yielding  vinyl-bromide,  and  bydro- 
bromic  acid : — 

CjH^Br,  -f  HKO  =  C^HaBr  +  KBr  +  HjO. 

By  this  method  he  discovered  vinyl-bromide,  vinyl-iodide, 
vinyl-chloride,  dichlor-ethylene,CjH2Cl2,  and  trichlor- ethy- 
lene, C,H  CI,.  Finally  must  be  mentioned  his  discovery  of 
carbon  tetrachloride,  CCl^,  by  leading  chlorine  into  boiling 
chloroform.  It  is  difficult  for  us  at  the  present  day  to 
estimate  the  importance  attached  to  these  discoveries 
forty  years  ago,  when  every  new  fact  was  a  glimmer  of 
light  to  the  organic  chemist  wanderine  in  the  dark,  and 
few  series  of  researches  have  stood  me  test  of  time  so 
well  as  those  carried  out  by  Regnault  in  his  Lyons  labo- 
ratory. The  faithful  study  of  minute  properties,  and  the 
careful  attention  to  physical  peculiarities,  already  gave 
evidence  of  the  tendencies  which  were  manifested  more 
frdly  in  another  branch  of  science,  and  the  appearance  of 
his  papers  in  the  Annaies  de  Chimie  et  Physique  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  scientific  world  to  the  hitherto  im- 
known  provindal  professor.  In  1840  he  was  dected  to 
replace  Robiquet  in  the  chemical  section  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  was  appointed  professor  in  the  Ecole 
Polytechmque.  In  the  following  year  he  was  elected  to 
the  chair  of  physics  at  the  CoUfege  de  France.  A  few 
years  later  he  became  engineer-in- chief  of  mines,  and  in 
1850  received  the  order  of  officer  in  the  Legion  of 
Honour. 

With  his  removal  to  Paris  the  fidd  of  Rqgnault's  inves- 
tigations was  changed.  Like  our  own  Faraday,  after 
having  obtained  renown  as  a  chemist,  he  suddenly  turned 
physicist  He  was  scarcdy  established  in  Pans,  when 
he  began  his  famous  series  of  experiments  on  specific 
heat  A  few  years  previous,  Dulong  and  Petit  had  deter- 
mined the  specific  heat  of  a  numto^of  elements  by 

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\7(tn.  31,  1878 


means  of  their  calorimeter  based  on  the  method  of  cool- 
ing, and  obtained  data  sufficiently  accurate  to  warrant  the 
establishment  of  their  law  that  the  product  of  the  specific 
heat  of  an  element  and  its  atomic  weight  is  a  constant. 
Regnaultj  after  having  submitted  their  method  to  careful 
examination^  found  it  useless  for  the  exact  determination 
of  the  specific  heat  of  solids,  and  invented  in  its  place 
the  calorimeter  bearing  his  name.  It  is  based  on  the 
method  of  mixtures,  viz.,  of  heating  a  known  weight  of  a 
substance  to  a  known  temperature,  immersing  it  in  a 
known  weight  of  water  at  a  known  temperature,  and 
determining  the  temperature  of  the  mixture.  With  this 
apparatus,  which  is  of  a  somewhat  complicated  character, 
in  order  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  possibilities  of 
error,  R^^ault  determined  the  specific  heat  of  the 
Hguid  and  solid  elements,  and  of  a  great  variety 
of  compounds.  From  the  comparison  of  these  results 
he  deduced  the  general  law  that  for  all  compounds 
of  the  same  formula  and  similar  chemical  constitution 
the  product  of  the  specific  heat  and  the  atomic 
weight  is  the  same.  He  also  confirmed,  by  his  experi- 
mentSy  the  hypothesis  of  Wostyn,  that  the  elements 
require  the  same  amount  of  heat  to  be  raised  to  a  certain 
temperature,  whether  free  or  in  combination,  and  showed, 
by  his  more  exact  results,  the  general  truth  of  Dulong 
and  Petit's  law.  In  order  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of 
determining  the  specific  heat  of  gases,  Regnault  contrived 
aningenious  apparatus  in  which  the  gases  passed  through  a 
spiral  inclosed  in  a  known  weight  of  water.  The  volume 
of  gas,  its  temperature  on  entering  and  leaving  the  appa- 
ratus, and  the  alteration  in  the  temperature  of  the  water 
Bupplied  the  necessary  data.  By  this  means  he  experi- 
mented with  about  thirty-five  of  the  principal  gases  and 
vapours,  and  established  the  two  important  laws,  i,  that 
the  speofic  heat  of  any  gas  at  constant  pressure,  whether 
simple  or  compound,  is  the  same  at  all  pressures  and  tem- 
oeratures ;  and  2,  that  the  specific  heats  of  different 
simple  gases  are  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  their  relative 
densities.  Regnault  prepared  also  an  interesting  table  of 
the  specific  heats  of  various  substances  in  the  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous  forms,  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
specific  heat  of  the  same  body  is  commonly  greater  in  the 
Uquidthan  inthe  solid  state,  and  always  greater  than  in 
the  gaseous  state. 

In  his  experiments  upon  heat  Regnault  was  led  to 
devise  methods  of  measuring  high  temperatures  accu- 
rately, and  invented  the  weJl-known  air  thermometer, 
which  can  be  used  at  all  temperatures  below  that  at 
which  gas  softens,  and  the  mercury  and  hydrogen  pyro- 
meters, the  latter  of  which  permits  the  determmation  of 
the  temperature  in  a  furnace  at  any  instant.  In  this  con- 
nection he  carried  out  also  an  elaborate  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  deasityand  absolute  expansion  of  mercury 
from  i^  to  360^,  the  results  of  which,  as  tabulated,  are  of 
primary  importance  in  the  correction  of  thermometers 
and  barometers,  as  well  as  in  a  multitude  of  physical 
experiments  conducted  with  this  liquid.  Still  more  ela- 
borate and  exhaustive  are  the  extensive  series  of  deter- 
minations in  connection  With  water,  its  specific  heat  at 
various  temperatures,  the  tension  of  its  vapour  at  various 
temperatures,  and  the  latent  heat  of  its  vapour  at  various 
pressures,  all  of  which  were  designed  to  serve  as  funda- 
mental facts  upon  which  to  base  the  action  of  heat  on 
water  for  industrial  purposes.  The  specific  heat  of  water 
was  found  to  increase  from  i  at  0°  to  1*013  at  100°  and 
1*056  at  230°.  For  the  determination  of  the  tension  of 
steam  Regnault  contrived  a  simple  apparatus  based  on 
the  fact  that  the  maximum  tension  of  steam  at  the  boiling- 
point  is  equal  to  the  external  pressure,  by  the  aid  of  which 
he  was  stole  to  construct  his  .table  of  tensions  from 
o'32  mill,  at  32**  to  20926  mill,  at  230^. 

The  expermients  with  this  apparatus  were  extended  to 
a  number  of  volatile  liquids  witn  the  design  of  testing  the 
truth  of  Dalton's  supposition  that  the  tension    of   the 


vapours  of  all  lic^uids  is  the  same  at  temperatures  equally 
distant  from  their  boiling  points,  and  the  results  showed 
that  although  not  a  law,  it  was  very  nearly  correct 
for  small  intervals  of  temperature  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  boiling  point.  A  variety  of  interesting 
results  were  also  obtained  from  mixtures  of  gases  and 
vapours,  including  the  laws  that  a  liquid  does  not  give  off 
a  vapour  of  so  high  a  tension  in  the  presence  of  a  perma- 
nent gas  as  in  a  vacuum,  and  that  while  the  tension  of 
the  vapours  of  a  mixture  of  liquids  not  dissolving  each 
other  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  tensions  of  its  liquids  at 
the  same  temperature;  on  the  contrary,  the  tension 
arising  from  a  mixture  of  mutually  solvent  liquids  is  less 
than  the  sum  of  the  individual  tensions. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  of  Re^paault's  experimental 
investigations  was  that  on  the  coefficient  of  expansion  for 
air  and  other  gases,  as  well  as  on  the  compressibility  of 
gases.  Dalton,  Gay-Lussac,  and  Rudberg  had  obtained 
numbers  for  the  coefficient  of  expansions  differing  widely 
from  one  another.  It  was  reserved  for  Regnault  to  esta- 
blish by  the  most  delicate  experiments  the  number  "03663 
as  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  air,  and  to  show  in 
addition  that  the  law  of  Dalcon  and  Gay-Lussac  with 
regard  to  the  regularity  of  expansion  among  gases  was 
only  approximately  correct  A  similar  result  was  obtained 
in  his  investigations  on  the  accuracy  of  Boyle  and 
Mariotte's  Law,  on  the  compressibility  of  gases. 

In  addition  to  the  chief  lines  of  research  alluded  to, 
Regnault  made  a  variety  of  interesting  experiments  on 
the  phenomena  produced  by  heat,  and  his  hypsometer  and 
hygrometer  should  be  mentioned,  on  account  of  their 
simple  and  practical  qualities.  Some  valuable  investiga- 
tions on  the  phenomena  of  respiration  were  made  by  him 
in  connection  with  Reiset,  and,  together  with  Dumas,  he 
carried  out  a  lengthy  research  on  illuminating  gas. 

His  most  valuable  experimental  results  are  collected 
together  in  voL  xxi.  of  the  Mimoires  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  a  continuation  is  to  be  found  in  voL  xxvL 
Regnault  published,  in  1847,  a  treatise  on  chemistry, 
which  has  survived  numerous  editions  in  France,  and 
been  translated  into  German,  English,  Dutch,  and  Italian. 

In  1854  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  famous  porce- 
lain manufactory  of  Sevres,  and  since  that  date  much  of 
his  time  has  been  devoted  to  improvements  in  ceramic 
processes.  During  the  Franco-Prussian  war  he  received 
a  sad  blow  in  the  death,  on  the  battle-field,  of  his  second 
son,  Henri  Regnault,  a  promising  artist,  and  universal 
favourite  in  Paris.  He  returned  to  his  laboratory  at 
S6vres,  after  the  declaration  of  peace,  to  find  that  the 
results  of  his  last  great  research  on  the  phenomena  of 
heat  accompanying  the  expansion  of  gases,  derived  from 
over  600  observations,  had  been  destroyed.  The  announce- 
ment of  this  loss  was  his  last  communication  to  the 
scientific  world.  Since  then,  oppressed  by  grief  and  a 
victim  to  increasing  infirmities,  he  has  been  forced  to 
renounce  his  wonted  pursuits.  On  the  day  when  the 
gay  artist  world  of  Paris  was  celebrating  the  battle  of 
Buzenval  by  laying  wreaths  on  the  grave  of  the  young 
patriot-painter,  the  father  was  released  from  a  long  and 
painful  illness  by  the  hand  of  death. 

As  a  scientific  investigator,  Regnault  did  not  possess 
the  brilliant  originality  of  many  of  his  fellow-physicists. 
It  is  as  the  patient,  thorough,  conscientious  observer  that 
he  has  won  his  way  to  the  foremost  rank.  Possessing  a 
wonderful  ingenuity  in  the  invention  of  mechanical 
appliances  for  the  purposes  of  observation  and  a  perfect 
familiarity  with  the  mathematical  department  of  physics, 
he  has  been  enal^led  by  means  of  his  unflagging 
enthusiasm  and  unbending  resolution  to  place  the  modem 
physicist  and  chemist  in  possession  of  an  invaluable  col- 
lection of  constants,  which  at  the  present  stage  of  science 
are  in  daily  use  not  only  in  the  laboratory  of  research, 
but  for  a  large  variety  of  industrial  purposes. 

T.  H.  N. 


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THE  ORIGIN  OF  A  LIMESTONE  ROCK^ 

f  N  November,  1845,  I  laid  before  the  Literary  and 
^  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester  my  memoir 
"  On  some  Microscopic  Objects  found  in  the  Mud  of  the 
Levant  and  other  Deposits  ;  with  Remarks  on  the  Mode  of 
Formation  of  Calcareous  and  Infusorial  Siliceous  Rocks," 
which  memoir  was  published  in  vol.  vlii.  of  the  second 
series  of  the  Society's  Transactions,  In  that  memoir  I 
sought  to  demonstrate  two  things— ist,  thit  not  only  was 
Chalk  made  up  of  microscopic  organisms,  chiefly  Fora- 
minifera,  as  had  recently  been  demonstrated  by  Ehren- 
berg,  but  that  the  fact  was  equally  true  and  explanatory 
of  the  origin  of  all  limestones  except  a  few  freshwater 
Travertins  ;  2nd,  that  some  other  extensive  deposits,  of 
submarine  originj  in  which  no  Foraminifcra  could  now  be 
detected,  were  not  in  the  s'ate  in  which  they  were  origi- 
nally accumulated.  I  concluded  that  Foraminifcra  had 
douDtless  been  present  in  them  also,  but  that  their  cal- 
careous shells  had  been  dissolved  out  of  them,  and  that 
this  disappearance  had  been  effected  through  the  agency 
of  water  containing  carbonic  acid,  at  an  early  stage  of 
the  formation  of  these  deposits.  As  is  well  known,  this 
latter  theory  has  been  reproduced  as  a  new  one  by  some 
of  the  naturalists  of  the  Challenger  expedition,  who  have 
applied  it  to  the  explanation  of  phenomena  of  a  sub- 
stantially similar  nature  to  those  which  I  endeavoured  to 
account  for,  in  the  same  way,  more  than  thirty  years 
previously. 

I  am  indebted  for  the  slab  of  limestone  forming  the 
subject  of  this  communication  to  my  friends  the  Messrs. 
Patteson,  the  marble  merchants  of  Oxford  Street,  Man- 
chester. This  slab  appears  to  illustrate  in  an  exquisite 
manner  both  the  theories  to  which  I  have  just  referred. 
It  is  a  specimen  of  the  Bolland  limestone,  which,  when 
sawn  through,  was  found  to  contain  a  large  concamerated 
Nautiloid  shell  more  than  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  which 
appears  to  me  to  have  been  a  true  Nautilus,  though  the 
section  has  not  passed  exactly  through  its  centre  so  as  to 
reveal  any  portion  of  its  siphuncle.  In  the  various  parts 
of  this  slab  we  find  the  calcareous  material  exhibiting 
different  conditions.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  its 
substance  we  have  evidence  that  it  has  originated  in  an 
accumulation  of  minute  calcareous  organisms— especially 
Foraminifera— but  most  of  these  are  disintegrated  and 
display  vague  outlines,  a  condition  which  I  presume  has 
resulted  from  the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  already 
alluded  to. 

Scattered  through  the  slab  are  numerous  dark-coloured 

}>atches  of  a  substance  apparently  identical  with  what  the 
ate  Dr.  Mantell  designated  Molluskite,  and  which  he 
believed  to  be  the  remains  of  the  soft  animal  substance 
of  marine  organisms.  In  many  of  these  patches  the 
Foraminiferous  shells  are  better  preserved  than  is  the  case 
with  the  rest  of  the  matrix  inclosing  the  large  fossil  shell. 
It  appears  as  if  this  Molluskite  had  partially  protected 
the  calcareous  Foraminifera  from  the  solvent  action  which 
had  disintegrated  most  of  those  forming  the  rest  of  the 
deposit 

J3ut  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  specimen  are 
seen  within  the  chambers  of  the  Nautiloid  shelL  The 
Foraminiferous  ooze  has  entered  freely  through  the  large, 
open  mouth  of  the  terminal  chamber  in  which  the  animal 
resided  and  filled  the  entire  cavity  of  that  chamber. 
There  is  no  doubt  whatever  as  to  the  original  identity  in 
the  character  of  the  ooze  thus  inclosed  within  the  shell 
and  that  which  constitutes  its  investing  matrix,  though 
they  now  appear  very  different.  The  latter  portion  was 
freely  permeated  by  water  containing  the  solvent  carbonic 
acid  ;  hence  the  more  or  less  complete  disintegration  of 
its  Foraminiferous  shells.    But  in  the  limestone  inclosed 

>  "  On  the  Microscopic  Conditions  of  a  Slab  from  the  Mountain  Lime- 
stone of  Holland,"  by  W.  C.  WiUiamson,  F.R  S..  Professor  of  Natural  His- 
torjr  in  Owens  College.  Read  before  the  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society  of  Manchester,  January  8. 


within  the  large  terminal  chamber  of  the  Nautiloid  shell 
almost  every  Foraminifer  is  preserved  in  the  most  exqui- 
site perfection.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  deeper 
part  of  the  chamber,  most  remote  from  the  mouth,  as  also 
m  the  instances  of  one  or  two  of  the  more  internal  closed 
chambers,  into  which  the  mud  has  obtained  entrance 
through  small  accidental  fractures  in  the  outer  shellwall. 
It  appears  obvious  to  me  that  the  thick  calcareous  shell 
of  the  Nautilus  has  protected  the  inclosed  shells  of  the 
Foraminifera  from  the  action  of  the  solvent  acid.  I  repeat 
that  there  is  no  room  whatever  for  doubting  that  both 
portions  of  the  Foraminiferous  ooze,  whether  contained 
within  or  surrounding  the  Nautiloid  shell,  were  originally 
in  identical  states.  Microscopic  observation  makes  this 
sufficiently  plain.  The  differences  now  observable  be- 
tween them  have  arisen  from  changes  which  have  taken 
place  subsequent  to  their  primary  accumulation,  and  which 
changes  have  been  due  to  differences  of  position ;  the  one 
portion  has  been  protected  by  the  thick  calcareous  Nauti- 
loid shell  which  would  rob  the  water  percolating  through 
it  of  all  its  solvent  carbonic  acid,  and  thus  preserve  the 
contained  Protozoa  from  destruction,  and  which  pro- 
tection would  continue  so  long  as  any  portion  of  the 
Nautiloid  shellwall  remained  undissolved.  The  other, 
being  unprotected,  would  be  exposed  to  the  full  action  of 
the  solvent,  which  would  percolate  readily  amongst  the 
loosely  aggregated  microscopic  organisms,  and  speedily 
act  upon  their  fragile  shells. 

But  there  is  a  yet  further  feature  in  this  interesting 
specimen  requiring  notice.  The  closed  chambers  of  the 
Nautiloid  shell  are  all  filled  with  clear,  crystalline,  cal- 
careous spar.  The  acidulated  water,  acting  upon  the 
calcareous  Foraminifera  of  the  ooze  has  become  converted 
into  a  more  or  less  saturated  solution  of  carbonate  of 
lime.  This  has  passed,  by  percolation,  through  the  shell 
of  the  Nautilus  mto  its  hollow  chambers.  Finding  there 
suitable  cavities  it  has  gradually  filled  them  up  with  a 
crystalline  formation  of  calcareous  spar,  and  which  of 
course  e^bits  no  traces  of  the  minute  organisms  from 
which  the  calcareous  matter  was  primarily  derived.  A 
similar  crystallisation  has  filled  up  the  smaller  interspaces 
between  the  Foraminiferous  atoms  both  inclosed  within, 
and  external  to,  the  Nautilus,  rendering  the  limestone 
capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish. 

If  these  explanations  are  as  correct  as  I  believe  them 
to  be,  we  have  here  the  entire  history  of  the  origin  of  a 
limestone  rock — from  the  first  accumulation  of  the  Fora- 
miniferous ooze,  as  seen  in  the  interior  of  the  first  large 
chamber  of  the  Nautilus,  to  the  deposition,  in  an  inor- 
ganic mineral  form,  of  the  crystallised  carbonate  of  lime 
within  the  closed  chambers  of  the  Nautilus,  all  being 
illustrated  within  the  area  of  a  slab  of  limestone  little 
more  than  a  foot  in  diameter. 


THE  LIQUEFACTION  OF  THE  GASES 

IN  the  recent  article,  in  which  the  magnificent  results 
recently  obtained  by  MM.  CaiUetet  and  Pictet  were 
detailed,  we  contented  ourselves,  in  the  account  of  the 
methods  employed,  by  pointing  out  the  extreme  sim- 
plicity of  that  used  by  M.  Cailletet  The  Jsimplicity, 
however,  by  no  means  takes  away  from  the  beauty  of  the 
method,  and  we  now  propose  to  return  to  it  with  a  view 
of  showing  how  closely  it  resembles  in  many  of  its 
details  that  employed  by  Dr.  Andrews  in  his  classical 
work  on  the  continuity  of  the  various  states  of  matter. 

Dr.  Andrews,  it  will  be  remembered,  in  his  experiments 
on  the  li(}uefaction  of  carbonic  acid,  used  a  glass  tube 
capillary  m  the  upper  part,  and  in  the  remainder,  of  a 
bore  just  so  wide  that  a  column  of  mercury  would  remain 
in  it  when  the  tube  was  held  in  a  vertical  position.  The 
£^  to  be  operated  on  was  confined  to  the  narrow  upper 
part  of  the  tube  by  mercury,  and  the  tube  was  tightly 
packed  to  an  end  piece  of  brass  armed  with  a  fiange. 


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This  permitted  a  water-tight  junction  with  a  corresponding 
end  of  a  cold-drawn  tube  of  copper  of  great  strength.  A 
similar  end-piece  was  attached  to  the  other  extremity  of  this 


Fu;.  I  —1  wo  of  I  >r   Atidrews's  tubes  on  a  kUuid  as  in  use 

copper  cylinder,  and  in  the  centre  was  a  fine  screw  most 
carefully  made  and  fitted,  seven  inches  long,  and  packed 
50  as  to  resist  a  pressure  of  400  atmospheres  or  more. 


Fig.  a.— Section  of  Tube 


Fig.  3  — Arrangcnienu  for  Utilising 
Low  Temperati  res. 


In  all  these  tubes  the  pressure  is  produced  by  screwing 
up  the  mercury  into  the  capillary  tube. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  phenomena  which  Dr. 
Andrews  observed,  taking  carbonic  acid  as  an  example. 

On  partially  liquefying  the  gas  by  pressure  and  charging 
the  temperature,  the  surface  of  demarcation  between  the 
liquid  and  the  gas  became  less  and  less  distinguishable, 
the  tube  seemed  to  be  filled  with  a  homogeneous  fluid 
which,  when  the  pressure  was  suddenly  diminished,  or  the 
temperature  slightly  lowered,  broke  up  into  striae.  Fig.  4. 

A  cloud  was  also  formed  if  the  temperature  were 
allowed  to  fall  a  little  below  the  "  critical  pomt "  30^*92  C, 
showing  the  formation  of  liquid  particles,  Fig.  5. 

We  may  now  pass  to  M.  Cailletet's  method  and  the 
phenomena  he  observes.  Fig.  6,  for  which  we  are  indebted 
to  the  courtesy  of  the  editor  of  La  Nature^  represents  the 
great  apparatus  which  M.  Cailletet  has  constructed  at  his 
works  of  Ch4tillon-sur-Seine. 

The  apparatus  is  composed  of  a  hollow  steel  cylinder 
A  solidly  fixed  to  a  cast-iron  frame  by  means  of  the 
hoops  B  B.  A  cylindrical  shaft  of  soft  steel  acting  the 
part  of  a  plunger  enters  this  cylinder,  which  is  filled 
with  water.     The  opposite  extremity  of   the   shaft  is 


When  low  temperatures  as  well  as  high  pressures  were 
required,  the  tube  was  bent,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  and 
inserted  in  a  freezing  mixture. 


Jfio.  4.~Str«8e. 


Fig.  5.— Cloud. 


terminated  by  a  square-threaded  screw,  which  traverses 
the  bronze  nut  F,  fixed  in  the  centre  of  the  fly-wheel 
M.  According  to  the  direction  given  to  the  fly-wheel 
by  means  of  the  handles  with  which  it  is  provided, 
the  plunger  may  be  advanced  into  or  withdrawn  from 
the  axis  of  the  body  of  the  pump.  A  leather  packing 
prevents  the  compressed  liquid  from  escaping  from  the 
cylinder. 

In  order  to  introduce  the  water  or  the  liquid  to  be  com- 
pressed, it  is  p>  uied  into  the  glass  vessel  G,  which  is 
in  communication  with  the  interior  of  the  apparatus ;  a 
steel  screw  with  conical  point  closes  the  narrow  pipne 
through  which  the  liquid  passes.  This  screw  is  termi- 
nated by  a  small  fly-wheel  o,  with  handles.  This  arrange- 
ment permits  of  suddenlv  expanding  the  compressed 
gases,  and  seeing  the  cloud  produced  in  the  capillary  tube 
where  the  gas  under  experiment  is  contained.  (This  tube 
is  represent!  d  in  the  centre  of  the  glass  envelope,  iw.)  The 
cloud  is  formed  under  the  influence  of  the  external  cold 
produced  by  the  sudden  expansion,  a  certain  sign  of  the 
liquefaction  or  even  of  the  solidification  of  the  gases  re- 
garded hitherto  as  permanent,  a  is  a  hollow  steel  reservoir 


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[7^n.  31,  1878 


capable  of  supporting  a  pressure  of  from  900  to  1,000 
atmospheres  ;  it  is  connected  with  the  compression  appa- 
ratus by  a  capillary  metallic  tube.  The  water,  under 
the  action  of  the  piston,  arrives  in  this  reservoir,  a,  and 
acts  upon  the  mercury  which  compresses  the  gas.  d  repre- 
sents the  tube  which  connects  this  with  the  glass  intended 
to  contain  the  gas  under  experiment.  A  nut  serves  to 
fix  this  piece  to  the  upper  part  of  the  reservoir.  Fig.  7 
shows  this  arrangement  in  half-size. 

m  is  SL  glass  cover  containing  a  cylinder  of  the  same 
material,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  small  tube  in  which 
the  liquefaction  of  the  gas  takes  place.  This  capillary 
tube  may  be  surrounded  with  refrigerating  mixtures  or 
with  liquid  protoxide  of  nitrogen.  The  exterior  cover,  m, 
concentric  with  the  first,  and  containing  substances  strongly 


absorbent  of  moisture,  prevents  the  deposit  of  ice  or  vapour 
on  the  cooled  tube  in  which  the  experiments  are  made. 
/  is  a  cast-iron  tablet  intended  to  support  the  reservoir, 
a ;  the  screws,  d  d,  enable  the  reservoir  to  be  raised  or 
lowered  for  the  spectroscopic  examination  or  the  pro- 
jection of  the  experiments.  An  arrangement,  s,  imites 
the  capillary  metallic  tubes  which  transmit  the  pressure  to 
the  various  parts  of  the  apparatus.  N  is  a  modified 
Thomasset  manometer  verified  by  means  of  an  air  mano- 
meter established  on  the  side  of  a  hill  near  the  labo- 
ratory of  Ch^tillon-sur-Seine.  n'  represents  a  glass 
manometer  which  serves  to  control  the  mdications  of  the 
mercury  apparatus. 

It  is  a  fortunate  thing  that  the  students  of  science  in 


-i 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  7.— Glass  tube  with  thick  sides  in  which  the  liquefaction  of  the  ^ases  is  eflfected  in  M.  Cailletet's  apparatus.  The  gas  is  compressed  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  tube  by  the  ascent  of  a  column  of  mercury  placed  in  connection  with  a  screw-press  acting  on  a  mass  of  water.  It  condenses  in  a  liquid 
drop  or  into  mist  under  the  action  of  expansion.  This  glass  tube  is  enveloped  in  an  envelope  of  the  same  substance  containing  the  refrigerating 
mixture.     See  the  centre  of  the  tube  m  in  Fig.  a.      Fig.  8. — Small  apparatus  for  the  liquefaction  of  gases. 


France  have  not  been  forgotten  by  M.  Cailletet.  He 
has  not  only  devised  the  instrument  above  described 
for  his  own  work,  but  he  has  occupied  himself  with  a 
small  lecture  or  laboratory  apparatus  which  M.  Ducretet 
has  constructed  according  to  his  directions.  It  is  an  exact 
copy  of  the  part,  a,  d,  m  of  the  apparatus  of  Chitillon- 
sur-Seine.  The  bell-glass  alone  is  modified.  The  screw- 
press  is,  moreover,  replaced  by  an  easily- worked  pump. 
In  Fig.  8  t'  T  is  a  glass  tube  filled  with  the  gas  to  be 
compressed ;  the  tube  has  been  traversed  b^  the  gas 
untu  air  has  been  entirely  excluded  ;  for  this  purpose 
it    is    placed    in   a  horizontal   position.      When   it    is 


filled  with  the  gas  to  be  experimented  on  it  is  her- 
metically sealed  at  its  extremity,  /.  closed  with  the 
finger  at  the  other  end,  and  introducea  vertically  into  the 
iron  apparatus  as  represented  in  the  figure.  It  is  inserted 
into  a  cylindrical  cistern  containing  menniry.  The  upper 
part  of  the  tube  is  enveloped  in  a  glass  envelope,  M, 
filled  with  a  refrigerating  mixture.  The  whole  is  en- 
veloped in  a  glass  jar,  G.  The  tube,  T  u  is  connected 
with  a  compressing  pump,  which  is  worked  with  the 
hand.  The  water  compressed  by  the  pump  acts  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  mercury  indicated  in  the  figure  by 
horizontal  lines.    This  mercury  is  driven  back  into  the 


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tube  T  T  ;  it  reduces  the  space  a  b  occupied  by  the  gas. 
and  is  soon  surmounted  by  droplets  of  the  compressed 
g^,  which  unite  into  a  little  mass  of  liquid,  b. 

The  foUowing  are  the  parts  of  the  apparatus  :«— 
B,  a  block  of  malleable  iron  with  strongly-resisting 
walls;  £',  E,  screw  nuts  which  may  be  unscrewed  to 
arrange  the  apparatus  before  using  it ;  P  P,  very  solid 
tripod  which  receives  the  apparatus ;  S,  support  of  the 
bell  G  and  the  envelope  m;  n  supplementary  screw 
intended  to  close  the  hole  in  the  joint  r  when  the  mer- 
cury is  poured  into  the  apparatus. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Royal  Observatory,  Cape  of  Good  Hope.— 
Since  the  appointment  of  Mr.  Stone  to  the  directorship 
of  this  establishment,  in  1870,  not  only  have  all  arrears  of 
observations  with  the  transit-circlCi  first  brought  into  use 
in  1855,  been  reduced  and  published,  but  Mr.  Stone  has 
lately  issued  the  results  of  observations  taken  in  1875, 
and  has  thereby  overtaken  the  position  of  publications  of 
the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  and  the  Radcliffe 
Observatory,  Oxford,  which  have  been  conspicuous 
amongst  astronomical  establishments  for  the  expedition 
with  which  the  great  mass  of  work  involved  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  observations  has  been  performed,  and  the 
results  given  to  the  scientific  public. 

The  chief  work  of  the  year  was  the  continuation  of  the 
general  re-observation  of  the  stars  in  the  Coslum  AustraU 
Stelliferum  of  Lacaille,  attention  in  1875  having  been 
directed  to  those  stars  lying  between  145''  and  155^  of 
north  polar  distance  at  the  present  epoch,  all  of  which 
appear  to  have  been  observed,  usually  three  times  in  both 
elements,  together  with  a  number  of  other  stars  in  the 
same  zone,  which,  though  not  generally  much  below  the 
seventh  magnitude,  were  not  observed  by  Lacaille.  Mr. 
Stone  mentions  that  stars  within  limits  of  N.P.D  135^- 
145®  were  observed  in  1876,  and  stars  between  125°-!  350 
in  1877. 

Should  it  be  deemed  advisable  shortly  to  form  another 
general  catalogue  of  stars,  similar  to  the  British  Associa- 
tion Catalogue,  say  to  stars  of  the  seventh  magnitude 
inclusive,  Mr.  Stone's  recent  volumes  will  be  of  the 
utmost  value  in  extending  the  precision  now  attainable 
for  such  stars  in  the  northern  hemisphere  to  the  southern 
heavens,  not  only  as  ref;ards  positions  for  the  present 
epoch,  but  in  the  detenmnation  of  proper  motions  of  a 
considerable  number  of  stars  by  comparison  with  Taylor's 
catalogues,  which  have  not  yet  been  systematically  ex- 
amined for  that  purpose.  And  we  will  take  this  oppor- 
tunity of  expressmg  the  hope  that  if  another  catalogue 
like  the  B.A.C.  should  be  undertaken,  the  time,  labour, 
and  expense  involved  in  the  preparation  of  so-called  star- 
constants  may  be  avoided,  and  attention  paid  instead  to 
a  niore  general  and  systematic  investigation  of  proper 
motions,  which,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted,  must  lead  to 
results  of  great  interest  and  importance. 

The  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  July  29.-11  was 
mentioned  in  Nature  last  week  that  facilities  would  be 
afforded  to  intending  observers  of  this  phenomenon  near 
Denver,  Colorado,  one  of  the  chief  places  included  in 
the  belt  of  totality  in  the  United  States,  and  situated  on 
the  Pacific  line  of  railway.  By  the  elements  of  the 
Nautical  Almanac  the  track  of  central  eclipse  appears  to 
pass  about  twenty-five  mUes  south  of  Denver,  assuming 
its  longitude  from  Greenwich  to  be  7h.  cm.  20s.  W.,  and 
latitude  39°  48',  and  at  Denver  the  total  phase  commences 
at  3h.  28m.  14s.  local  mean  time,  and  continues  2m.  45s., 
with  the  sun  at  an  altitude  of  42** ;  the  circumstances  by 
the  elements  of  the  American  ephemeris  are  almost  iden- 
tical, as  indeed  was  to  be  expected  seeine  that  the  moon's 
place  in  the  latter  work  differs  from  her  place  in  the 
Nautical  Almanac  by  only  +3"4in  R.A.  and  -f-  i"'o  in 
decL  and  the  sun's  place  by  -  i*"!  in  R.A.  and  +  o'^  in 


decl,  while  the  semi-diameters  employed  are  each  less  by 
about  2".  In  the  American  ephemeris  the  lunar  tables  of 
Peirce  and  the  solar  tables  of  Hansen  are  employed. 

The  northern  and  southern  limits  of  totality  in  the 
eclipse  of  July  29,  with  the  duration  of  total  phase  upon 
the  central  line,  for  nearly  the  whole  track  across  the 
North  American  continent  will  be  found  at  p.  400  of  the 
Nautical  Almanac  Ux  1878. 


CHEMICAL  NOTES 

Temperature  of  Flames.— In  the  Gazetta  chimica 
Italiana  an  account  is  given  by  F.  Rosetti  of  some  ex- 
periments on  the  above  subject  To  examine  the  tem- 
peratures he  employs  a  thermo-electric  element  consisting 
of  an  iron  and  a  platinum  wire  wound  closely  together 
and  connected  with  ^  galvanometer.  This  latter  was 
graduated  to  various  temperatures  by  observing  the  devia- 
tion consequent  on  bringing  the  element  in  contact  with 
a  copper  cyUnder  heated  to  known  temperatures  ;  these 
being  determined  by  introducing  the  cylinder  into  a 
calorimeter.  With  such  an  arrangement  he  has  investi- 
gated the  fiame  of  a  Bunsen's  burner,  finding  that  in  the 
same  horizontal  strata  there  were  but  slight  aaterations  in 
the  temperature,  with  the  exception  of  the  dark  interior 
portion.  Thus,  where  the  external  envelope  showed 
1,350*',  the  violet  portion  (of  the  flame  was  1,250%  the 
blue  1 ,200**,  but  the  internal  portion  much  lower,  its  tem- 
perature gradually  decreasing  from  the  base  of  the  flame 
upwards.  A  flame  produced  by  the  combustion  of  a 
mixture  of  two  volumes  of  illuminating  gas  and  three 
volumes  of  carbonic^oxide,  showed  a  temperature  of 
1,000°. 

Starch  in  Plants.— Botanists  have  hitherto  held  that 
all  the  starch  in  the  chlorophyll  cells  of  the  leaves  of 
plants  is  a  product  of  the  direct  assimilation  of  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  basing  this  belief  on  the  fact  that  the 
starch  in  these  cells  disappears  when  the  plants  are 
deprived  of  the  power  of  assimilating  carbon  dioxide,  but 
reappears  on  their  exposure  to  light  in  an  atmosphere 
containing  that  substance.  Prof.  Bohn,  of  Vienna,  in  a 
recent  number  of  the  Deut.  chem.  Ber,;  throws  some 
doubt  on  this  conclusion  by  experiments  he  has  made  on 
the  leaves  of  the  scarlet  runner.  His  results  show  that 
if  the  primordial  leaves  of  this  plant  are  shaded  from  light, 
the  starch  at  first  entirelv  disappears ;  after  a  few  weeks, 
however,  the  chlorophyll  cells  of  these  shaded  leaves 
show  almost  as  high  a  percentage  of  starch  as  the  parts 
of  the  plant  which  have  been  exposed  to  light.  These 
observations  demonstrate,  therefore,  that  starch  can  be 
formed  in  the  leaves  from  matter  which  has  already  been 
assimilated,  and  has  entered  into  the  leaf  after  its 
removal  from  the  sunlight 

Sipylite,  a  new  Mineral  Containing  Niobium.— 
Mr.  Mallett  has  found  this  mineral  among  some  quantities 
of  allanite  from  Amhurst  county,  Virginia.  A  few  crystals 
have  been  obtained,  but  as  they  are  of  rather,  imperfect 
nature  the  measurement  of  the  angles  has  only  been 
attempted  in  a  rough  manner.  The  mineral  in  the  mass 
was  of  a  brownish  black  nature,  but  in  thin  plates  it 
exhibited  a  reddish-brown  colour,  and  possesses  a  pseudo- 
metallic  lustre.  The  hardness  is  estimated  at  about  6, 
and  the  specific  gravity  as  equal  to  4*89.  From  the  re- 
sults of  analyses  Mr.  Mallet  considers  that  placing  together 
the  acid  oxides  of  niobium,  tantalum,  tungsten,  tin, 
and  zirconium,  reducing  the  basic  oxides  to  equivalent 
amounts  of  dyad  oxides,  and  eliminating  the  water,  the 
fdlowing  ratio  may  be  obtained :— 'R'O  :  M^jOg  —  221  : 
100,  leading  to  the  formula  R''3M\0a .  4R*',M^07,  that 
is  a  single  group  of  orthoniobate  associated  wim  four  of 
pyroniobate.  It  the  water  be  taken  into  account  in  the 
calculation  and  considered  basic,  then  placing  it  on  the 
same  footing  as  the  dyad  oxides,  we  il^ould  have  the 

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relation  R^O  :  M^,0.  —  311 :  100,  or  nearly  3  :  i,  thus 
giving  the  simple  lonnula  R' jM^'sOg ;  this  latter  the 
author  considers  the  more  probable.  Whatever  formula, 
however,  may  be  taken  for  the  mineral  it  differs  from 
niobates  hitherto  described,  the  one  view  making  it  an 
approach  to  a  simple  pyroniobate,  the  other  making  it  an 
orUicsalt  like  Ferjfusonite,  but  partially  acid  in  character, 
or  containing  basic  hydrogen. 

Molybdenum. — The  atomic  weight  of  this  metal  has 
hitherto  been  quite  uncertain,  some  chemists  regarding  it 
as  96,  others  as  93.  Fresenius,  the  leading  authority  in 
analytical  chemistry,  has  always  adopted  the  latter  num- 
ber. Prof.  Rammdsber^,  of  Berlin,  has  lately  settled  the 
question  by  careful  experiments  on  the  reduction  of  mo- 
lybdic  acid  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydrogen,  and  has 
found  96  to  be  the  correct  atomic  weight,  -  96' 18 
being  the  exact  number  obtained.  Taking  this  number 
as  a  basis,  he  has  sought  to  solve  the  problem  of  the 
composition  of  the  yellow  phospho-molybdate  of  ammo- 
nium, which  is  used  generally  for  the  determination  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  the  exact  formula  of  which  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  determined.  A  large  number  of 
analyses  of  the  ammonium  salt  and  the  corresponding 
potassium  salt  show  that  the  composition  is  undoubtedly 
3(NH4),0  -f  P,0, -f  22M0O3  -f  12H3O. 

Relations  between  the  Volumes  ok  Silver 
Salts. — H.  Schr5der  communicates  an  interesting  series 
of  observations  on  this  subject  in  the  Berichte  der 
deutschtn  chemischen  Gesellschaft^  for  November,  from 
which  it  appears  that  the  atomic  volumes  (/>.,  the  quo« 
tient  resulting  from  the  division  of  the  molecular  weight 
by  the  specific  gravity)  of  these  salts  are  all  simple  mul- 
tiples of  the  atomic  volume  of  silver,  or  rather  of  its  half 
atomic  volume,  5*14.  In  the  fatty  series  an  accession  of 
CH|  to  a  compound  increases  the  atomic  volume  by 
3  X  S'i4.    For  example  :— 

C,H3r\gO,-!OX5-i4=5'*4 

CiH,4gOi-i3X5i4-66» 

C4H^AgO-»-i6X5*i4=»82*2 

QH.AgO;-  19x5-14=977,  &C. 

C„HiCAgO^=20X5*i4=  io2'8 

C4H4Ag304=-i7X5"i4=87-4. 
Ornithuric  Acid.— Prof.  JafTe,  of  Konigsberg,  in  the 
course  of  experiments  on  the  transformation  of  oiganic 
bodies  on  passing  through  the  digestive  organs  of  ^wls, 
has  obtained  a  new  acid  in  a  way  decidedly  different  from 
the  usual  methods  of  chemical  synthesis.  Benxoic  acid, 
CfH^COOH,  which  has  been  given  to  birds,  is  found  to  be 
entirely  changed  by  passing  through  their  organisms  into 
a  new  and  well-defined  add,  which  crystallises  in  colour- 
less needles,  forms  a  series  of  salts,  and  receives  the  name 
ornithuric  acid.  It  appears  to  arise  from  the  combination 
of  benzoic  acid  with  a  base  C5H1,  N|Os,  present  in  the 
system,  and  which  can  be  separated  from  ornithuric 
acid  by  treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  formation 
is  as  follows  :— 

2C,H4COOH+QH,,NA-CwH,oNA-f,H,0. 

Distillation  op  Organic  Liquids  by  Means  of 
Steam.— Prof.  Naumann,  of  Giessen,  describes,  in  a 
recent  series  of  papers  in  the  Berichte  der  deui.  chem, 
CeselUchaft^  the  results  of  his  observations  on  the  pheno- 
mena  attendant  on  the  passage  of  steam  through  organic 
liquids.  As  is  well  known  to  the  experimental  chemist, 
aqueoos  vapours,  on  passing  through  a  liquid,  carry  with 
them  frequently  laige  portions  of  the  latter,  even  when  it 
boils  at  a  temperature  far  above  that  of  water— aniline, 
for  example^  at  180*.  The  process  also  is  one  of  every-day 
occurrence  m  the  organic  laboratory,  being  used  for  the 
purpose  of  separating  such  liquids  from  their  impurities. 
ridL  Nanmann  has  studied  in  this  connection  liquids  both 
specifically  lighter  and  heavier  than  waten  as  well  as  liquids 
boiling  below  and  boiling  above  iogP  C,  recording  the 


physical  phenomena  produced  by  the  passage  through  each 
of  a  regular  current  of  steam.  In  all  cases  he  finds  them 
obeying  a  few  invariable  laws,  viz.,  i^  For  every  mixture 
of  a  liquid  with  water  there  is  a  constant  boiling-point, 
which  is  below  that  of  the  lower  boiling  liquid  '2°.  A 
constant  ratio  exists  between  the  respective  quantities  of 
the  two  liquids  found  in  the  distillate  '3^  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  distilling  vapours  is  always  slightly  higher 
than  that  of  the  mass  of  liquid.  From  among  the 
numerous  results  the  following  will  convey  a  general  idea 
of  the  experiments.  The  first  column  contains  the 
boiling  points  of  the  respective  liquids,  the  second  the 
temperature  of  the  liquid  while  steam  is  being  passed 
through  it,  and  the  last  the  number  of  cubic  centi- 
metres of  the  liquid  found  in  the  distillate  for  every 
100  C.C.  of  water  : — 

Benzene        ...    .  .      79*5  ...  65*5  ...  8*5 

Toluene        108-5  ...  82*4  ...  21-2 

Xylene 1355  ...  89  ...  44 

Nitrobenzene        ...  205  ...  98*5  ...  14 

An  attempt  was  made  to  discover  a  connection  between 
the  molecular  weights  of  the  three  first  hydrocarbons  of 
the  aromatic  series  and  the  respective  quantities  of  these 
liquids  in  the  distillates,  but  without  success.  While 
studying  the  relations  of  the  numbers  yielded  by  the 
experiments,  Prof.  Naumann  finally  discovered  that  all 
the  liquids  obeyed  a  general  fixed  law,  viz.,  when  a  liquid 
is  distilled  by  means  of  steam,  the  ratio  between  the 
volumes  of  the  liquids  and  the  water  in  the  distillate, 
expressed  in  multiples  of  their  molecular  weights,  is  equal 
to  the  ratio  between  their  vapour-tensions  at  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  t^e  distillation  occurs.  It  is  at  once  evident 
that  by  the  discovery  of  this  law  the  chemist  is  placed  in 
command  of  a  most  valuable  auxiliary  for  determining 
the  constitution  of  a  variety  of  compounds  at  present 
to  a  certain  extent  doubtfiil.  The  law  holds  equally  good 
for  any  liquid  the  vapour  of  which  is  used  instead  of  that 
of  water. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Early  African  Explorer.— Don  Marcos  Ximenez 
de  la  Espada  of  Madrid  is  now  having  printed  a  docu- 
ment of  extraordinary  interest  for  geographical  science, 
viz.,  an  account  of  the  travels  of  an  unknown  missionary, 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  which  Don  Marcos  has  re- 
cently discovered.  The  enterprising  author,  in  the  years 
from  1320  to  1330,  undertook  extensive  travels  in  Africa, 
not  only  along  the  west  coast  to  Sierra  Leone  and  thence 
to  Dahomey,  but  also,  it  is  stated,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal  river  straight  across  the  interior  of  the  great 
continent  He  visited  the  Soudan  States,  got  as  &  as 
Dongola,  and  thence  proceeded  down  the  River  Nile, 
finally  reaching  Damietta. 

African  Exploration.  —  In  reply  to  a  question 
from  Mr.  H.  Samuelson  last  Friday  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  stated  that 
it  was  not  the  intention  of  Government  at  present  to 
devote  any  public  money  to  African  exploration.  We 
can  hardly  expect  that  they  would  in  the  present  state  of 
public  affairs  ;  and  even  if  they  could  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  see  in  what  direction  they  could  take  action. 
There  are  many  expeditions  of  various  kinds  in  the 
Afiican  field  at  present,  working  away  with  little  or  no 
connection  with  each  other ;  even  the  International 
African  Association  has  not  been  able  to  organise  them, 
but  is  simply  sending  out  more  expeditions.  There 
seems  to  us  to  be  considerable  waste  of  power  »d 
resources  here. 

Mr.  Stanley.— The  Geographical  Sodet/s 
Mr.  Stanly  is  to  take  place  on  Febmaij  < 
ments  are  being  made  to  accommodate  m 

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271 


their  friends  in  St.  James's  Hall,  but  as  the  hall  holds 
only  2,000,  and  as  there  are  between  3,000  and  4,000 
Fellows,  we  suspect,  making  all  allowances,  that  many 
himdreds  will  be  disappointed.  Why  does  the  Society 
not  boldly  take  the  Albert  Hall  and  admit  the  outside 
public  at  a  moderate  charge  ?  We  are  sure  there  would 
be  a  balance  over  after  clearing  expenses. 

Berlin  Geographical  Society.— The  Berlin  Gesell- 
schaft  fur  Erdkunde  celebrates  on  April  27  and  28  the 
completion  of  its  fiftieth  year.  The  festival  committee, 
consisting  of  Baron  v.  Richthofen,  Dr.  Nachtigal,  Dr. 
Jagor,  and  other  well-known  explorers,  have  issued  invita- 
tions to  all  the  geographical  societies  of  Germany  and 
Austria  to  send  delegates.  It  is  expnected  that  over  a 
thousand  will  be  present  at  the  closing  dinner.  This 
society,  founded  by  Alexander  von  Humboldt  and  Karl 
Ritter,  has  manifested  from  its  commencement  a  vitality 
and  energy  second  to  none  of  the  European  geographicad 
societies,  and  forms  in  Berlin  a  favourite  gathenng-place 
for  the  leading  minds  in  all  departments  of  science.  Its 
membership  numbers  at  present  700. 

Australia.— An  exploring  party  sent  into  the  interior 
from  Port  Darwin,  North  Australia,  under  the  leadership 
of  Mr.  SergisoD,  has  returned  to  the  latter  place,  and 
reports  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Victoria  River,  which  runs 
into  the  Queen's  Channel  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Northern  Territory,  as  well  as  near  Fitzmaurice  River, 
which  flows  more  to  the  north,  and  near  Daly  River, 
which  runs  into  Anson  Bay,  it  discovered  land  with  ex- 
cellent soU,  with  a  comparatively  cool  climate,  and  with 
numerous  creeks  in  every  direction. 

Arctic  Exploration.— The  preparations  for  the 
Dutch  North  Polar  Expedition  are  being  actively  con- 
tinued, as  the  expedition  is  to  sail  in  May  next.  The 
first  and  principal  halt  will  be  made  at  Spitzbergen.  The 
erection  and  fitting  up  of  a  station  for  meteorological 
observations  is  reserved  for  a  future  expedition  ;  the 
present  one,  however,  is  to  select  the  place  best  adapted 
for  a  station  of  this  nature.  10,000  florins  are  still 
wanting  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  expedition. 

Canada. — On  December  22  last  a  Canadian  Geogra- 
phical Societ)r  was  founded  at  Quebec.  The  principal 
aim  of  the  society  will  be  to  obtain  a  thorough  knowleoge 
of  the  geography  of  Canada, 


NOTES 

The  distribation  of  the  prizes  for  1877  by  the  French  Academy 
of  Sciences  took  place  on  January  28  under  the  presidency  of 
M.  Peligot.  For  the  two  great  prizes  in  mathematics  and  in 
physical  science  no  memoir  worthy  of  mention  has  been  sent  to 
the  academy.  The  subjects  were  very  limited  in  their  scope  and 
it  is  said  that  the  academy  proposes  to  alter  its  system  and  confine 
itself  to  giving  its  highest  prizes  to  independent  workers  irrespec- 
tive of  the  subject-matter  of  their  work.  Among  other  prizes 
awarded  we  at  present  mention  the  following : — The  Plumet  prize 
was  taken  by  M.  de  Freminville,  for  his  improvements  in  marine 
steam  engines ;  the  Foumeyran  prize  was  awarded  to  M.  Malet, 
for  tramway  steam-engines,  as  used  from  Bayonne  to  Biarritz ;  the 
Lalande  prize  in  astronomy  has  been  rightly  awarded  to  Prof. 
Asaph  Hall,  the  discoverer  of  the  satellites  of  Mars ;  the  Valz 
prize  to  the  Brothers  Henry,  for | their  celestial  maps;  the 
Montyon  prize  in  physiology  was  awarded  conjointly  to  Profl 
Ferrier  and  MM.  Carville  and  Duret  ;Tthe  Lacatze  prize  for  the 
best  work  in  physics  has  been  given  to  M.  Comu,  the  well-known 
professor  of  the  Polytechnic  School  for  his  determination  of  the 
velocity  of  light  by  direct  measurement  ;  the  Breant  prize 
(4,000/.)  to  the  discoverer  of  a  cure  for  .cholera  has  not,  of 
course,  been  awarded,  ^but  the  interest  of  that  sum  has  been 
given  to  M.  Rendu,  for  several  memoirs  of  etiology.    A  copy 


cf  LAplace*s  works,  magnificently  bound,  has  been  delivered, 
as  usual,  in  the  name  of  Laplace's  deceased  wife^  to  the  pupil 
of  the  Polytechnic  School  who  has  passed  the  most  succenful 
examination.  The  young  laureate  for  1877  is  M.  Dongadot,  a 
native  of  Carcassonne  (Aude),  where  he  was  bom  in  1855. 

On  January  1 1  the  centennial  of  Linn^'s  death  was  observed  in 
nearly  all  the  cities  of  Sweden.  In  Stockholm  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  held  a  special  session,  attended  by  King  Oscar,  at 
which  Pro£  Malmsten  delivered  an  interesting  oration  on  the 
scientific  achievements  of  the  great  botanist.  At  Upsala  the 
occasion  sunmioned  together  a  number  of  notabilities  who 
listened  to  an  address  from  the  Swedish  botanist,  Prof.  Th. 
Fries.  The  university  of  Lund  celebrated  the  day  in  a 
similar  manner,  the  rector  issuing,  in  connection  wiUi  it,  a 
short  sketch  of  Linux's  residence  there,  and  Prof.  Ogardh 
delivering  the  oration.  At  Frankfort-on-Uie«Main  the  memor- 
able day  was  celebrated  by  a  solenm  meeting  of  the  "  Freie 
deatsche  Ilochstirt,"  in  the  Goethe  House.  The  president. 
Prof.  Volger,  in  a  brilliant  [speech,  gave  an  outline  of  the 
life,  the  mental  development,  the  activity,  and  importance  of 
Linn^,  and  closed  by  praising  the  mental  ties  which  unite  all  races 
and  nations.  The  meeting  unanimously  resolved  to  send  a  con- 
gratulatory telegram  to  King  Oscar  II.,  of  Sweden,  which  was 
then  sent  off,  written  in  the  Latin  language.  An  hour  later  his 
Majesty  telegraphed  his  thanks  in  the  same  language.  At 
Amsterdam,  where  the  great  Swedish  botanist  passed  the 
early  part  of  his  life,  there  was  also  a  Linn^  celebration  on 
Jan.  la  At  the  same  time  an  exhibition  of  objects  relating  to 
him,  such  as  manuscripts,  medals,  portraits,  &c,  was  arranged. 
Prof.  Oademans  delivered^the  memorial  speech. 

The  French  Scientific  Association  has  issued  the  programme 
of  its  weekly  lectures  for  the  next  three  months,  and  provides  a 
most  promising  list  of  fiAmous  names  and  attractive  subjects. 
Among  them  ;we  notice  Prof.  Dumas,  "  Eulogy  on  Leverrier ; " 
M.  WoU  "Variability  of  the  Nebulae,"  which  were  given  on 
January  26;  M.  Comu,  "The  Phylloxera,"  February  2;  M. 
Jamin,  "  Electric  lUummation,"  February  9 ;  Prof.  St.  CUure 
Devile,  "Liquefaction  of  Gases,"  February  23;  Prof.  Bert, 
"Influence  of  Light  on  Life^"  March  9;  Prof.  Mascart, 
"Atmospheric  Electricity,"  March  23;  M.  Tissandier,  "The 
Upper  Regions  of  the  Air,"  March  30;  M.  Blanchaid, 
"Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,"  April  13.  The 
lectures  take  place  at  the  Sorbonne,  and  as  admission 
is  easily  obtained  by  strangers,  they  offer  visitors  to  Paris  an 
admirable  opportunity  of  hearing  the  leading  French  savants. 
The  first  meeting,  on  January  26,  was  attended  by  more  than 
1,000  people^  under  the  presidency  of  M.  Dumas.  The  pro- 
ceedings were  opened  by  a  report  read  by  M.  Milne-Edwards, 
the  president  of  the  Association,  reviewing  the  work  done  by 
the  Association,  which  was  created  by  M.  Leverrier  more  than 
fifteen  years  ago.  It  is  owing  to  the  assistance  lent  by  the 
Association  that  weather- warnings  have  been  so  largely  popu- 
larised in  rural  France  and  the  agricultural  service  established 
by  the  physicist  of  the  observatory. 

Japan  has  an  active  archaeological  society,  bearing  the  title  of 
Kobutzu-Kai  (Society  of  Old  Thmgs).  Its  members,  number- 
ing  200,  are  scattered  throughout  the  land,  but  meet  once  a 
month  in  Yedda  They  consist  chiefly  of  wealthy  Japanese 
gendemen,  learned  men,  and  priests ;  the  latter  especially  have 
been  the  means  of  bringing  before  public  attention  a  vast 
number  of  ancient  objects  which  have  been  hidden  in  the 
treasures  of  the  temples,  or  preserved  in  private  families.  II. 
von  Siebold,  Attache  of  the  Austrian  Embassy,  at  Yeddo,  and  a 
member  of  the  society,  has  lately  {published  a  bnKkurey  which 
will  serve  as  a  guide  for  the  systematic  archaeologieal  study  of 
the  land  ;  von  Siebold  has  lately  made  a  most  hiteresting  dis- 


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NATURE 


\yan.  31,  1878 


coverj  of  a  prehittoric  mound  at  Omari,  near  Yeddo,  containing 
oyer  5,000  diflerent  articles  in  stone,  bronze,  &c.  In  a  recent 
oommanication  to  the  Berlin  Anthropologische  Gesellschaft,  he 
describes  the  origin  of  the  terra- cotta  images  found  in  old 
Japanese  burial  grounds.  It  appears  that  up  to  the  year  2  B.C. 
it  was  the  custom  to  surround  the  grave  of  a  dead  emperor  or 
empress  with  a  number  of  their  attendants,  buried  alive  up  to  the 
ne<^,  their  heads  forming  a  ghastly  ring  about  the  burial  spot. 
At  the  date  referred  to  the  custom  was  abolished,  and  the  living 
offerings  were  replaced  by  the  clay  figures,  which  have  hitherto 
attracted  so  much  attention. 

The  new  ethnographical  museum  in  the  Palais  de  Flndustrie,  at 
Paris,  was  opened  on  Wednesday  last  week,  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  pronouncing  the  opening  discourse.  Deputations 
were  present  from  all  the  learned  bodies  and  public  institutions 
of  the  dty,  and  general'satisfaction  was  expresssed  at  the  admi* 
rable  manner  in  which  Baron  de  Watteville,  the  director,  had 
accomplished  his  task  of  ^organisation  and  arrangement 

Thb  Bolton  Corporation'Piave  just  adopted  plans  for  the 
Chadwick  Museum  to  be  erected,  in  the  Bolton  public  park  at  a 
cost  of  S«ooa/.  The  amount  was  left  by  the  will  of  Dr.  Chad- 
wick for  this  purpose  upon  condition  that  the  Corporation 
provided  a  site.    Tlie  architect  is  Mr.  R.  K.  Freeman. 

Prof.  W.  M.  Gabb  writes'as  follows  from  Puerto  Plata,  Sto. 
Domingo^  December  29 : — ^In  the  issue  of  November  i  you 
quote  a  Paris  correspondent  of  the  \Times^  who  says  that  the 
Madrid  people  deny  the  authenticity  of  the  recent  finding  of  the 
remains  of  Columbus  safe  in  the  Cathedral  of  Santo  Dominga 
Of  course  the  Spaniards  are  not  willing  to  acknowledge  that  they 
were  hoaxed,  but  the  fact  is  nevertheless  beyond  dispute.  The 
remains  of  Christopher  Columbus  are  to-day  in  Santo  Domingo. 
Unfortunately  I  am  not  able  now  to  send  you  the  full  data.  Suffice 
it  to  say  that  the  chain  of  evidence  is  complete  and  has  been 
verified  with  all  possible  precsution.  The  cheat  was  perpetrated 
by  a  then  member  of  the  "  Cabildo^"  who  had  the  knowledge, 
the  tact,  and  the  unscrupulousness  to  perpetrate  it  suocessfiiUy. 
The  whole  consular  corps,  all  the  Government  officials,  and  all 
the  better  class  alike  of  natives  and  fineigners  at  the  time  in 
Santo  Domingo  dty  are  witnesses  of  the  authenticity  of  the 
••find." 

On  Monday  afternoon  a  powerful  shock  of  earthquake  was 
fdt  in  the  island  of  Jersey.  It  was  so  strong  as  to  cause  houses 
to  totter  and  bells  to  ring.  Its  course  was  from  east  to  west. 
There  was  at  the  time  a  heavy  gale  firom  the  south-west  in  the 
En^ish  Channel  At  11*55  ^^  ^  s^^^  ^^y  *  slu>ck,  lasting 
about  four  seconds,  was  fdt  at  Eastern  Aldemey.  No  doubt  it 
was  the  same  earthquake  which  was  fdt  at  Brighton,  Black- 
heath,  Fareham,  and  St  Leonards,  as  reported  in  yesterday's 
Times^  and  at  Paris,  Havre^  and  Rouen,  as  stated  by  the  Times 
Paris  correspondent  Mr.  Dobson,  writing  to  us  from  the  Royal 
Victoria  Hospital,  Netley,  Southampton,  states  that  the  first  shock 
occurred  there  at  seven  minutes  to  twdve  o*dock  exactly,  and 
lasted  about  five  or  six  seconds.  It  was  sufficiently  strong  to 
cause  the  door  to  shake  with  some  violence,  and  many  objects  in 
the  room  continued  to  vibrate  for  a  considerable  time.  Tbe 
second  shock  occurred  a  few  seconds  afterwards,  but  lasted  for  a 
much  shorter  period.  A  shock  was  felt  at  Lisbon  on  Saturday, 
being  the  third  shock  during  the  present  winter. 

A  ancuLAR  signed  by  Mr.  Justin  Winsor,  librarian  of  Har- 
vard College,  Cambridge^  Mass.,  informs  us  that  it  is  proposed 
to  issue  by  subscription  a  catalogue  of  sdentific  serial  publica- 
tions in  all  languages,  which  has  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Samuel 
H.  Scudder,  librarian  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  ^  formerly  librarian  of  th^  JBoston  Society  of  Natural 


History,  and  wdl  known  for  his  various  sdentific  publications. 
This  work,  whidi  has  double  the  extent  of  any  existing  list  of 
the  like  kind,  aims  to  indnde  all  society  transactions  and  inde- 
pendent journals  in  every  branch  of  natural,  mathematical,  and 
physical  sdence,  excepting  only  the  applied  sdences— medidne^ 
agriculture,  tedmology,  &c  The  diflerent  institutions  or  periodi- 
cals are  arranged  under  the  towns  in  which  they  are  established 
or  published,  and  the  towns  follow  an  alphabetical  order  under 
their  respective  countries.  Cron  references  are  given  wherever 
desirable.  The  work  will  be  printed  in  large  octavo,  will  ex- 
tend to  almost  300  pages,  and  will  be  delivered,  bound  in  doth, 
to  subscribers  at  four  dollars  the  copy.  Other  copies  will  be 
printed  on  one  side  of  the  leaf— to  be  cut  up  for  catalogue  use— 
and  will  be  delivered  in  folded  sheets  at  five  dollars  the  copy. 
Further  details  may  be  obtained  from  Mr.  Winsor. 

A  SECOND  editioa  of  Dr.  M.  Foster's  "Text-Book  of 
Physiok)gy,"  has  been  published  by  Messrs.  Macmillan  and  Ca 
The  work  has  been  revised  and  enlarged,  and  a  number  of 
figures  of  instruments  has  been  introduced. 

In  a  recent  paper  to  the  Gdttingen  Sodety  of  Sdenoes,  M. 
Grinitz],has  compared  what  data  he  could  obtain  regarding  the 
effects  of  the  earthquake  at  Iqnique  on  May  9  last  year.  Among 
other  points,  it  appears  that  the  wave  travelled  from  Iquique  to 
Hilo,  in  Hawaii,  a  distance  of  5,526  nautical  miles,  in  fourteen 
hours ;  which  is  at  the  rate  of  670  feet  per  second.  From  thb 
velodty  the  average  depth  of  that  portion  of  the  ocean  traversed 
can  be  calculated  by  Airy's  or  Russdl's  formnlse ;  it  is  found  to 
be  2,324  fathoms.  The  wave  had  an  unbroken  course  to 
Hilo,  but  not  so  to  Honolulu,  as  it  encountered  the  islands  of 
Hawaii,  Maui,  &c  The  average  vdodty  to  Honolulu  was 
654*5  f*^  P^  second ;  and  the  average  sea-depth  inferred  is 
2,219*  fiithoms.  "1^  corresponding  numerical  data  for  Apia, 
Lyttelton,  |Uskaroa,  in  New  ZealaiKl,  Komaishi,  in  Japan,  and 
other  plaoM,  are  given.  (For  the  last-named  a  vdocity  of  679 
feet, per  second  was  obtained.)  On  comparison  with  Hoch- 
stettcnr's  results  for  the  earthquake  of  i868»  and  with  direct  sea- 
measurements  there  is  seen  to  be  a  very  fair  agreement  Hodi- 
stetter's  assertion  is,  on  the  whole,  confirmed,  that  the  vdodty 
of  the  earthquake  wave  and  the  lunar  tide  wave  are  identical 

Wb  have  recdved^  firom  Messrs.  Hardwicke  and  Bogue  the 
first  volume  of  their  illustrated  publication.  Industrial  Art^  a 
monthly  review  of  technical  and  scientific  education  at  home  and 
abroad.  We  have  carefully  examined  the  work  and  can  say  that 
the  text  and  illustrations  run  each  other  very  hard  for  carrying 
off"  the  palm  of  excellence.  We  are  glad  to  gather  from  the 
evident  success  of  the  venture  that  the  time  has  arrived  when 
scientific  matter  is  regarded  as  the  natural  and  necessary  accom- 
paniment of  a  complete  rderence  to  art  matters.  The  artides 
on  technical  education  in  France,  Austria,  and  Germany  are 
thoroughly  wdl  done. 

We  are  glad  to  be  able  to  point  to  another  instance  of  a  coUec* 
tion  of  the  papers  of  a  scientific  man  during  his  lifetime.  Follow- 
ing hard  upon  the  appearance  of  Dr.  Frankland's  collected 
papers  Dr.  Lloyd,  of  Dublin,  has  published  a  volume  of  500 
pages  (Longmans)  containing  his  memoirs,  reports,  and  addrenes 
given  firom  time  to  time,  from  his  claMical  paper  on  Conical 
Kefiraction  to  his  address  delivered  before  the  British  Association 
in  1857.  The  volume  is  a  very  valuable  one  for  a  scientific 
library,  for  at  different  times  Dr.  Lloyd  has  directed  his  attention 
to  optics,  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  meteorology,  and  not  only 
have  we  here  the  original  papers  but  a  series  of  reports  on  the 
progress  and  present  state  of  physical  optics  extending  over  nearly 
150  pages  somewhat  after  the  style  of  Verdet's  introducti^  to 
the  various  parts  of  his  work. 


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273 


Thb  first  general  meeUng  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  will  be  held  at  the  rooms  of  the 
Chemical  Society,  Burlbgton  House,  Piccadilly,  to-morrow, 
at  4  P.M.,  to  receive  the  report  of  the  CounciL  A  balance* 
sheet  will  also  be  presented  by  the  treasurer. 

We  haye  received  one  more  evidence  of  the  revival  of  activity 
in  Italy,  in  the  shape  of  the  first  number  of  a  new  weekly 
journal,  La  Rassegna  SetHmanaie  di  PoliHca^  Scienxe,  Lettert  ed 
Arti^  in  which  a  fair  amount  of  space  is  devoted  to  science.  It 
if  published  at  Florence. 

Thb  following  is  a  simple  method  recommended  by  Dr. 
Giinther  of  Berlin,  of  observing  the  reversal  of  the  coloured  Unet  of 
flame-spectra.  A  thin  platinum  wire  about  five  ctm.  long,  is  fixed 
with  one  end  in  a  glass  tube  (as  holder),  and  one  or  two  ctm.  from  the 
glass  it  is  bent  round  to  a  right  angle,  and  inserted  in  the  envelope 
of  a  Bunsen  flame,  so  that  the  free  end,  held  vertical,  is  heated  to 
a  white  glow.  Into  the  diametrically  opposite  part  of  the  flame- 
sheath  is  brought  a  sodium  salt  This  colours  the  flame.  You 
then  look  through  a  weakly-dispersing  prism  (the  combinations 
used  for  direct  vision  spectroscopes  serve  best),  and  through  the 
sodium  flame,  towards  the  glowmgv?ire.  Two  things  are  observed, 
(i)  the  spectrum  of  the  monochromatic  sodium  flame,  which 
appears  in  the  form  of  the  flame ;  (2)  the  spectrum  of  the  glowing 
wire,  which  appears  as  a  coloured  band,  but  is  broken  by  the 
dark  D-line.  Other  metallic  spectra  may  also  be  shown  in  this 
way ;  only  care  must  be  taken  that  the  coloration  of  the  flame  be 


At  Hanover  the  skeleton  of  a  mammoth  has  just  been  found, 
through  some  excavations  which  are  being  made  for  waterworks 
near  the  Ricklinger  Beeke.  At  present  only  the  skull  and  a 
tusk  have  been  brought  to  light,  the  latter  having  the  circum- 
ference of  a  human  leg.  The  fossils  are  lying  at  a  depth  of  six 
metres. 

Thb  publishing  firm  of  Edouaid  Rouveyre,  in  Paris,  an- 
Boimcet  the  publication  of  a  voluminous  catalogue  containing 
the  titles,  &c,  of  all  those  works,  books,  pamphlets,  &c.,  which, 
in  the  period  from  October  21,  1814,  down  to  July  31,  1877, 
have  been  prosecuted,  suppressed,  or  confiscated,  in  France.  It 
will  appear  in  five  parts^  at  two  francs  each. 

At  the  beginning  ot  the  year  the  new  Royal  Library  of 
Stockholm,  which  has  now  been  transferred  to  the  new  building 
at  the  Humlegaarden,  was  opened  to  the  public.  The  new 
edifice  was  erected  after  the  design  of  the  architect,  Herr  G. 
Dahl,  at  a  cost  of  900^000  Swedish  crowns.  The  library, 
which  at  the  beginmng  of  the  present  century  only  numbered 
30^000  volumes,  now  contains  200,000. 

A  NEW  monthly  periodical,  exclusively  devoted  to  the  art  of 
photography  and  its  various  branches,  is  being  published  since 
Januaiy  i,  by  Messrs.  Ad.  Braun  and  Ca,  of  Domach.  Each 
number  contains  an  artbtic  photograph.  The  title  of  the  new 
serial  is  Die  Lichtbildkumt, 

Unusually  severe  avalanches  are  reported  this  winter  from 
Stjinu  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Hieflau  one  descended  upon 
a  railway  train,  crushing  the  carriages,  and  wounding  a  number, 
while  at  Neuberg  another  fell  upon  a  ch&let  contaiuing  twelve 
persons,  none  of  whom  escaped. 

In  the  dosmg  session  of  the  German  Chemical  Society  for 
1877,  Prof.  Kekule,  of  Bonn,  v^s  elected  president.  Professors 
Hofinann  and  Ltebermann  of  Berlin,  Prof.  Fehling  of  Stuttgart, 
and  Prof.  Erlcnmeyer  of  Munich  vice-presidents.  The  Socitty 
elected  also  as  honorary  members  the  two  physicists.  Prof.  Bufi* 
of  Giessen,  and  Prof.  Kirchhoff  of  Berlb,  and  Dr.  Stenhouse  of 
London.  At  the  end  of  its  first  decade  the  German  Chemical 
Society  looks  back  upon  a  period  of  rapid  growth  in  numbsrs 
and  efficiency  certainly  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  any  society 


devoted  to  a  special  science.  These  results  are  due  to  several 
marked  causes,  which  could  well  be  imitated  by  other  associa- 
tions possessing  analogous  aims,  viz.,  ease  of  admission,  absence 
of  entrance  fee  and  smallness  of  the  annual  subscription,  sim- 
plicity of  the  statutes,  and  rapidity  and  frequency  in  Uie  publica- 
tion of  the  proceedings.  The  number  of  members  at  present  is 
1,837,  showing  an  increase  of  229  during  the  year.  Of  these  206 
reside  in  Berlin  and  542  outside  of  Germany  and  Austria.  The 
membership  compares  favourably  witli  that  of  the  older  sister 
sodetiet  in  London  (952),  and  Paris  (371).  Although  the  annual 
payment  is  so  small  (15  marks)  the  society  possesses  a  capital  at 
present  of  22,700  marks.  During  the  past  ten  years  the  Berichte 
of  the  society  have  contained  3,726  communications,  covering 
nesrly  14,000  pages.  A  very  complete  index  to  this  enormous 
amount  of  material  will  appear  during  the  course  of  the  present 
year,  the  compiler  of  which  was  selected  by  competition  from 
among  the  twenty-nine  applicants  attracted  by  the  unusually 
liberal  appropriation  of  5,000  marks  for  the  work.  In  addition 
to  the  extensive  chemical  correspondence  from  America,  England, 
France,  Italy,  Russia,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  &c,  the  value  of 
the  Berichte  in  the  future  is  to  be  increased  by  a  complete  series 
of  abstracts  on  all  papers  appearing  in  German  chemical  periodi- 
cals. In  the  last  number  we  notice  a  very  full  and  interesting 
sketch  of  the  late  ProC  Oppenheim  from  the  pen  of  Prof. 
Hofmann,  as  well  as  a  detailed  account  of  the  Chemical  Section 
at  the  German  Association  meeting  at  Munich  by  Prof.  Lieber- 
mmn. 

The  French  Academy  of  Sciences  fiumbers  at  present  63,  three 
places  being  vacant  by  the  deaths  of  Regnault,  Becquerel,  and 
Levenier,  the  members  being  divided  into  eleven  sections  of  six 
each.  There  are  in  addition  ten  French  free  academicians  and 
eight  foreign  associates.  The  corresponding  !nembers,  of  whom 
there  can  be  100,  are  divided  according  to  their  nationality  as 
follows :— France,  32 ;  Germany,  19  j  Great  Britain,  16  ; 
Russia,  6 ;  Italy,  2 ;  Austria,  i  ;  Denmark  and  Sweden,  4 ; 
Switzerland,  4  ;  Belgitun,  2  ;  United  States,  3  ;  Brazil,  i ;  and 
there  are  1 1  vacancies. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Conmion  Fox  {Canis  vulpa),  European, 
presented  by  Mr.  George  Fredericks ;  two  Black  Swaos  {.Cygnus 
atratus)  from  Australia,  presented  by  Capt.  W.  H.  Ecdes ;  a 
Wood  Owl  (Symium  a/tuo),  European,  presented  by  Mr.  J.  E. 
L'ardet ;  a  Common  Magpie  {J^a  caudata),  a  Jackdaw  {Canms 
momdula),  European,  presented  by  Mr.  G.  £.  Ladbury;  a 
Hoary  Stai)Lt^{CoroneUa  cana)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by 
the  Rev.  G.  H.  R.  Fiske,  C.M.Z.S;  a  Jackass  Penguin  f^^^- 
niscus  ma§ei/afiia4s),  an  Upland  Goose  {Bemie/a  mageiianica) 
from  Chili,  two  West  Indian  Rails  {Aranddes  cayennensis)  from 
South  America,  purchased ;  a  Derbian  Opossum  {Dideiphys 
derbianus)  from  South  America,  deposited ;  a  Hog  Deer  {Ccrvus 
forcinus)  bom  in  the  Gardeni. 

RAINFALL  IN  INDIA 

WE  have  received  so  many  long  letters  from  India  on 
the  various  aspects  of  the  rainfall  question  that  we 
must  either,  from  want  of  space,  leave  them  unpublished, 
or  briefly  give  the  gist  of  them.  We  adopt  the  latter 
course. 

Mr.  Archibald  sends  us  a  long  letter  on  the  seasonal  rainf^UIs 
of  Northern  India  in  connection  with  the  sun-spot  period,  in  which 
he  communicates  a  few  of  the  principal  results  obtained  from  a 
more  detailed  and  extensive  comparison,  which  the  paucity  of 
data  at  his  command  hitherto  had  rendered  it  impossible  to 
undertake.  In  the  present  investigation  the  registers  of  eight 
stations,  four  in  Bengal,  and  four  in  the  N.W.P.  have  been 
employed,  and  the  two  seasonal  falls  of  each  year,  compared  (i) 
for  each  station  separately,  and  (2)  for  groups  of  four  and  all 
together,  with  its  position  m  the  sun-spot  cycle. 


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[Jan.  31,  1878 


The  itations  and  the  periodr  over  which  their  reeisten  of 
imnmer  and  winter  rainfaU  respectively  extend  are  as  follows  :— 


Summer 

Winter 

rainfall 

rainfall. 

Years. 

Years. 

(  CalcutU     

43 

44 

Bengal... 

>  Dacca 

'"  )  Hazaribagh       

24 

w 

25 
15 

(  Patna 

19 

Dehra  Dun        

16 

18 

N.W.P. 

Roorkee     

•"jMcerut       

16 
15 

18 
17 

Benares      

IS 

17 

'*When  the  deviations  from  the  local  average  seasonal 
faUs  in  each  year  are  calculated  for  each  of  the  alK>ve  stations 
separately,  and  the  average  taken  for  each  year  of  the  sun- 
spot  cycle,  it  is  found,  notwithstanding  individual  irregularities 
which  occur  chiefly  in  the  summer  falls,  (i)  that  the  winter 
nunfalls  uniformly  exhibit  a  marked  tendency  to  vary  itwersely 
with  the  sun-spots  at  all  the  stations,  (2)  that  the  summer  rain- 
falls show  a  corresponding  tendency  to  vary  directly  with  the 
sun-spots,  which,  though  strongly  marked  at  vat  stations  in  the 
N.W.P.,  is  scarcely  perceptible  at  the  Bengal  stations.  The 
result  is  best  seen  by  combining  several  of  the  stations  together, 
and  since,  owing  to  the  laige  difivrences  between  the  actual 
amount  of  rainfall  at  different  stations,  it  is  impossible  to  combine 
the  deviations  from  the  local  averages,  registered  in  inches,  I 
have  arranged  the  latter  in  the  form  of  percentages  of  their 
respective  avenges,  then  mnltiplied  each  percentage  deviation 
in  each  year  of  ue  sun-spot  cycle  by  the  number  of  years  corre- 
sponding to  it  at  each  station,  added  the  several  products  for  the 
same  year,  and  divided  bv  the  sum  of  the  multipliers.  By  this 
means  eadi  station  contributes  to  the  final  result  m  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  its  register."  Mr.  Archibald  then  gives  the  tabu- 
lated results  of  combining  according  to  this  method  (1)  the  four 
Bengal  stations,  (2)  the  four  N.W.P.  stations,  and  (3)  all 
together. 

From  these  tables  it  is  seen  that  with  very  few  excep- 
tions the  inverse  relation  between  the  two  seasonal  falls  is 
strongly  manifested  throughout,  the]  winter  rainfall  generally 
tending  to  rise  above  the  average  in  proportion  as  the  summer 
rainfall  tends  to  fall  below  the  same,  and  vice  vend.  The  winter 
rainfall  moreover  in  eveiy  case  tends  to  rise  to  a  single  maximum 
exactly  coinciding  with  the  period  of  minimum  snn-spot,  descend- 
ing thence  to  a  smgle  minimum  which  occurs  a  year  or  two  after 
the  period  of  sun-spot  maximum.  The  summer  rainfall  on  the 
other  band  exhibits  two  maxima  and  minima,  and  though  varying 
more  or  less  directly  with  the  spots,  this  variation  is  principally 
confined  to  the  N.W.P.  stations. 

The  preceding  peculiarities  may  be  rendered  still  more  apparent 
if  we  t^e  as  a  new  mean  for  eadi  year  of  the  cyde  the  mean  of 
the  mean  percentage  of  the  year  itself  together  with  half  that  of 
the  preceding  and  succeeding  years. 

On  the  whole  it  is  evident  (i)  that  the  winter  rainfall  through- 
out Northern  India  as  well  as  at  Calcutta  is  subject  to  a  periodic 
variation  amounting  to  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  Uie  average  winter 
fsdl  and  corresponcSng  approximately  with  the  inverse  phases  of 
sun-spot  frequency ;  (2)  that  the  variation  in  the  summer  ndnfall, 
though  relatively  much  smaller,  is  of  an  almost  exactly  opposite 
character,  and  that  while  well-marked  in  the  N.W.P.,  it  is 
scarcely  appreciable  in  Bengal ;  (3)  that  from  the  last  table  the 
cyde  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  portions,  viz.,  the  five 
yean  preceding,  and  the  six  yean  succeeding,  the  year  of  sun- 
spot  maximum.  In  the  former  the  vrinter  rmnfall  is  excessive 
and  the  sunmier  rainfall  defective^  while  in  the  latter  the  inverse 
relations  hold,  a  fact  somewhat  analogous  to  the  periodic  dumge 
in  the  direction  of  the  wind  at  Oxford  and  Prague  as  recenUy 
determhied  by  Messrs.  Main  and  Homstein. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  at  present  to  indicate  the  practical 
deductions  that  may  arise  from  a  consideration  of  the  preceding 
data.  One  inference^  however,  would  appear  to  be  inmiediatdy 
deducible,  viz.,  that  in  any  future  comparison  of  the  rainfalls  of 
Northern  India  and  other  countries  similarly  subject  to  distinct 
seasonal  rainfalls,  due  to  distinct  aerial  currents— such  as  the 
monsoon  and  the  anti-trade  winds— with  the  sun-spot  period, 
the  summer  and  winter  falls  should  be  compared  separately. 


otherwise  it  may  be  found  that  the  combined  effect  of  two  oppo- 
site seasonal  variations  renden  the  resultant  variation  in  the 
total  annual  fall  very  insignificant,  or  perhaps^obliterates  it  alto* 
gether. 

With  reference' to  Mr.  Hill's  letter  in  NatiJrb,  voL  xvi.  p.  505, 
Mr.  Blanford  writes  that  he  learns  that  Mr.  Hill  was  not  aware 
of  the  existence  of  his  (Mr.  Blanford's)  paper  in  the  forty-fifth 
volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  Asiatic  Sodety  of  Bengal 
(1875),  "hence,  perhaps,  what  I  cannot  but  regard  as 
his  under-estimate  of  the  extent  and  validity  of  the  evidence 
opposed  to  his  view.  He  discusses  the  registen  of  three  sta- 
tions, one  in  the  North-west  Himalaya,  and  two  on  the  dry 
plains  of  the  Upper  Gangetic  Valley.  My  conclusions  were 
based  on  the  data  of  deven  stations  altogether,  viz.,  one  in 
Roorkee,  which  is  also  sdected  by  Mr.  Hill,  and  one  in  Behar  ; 
one  on  the  Eastern  Himalaya,  one  on  the  plateau  of  Western 
Bengal,  one  in  Orissa,  one  in  the  Andaman  Islands,  and  the 
remainder  in  Lower  Bengal  and  Cachar.  Moreover,  I  was  care- 
ful to  diminate  all  erron  arising  from  the  use  of  different  un- 
compared  instruments ;  and  how  necessary  such  a  proceeding  L*, 
I  illustrated  by  the  remark  that  I  have  known  sun-thermometen 
bearing  the  names  of  the  best  London  miken  differing  10^  and 
is"*  in  their  indications  when  exposed  side  by  side  under  similar 
conditions  to  the  sun.  This  precaution  Mr.  Hill  has  not  taken, 
and  I  think  his  results  are  probably  in  a  greatlmeasure  due  to  that 
fact"  Mr.  Blanford  thinks  the  sudden  changes  in  the  Rooricee 
register  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  thermometer 
was  twice  changed,  and  the  apparent  increase  in  the  wind's 
velodty  by  the  shifting  of  the  anemometen  at  Benares  and 
Hazaribagh. 

With  respect  to  what  Mr.  Hill  has  said  of  the  dements  of 
error  probably  inherent  to  the  method  of  discussion  which  Mr. 
Blanford  adopted,  while  he  admits  the  great  difficulty  there  is  in 
eliminating  the  effect  of  disturbing  causes,  he  cannot  admit  that 
any  systematic  error  was  introduced,  in  the  way  suggested  by 
Mr.  Hill. 

Mr.  Blanford  concludes : — "  While  on  this  subject  I  would  direct 
attention  to  the  importance  of  regular  actinometric  observations,  of 
an  absolute  not  mcrdy  relative  character  (such  as  are  shown  by 
the  ordinary  sun  thermometen).  The  importance  of  making  the 
solar  changes  a  part  of  meteorological  study  is  now  fully  recog- 
nised, and  it  is  undentood  that  a  trained  photographer  is  about 
to  be  sent  to  India  to  take  photc^phs  of  the  sun,  out  if  this  is 
so,  regular  actinometric  observation  should  certainly  form  a  part 
of  the  work.  The  best  place  perhaps  would  be  Leh,  where  the 
atmosphere  is  remarkably  free  from  haze  and  dust,  which  is  not 
the  case  on  the  plains  of  Upper  India;  nor  indeed,  in  dry 
weather,  on  the  north-west  Himalaya.  At  Leh,  11,500  feet 
above  the  sea,  the  radiation  is  most  intense.  Regular  observa- 
tions with  the  actinometer  carried  on  for  a  few  yean  at  this 
place  should  satisfactorily  dedde  the  question  of  the  variation  of 
the  sun's  heat" 

Mr.  Blanford  also  sends  a  reply  to  the  letter  of  "  Old  Ma- 
drassee"  in  Nature,  vol.  xvl  p.  519.  Mr.  Blanford  bdieves 
that  to  anyone  who  has  seen  or  can  readily  refer  to  the  report  on 
the  question  of  the  periodical  variation  of  the  rainfdl  of  Madras, 
it  will  be  abundantly  obvious  dther  that  *'  Old  Madrassee  "  can 
never  have  seen  that  report  or  that  he  must  have  misinterpreted  its 
whole  purport  and  argument,  and  in  his  references  to  it,  must 
have  trusted  to  a  somewhat  unusually  treacherous  memory. 

On  the  subject  of  solar  radiation  and  sun-spots  Mr.  HUl  writes 
that  since  his  artide  (vol.  xvi.  p.  505)  was  written  he  has  gone 
over  the  registen  of  four  other  stations  at  which  solar  thermo- 
meten have  been  in  use  for  five  or  six  years.  The  former 
method  of  treatment  is  not  applicable  to  these  on  account  of 
breaks  in  the  registen  and  changes  in  the  instruments ;  but 
adopting  suitable  methods  to  compensate  for  this,  the  results  are 
•s  given  in  the  following  table^  which  shows  the  variation  of  each 
year  from  the  preceding  one  : — 


Stations. 

1869. 
-06 

-06 

187a 

1871. 

1872. 

>873- 

+    1-9 
+    09 
-    32 

+   121 

1874. 

-5« 
-04 
-  61 
+  3-« 

-a-3 

1875. 

+  3'-3 
-  a*7 

-3*3 
-4*7 

1876. 

Beoares.  . 
Gorakhpur. 
Ranikhet  . 
Ajmere  .  . 

-  i*o 

-  a*o 

-  15 

z 

+  2*9 

+  10 

+  0-4 

+  '•7 

-  03 

Mean.  . 

+  8-9 

+  0-9 

+    a-9 

-  1*8 

+  08 

Owing  to  inequalities  in  the  number  of  months  combining  tc 
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NA  TV  RE 


-/3 


\ 


give  the  averages  in  the  table,  and  to  variations  in  the  nnmberof 
dear  days  in  each  month,  the  changes  firom  year  to  year  are  very 
irregular,  but  on  the  whole  there  is  a  decided  increase  from  1870 
to  1876.  The  sudden  fall  from  1873  to  1874  must  be  attributed, 
Mr.  Hill  thinks,  to  the  greater  diathermancv  of  the  clear  air  at 
three  of  the  stations  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  year.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  1873  was  a  very  dry  year  at  all  the  stations, 
but  that  1874  was  much  wetter  than  usual  except  at  Ajmere, 
where  it  was  drier  than  1873.  At  this  station  the  solar  radia- 
tion temperature  shows  a  rise  instead  of  a  £sll  between  1873  and 
1874. 

With  regard  to  the  change  of  anemometer  referred  to  by  Mr. 
Blanford,  Mr.  Hill  says  that  fortunately,  in  the  present  case,  any 
other  pair  of  stations,  such  as  Madras  and  Vizagapatam,  wUl  do 
as  well.  With  reference  to  the  possible  variation  of  the  winter 
rain  of  Europe  according  to  the  supposed  variation  in  the  force 
of  the  anti-trade,  Mr.  Hill  notices  that  the  rainfEdl  of  London 
shows  su<^  a  variation,  thoi^  not  very  clearly.  He  adduces 
some  figures  in  support  of  this. 

In  Mr.  Hill's  paper,  vol.  xvi,  the  word  minimum^  p.  505, 
second  column,  eighteenth  line  from  bottom,  exacts  same  colunm, 
third  line  from  bottom,  and  commutaHvi^  p.  506,  first  column, 
fourth  line  from  bottom,  should  be  maximum^  excess,  and 
cumulative  respectively. 

Mr.  Hill  also  writes  that  the  large  double  oscillation  in  the 
decennial  period  of  ndnfall  in  Southern  India,  pointed  out  by 
Mr.  J.  A.  Broun,  in  Nature,  voL  xvi.  p.  333,  will  probably  be 
found  to  exist  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  including  the  north. 
One  of  the  longest  contmuous  registers  of  rainfall  in  existence  for 
any  station  in  Upper  India  is  that  kept  by  the  G.T.  Survey  Office 
at  Mussoorie,  in  the  Himalayas,  lat  N.  30°  28',  long.  E.  78"  /, 
altitude  6,500  feet.  The  rain  has  been  recorded  since  1854,  but 
only  during  the  rainy  season.  May  to  October,  inclusive ;  and 
the  register  down  to  1873  has  been  already  published  by  Mr. 
'.  B.  N.  Hennessey,  in  the  Proc,  /^.S.,  vot  xxii.  No.  152. 
»Ir.  Hennessey's  table,  extended  down  to  the  present  year  by 
means  of  a  register  kept  by  the  Civil  Surgeon,  gives  a  general 
mean  for  the  twenty-four  years  of  83*2  inches,  and  an  absolute 
range  of  no  less  than  104  inches. 

When  the  yearly  rainfalls  are  arranged  in  series  of  two,  three, 
&&,  up  to  twelve  years  each,  beyond  which  number  it  is  impos- 
sible to  extend  the  series  without  taking  as  representative  Uie 
uncorrected  falls  of  single  years,  it  becomes  evident  that  the 
great  periodic  oscillation  that  underlies  the  irregular  variations 
must  complete  its  cycle  in  from  nine  to  twelve  years,  for  the  9-, 
10-,  II-,  and  12-year  series,  all  show,  a  large  amplitude  of  osdl- 
lation,  and  in  the  ii*year  series  the  maximum  and  minimum 
occur  at  nearly  opposite  phases  of  the  cycle.  It  is  also  evident 
that  in  the  6-year  series  the  conditions  are  the  same,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  amplitude  does  not  appear  quite  so 
great. 

Calculating  the  coefficients  of  the  equation  of  sines  for  the 
ten-and-a-half-year  period,  as  Mr.  Broun  has  done,  we  get  for 
the  variable  part  of  the  Mussoorie  rainfall — 

^  =  11*4  sin  6  +  14-0  sin  (2a  +  337°). 

This  may  be  compared  with  the  equations  given  in  Mr. 
Broun's  article  for  Madras  and  Trevandrum,'  for  in  all  these 
equations  tf  =  o for  the  years  1838*5,  1849,  18595,  1870^  &c. 
The  difference  of  the  two  angles,  259°  and  337**,  causes  a  dif- 
ference of  more  than  a  year  in  the  epochs  of  the  maxima 
and  minima  of  the  secondary  oscillations,  otherwise  there  is  a 
wonderful  similarity  between  the  formulae  for  two  such  widely- 
separated  stations  as  Mussoorie  and  Trevandrum.' 

Mr.  Hill  thinks  it  most  likely  that  the  oscillation  of  the  five- 
yearly  period  is  either  purely  accidental  or  the  effect  of  some 
cause  not  yet  und^tood. 

Mr.  Ardiibald,  writing  on  the  subject  of  Cyclone  Generation, 
directs  attention  to  an  exceedingly  interesting  article  in  the 
Pioneer  of  October  30,  entitled  '°  A  Cyclone  Study,"  in  which 
the  author  brings  forward  some  very  strong  additional  proof 
in  confirmation  of  the  "  condensation  theory  "  held  by  Messrs. 
Eliot  and  Blanford  as  opposed  to  the  ''parallel  wind  theory" 
advocated  by  Drs.  Hann  and  Thau,  and  Messrs.  Meldrum  and 
Willson.  After  giving  a  clear  account  of  the  main  points  of 
difference  between  .the  above  theories,  the  writer  then  proceeds 


'  Viz. :  ^  = 


=  5'4  sin  (^  +  so*)  +  4'6  iin  (2^  +  252^, 
=  5'6 sin ((»  -  xy")  +  84 tin (a^  +  a59«)     . 


and      .    J' =  ^ ,-       _,,.,, ^„   .  _^  , 

;«  The  above  equation  for  Mussoorie  fhrcs  the  maxima  in  1860*3, 1870 *&, 
&c.,  and  the  minima  in  1857*3,  1867 '7,  &c.  The  first  term  alone  would 
give  the  maxima  in  x86o'i,  1870*6,  &c,and  the  minima  in  1855*9, 1866*41 
1876*9,  &c 


to  trace  the  history  of  the  last  cyclone  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the 
Madras  cyclone  of  May  last,  firom  its  origin  to  its  final  disappear- 
ance, pointing  out  certain  circumstances  as  giving  strong  support 
in  favour  of  the  condensation  theory,  and  as  completely  dis- 
posing of  the  parallel  wind  theory — at  all  events  as  far  as  regards 
this  (Murtlailar  cyclone. 


UNIVERSITY   AND    EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 

Cambridge. — ^The  Mathematical  Tripos'  list  this  year  con- 
tains ninet|-iour  names.  There  are  thirty-one  classed  as  Wranglers, 
thirty  as  Senior  Optimes,  twentv-nine  as  Junior  Optimes,  and 
four  iEgrotant  The  Senior  Wrangler  is  Mr.  Ernest  William 
Hobson,  Scholar  of  Christ's  College,  eldest  son  of  Mr.  W. 
Hobson,  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  Derbyshire  Advertiser, 
He  was  educated  at  Derby  School,  and  in  1874  obtained 
an  open  scholarship  at  Clirist's  CoUege.  During  his  under- 
graduate career  he  obtained  the  first  place  among  the  students  in 
the  college  examinations  in  mathematics.  His  college  tutor 
was  Mr.  PeUe,  and  his  private  tutor  Mr.  E.  J.  Routh,  of  SL 
Peter's  College.  Next  to  him  are  Mr.  John  Edward  Aloysius 
Steggall,  scholar  of  Trinity  College,  and  Mr.  Christopher 
Gn^un,  scholar  of  Caius. 

During  the  present  term  three  courses  of  lectures  on  chemistry 
will  be  £livered.  A  general  course  by  Mr.  Main  at  St  John's 
College ;  a  course  by  Mr.  Lewis  at  Downing  College ;  and  a 
course  on  the  non-metallic  elements  by  Mr.  Pattison  Muir  at 
Cains  College. 

Munich. — ^The  university  is  becoming  in  pomt  of  numbers 
one  of  the  foremost  in  Germany.  The  calendar  for  the  present 
year  shows  an  attendance  of  1,360^  of  whom  1,014  are  from 
Bavaria  and  346  firom  other  countries.  In  the  theological  fisculty 
there  are  82,  in  the  1^  387,  in  the  medical  341,  in  the  philo- 
sophical (histoiy,  phSology,  &c.)  246,  (science)  151,  together 
with  136  pharmaceutical  chemists,  and  17  in  forestry  and  agri- 
culture. The  corps  of  instructors  numbers  1 14.  The  university, 
although  but  fifty-two  vears  old,  has  been  well  supported  by  the 
State,  and  possesses  a  large  variety  of  laboratories,  cabinets,  &c., 
and  a  library  of  20,000  volumes. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Astronomical  Society,  January  il.— Dr.  Hu^ins, 
F.R.S.,  in  the  chair.— A  paper  by  Mr.  W.  F.  Denninc^  on 
suspected  repetitions  or  second  outbursts  firom  radiant  points, 
and  on  the  long  duration  of  meteor  showers,  was  read,  showing 
that  a  radiant  in  some  cases  continues  active  during  three  or  four 
months,  and  sometimes  a  second  outburst  occurs  after  an  interval 
of  six  months,  so  that  meteors  may  be  seen  coming  from  the 
same  radiant  at  opposite  sides  of  the  earth's  orbit  Capt  Tupman 
commented  on  this  paper  at  some  length,  and  pointed  out  some 
of  the  difficulties  these  conclusions  presented. — Dr.  Wentworth 
Erck  read  a  paper  on  a  combined  position  and  setting  circle, 
rendering  the  declination  circle  unnecessary  on  large  Newtonian 
equatorials.  He  also  showed  a  small  and  singularly  portable 
equatorial  mounting,  and  read  a  note  on  a  spectroscope  made  by 
Mr.  Grubb  for  Prof.  Young,  showing  certain  improvements. 
Mr.  John  Browning  admired  Uie  ingenuity  of  these,  and  explained 
which  of  them  were  new  and  which  were  not— Mr.  A.  A. 
Common  read  a  note  on  the  satellites  of  Mars  and  Saturn.— A 
note  was  read  describing  the  failure  of  the  Mdboume  telescope 
to  deal  with  the  satellites  of  Mars.— Mr.  S.  Waters  read  a  paper 
on  the  distribution  of  the  fixed  stars  in  space.— Mr.  Christie  read 
a  paper  on  specular  reflection  from  Venus,  the  purport  of  which 
was  that  his  recent  observations  of  the  planet  with  the  polarising 
eye-piece  emphatically  corroborated  those  made  in  1876.  By 
means  of  this  cye-piece  the  light  of  the  disc  is  gradually  reduced ; 
and  he  found  in  every  examination  .that  the  last  part  of  the  disc 
to  disappear  was  situated  at  a  pomt  which  was  found  by  calcula- 
tion to  coincide  with  the  point  indicated  by  the  theory  of  specular 
reflection,  thus  confirming  Mr.  Brett's  original  description  of  the 
phenomenon.  Mr.  Christie  had  the  assistance  of  Capt.  Tupman 
m  his  recent  observations.  Mr.  Neison  suggested  certain  other 
explanations  of  the  appearances  described,  and  after  further  dis- 
cussion the  meeting  adjourned. 

Zoologicid  Society,  January  15.— R.  Hudson,  F.R.S.,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — A  communicatioii  vras  read  firom  Mr, 


Digitized  by 


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276 


NATURE 


[Jan.  31,  1878 


Andrevr  Andenon,  F.Z.S.,  containing  some  ooirectiont  and 
additioni  to  a  fonner  pi4>er  of  his  on  the  raptorial  birds  of  the 
north-west  provinces,  read  before  the  Society  on  March  21, 
1876. — A  communication  was  read  from  Mr.  F.  Moore,  F.Z  S., 
containing  a  revision  of  the  genera  and  species  of  European  and 
Asiatic  lepidoptera  belonging  to  the  \%m\\j  Ltthosiidse.  The 
author  characterised  thirtv-ei^t  genera  in  tlus  memoir,  and  gave 
the  descriptions  of  eighty  new  species. — Mr.  A.  Boucard, 
C.M.Z.S.,  read  a  paper  in  which  he  gave  a  list  of  the  birds  he 
had  collected  during  a  recent  expedition  to  Costa  Rica.  The 
number  of  birds  coUected  during  his  five  months'  stay  was  about 
one  thousand  in  number,  representing  250  species,  amongst 
which  were  two  new  to  science  [ZonotrUhia  boucardi  imd 
Sapphironia  boucardi  of  Mnlsaot)  and  many  others  of  great 
rarity.  —Two  papers  were  read  by  Mr.  G.  Frendi  Angas.  Tlie 
first  contained  descriptions  of  seven  new  species  of  Und  shells 
recently  collected  in  Costa  Rica  by  M.  A.  Boucard.  The 
second  contained  the  description  of  a  new  species  of  Latiaxis 
from  an  unknown  locality,  proposed  to  be  called  L.  degans, — A 
communication  was  read  from  Dr.  H«  Burmeister,  containing 
notes  on  Conurus  hilaris  and  other  parrots  of  the  Argentine 
Republic. — A  communication  was  read  from  the  Count  Salva- 
dor!, C.M.Z.S.,  in  which  an  account  was  given  of  the  birds  col- 
lected during  die  voyage  of  H.M.S.  Challenger ^  at  Temate, 
Amboyna,  £inda,  the  K^  Islands,  and  the  Aru  Islands. — ProC 
Garrod,  F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  certain  points  in  the  anatomy 
of  the  Momotidse,  in  which  he  adduced  facts  substantiating  their 
affinities  with  the  Todidae,  Akedinidae,  and  other  Pidformes. 
The  second  paper  described  the  extraordinary  structure  of  the 
gizzard  of  the  Fijian  Fruit  Pigeon  {Carpophaga  lalra$is),  in  con- 
nection with  the  fruit  on  which  it  feeds,  that  of  Oncocarpus 
vihensis, — A  communication;  was  read  from  Mr.  Edgar  A. 
Smith,  F.Z.S.,  containing  the  description  of  a  new  species  of 
Helix  from  Japan,  which  he  proposed  to  call  Belix  {Camena) 
congener, — A  communication  was  rjgui  /rom  the  Marquis  of 
Tweeddale,  F.R.S.,  containing  an  account  of  a  collection  of 
birds  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  in  the  Philippine  Islands  of 
Dinagat,  Bazol,  Nipak,  and  Sakeryok.  SU  new  species  were 
found  in  this  collection  and  were  named  Ceyx  argentata^  Hypo- 
ihymys  azlesHs^  Mixornis  capitalis,  Dicceum  schistaceum,  D, 
everelH^  and  Prionochilus  olwaceus, — A  second  paper  by  the 
Marquis  of  Tweeddale  gave  the  description  of  a  new  genus  and 
species  of  bird  from  the  Philippine  Island  of  Negros,  for  which 
the  name  Dasycrotapha  speciosa  was  proposed. 

Photographic  Society,  January  8.— James  Glaisher,  F.R.S., 
president,  in  the  chair. — Papers  were  read  by  Capt.  Abney, 
F.R.S.,  on  the  theory  of  the  destruction  of  the  undeveloped 
photographic  image ;  by  Edward  Viles,  on  the  production  of 
enlarged  photographs  of  microscopic  objects ;  and  by  Edwin 
Cockmg,  •' stray  thoughts  on  the  exhibition."— Capt  Abney  in 
his  paper  stated  the  remit  of  experiments  undertaken  to  ascertain 
the  cause  of  the  fading  away  of  the  undeveloped  image  on  dry 
plates  by  long  keeping  after  exposure.  Films  of  pure  silver 
iodide,  and  of  pure  silver  bromide,  after  exposure,  were  washed 
with  potassium  permanganate,  potassium  bichromate^  and 
chromic  acid ;  with  the  silver  iodide  Mlt,  all  destroyed  the  image, 
with  the  silver  bromide  salt  the  last  two  oxidising  agents  alone 
were  effective.  If  this  destruction  of  the  image  was  caused  by 
oxidation  of  the  silver  atom,  it  should  also  be  oxidised  by  ozone 
—which  experiments  showed  was  the  case.  Capt  Abney  then 
assumes  that  the  effect  of  time  on  the  image  on  a  dry  plate  is  to 
oxidise  an  atom  of  each  of  the  molecules  forming  the  image. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  January  15.— The  newly- 
elected  president,  Mr.  John  Frederic  Bateman,  F.R.SS.L.  and 
E.,  delivered  an  inaugural  address.  After  a  passing  allusion  to 
the  growth  of  the  Institution,  which  at  the  end  of  1844 
numbered  only  552  of  all  classes,  now  increased  to  3,189, 
reference  was  made  to  some  of  the  addresses  of  the  eighteen 
gentlemen  who  had  previously  occupied  the  presidential  chair, 
mainly  for  the  purposes  of  comparison.  Proceeding  to  matters 
more  personal  to  every  member  of  the  Institution,  the  President 
urged  that  engineering  was  but,  in  fict,  the  embodiment  of 
practical  wisdom ;  or,  m  the  words  of  Bacon,  "  the  conjunction 
of  contemplation  and  action." 

Edinburgh 

Royal  Society,  January  7.— Bishop  Cotterill,  vice-president, 
in  the  chair. — ProfT  Blackie  read  a  paper  on  Mr.  Gladstone's 
the(»y  of  colour-sense  in  Homer,  which  he  completely  refuted. 
A  discussion  followed,  .in  which  Principal  Sir  Alexanm  Grant, 


Bart.,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Caienove,  Pfof.  Fleemiqg  Jenkin,  Dr. 
Donaddson,  and  others  took  part — Prot  Tait  postponed  his 
paper  on  the  intensity  of  currents  required  to  work  the  tdcphooe 
but  mentioned  that  Mr.  James  Blytn  had  obtained  good  resolts 
with  telephones  in  which  he  had  employed  discs  of  oopper-wood 
vulcanised  india-rubber  paper,  instead  of  the  usual  iron  ones. — 
Prof.  Tait  also  laid  on  the  table  a  double  mouthed«piece  hom 
for  producing  chords  by  two  performers  on  the  same  instrument 
Vienna 

Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  November  16,  1877. — On 
ice  in  the  Danube  in  Lower  Austria,  in  the  winter  1876-77,  by 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior. — Researdies  on  the  consdousness 
of  place  and  its  relation  to  the  conception  of  space,  by  M. 
Stncker« — On  the  temperature  of  Vienna  according  to  too  years' 
observations,  by  M.  Harm. — On  the  phanerogam  flora  oif  the 
Hawaii  Islands,  by  M.  Reichard^ 

November  22,  1877.— On  a  partial  differential  equation  of  the 
first  order,  by  M.  Hocevar.  The  laws  of  (the  individttality  of 
the  planets  of  our  solar  system ;  attempt  to  establish  a  general 
theory,  bv  M.  Lehmann. 

December  6,  1877.— The  vek>city  of  propagalioo  of  spark 
waves,  by  MM.  Mach,  Tumlirz,  and  Ko/^ler.— On  the  applica* 
tion  of  Doppler's  principle  to  the  progrenlve  motion  of  luminous 
gas  molecules,  by  M.  Pfaundler.— On  some  problems  of  the 
theory  of  eUstic  reactk>n,  and  on  a  new  method  of  observing 
vibrations  by  reading  of  mirrors,  without  iloading  die  vibimtiag 
body  with  a  mirror  of  considerable  size,  ^by  M.  Bdtamann. — 
Determination  of  surfaces  any  of  whose  psirts,  from  two  fixed 
points,  are  projected  through  cones  the  apertures  of  which  are  in 
a  given  proportion,  by  M.  Weyr.— On  monooitrobrenzcatecfain, 
by  M.  Benedikt. — Size  and  position  of  the  optical  axes  of  elas- 
ticity in  gypsum,  by  M.  von  Lang. — On  the  orbit  of  the  plancC 
Laurentia  (162),  by  M.  Zelbr. 

Paeis 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Januarjr  2 1 . — \L,  Daubr^  in  the  diain 
— On  account  of  the  death  of  MM.  Becqnerel  and  Regnault,  the 
iiance  was  adjourned.  The  funeral  of  M.  Berauerel  took  place 
the  same  day,  that  of  M.  Regnault  next  day.  Discourses  on  the 
former  were  pronounced  by  MM.  Fizeau  andJDaubr^;  on 
the  latter  by  MM.  Debray,  Jam'm,  Daubr^  and  Labonlaye. 
[These  are  reported  in  the  CompUs  Rendus  for  the  week.] 

CONTBNT8  pagb 

Tait'8  "  Thbkmodynamics."  BvProf  J.  Clmk  BIaxwbll,  F.R.S.  tn 

Wolf's  History  or  AsTSONOMY.    By  J.  R.  Hind,  F.R.S. .    .    .    .  «$9 

Ova  Book  Shblf  >- 

Capron't  "  Photoeraphic  Spectra.    136  Photognphs  o(  Metallic, 
OaMouSj^and  other  Spectra  printed  by  the  Persiaiieiit  Autotype 

I*roceM     •••.••.•..•......,..  ejo 

Lbttbks  to  thb  KoiToa  >— 

Sun-spott  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism.— a  G.  Tbnkins   .    .     .    .  aS9 
On  a  Means  for  Converting  the  Heat  Motion  Posseseed  by  Matter 

at  Normal  Temperature  mto  Work.— John  Aitkbn     .    .    .    .  a6o 

No  Botteiflies  in  Iceland.— Prof.  ALntKD  Nbwton,  P  R  S.     .    .  a6o 
On  some  Peculiar  Poinu  in  the  Inaect-Fauna  of  QiiIi.~RoBarr 

McLachuin , eCo 

The  Radiometer  and  its  Lessons.— ProC  G.  Johnstonb  Stonky, 

F.R  S. ;  ,6t 

A  Double  Rainbow.— Thomas  Novi a6a 

SciEMCB  IN  Traimimg  COixbgbs aG* 

SuN-spoTS  ANDTaaassTRiAL  Maonbtism.  By  John  Allan  Bmoum, 

F.R  S. ...a t6a 

Hbnri  Victor  RbcnaultI ,  963 

Thb  Obigin  ow  a  Limbstonb  Rock.    By  ProC  W.  C  Wiluamson. 

F.R.& , s5> 

ThbLiqubfactionoptubGasbs  (fP/M/i/MrMs/iMtf) 165 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

TheRoyal  Observatory,  Ckpe  of  Good  Hope a6j 

The  Total  Solar  Edipee  of  July  a9 t6« 

Chxmical  Notbs  :— 

Tempeiature  of  Flames 969 

Starch  in  Planu 960 

Sipylite,  a  New  Mineral  Containing  Niobium ado 

Molybdenum «7o 

Relations  between  the  Volumes  of  Silver  Saks no 

Onuthunc  Acid   ........  •«o 

Distillation  of  Organic  Liquids  by  Means  of  Steam*    .'    .'!.'!  %r» 

Gbographical  Notbs  :— 

Early  African  Exfdorer %i% 

African  Exploration 970 

Mr  Stanley ^ 

Berlin  Geographical  Society 971 

Australia ^x 

Arctic  Exploratioa 971 

Canada 971 

NOTRi Uft 

Rainfall  IN  India , •   •    a73 

Univrrsitt  and  Eimjcational  Intrlugrncr 97s 

SoCIRTlRt  AND  ACADRMlRt ..»•..  BJJ 


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THURSDAY,   FEBRUARY   7,  1878 


THE  SOCIETY  OF  TELEGRAPH 
ENGINEERS 

WHEN  a  society  which  numbered  no  members  at 
the  date  of  its  first  public  meeting  can,  after  an 
existence  of  only  six  years,  coimt  1,000  names  upon  its 
books,  it  has  at  least  justified  its  existence,  and  those  who 
have  token  the  chief  part  in  calling  it  into  being  and 
guiding  its  course,  may  fairly  consider  that  the  numbers 
who  have  sought  association  with  them  prove  that  their 
proceedings  have  been,  at  any  rate,  not  injudicious.  It 
was,  therefore,  with  good  reason,  that  Dr.  C.  W.  Siemens 
began  his  address  to  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers 
on  the  occasion  of  his  re-election  to  the  office  of  President, 
by  congratulating  the  society  on  the  progress  made  by  it 
since  he  addressed  it  in  the  capacity  of  its  first  President 
on  February  28,  1872. 

In  these  congratulations  we  heartily  join,  and  we  think 
that  no  one  will  question  the  wisdom  of  the  society  in 
calling  back  to  the  Presidentship  a  man  who  did  so  much 
in  the  early  days  of  its  career  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
success  since  realised. 

The  claim  of  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  to 
rank  as  a  scientific  institution  cannot,  however,  be  founded 
upon  the  mere  number  of  its  members,  nor  even  on  the 
scientific  eminence  of  some  of  the  names  to  be  foimd  in 
the  list.  Its  scientific  position  must  of  course  be  judged 
of  by  considering,  not  how  many  or  who  its  members  are, 
but  what  they  do  in  their  associated  capacity  for  the 
advancement  of  science.  Ample  materials  for  forming 
such  an  estimate  as  this  are  afforded  by  the  six  sub- 
stantial volumes  already  published  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers.  These  volumes  contain 
the  papers  conmiunicated  to  the  Society  and  reports  of 
discussions  at  the  meetings,  and  in  addition  a  consider- 
able number  of  reprints  or  abstracts  of  papers  published 
elsewhere,  bearing  on  the  objects  pursued  by  the  Society. 
As  might  be  expected  in  the  case  of  a  society  founded 
primarily  to  promote  the  advancement,  not  of  abstract 
science,  but  of  a  branch  of  industrial  enterprise,  papers  of 
a  so-called  "  practical"  kind  are  the  most  numerous,  and, 
if  we  may  judge  from  the  reported  discussions,  papers  of 
this  class  are  those  which  call  forth  the  most  general 
interest  at  the  Society's  meetings.  But  even  among  such 
papers,  embodying  as  they  usually  do  the  results  of  careful 
observation  and  long  experience  on  the  matters  of  which 
they  treat,  there  are  few  from  which  the  student  of  physics 
may  not  gather  some  hint  of  value.  There  are,  however^ 
a  considerable  number  of  papers  of  which  the  scientific 
bearing  is  more  direct  These  are  papers  which,  dealing 
with  questions  arising  primarily  out  of  the  practice  of  the 
telegraph  engineer,  treat  the  problems  discussed  from  the 
point  of  view  afforded  by  the  general  scientific  principles 
applicable  to  them,  or  which  contain  results  of  no  less 
scientific  than  practical  value.  Among  papers  of  this 
class,  one  by  Mr.  Hockin  (vol.  v.  pp.  432-459)  on  "The 
Magnitude  of  Signals  received  tlurough  a  Submarine 
Cable  with  various  Connections  at  each  end,  and  the 
best  Resistance  for  the  Recording  Instrument,"  is  spe- 
cially deserving  of  mention.  It  contains  a  very  masterly 
Vol.  xviL^Na  43a 


treatment  of  what  is  in  reality  a  purely  scientific  problem, 
though  one  which  has  very  direct  practical  importance.  And 
here  we  may  digress  for  a  little  in  order  to  point  out  that 
this  paper  of  Mr.  Hockin's  affords  an  instructive  illustration 
of  the  mutual  beneficial  interaction  between  "  theory " 
and  "  practice  "  of  which  the  whole  history  of  the  electric 
telegraph  is  fall.  The  telegraph  is  in  a  fuller  degree  than 
most  practical  inventions  the  direct  outcome  of  scientific 
investigation,  but  when,  in  the  progress  of  telegraphic 
enterprise,  the  project  arose  of  laying  long  submarine 
lines,  it  was  found  that,  though  the  general  nature  of  the 
electrical  difficulties  to  be  encountered  was  known,  yet 
the  scientific  knowledge  of  the  time  was  not  sufficient  to 
indicate  clearly  the  way  in  which  they  were  to  be  over- 
come, and  from  the  nature  of  the  case  but  little  help  was 
forthcoming  from  empirical  experience.  The  matter  was 
in  this  state  when  Sir  William  Thomson  took  up  the 
question  of  the  transmission  of  signals  through  sub- 
marine telegraph  cables,  and  showed  how  the  practical 
message- carrying  power  of  an  insulated  conductor  laid 
under  water  is  connected  with  the  dimensions  and  certain 
definite  electrical  qualities  of  the  conductor  and  its  insu- 
lating coating.  The  conclusions  which  he  arrived  at 
mathematically  as  long  ago  as  1855  have  since  remained 
the  foundation  of  all  successful  practice  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  telegraph  cables.  Sir  W.  Thomson,  however, 
took  account  only  of  the  properties  of  the  cable  itself, 
whereas  in  the  actual  working  of  submarine  telegraphy 
very  much  depends  upon  the  proper  selection  and 
arrangement  and  adaptation  to  each  particular  cable  of 
the  sending  and  receiving  apparatus  employed  at  the  two 
ends ;  and  what  Mr.  Hockin  has  now  done  is  to  give 
a  general  theory  whic^  takes  account  of  the  electrical 
properties  of  the  instruments  as  well  as  of  the  cable. 
Returning  to  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Telegraph 
Engineers,  we  may  mention  a  short  paper  by  Mr.  Sabine  on 
the  Capacity  of  Accumulators  Variously  Combined,  one  by 
Sir  William  Thomson  on  the  Comparison  of  Electrostatic 
Capacities,  and  a  note  by  Prof.  Maxwell  on  the  Theory  of 
Lightning  Conductors,  among  the  original  articles,  as 
well  as  Messrs.  Longridge  and  Brooks's  paper  on  the 
Submergence  of  Telegraph  Cables  and  Mr.  Schwendler's 
on  the  Theory  of  Duplex  Telegraphy,  among  the  reprints, 
as  examples  which  afford  further  proof  that  the  Society,  is 
established  for  practical  objects,  is  not  blind  to  the  aid  to 
be  derived  in  the  pursuit  of  those  objects  from  the  study 
of  scientific  principles.  And  although  we  do  not  suppose 
that  all  the  1,000  members  study  such  papers  as  we  have 
referred  to  with  great  eagerness,  yet  the  mere  fact  of  their 
circulation  must  do  something  to  convince  the  most  arro- 
gantly ''practical"  man  among  them  that  ignorance  is 
not  in  all  respects  a  ground  for  thankfulness. 

So  far  this  flourishing  society  has  professedly  occupied 
itself  only  with  telegraphy,  but  there  are  not  wanting 
signs  either  in  the  Journal  or  in  Dr.  Siemens's  address,  of 
the  difficulty  of  separating  telegraphy  from  other  depart- 
ments of  what  may  be  called  applied  electricity.  Thus, 
more  than  one  paper  has  been  read  to  the  society  upon 
the  application  of  electricity  to  firing  mines  and  tor- 
pedoes, an  operation  which,  when  successfully  performed, 
generally  results  in  causing  the  persons  affected  to 
dispense  permanently  with  telegraphic  communication, 
and  Dr.  Siemens  devotes  nearly  a  quarter  of  his  address 


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[Feb.  7,  1878 


to  discussing  the  application  of  electricity  for  illuminating 
purposes,  to  the  transmission  of  motive  power,  and  in 
metallurgic  processes.  Recent  improvements  in  the  means 
of  obtaining  powerful  electric  currents  seem  to  open  up  a 
prospect  of  such  applications  as  those  just  mentioned, 
assuming  in  the  near  future  greater  practical  importance 
than  they  have  hitherto  possessed,  and  it  does  not  seem 
unlikely  that,  whether  or  not  they  think  fit  to  assume  the 
wider  designation,  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers 
will  have  become  a  Society  of  Electrical  Engineers. 

G.  C  F. 


T AIT'S  ''THERMODYNAMICS''^ 
II. 
Slutch  of  Thermodynamics,  By  P.  G.  Tait,  M.A^  for- 
merly Fellow  of  St  Peter's  College,  Cambridge,  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  Second  Edition,  revised  and  extended. 
(Edinburgh  :  David  Douglas,  1877.) 

PROF.  CLAUSIUS  is  himself  the  principal  founder  of 
the  kinetic  theory  of  gases.  The  theory  of  the  ex- 
changes of  the  energy  of  collections  of  molecules  was 
afterwards  developed  by  Boltzmann  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  had  been  done  by  Clausius,  and  it  appears 
from  his  investigations  that  whether  we  suppose  the 
molecules  to  be  acted  on  by  fn^ces  towards  fixed  centres 
or  not,  the  condition  of  equilibrium  of  exchange  of  energy, 
or  in  other  words  the  condition  of  equality  of  temperature 
of  two  bodies,  is  that  the  average  kinetic  energy  of  trans- 
lation of  a  single  molecule  is  the  same  in  both  bodies. 

We  may  therefore  define  the  temperature  of  a  body  as 
the  average  kinetic  eneigy  of  translation  of,  one  of  its 
molecules  multiplied  into  a  constant  which  is  the  same 
for  all  bodies.  If  we  also  define  the  total  heat  of  the 
body  as  the  sum  of  the  whole  kinetic  energy  of  its  mole- 
cules, then  the  total  heat  must  be  equal  to  the  temperature 
multiplied  into  the  number  of  molecules,  and  by  the  ratio 
of  the  whole  kinetic  energy  to  the  energy  of  translation, 
and  divided  by  the  above  constant. 

The  kinetic  theory  of  gases  has  therefore  a  great  deal 
to  say  about  what  Rankine  and  Clausius  call  the  actual 
heat  of  a  body,  and  if  we  suppose  that  molecules  never 
coalesce  or  split  up,  but  remain  constant  in  number,  then 
we  may  also  assert,  all  experiments  notwithstanding,  that 
the  real  capacity  for  heat  (as  defined  by  Clausius)  is 
constant  for  the  same  substance  in  all  conditions. 

Ranldne,  indeed,  probably  biased  by  the  results  of 
experiments,  allowed  that  the  real  specific  heat  of  a  sub- 
stance might  be  different  in  different  states  of  aggrega- 
tion, but  Clausius  has  clearly  shown  that  this  admission 
is  illogical,  and  that  if  we  admit  any  such  changes,  we 
had  better  give  up  real  specific  heat  altogether. 

Statements  of  this  kind  have  their  legitimate  place  in 
molecular  science,  where  it  is  essential  to  specify  the 
dynamical  condition  of  the  system,  and  to  distinguish 
the  kinetic  energy  of  the  molecules  from  the  potential 
energy  of  then:  configuration ;  but  they  have  no  place  in 
thermodynamics  proper,  in  which  we  deal  only  with 
sensible  masses  and  their  sensible  motions. 

Both  Rankine  and  Clausius  have  pointed  out  the  im- 
portance of  a  certain  function,  the  increase  or  diminution 

I  Continued  from  p.  S59. 


of  which  indicates  whether  heat  is  entering  or  leaving  the 
body.  Rankine  calls  it  the  thermodynamic  fvmction,  and 
Clausius  the  entropy.  Clausius,  however,  besides  invent- 
ing the  most  convenient  name  for  this  function,  has  made 
the  most  valuable  developments  of  the  idea  of  entropyi 
and  in  particular  has  established  the  most  important 
theorem  in  the  whole  science, — that  when  heat  passes 
from  one  body  to  another  at  a  lower  temperature,  there 
b  always  an  increase  of  the  sum  of  the  entropy  of  the 
two  bodies,  from  which  it  follows  that  the  entropy  of  the 
universe  must  always  be  increasing. 

He  has  also  shown  that  if  the  energy  of  a  body  is  ex- 
pressed as  a  function  of  the  volume  and  the  entropy,  then 
its  pressure  (with  sign  reversed)  and  its  temperature  are  the 
differential  coefficients  of  the  eneigy  with  respect  to  the 
volume  and  the  entropy  respectively,  thus  indicating  the 
synometrical  relations  of  the  five  principal  .quantities  in 
thermodynamics. 

But  Clausius,  having  begun  by  breaking  up  the  energy 
of  the  body  into  its  thermal  and  ergonal  content,  has 
gone  on  to  break  up  its  entropy  into  the  transformational 
value  of  its  thermal  content  and  the  disgregatioa. 

Thus  both  the  energy  and  the  entropy,  two  quantities 
capable  of  direct  measurement,  are  broken  up  into  fbor 
quantities,  all  of  them  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  experi* 
ment,  and  all  this  is  owing  to  the  actual. heat  which 
Clausius,  after  getting  rid  of  the  latent  heat,  suffered  to 
remain  in  the  body. 

Sir  William  Thomson,  the  last  but  not  the  least  of  the 
three  great  founders,  does  not  even  consecrate  a  symbol 
to  denote  the  entropy,  but  he  was  the  first  to  clearly 
define  the  intrinsic  energy  of  a  body,  and  to  him  alone 
are  due  the  ideas  and  the  definitions  of  the  available 
energy  and  the  dissipation  of  energy.  He  has  always 
been  most  careful  to  point  out  the  exact  extent  of  the 
assumptions  and  experimental  observations  on  which 
each  of  his  statements  is  based,  and  he  avoids  the  intro- 
duction of  quantities  which  are  not  capable  of  experi- 
mental measurement.  It  is  therefore  greatly  to  be 
regretted  that  his  memoirs  on  the  dynamical  theory  of 
heat  have  not  been  collected  and  reprinted  in  an  acces- 
sible form,  and  completed  by  a  fonnal  treatise,  in  which 
his  method  of  building  up  the  science  should  be  exhibited 
in  the  light  of  his  present  knowledge. 

The  touchstone  of  a  treatise  on  thermodynanucs  is 
what  is  called  the  second  law. 

Rankine,  as  we  have  seen,  founds  it  on  statements 
which  may  or  may  not  be  true,  but  which  cannot  be 
considered  as  established  in  the  present  state  of  science. 

The  second  law  is  introduced  by  Clausius  and  Thomson 
as  an  axiom  on  which  to  ^ound  Camot's  theorem  that  the 
efficiency  of  a  reversible  engine  is  at  least  as  great  as  that 
of  any  other  engine  working  between  the  same  limits  of 
temperature. 

If  an  engine  of  greater  efficiency  exists,  then,  by 
coupling  this  engine  with  Camot's  engine  reversed,  it  is 
possible  to  restore  to  the  hot  body  as  much  heat  as  is 
taken  from  it,  and  at  the  same  time  to  do  a  certain  amount 
of  work. 

If  with  Camot  we  suppose  heat  to  be  a  substance,  then 
this  work  would  be  performed  in  direct  violation  of  the 
first  law— the  principle  of  the  conswvation  of  energy. 
But  if  we  regard  heat  as  a  form  of  energy,  we  cannot  app^ 


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this  method  of  reductio  ad  absurdum^  for  the  work  may 
be  derived  from  the  heat  taken  from  the  colder  body. 

Clausius  supposes  all  the  work  guned  by  the  first 
engine  to  be  expended  in  driving  the  second.  There  is 
then  no  loss  or  gain  of  heat  on  the  whole,  but  heat  is 
taken  from  the  cold  body,  and  an  equal  quantity  com- 
municated to  the  hot  body,  and  this  process  might  be 
carried  on  to  an  indefinite  extent 

In  order  to  assert  the  impossibility  of  such  a  process  in 
a  form  of  words  having  sufficient  verisimilitude  to  be 
received  as  an  axiom,  Qausius,  in  his  first  memoir,  simply 
says  that  this  process ''  contradicts  the  general  deportment 
of  heat,  which  everywhere  exhibits  the  tendency  to 
equalise  differences  of  temperature,  and  therefore  to  pass 
from  the  warmer  to  the  colder  body.**  * 

In  its  obvious  and  strict  sense  no  axiom  can  be  more 
irrefragable.  Even  in  the  hypothetical  process,  the  im- 
possibility of  which  it  was  intended  to  assert,  every  com- 
munication of  heat  is  from  a  warmer  to  a  colder  body. 
When  the  heat  is  taken  from  the  cold  body  it  flows  into 
the  working  substance  which  is  at  that  time  still  colder. 
The  working  substance  afterwards  becomes  hot,  not  by 
communication  of  heat  to  it,  but  by  change  of  volume, 
and  when  it  communicates  heat  to  the  hot  body  it  is  itself 
still  hotter. 

It  is  therefore  hardly  correct  to  assert  that  heat  has  been 
transmitted  or  transferred  from  the  colder  to  the  hotter 
body.  There  is  undoubtedly  a  transfer  of  energy,  but  in 
what  form  this  energy  existed  during  its  middle  passage 
is  a  question  for  molecular  science,  not  for  pure  thermo- 
dynamics. 

In  a  note  added  in  1864  Clausius  states  the  principle 
in  a  modified  form^  '^  that  heat  cannot  of  itself  pass  from 
a  colder  to  a  warmer  body  "  *  and  finally,  in  the  new  edi- 
tion of  his  "  Theory  of  Heat "  (1876)  he  substitutes  for  the 
words  ''of  itself  the  expression  " without  compensa- 
tion."» 

With  respect  to  the  first  of  these  emendations  we  must 
remember  that  the  words  "of  itself "  are  not  intended  to 
exclude  the  intervention  of  any  kind  of  self-acting  ma- 
chinery, and  it  is  easy,  by  means  of  an  engine  which  takes 
in  heat  from  a  body  at  200°  C,  and  gives  it  out  at  100**  to 
drive  a  freezing  machine  so  as  to  take  heat  from  water  at 
d°,  and  so  freeze  it,  and  also  a  friction  break  so  as  to 
generate  heat  in  a  body  at  500**.  It  would  therefore  be 
necessary  to  exclude  all  bodies  except  the  hot  body,  the 
cold  body,  and  the  working  substance,  in  order  to  exclude 
exceptions  to  the  principle. 

By  the  introduction  of  the  second  expression, ''  without 
compensation,"  combined  with  a  full  interpretation  of  this 
phrase,  the  statement  of  the  principle  becomes  complete 
and  exact ;  but  in  order  to  understand  it  we  must  have  a 
previous  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  transformation- 
equivalents,  or  in  other  words  of  entropy,  and  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  we  shall  have  to  be  taught  thermodynamics 
for  several  generations  before  we  can  expect  beginners  to 
receive  as  axiomatic  the  theory  of  entropy. 

Thomson,  in  his  "Third  Paper   on   the   Dynamical 

■  Und  das  widerroricht  dem  sonstigen  Verhalten  der  Wftrmc,  indem  sie 
Qberall  das   Bestreben  zeigt,   rorkommende   TenapenturdUferenzen  aus- 


ipenti 
sueleichen  und  also  aus  den  wftrmeren  KOrpem  in  die  kJUceren  Qberzu- 
tn. 

Dass  die  Winne  nicht  von  aclbst  aus  etoem  kftUeren  in  einem  wSrmeraii 
per  Obergehen^kann. 
In  Wlmeabergang  aus  ebem  kSlteren  In  einem  wSrmtren  Ktfrper 


suei 
geh< 


Theory  of  Heat"  {Trans.  R.S.  Edin.,  xx.,  p.  265  (read 
March  17,  185 1)  has  stated  the  axiom  as  follows  :— * 

"It  is  impossible,  by  means  of  inanimate  material 
agency,  to  derive  mechanical  effect  from  any  portion  of 
matter  by  cooling  it  below  the  temperature  of  the  coldest 
of  surrounding  objects." 

Without  some  further  restriction  this  axiom  cannot  be 
considered  as  true,  for  by  allowing  air  to  expand  we  may 
derive  mechanical  effect  from  it  by  cooling  it  below  the 
temperature  of  the  coldest  of  surrounding  objects. 

If  we  make  it  a  condition  that  the  material  agency  is  to 
be  left  in  the  same  state  at  the  end  of  the  process  as  it 
was  at  first,  and  also  that  the  mechanical  efiect  is  not  to 
be  derived  from  the  pressure  of  the  hot  or  of  the  cold 
body,  the  axiom  will  be  rendered  strictly  true,  but  this 
brings  us  back  to  a  simple  re-assertion  of  Camot*s  prin- 
ciple, except  that  it  is  extended  from  heat  engines  to  all 
other  kinds  of  inanimate  material  agency. 

It  is  probably  impossible  to  reduce  the  second  law  of 
thermodynamics  to  a  form  as  axiomatic  as  that  of  the  first 
law,  for  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  though  true,  its 
trutb  is  not  of  the  same  order  as  that  of  the  first  law. 

The  first  law  is  an  extension  to  the  theory  of  heat  of 
the  principle  of  conservation  of  energy,  which  can  be 
proved  mathematically  true  if  real  bodies  consist  of 
matter  "as  per  definition,"  acted  on  by  forces  having 
potentials. 

The  second  law  relates  to  that  kind  of  communication 
of  energy  which  we  call  the  transfer  of  heat  as  distin- 
guished from  another  kind  of  communication  of  energy 
which  we  call  work.  According  to  the  molecular  theory 
the  only  difference  between  these  two  kinds  of  com- 
munication of  energy  is  that  the  motions  and  displace- 
ments which  are  concerned  in  the  communication  of  heat 
are  those  of  molecules,  and  are  so  numerous,  so  small 
individually,  and  so  irregular  in  their  distribution,  that 
they  quite  escape  all  our  methods  of  observation ;  whereas 
when  the  motions  and  displacements  are  those  of  visible 
bodies  consisting  of  great  numbers  of  molecules  moving  all 
together,  the  communication  of  energy  is  called  work. 

Hence  we  have  only  to  suppose  our  senses  sharpened 
to  such  a  degree  that  we  could  trace  the  motions  of  mole- 
cules as  easily  as  we  now  trace  those  of  large  bodies,  and 
the  distinction  between  work  and  heat  would  vanish,  for 
the  communication  of  heat  would  be  seen  to  be  a  com- 
munication of  energy  of  the  same  kind  as  that  which  we 
call  work. 

The  second  law  must  either  be  founded  on  our  actual 
experience  in  dealing  with  real  bodies  of  sensible  magni- 
tude, or  else  deduced  from  the  molecular  theory  of  these 
bodies,  on  the  hypothesis  that  the  behaviour  of  bodies 
consisting  of  millions  of  molecules  may  be  deduced  from 
the  theory  of  the  encounters  of  pairs  of  molecules,  by 
supposing  the  relative  frequency  of  different  kinds 
encounters  to  be  distributed  according  to  the  laws  of 
probability. 

The  truth  of  the  second  law  is  therefore  a  statistical, 

not  a  mathematical,  truth,  for  it  depends  on  the  fact  that 

the  bodies  we  deal  with  consist  of  millions  of  molecules, 

and  that  we  never  can  get  hold  of  smgle  molecules. 

'  Sir  William  Thomson  *  has  shown  how  to  calculate  the 

I  "On  thtt  Kinetic  TbeoiTof  the  Dissipation  ot  Eneigy.*' PfW.  R.S. 
Edin.,  February  16, 1874,  voL  vill  p.  3231  a«o in  Nature,  vol.  Ix.  p.  44». 


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{Feb.  7,  1878 


probability  of  the  occurrence  within  a  given  time  of  a 
given  amount  of  deviation  from  the  most  probable  distri- 
bution of  a  finite  number  of  molecules  of  two  different 
kinds  in  a  vessel,  and  has  given  a  numerical  example  of  a 
particular  case  of  the  diffusion  of  gases. 

The  same  method  might  be  extended  to  the  diffusion 
of  heat  by  conduction,  and  the  diffusion  of  motion  by 
internal  friction,  which  are  also  processes  by  which  energy 
is  dissipated  in  consequence  of  the  motions  and  encounters 
of  the  molecules  of  the  system. 

The  tendency  of  these  motions  and  encounters  is  in 
general  towards  a  definite  state,  in  which  there  is  an 
equilibrium  of  exchanges  of  the  molecules  and  their 
momenta  and  energies  between  the  different  parts  of  the 
system. 

If  we  restrict  our  attention  to  any  one  molecule  of  the 
system,  we  shall  find  its  motion  changing  at  every 
encounter  in  a  most  irregular  manner. 

If  we  go  on  to  consider  a  finite  number  of  molecules, 
even  if  the  system  to  which  they  belong  contains  an 
infinite  number,  the  average  properties  of  this  group, 
though  subject  to  smaller  variations  than  those  of  a  single 
molectde,  are  still  every  now  and  then  deviating  very 
considerably  from  the  theoretical  mean  of  the  whole 
system,  because  the  molecules  which  form  the  group 
do  not  submit  their  procedure  as  individuals  to  the  laws 
which  prescribe  the  behaviour  of  the  average  or  mean 
molecule. 

Hence  the  second  law  of  thermodynamics  is  continually 
being  violated,  and  that  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  any 
sufficiently  small  group  of  molecules  belonging  to  a  real 
body.  As  the  number  of  molecules  in  the  group  is  in- 
creased, the  deviations  from  the  mean  of  the  whole 
become  smaller  and  less  frequent ;  and  when  the  number 
is  increased  till  the  group  includes  a  sensible  portion  of 
the  body,  the  probability  of  a  measurable  variation  from 
the  mean  occurring  in  a  finite  number  of  years  becomes 
so  small  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  practically  an  impos- 
sibility. 

This  calculation  belongs  of  course  to  molecular  theory 
and  not  to  pure  thermodynamics,  but  it  shows  that  we 
have  reason  for  believing  the  truth  of  the  second  law  to 
be  of  the  nature  of  a  strong  probability,  which,  though  it 
falls  short  of  certainty  by  less  than  any  assignable 
quantity,  is  not  an  absolute  certainty. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  deduce  the  second 
law  from  purely  dynamical  principles,  such  as  Hamilton's 
principle,  and  without  the  introduction  of  any  element  of 
probability.  If  we  are  right  in  what  has  been  said  above, 
no  deduction  of  this  kind,  however  apparently  satis- 
factory, can  be  a  sufficient  explanation  of  the  second  law. 
Indeed  some  of  them  have  already  indicated  their  un- 
soundness by  leading  to  determinations  of  physical 
quantities  which  have  no  existence,  such  as  the  periodic 
time  of  the  alternations  of  the  volume  of  particular  gases.^ 

J.  Clerk  Maxwell 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Heroes  of  North  African  Discovery,    By  N.  D'Anvers. 

(London  :  Marcus  Ward  and  Co.,  1877.) 
Mr.  D'Anvers  has  here  made  an  interesting  risumi  of 

'  Szily.  Phil,  Mag.,  October,  1876;  Clausius,  Pogg.  Ann.,  cxlii.,  p.  433; 
Pogg.  Ann.,  cxivi.,  p.  585,  May,  1879;  J.  J.  MOller,  Pogg,  Ann.,  dli.,  p. 


the  work  of  the  principal  travellers  who  have  made 
Africa  known  to  the  world.  He  briefly  dismisses  the 
earlier  explorers,  the  bulk  of  the  volume  being  devoted  to 
those  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries.  Mr. 
D*Anvers  has  evidently  read  his  authorities  carefully, 
and  gives  a  clear  account  of  his  heroes'  adventures,  and 
of  the  main  results  achieved.  The  book  is  evidently 
meant  for  young  readers,  and  to  them  both  the  text  and 
the  numerous  iUustrations  will  prove  attractive.  But  all 
who  wish  to  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  what  has  been 
hitherto  achieved  in  the  field  of  African  discovery  should 
read  this  interesting  and  instructive  volume.  The  author 
prefixes  a  list  of  the  authorities  he  has  consulted,  and 
promises  another  volume  on  South  Africa,  in  which  the 
results  obtained  by  Mr.  Stanley  will  be  embodied. 

Manual  of  Agriculture;  tncludine^  the  Application 
thereto  of  Chemistry,  Geolo^^  Botany,  Animal 
Physiology,  and  Meteorology,    By  Richard  HendcrsoiL 

This  is  a  reprint  of  one  of  the  Highland  Agricultural 
Society's  prize  essays.  It  forms  a  very  marked  exception 
from  the  thoroughly  practical  essays  which  are  usually 
published  by  that  society,  so  much  so  indeed,  that  it  is  a 
source  of  regret  that  a  society  which  has  done  so  much  to 
improve  agricultural  education,  should  have  in  any  way 
stamped  the  present  work  with  its  approval  and  authority. 

The  work  is  divided  into  seven  chapters,  of  which  five 
are  devoted  to  some  notices  of  chemistry,  geology,  botany, 
animal  physiology,  and  meteorology,  and  the  sevenUi 
alone  treats  upon  the  application  of  these  sciences  to 
agricultural  practice,  which  is  the  professed  subject  of  the 
work. 

A  few  extracts  from  the  first  six  chapters  will  given  an 
idea  of  the  character  of  this  part  of  the  work.  The  second 
chapter  deals  with  chemistry,  and  is  largely  made  up  of 
comments  upon  eighteen  elements,  the  descriptions  being 
remarkably  similar  to  those  given  by  Roscoe  in  his 
"  Lessons."  It  is  fair  to  say  that  the  author  occasionally 
introduces  original  remarks,  as,  for  instance,  in  saying 
that  "  carbon  forms  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  residue  of 
plant-life  when  the  latter  is  charred,  and  access  of  atmo- 
spheric air  or  oxygen  prevented,  for  oxidised  carbon 
escapes  as  a  gas."  Prof.  Roscoe  fares  rather  badly  at  the 
hands  of  our  author,  since  he  in  another  place  says, 
"  Roscoe  gives  the  following  graphic  formula  as  the 
average  composition  of  bloc^,"  and  he  appends  the 
average  percentage  composition. 

We  are  told  again  that  at  the  sea-level  the  pressure  of 
the  air  *'  can  support  a  column  of  mercury  thirty  inches 
high  in  a  tube  in  vacuo^*  Concemmg  fogs  and  mists, 
"  they  result  from  the  radiation  of  heat  from  land  and 
water,  taking  with  it  aqueous  vapour,  which  becomes 
visible  upon  encountering  cooler  air.  Similarly  rain  is 
produced  when  heated  volumes  of  air  are  deprived  of  their 
heat,  through  the  fall  of  condensed  vapour,  which  assumes, 
according  to  the  temperature  it  encounters,  the  form  of 
hail,  rain,  or  snow." 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manttscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  Utters  rtf 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts, '\ 

Sun-Spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism 

Mr.  B.  G.  Jenkins,  in  his  letter  to  Nature,  voL  xvii.  p.  260, 
says,  "  I  have  ventured  to  state  my  belief  that  we  are  now  passing 
through  a  long  minimum  period,  one  very  similar  to  that  which 
occurred  at  the  close  of  last  century."    It  was  the  chief  object  of 


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my  commnnication  to  Nature,  yoL  zvii.  p.  183,  to  show  the 
latter  fact  as  far  as  the  observations  go  up  to  the  present  time. 
I  did  not,  however,  venture  in  that  article  to  make  a  guess  as  to 
the  future,  which  reallv  could  have  little  weight  till  we  have 
another  year's  observations.  Yet  I  thought  it  desirable,  nearly 
two  months  ago,  to  place  in  the  hands  of  Prof.  Balfour  Stewart 
the  evidence  that  the  possibility  of  such  an  event,  as  an  obvious 
conclusion  from  my  results,  had  not  escaped  me.  As  Mr. 
Jenkins  has  published  his  guess,  I  may  do  the  same  with  mine. 
The  latter  differs,  however,  from  his  in  a  very  important  way. 
He  supposes  the  next  maximum  will  be  in  1887,  whereas  I 
suppose  that  the  weak  maximum  of  1797  may  be  repeated  near 
1880.  In  this  latter  case  the  interval  between  the  two  will  be 
nearly  double  that  found  by  me  (forty-lwo  years),  during  which 
the  sun-spot  period  appears  to  have  all  its  different  lengths. 
February  i  John  Allan  Br©un 

Terrestrial  Magnetism 

I  HEREWITH  submit  a  notice  of  an  experiment  for  illustrating 
to  a  class  the  action  of  terrestrial  magnetism.  In  a  simple 
way  it  clearly  exhibits  to  a  large  audience  the  action  of  the 
currents  of  electricity  that  pass  around  the  earth.  The  experi- 
ment was  suggested  on  reading  a  paper  by  Prof.  J.  W.  Mallet, 
F.R.S.,  of  the  Univcrsity.of  Virginia, 'on  "  The  Apparent  Altera- 
tion in  Weight  of  a  Wire  placed  East  and  West,  and  Traversed 
by  an  Electric  Current "  {.Phil,  Mag,,  November,  1877). 

Instead  of  disconnecting  the  wires  placed  east  and  west  from 
the  portion  of  the  rectangle,  as  was  done  by  Prof.  Mallet  in  the 
experiment  alluded  to,  whereby  the  attractive  or  repulsive  action 
of  the  earth  currents  on  one  side  only  of  the  rectangle  was 
obtained,  it  occurred  to  me  to  suspend  the  whole  rectangle  to  a 
balance.  Properly  arranged  in  this  way  the  attraction  for  parallel 
currents  in  same  direction,  and  repulsion  for  currents  in  opposite 
direction  would  generate  a  couple,  tending  to  produce  rotation 
around  an  east  and  west  horizontal  axis,  and  hence  augment  the 
deflection  of  the  balance. 

A  rectangular  frame  was  made  of  light  poplar  wood,  of  sec- 
tion three  by  two  centimetres,  whose  sides  were  one  metre  in 
length  by  three-fourths  of  a  metre  in  breadth.  About  the 
perimeter  of  this  rectangle  there  were  wrapped  twenty  coils  of 
insulated  copper  wire.  Each  extremity  of  the  wire  was  made  to 
terminate  near  the  centre  of  one  of  the  shorter  sides,  and  passing 
through  the  wooden  frame,  was  fastened  and  cut  off  about  3  cm. 
from  the  frame. 

This  rectangular  frame  was  then  so  suspended,  in  a  horizontal 
position,  by  wires  attached  to  the  pans  of  an  ordinary  Delenil's 
hydrostatic  balance,  that  the  longer  sides  were  at  right- angles  to 
the  beam.  By  adjusting  weights  in  the  scale  pans  the  index  of 
the  balance  was  brought  to  the  zero.  Two  small  orifices  bored 
in  a  block  of  woe  d  a  centimetre  apart,  served  as  mercury  cups, 
in  which  the  extremities  of  the  short  terminal  wires  were  im- 
mersed ;  near  the  bottom  and  through  the  walls  of  these  wooden 
mercury-cups  were  screened  small  brass  hooks,  which  served  as 
connectors,  to  which  the  wires  of  the  battery  were  attached.  The 
balance  was  now  so  placed  that  the  longer  sides  of  the  suspended 
rectangle  were  at  rij^ht-an^les  with  the  magnetic  meridian^  or  in 
the  magnetic  east  and  west  line. 

When  the  current  from  the  battery  was  made  to  pass  around 
the  rectangle  from  east  to  west, 'on  the  northern  side,  and  from 
west  to  east,  on  the  southern  side,  by  the  theory  of  terrestrial 
nnagnetism,  the  north  side  of  the  rectangle  would  be  attracted  to 
the  earth,  and  the  south  side  repelled,  and  that  this  was  so  the 
corresponding  deflection  of  the  balance  rendered  plainly  visible. 
When  the  current  was  reversed  the  deflection  was  m  the  opposite 
direction.  By  breaking  and  closing  the  circuit  at  proper  intervals  to 
augment  the  oscillations,  the  large  frame  was  readily  made  to 
osollate  through  an  arc  of  5^  When  the  sides  of  the  rectangle 
were  placed  north-east  and  south-west,  the  current  produced  no 
sensible  effect.  A  bichromate  of  potash  battery  of  sixteen  cells 
\t  as  used  with  plates  of  zinc  and  carbon  25  cm.  by  6  cm. 

With  a  rectangle  containing  a  larger  number  of  coils  of  wire 
attached  to  a  delicate  balance  by  the  use  of  a  conUant  battery, 
tlie  variations  in  the  earth's  magnetism  might  be  thus  observed. 

Wm.  LeRoy  Broun 

Vanderbilt  University,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  January  11 

Seiches  and  Earthquakes 
Ir*  the  last  number  of  Nature  (p.  234)  you  make  an  allusion 
to  the  fact  that  the  earthquake  of  October  8,  1877,  has  not  been 


traced  by  the  self-registering  "  limnlmeters"  (tide-gauge)  of  M. 
Ph.  Plantamour  at  Geneva,  and  myself  at  Moiges.  Let  me  take 
the  opportimitv  of  the  great  publicity  of  your  excellent  paper  to 
ask  the  naturalists  who  live  in  other  countries  more  frequently 
visited  by  earthquakes,  for  an  explanation. 

I  believe  I  have  demonstrated  in  many  different  papers  that 
the  phenomenon  called  seiches,  which  consists  in  rhythmical 
movements  of  the  level  of  the  lake,  is  a  balancing-wave,  a  wave 
of  stationary  uninodal  oscillation.  The  water  moves  in  balanc- 
ing oscillation  in  the  two  principal  diameters  of  the  lake,  in  the 
direction  of  the  greatest  length  and  of  the  greatest  breadth. 
For  setting  the  water  in  such  an  oscillatory  movement  there  are 
two  possible  causes : — 

1.  A  shock  given  to  the  water  itself  is  the  most  frequent 
case,  and  I  can  prove  that  generally  the  seiches  are  caused 
by  some  rupture  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure; many  storms,  and  especially  those  that  fall  somewhat 
abruptly  on  the  lake,  are  accompanied  by  very  high  seiches^ 
and  I  have  many  examples  of  the  beginning  of  the  oscillatory 
movement  of  the  water  exactly  at  the  same  time  the  storm 
commences. 

2.  A  movement  of  the  soil  on  which  the  water  lies,  an  earth- 
quake. It  is  evident  that  a  shock  given  to  a  basin  can  put  the 
water  in  oscillatory  movement.  In  fact,  it  happens  frequently. 
I  will  only  recall  the  colossal  transmission- waves  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  August  13,  1868,  after  the  earthcjuake  of  Arica ;  that 
of  May  9,  1877.  at  Iquique  ;  and  in  earlier  times,  the  earthquakes 
at  Messina,  1783  ;  at  Port-Royal  (Jamaica),  1692;  at  dallao, 
1586,  &C.  If  such  enormous  waves  had  taken  place  in  a  closed 
basin,  as  our  lakes,  it  would  probably  have  brought  about  an 
oscillatory  movement  of  seiches,  I  could  bring  many  facts  to 
prove  it ;  only  one  example,  the  earthquake  of  Lisbon  (175S), 
was  noticed  in  Switzerland  and  Germany,  chiefly  bv  the 
movements  of  the  water  of  the  lakes  ;  the  description  ot  these 
movements  recalls  perfectly  the  seiches. 

It  is  also  theoretically  probable  that  the  shock  given  to  the 
ground  extends  to  the  waters,  and  that  an  earthquake  will 
produce  seiches  in  a  lake.  Unfortunately  the  facts  observed 
up  to  this  time  do  not  confirm  this  theoretical  view.  Since  I 
established  at  Morges  a  self-registering  limnimeter  of  the 
greatest  sensitiveness,  in  March,  1876,  six  different  earthquakes 
have  been  noticed  in  our  country,  and  specially  three  earthquakes 
were  felt  at  Morges  itself— May  7  and  November  29,  1876, 
and  October  8,  1877.  Not  one  of  those  six  earthquakes  has 
been  traced  by  the  self-registering  limnimeter  ;  not  one  has  inter- 
rupted the  rhythmic  oscilbition  of  the  seiches  which  were  taking 
place ;  not  the  smallest  alteration  of  the  curve  has  shown  that  the 
water  had  been  acted  upon  in  a  peculiar  manner ;  neither  was 
the  limnimeter  of  M.  Ph.  Plantamour,  which  was  at  work  during 
the  earthquake  of  October  8,  1877,  influenced  by  that  very  severe 
shock.  And  yet  our  apparatus  are  extremely  sensitive ;  when 
the  lake  is  sufficiently  calm  my  limnimeter  can  show  the  waves 
originated  by  a  steamboat  which  passes  10-15  kilometres 
off  the  apparatus,  or  it  registers  the  waves  caused  by  a 
steamer  which  has  passed  by  my  observatory  two  or  three 
hours  before. 

How  can  these  contradictory  facts  be  explained?  On  one 
hand,  the  earthquakes  cause  in  many  places  enormous  waves  ; 
on  the  other,  three  earthquakes  strong  enough  to  have  awakened 
men  out  of  their  sleep,  have  not  put  in  movement  the  most 
sensitive,  always  working,  self-registering  apparatus. 

I  suppose  that  the  shocks  of  the  earth  do  not  transfer  always 
the  movement  to  the  water  ;  that  only  in  a  special  direction  of 
the  shock  a  special  intensity,  a  special  duration,  the  water  itself 
is  put  in  movement  and  tdces  the  rhythmic  oscillation  of  the 
seiches.  If  I  shake  a  basin  the  water  is  not  always  and  necessarily 
put  in  oscillatory  movement  I  think  it  is  the  same  for  the 
seiches,  and  I  believe  that  only  certain  movements  of  the  earth 
cause  the  water  of  the  lakes  to  move. 

It  is  the  point  on  which  I  seek  an  answer  from  naturalists 
who  have  more  opportunity  to  observe  the  effects  of  earthquakes. 
I  ask  if  each  earthquake  is  accompanied  by  waves  of  the 
sea ;  if  each  shock  of  the^  same  intensity  is  accompanied 
by  waves  of  the  same  amplitude ;  if  there  are  not  differences 
between  the  different  earthquakes ;  if  some  have  the  enor- 
mous waves  of  Iquique  or  Arica ;  if  others  are  without  those 
waves? 

I  should  be  very  thankful  to  receive  an  answer  to  the  above 
questions.  F.  A.  Forel 

Morges,  Switzerland,  January  24 


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[Feb.  7,  1878 


Electrical  Experiment 

A  FRIEND  of  mine  has  called  my  attention  to  a  letter  of  F.  T. 
Pirani,  of  Melboome,  accompanied  by  some  remarks  of  Prof. 
J.  C.  Maxwell,  in  Nature,  voL  xvii.  p.  180. 

Mr.   Pirani  concludes  his  letter  with  the  words,   "If  the 

?henomenon  (described  in  the  letter)  has  not  been  noticed  before, 
shall  be  obliged  to  you  if  you  will  kindly  communicate  it  to 
Nature." 

I  take  the  liberty  to  request  you  to  call,  by  means  of  your 
esteemed  journal,  the  attention  of  the  author  to  an  article  of 
mine,  published  in  the  late  Prof.  PoggendorflTs  Annalm  der 
Physik  (vol.  dyil,  1876),  an  abstract  of  which  appeared  in  the 
Philosophical  Magazine  (5  ser.  vol.  L).  The  phenomenon 
alluded  to  in  Mr.  Pirani's  letter,  i ./.  the  existence  of  an  electro- 
motive force  due  to  gravity,  in  a  vertical  column  of  an  electrolyte, 
is,  I  believe,  fully  proved  by  the  experiments  described  in  the 
article.  The  same  difficulties  met  with  by  Mr.  Pirani  and  Prof. 
Maxwell,  who  repeated  the  experiment,  that  is,  the  presence  of 
irregular,  casual  currents,  due  to  bubbles  of  air,  &c,  have  also 
been  encountered  by  me  ;  I  intimate  the  means  of  getting  rid,  to 
a  certain  extent,  of  this  influence. 

The  transport  of  metal  in  one  direction  being  accompanied  by 
a  transport  of  the  other  ion  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  phe- 
nomenon is  more  complete  than  it  might  appear  at  first  sight, 
and  the  electromotive  force  changes  its  sign  according  to  the 
electrolyte  employed.  R.  Colley 

Kasan,  Russia,  January  33 

Oriental  Affinities  in  the  Ethiopian  Insect-Fauna 

Many  naturalists  have  already  drawn  attention  to  the  Indian 
affinities  in  the  African  fauna ;  in  other  words,  the  zoological 
relationship  between  the  Oriental  and  Ethiopian  regions.  The 
late  Dr.  Stoliczka  has  pointed  this  out  in  the  Malayan  ornitho- 
logy ;  Mr.  Wallace  has  described  the  same  thing  in  the  mam- 
malia and  birds  of  West  Africa,  these  possessing  "a  special 
Oriental  or  even  Malayan  element."  He  has  also  drawn  atten- 
tion to  the  Oriental  element  in  the  Ethiopian  reptiles  and  am- 
})hibia,  and  to  the  many  cases  of  the  same  in  the  South  African 
auna.  Mr.  Blandford  has  treated  of  the  "  African  element  in 
the  fauna  of  India,"  more  particularly  as  regards  the  mammalia ; 
and  the  late  Mr.  Blyth  has  shown  the  ancient  date  of  this  rela- 
tionship from  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  Siw^lik  deposits. 
Mr.  Murray  has  even  inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  Indo- 
Malayan  region  should  be  included  with  tnat  of  Africa,  south  of 
the  Sahara. 

The  "  Insecta  "  of  the  Ethiopian  region  also  shows  the  same 
Oriental  relationship,  which  seems  to  have  hitherto  received  less 
attention.  Dr.  Stoliczka  bas  described  this  in  the  ''Indian 
Arachnoidea,"  and  Mr.  A.  Murray  in  the  coleoptera  of  which 
he  has  given  the  names  of  eleven  genera  common  to  the  two 
regions. 

The  same  thing  may  be  seen  in  the  Lepidoptera  and  Hemip- 
tera,  of  which  I  can  only  treat  briefly,  hoping  to  deal  with  the 
subject  in  a  more  exhaustive  and  analytical  form  when  possessed 
of  adequate  data,  which  at  present  do  not  exist 

Of  tne  Lepidoptera  a  few  specific  examples  will  perhaps  serve 
the  purpo2>e  better  than  the  names  of  the  many  genera  that 
could  be  adduced.  In  the  Rhopalocera  : — Danais  chrysippiis^ 
Melanilis  leda^  Atella  phalanta^  Hypanis  ilithyia^  Lycana  Uli- 
canus,  Idmais  phisadia^  and  Callosune  dana^  all  belong  to  the 
two  regions,  and  with  the  exception  of  C  dana  and  /.  phisadiaf 
have  been  all  recorded  from  Madagascar.  However,  D,  chry- 
sippus  (Greece  and  Turkey),  H.  ilithyia  (Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and 
Arabia),  and  Z.  Ulicanus  (Egypt  and  Arabia),  would  seem  to 
show  from  those  habitats  their  route  of  migration  from  one  region 
to  the  other.  In  the  Heterocera  two  examples  must  suffice,  and 
may  be  accepted  as  typical  of  what  probably  occurs  to  a  far 
greater  extent  among  the  large  number  of  African  moths  still 
unknown  to  science.  Plusia  vertidUata  and  Patula  macrops 
have  a  wide  range  over  the  two  areas. 

In  the  African  Hemiptera-Heteroptera  the  Oriental  relation- 
ship is  very  pronounced.  The  following  are  some  of  the  genera 
common  to  the  two  regions  : — Solenosthtdiumy  Hotea^  Coptosoma^ 
Brachyplatys,  Plataspis,  CantJucona^  AgonosceliSy  Antestia^  Bothy- 
calia,  Catacanthus,  Tesseraioina^  Aspongopus,  Phyilocephala, 
Macrina^  MicHsj  Leptoglossus^  Odontopus^  Physopdta^  Lestomerus^ 
CatamiaruSf  Pachynomus,  Acanthaspisy  Oncocephalus,  and  Tho- 
deimus.  Genera,  of  course,  are  subject  to  constant  revision 
and  redivision,  niaking,  as  a  rule,  generic  calculations  of  geo- 


graphical distribution  very  uncextain  and  unstable.  A  ji^enus  of 
to-day  may  embrace  species  belonging  to  two  regions  ;  to-morrow 
an  author  may  split  Uiis  genus  into  two,  for  which  he  may  find 
local  characters.  In  other  words,  genera  conunon  to  two  regions 
at  the  present  time  may  be  shown  as  the  contrary  by  a  later 
worker.  In  a  general  way  the  value  of  the  term  genus  is  often 
equal  to  the  value  of  the  term  species.  The  twenty-four  genera 
of  Hemiptera,  however,  which  I  have  enumerated  above,  may 
be  accepted  as  more  c^rtahi  examples.  Dr.  StAl  has  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  this  order,  and  has  made  nuuiy  genera  from 
a  minute  examination  of  stracture,  and  I  think  ms  divisions 
most  at  least  be  considered  as  sufficiently  exhaustive.  I  have 
carefiilly  compared  my  list  with  his  latest  dassification,  and  find 
that  eighteen  out  of  the  twenty-four  genera  still  remain  intact 
on  his  catalogue,  one  other  is  common  to  the  two  regions  from 
an  East  African  species  I  recently  described,  and  so  only  five 
remain,  which  Dr.  StM  has  further  subdivided  Of  these 
twenty-four  genera,  hventy-two  extend  to  the  West  African  sud- 
rfgum,  twelve  have  at  the  present  time  also  been  recorded  from 
China,  and  twelve  from  the  Australian  region.  When  we  fiirther 
analyse  the  list  as  to  the  probable  route  of  migration,  it  is  found 
that  eight  genera  appear  in  Madagascar  and  two  in  Reunion  ; 
whilst  a  northern  junction  is  also  indicated  t^  one  genos 
being  found  in  Tangier  and  S3rria,  two  in  Egypt,  and  one  in 
AbjTSsinia.  A  few  species  are  common  to  the  two  regions,  as 
Leptoglossus  Ptembrananceus,  Oncocephalus  annulipes,  &c 

It  is  probable  that  the  African  Neuroptera  and  Orthoptcra 
may  show  the  same  affinities.  W.  L.  Distant 

Derwent  Grove,  East  Dulwich 


Sense  in  Insects — Drowned  by  a  Devil-Pish 

In  the  file  of  Nature  from  October  18  to  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber whidi  I  have  just  received,  I  find  a  discussion  r^;arding  the 
senses  possessed  by  insects,  especially  the  lepidoptera.  For 
yean  I  have  been  in  the  habit  of  collecting  these  insects  for  my 
friends,  and  of  course  have  become  more  or  less  acquainted  with 
their  habits.  I  recall  one  or  two  instances  in  point.  In  Costa 
Rica  the  Heliconias  frequent  certain  flowers,  and  pass  over 
othera  of  the  same  colour  and  same  approximate  size  without 
noticing  them.  But  the  most  marked  case  was  of  the  large  bril* 
liant  Morphos.  My  Indian  servants  always  carried  wi£  them 
a  fermented  paste  of  maize  flour,  which  they  mixed  with  water 
to  the  consistency  of  gruel  as  a  beverage.  On  our  arrivmg  at 
the  side  of  a  stream  in  a  narrow  gorge,  invariably,  within  a  few 
minutes  after  they  opened  a  pack^e  of  this  paste,  although 
there  might  not  have  been  a  butterfly  in  sight  be^re,  those  most 
brilliant  of  their  kind  would  come  sailing  up,  always  from  lee- 
ward, and  I  have  made  some  of  my  best  catches  in  this  manner. 
I  have  also  caught  them  by  baiting  with  a  piece  of  over-ripe  or 
even  rotting  banana.  At  other  times  the^  were  almost  unap- 
proachable. They  seem  to  live  on  fruits  just  merging  into  the 
state  of  rottenness. 

I  have  never  been  able  to  detect  any  sensitiveness  to  sound  in 
insects,  and  suspect  that  the  case  cited  by  one  of  your  cor- 
respondents might  be  equally  explained  by  sight,  or  by  the 
vibration  of  the  air  caused  by  striking  the  glass.  That  certain 
coleoptera  and  diptera  are  attracted  by  smell  alone  is  too  obvious 
to  require  proof. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  ants  in  following  an  established 
trail.  I  have  experimented  with  this  frequently,  obliterating  the 
scent  for  a  space  of  but  a  few  inches  ;  and  watdiing  the  puzzled 
wanderers  each  going  an  inch  or  less  beyond  his  predecessor, 
hunting  the  lost  clue  until  the  blank  was  finally  bridged  over. 
After  that  if  the  new  route  as  re-opened  differed  from  the  old,  it 
was  nevertheless  rigidly  followed  even  if  longer  and  less  direct. 

Another  matter.  You  mention  a  case  of  "drowning  by  a  devil- 
fish" (Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  27).  The  story  is  to  me  very 
probable.  I  once  measured  a  specimen  of  my  Octopus  punctatus 
caught  in  San  Francisco  harbour,  which  gave  dear  15  feet  from 
point  to  point  of  the  arms.  The  animal,  as  I  bought  it  from  a 
fisherman,  filled  a  champagne  basket.  W.  M.  Gabb 

Puerto  Plata,  Sto.  Domingo,  December  29,  1877 


Drowned  by  a  Devil  Fish 

Though  in  British  Columbia  at  the  time  of  the  occurrence  of 
the  incident  referred  to  by  Mr.  Moseley  in  Nature  (vol  xviu 
p.  27)  I  was  in  the  interior,  and  consequently  heard  nothing  of 
the  matter.     On  reading  Mr.  Moseley's  letter,  however,  I  wrote 


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to  my  friend  Dr.  W.  F.  Tolmie,  of  Victoria,  and  have  iust 
leceiyed  from  him  an  acconnt  verifying  in  all  essential  particulars 
the  extract  quoted  by  Mr.  Moseley  from  the  Weekly  Or^onian, 

A  party  of  Makaw  or  Makah  Indians  of  Cape  Flattery  were 
returning  from  a  visit  to  the  Songish  Indians  of  the  vicinity  of 
Victoria,  and  camped  the  first  afternoon  at  Metchosin,  on  the 
south  shore  of  Vancouver  Island.  A  young  woman  having 
separated  herself  from  the  others  to  bathe,  did  not  return  in  the 
evening,  and  after  having  searched  for  her  in  vain  the  next 
morning,  the  rest  of  the  party  were  about  to  continue  on  their 
journey,  when,  on  rounding  the  first  point,  they  saw  the  body  of 
the  woman  as  if  seated  on  the  sandy  sea-bottom,  with  a  large 
octopus  attadied  to  if,  which,  according  to  the  description  of 
Dr.  Tolmie's  informant,  resembled  a  **  fifty-pound  flour  sack, 
fhlL"  The  body  was  rescued  in  the  manner  described  in  the 
Ore^onian,  and  when  brought  ashore^  still  had  portions  of  the 
arms  of  the  octopus  adhering  to  it. 

Dr.  Tolmie  also  mentions  the  case  of  an  Indian  woman  at 
Fort  Simpson,  who  had,  many  years  ago^  a  narrow  escape  from 
a  similar  death ;  also  that  among  the  Chimsyan  Indians  traditions 
of  escapes  and  occasional  cases  of  drowning  exist,  and  farther, 
that  among  these  people  a  story  is  current  that  "  A  two-masted 
vessel  manned  in  part  or  whde  bj  men  with  obliquelv  placed 
eyes  and  wearing  queues  (at  Milbank  Sound,  lat  52 ,  about 
seventy  years  ago)  was  seized  by  an  enormous  squid,  whose  ten- 
tacles had  to  be  chopped  with  axes  ere  the  crsft  was  clear  of  it 
The  ship  is  said  to  have  been  wrecked  further  south  on  the  coast, 
in  consequence  of  the  evil  influence  of  the  monster." 

Georgs  M.  Dawson 

Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  Montreal,  January  11 

Bucal3rptu8 

In  Naturk,  vol.  xvii.  p.  10^  Mr.  A.  Nicols  says  he  has  seen 
attacks  of  fever  come  on  in  a  forest  of  Eucalyptus ;  malaria 
prevails  there,  he  maintains.  Does  that  malaria,  the  degree  of 
gravity  of  which  he  does  not  describe,  seriously  compromise 
health  ?  That  is  the  question.  It  is  probable,  notwithstanding 
the  presence  of  Eucalyptus,  that  there  are  yet  numerous  cases  of 
fever  near  Lake  Fetzara  (Algeria),  but  really  of  such  small 
importance  as  to  permit,  without  serious  danger  to  health,  the 
working  of  the  ground  or  the  mines  of  these  districts. 

As  to  mosquitoes,  allow  me  to  recall  that  there  exist  very 
many  species  of  these  animals  which,  apart  from  their  common 
quality  of  feeding  on  and  tormenting  mammals,  and  especially 
man,  have  origins,  habitats,  evolutions  and  habits  completely 
different ;  some  live  only  in  the  larval  state,  others  frequent 
moist  ground,  and  others  live,'alwa>s  in  the  larval  state,  in  fungi 
In  a  country  which  is  far  from  being  tropical  and  marshy, 
Newfoundland,  the  pine  woods  are  infested  during  the  short 
summer  by  myriads  of  mosquitoes,  which  become  a  real  danger 
for  the  rash  traveller.  It  will  be  understood  that  all  these 
species  do  not  exist  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  place,  and  that 
at  Lake  Fetzara  the  marshes  are  being  profoundly  modified,  or 
are  disappearing,  and  the  mosquitoes,  properly  called,  are  also 
disappeanng.  Moreover,  if  there  does  not  exist  in  the  country, 
as  is  probable,  any  species  of  mosquito  living  in  the  shade  of  the 
forest,  the  country  will  be  rid  of  these  animals,  a  thing  which 
cannot  take  place  in  Australia,  where  there  are  species  living  in 
the  forests.  In  other  words,  it  is  not  the  Eucalyptus  which  at 
Fetzara  has  caused  the  mosquitoes  to  disappear,  but  rather  the 
absence  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  life  and  reproduction 
of  mosquitoes,  which  have  become  deficient  in  consequence  of 
the  modification  of  the  soil,  brought  about  by  the  numerous 
plantations  of  Eucalyptus.  Dr.  Calmy 

Saigon,  December  19,  1877 

Explosive  Dust 

In  Nature,  vol.  xvil  p.  123,  I  noticed  a  letter  by  A.  Mac- 
kennah  on  an  explosion  of  malt  dust  in  a  grinding  machine. 
This  I  believe  to  be  not  an  uncommon  occurrence,  as  I  hear 
there  have  been  three  explosions  in  our  mill  within  a  period  of  four 
years,  and  these  not  due  to  any  such  culpable  carelessness  as 
allowing  a  naked  flame  to  approach  the  heated  impalpable  dust, 
but  ignited  either  by  a  spark  from  a  piece  of  flint  passing  through 
the  steel  rollers  (barley  from  some  localities  is  invariably  accom- 
|>anied  by  quantities  of  small  fragments  of  flint),  or  from  exces- 
sive friction  on  some  part  of  the  wood  fittings. 

The  following  facts  I  obtained  from  the  man  in  charge  of  our 
mill  at  the  time  of  the  worst  of  these  explosions,  alx>ut  three 
years  ago  :— 


They  were  grinding  at  the  ordinary  pace  about  mid-day  with 
the  window  open  and  no  gas  turned  on. 

The  explosion  was  quite  sudden  and  the  flame  sufficient  to 
singe  the  man's  whiskers ;  the  force  was  so  great  that  the  door 
of  the  ei^gine-room  was  blown  open,  though  the  only  opening 
between  ue  two  rooms  was  a  small  hole  through  which  the 
shafting  worked. 

Having  had  several  holes  bored  through  the  wood  lining  to 
allow  a  free  current  of  air,  there  has  been  no  explosion  since. 

The  danger  of  fine  impalpable  coal  dust  in  collieries  is  too 
manifest  to  need  argument  based  on  the  action  of  analogous 
bodies,  but  still  the  above  facts  may  interest  some  of  your 
readers.  F.  E.  L 

Burton-on-Trcnt,  January  22 

Dendritic  Gold 

Will  one  of  my  fellow-readers  of  Nature  be  good  enough 
to  inform  me,  through  its  columns,  with  the  name  and  publisher 
of  such  a  work  on  mineralogy  (short,  if  possible)  as  will  give 
me  the  best  information  on  the  subject  of  the  dendntic  ^old 
existing  in  sandstones  in  New  Zealand,  as  reported  in  the  Pto^ 
ceedings  of  the  Wellington  Society  (Nature,  voL  xvL  p.  567). 

It  is  my  wish  speciaUy  to  know  the  colour  of  such  dendrites, 
the  geologic  *%t  of  the  rock  oonuining  them,  and,  if  possible,  to 
obtam  a  satisuictorv  account  of  their  ori«;in,  as  hitherto  I  have 
believed  that  metals  take  this  form  solely  by  deposition  from 
solution. 

I  ask  this  in  the  interest  of  friends  in  South  Africa  (in  addition 
to  the  personal  drsire  for  knowledge),  where,  in  manv  parts  of 
the  Transvaal,  gold  "  prospects  "  can  be  obrabed,  though  usually 
in  quantities  tmprofitably  small,  in  nearly  every  case  ther«  being 
no  quartz  from  which  it  could  have  been  derived  ;  at  least  so  said 
my  informants,  old  Australians. 

Black  dendrites  I  have  noticed  between  the  (once)  horizontal 
strata  of  sandstone  boulders  in  the  Kimberley  diamond  mme, 
but  was  unable,  at  the  time,  to  decide  their  nature.  R. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  CURRENTS  ORIGI^ 
NATED  BY  THE  VOICE  IN  BELUS  TELE- 
PHONE 

IF  two  wires,  A  and  B,  be  respectively  connected  with 
the  two  binding  screws,  R  and  S,  of  a  telephone,  and 
the  other  ends  of  the  wires  be  connected  with  a 
Thompson's  reflecting  galvanometer,  the  following  experi- 
ments can  be  made  : — 

1.  On  pressing  in  the  iron  disc  a  deflection  is  produced 
on  the  scale,  say,  from  right  to  left 

2.  On  reversing  the  wires  so  that  A  is  connected  with 
S  and  B  with  R,  and  repeating  Experiment  i,  a  deflection 
is  produced  in  the  opposite  direction,  i,e,  from  left  to 
right. 

3.  Shouting  or  singing  produces  no  deflection. 

If  a  Lippmann's  capillary  electrometer  be  substituted 
for  the  galvanometer,  the  following  results  are  obtained  : — 

4.  If  Experiments  i  and  2  be  repeated,  similar  move- 
ments are  observed,  ue,  in  one  case  the  mercury  column 
moves  to  the  point  of  the  capillary  tube,  in  the  other 
away  from  it. 

5.  If  the  gamut  be  loudly  sung  up,  note  by  note,  to 
the  sound  My  one  note  is  found  to  give  a  movement  of 
the  mercury  column,  about  ten  rimes  as  great  as  that 
observed  in  Experiment  4,  towards  the  point  of  the  tube. 
The  octaves,  especially  the  higher  ones,  and  some  har- 
monics of  this  note  yield  similar  results.  (It  is  this  note 
which  tetanises  a  nerve  muscle  preparation  as  observed 
by  Fick,  &c.) 

6.  If  the  wires  be  reversed  and  the  same  note  sung,  a 
movement  of  the  mercury  column  is  seen  as  large  as  that 
in  Experiment  5,  but  in  the  same  direction.  So  that 
reversing  the  wires  does  not  alter  the  direction  as  indicated 
by  the  electrometer. 

7.  If  the  primary  wire  of  a  Du  Bois  Reymond's  coil  be 
placed  in  the  circuit  of  a  telephone,  and  the  wires  from 
the  secondary  circuit  coupled  with  the  electrometer,  the 
note  mentioned  above  produces  the  same  movement  as 
in  Experiments  5  and  6|  when  the  secondary  cdl  is  about 


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\Feb.  7,  1878 


8  cm.  from  the  primary.  Reverse  the  wires  in  the 
secondary  circuity  reverse  the  wires  in  the  primary  circuity 
how  you  picascy  the  mercury  always  moves  towards  the 
point  of  the  capillary, 

8.  Shouting  or  singing  (excepting  the  above-mentioned 
note)  produces  no  visible  effect  under  the  conditions 
mentioned  in  Experiments  5,  6,  and  7. 

9.  If  the  secondary  coil  lie  now  moved  close  up,  so  as 
to  cover  as  completely  as  possible  the  primary,  talking  to 
the  telephone  with  the  ordinary  voice,  i,e,  with  moderate 
strength  and  at  any  pitch,  produces  a  definite  movement 
of  the  mercury  column  for  each  word,  some  sounds  of 
course  giving  more  movement  than  others,  but  the  move- 
ment is  always  towards  the  end  of  the  capillary.  Singing 
the  note  mentioned  in  Experiments  5,  6,  and  7  loudly, 
produces  a  movement  too  large  to  be  measured  with  the 
electrometer. 

Reversing  the  poles  of  the  magnet  in  the  telephone  does 
not  aher  the  results  of  Experiments  5,  6,  7,  and  9. 

On  mentioning  the  above  results  to  Dr.  Burdon  San- 
derson^ he  suggested  that  the  apparently  anomalous 
behaviour  of  the  electrometer  might  be  accounted  for,  by 
supposing  that  the  mercury  moved  quicker  when  a  current 
passed  towards  the  point  of  the  capillary  than  when  it 
flowed  in  the  opposite  direction  ;  so  that  if  a  succession 
of  rapidly  alternating  currents  be  passed  through  the 
instrument,  the  mercury  will  always  move  towards  the 
point  of  the  capillary,  the  movement  away  from  the  point 
being  masked  by  the  sluggishness  of  the  instrument  in 
that  direction.  That  this  explanation  is  the  correct  one 
is  proved  by  the  following  experiment :— The  current 
from  two  Grove's  cells  is  sent  through  a  metal  reed 
vibrating  100  times  a  second,  the  contact  being  made  and 
broken  at  each  vibration,  the  primary  wire  of  a  Du  Bois 
Reymond's  induction-coil  is  also  included  in  the  circuit ;  on 
connecting  the  electrometer  with  the  secondary  coil  placed 
at  an  appropriate  distance  the  mercury  always  moves  to 
the  point  of  the  tube  whatever  be  the  direction  of  the 
current  F.  J.  M.  Page 

Physiological  Laboratory,  University  College, 
London,  February  2 

Note.— On  February  4  Prof.  Graham  Bell  kindly 
placed  at  my  disposal  a  telephone  much  more  powerful 
than  any  of  those  I  had  previously  used.  On  spc^ng  to 
this  instrument,  the  electrometer  being  in  the  circuit, 
movements  of  the  mercury  column  as  considerable  as 
those  in  Experiment  9  were  observed. — F.  J.  M.  P. 

CHEMISTRY  AND  ALGEBRA 
TT  may  not  be  wholly  without  interest  to  some  of  the 
•*•  readers  of  Nature  to  be  made  acquainted  with 
an  analogy  that  has  recently  forcibly  impressed  me 
between  branches  of  human  knowledge  apparently  so 
dissimilar  as  modem  chemistry  and  modem  algebra.  I 
have  found  it  of  great  utility  in  explaining  to  non-mathe- 
maticians the  nature  of  the  investigations  which  alge- 
braists are  at  present  busily  at  work  upon  to  make  out 
the  so-called  Grundformen  or  irredudfale  forms  appurte- 
nant to  binary  quantics  taken  singly  or  in  systems,  and  I 
have  also  found  that  it  may  be  used  as  an  instrument  of 
investigation  in  purely  algebraical  inquiries.  So  much  is 
this  the  case  that  I  hardly  ever  take  up  Dr.  Frankland's 
exceedingly  valuable  "Notes  for  Chemical  Students," 
which  arc  drawn  up  exclusively  on  the  basis  of  Kekuld's 
exquisite  conception  of  valence ;wiihovX  deriving  sugges- 
tions for  new  researches  in  the  theory  of  algebnucal 
forms.  I  will  confine  myself  to  a  statement  of  the  grounds 
of  the  analogy,  referring  those  who  may  feel  an  interest 
in  the  subj'^ct  and  are  dairous  for  further  information 
about  it  to  a  memoir  which  I  have  written  upon  it  for  the 
new  American  Journal  of  Pure  and  Applied  Mathe- 
matics^ the  first  number  of  which  wfll  appear  early  in 
February. 


The  analogy  is  between  atoms  and  binary  quantics 
exclusively. 

I  compare  every  binary  quantic  with  a  chemical  atom. 
The  number  of  factors  (or  rays,  as  they  may  be  regarded 
by  an  obvious  geometrical  interpretation)  in  a  binary 
quantic  is  the  analogue  of  the  number  of  bonds^  or  the 
valence^  as  it  is  termed,  of  a  chemical  atom. 

Thus  a  linear  form  may  be  regarded  as  a  monad  ^om. 
a  quadratic  form  as  a  duad,  a  cubic  form  as  a  triad,  and 
so  on. 

An  invariant  of  a  system  of  binary  quantics  of  various 
degrees  is  the  analogue  of  a  chemical  substance  composed 
of  atoms  of  corresponding  valences.  The  order  of  such 
invariant  in  each  set  of  coefficients  is  the  same  as  the 
number  of  atoms  of  the  corresponding  valence  in  the 
chemical  compound. 

A  CO- variant  is  the  analogue  of  an  (organic  or  inorganic) 
compound  radical.  The  orders  in  the  several  sets  of  co- 
efficients corresponding,  as  for  invariants,  to  the  respective 
valences  of  the  atoms,  the  free  valence  of  the  compound 
radical  then  becomes  identical  with  the  deg^ree  of  the 
co-variant  in  the  variables. 

The  weight  of  an  invariant  is  identical  with  the  number 
of  the  bonds  in  the  chemicograph  of  the  analogous 
chemical  substance,  and  the  weight  of  the  leading  term 
(or  basic  differentiant)  of  a  co-variant  is  the  same  as  the 
number  of  bonds  in  the  chemicograph  of  the  analogous 
compound  radical  Every  invariant  and  covariant  thus 
becomes  expressible  by  a  graph  precisely  identical  with  a 
Kekuldan  diagram  or  chemicograph.  But  not  every 
chemicograph  is  an  algebraical  one.  I  show  that  by  an 
application  of  the  algebraical  law  of  reciprocity  every 
algebraical  graph  of  a  given  invariant  will  represent  the 
constitution  in  terms  of  the  roots  of  a  quantic  of  a  type 
reciprocal  to  that  of  the  given  invariant  of  an  invariant 
belonging  to  that  reciprocal  type.  I  give  a  rule  for  the 
geometrical  multiplication  of  graphs,  i,e.  for  constructing 
a  graph  to  the  product  of  in-  or  co  variants  whose  separate 
gpraphs  are  given.  I  have  also  ventured  upon  a  hypothesis 
which,  whilst  in  nowise  interfering  with  existing  chemico- 
graphical  constructions,  accounts  for  the  seeming  anomaly 
of  the  isolated  existence  as  ^' monad  molecules'*  oif 
mercury,  zinc,  and  arsenic— and  gives  a  rational  explana- 
tion of  the  "  mutual  saturation  of  bonds." 

I  have  thus  been  led  to  see  more  clearly  than  ever  I 
did  before  the  existence  of  a  common  ground  to  the  new 
mechanism,  the  new  chemistry,  and  the  new  algebra. 
Underlying  all  these  is  the  theory  of  pure  colligation, 
which  applies  undistinguishably  to  the  three  great 
theories,  aU  initiated  within  the  last  third  of  a  century  or 
thereabouts  by  Eisenstein,  Kekul^  and  Peaucellier. 

Baltimore,  January  i  J.  J.  SYl.VBSTElt 


PALMEN    ON    THE   MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE 
TRACHEAL  SYSTEM 

DR.  PALMEN,  of  Helsingfors,  has  recently  published 
an  interesting  memoir  on  the  tracheal  system  of 
insects.  He  observes  that  although  the  gills  of  cer- 
tain aquatic  larvae  are  attached  to  the  sldn  very  near  to 
the  points  at  which  the  spiracles  open  in  the  mature 
insects,  and  though  spiracles  and  gills  do  not  co-exist  in  the 
same  segment,  ytrt  die  point  of  attachment  of  the  gills 
never  exactly  coincides  with  the  position  of  the  future 
spiracle.  Moreover,  he  shows  that  even  during  the  larval 
condition,  although  the  spiracles  are  not  open,  the  stmc- 
ttire  of  the  stigmatic  duct  is  present,  and  indeed  that  it 
opens  temporarily  at  each  moult,  to  permit  the  inner 
tracheal  membrane  to  be  cast,  after  which  it  closes 
again.  In  fact,  then,  he  urges,  the  gills  and  spiracles  do 
not  correspond  exactlv,  either  in  number  or  in  position, 
and  there  can  therefore  be  between  them  no  genetic 
connection.  He  concludes  that  the  insects  with  open 
tracheae  are  not  derived  from  ancestors  provided  with  gill% 


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bat,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  possession  of  a  closed 
tracheal  system  is  a  secondary  condition)  derived  from 
ancestors  provided  with  spiracles. 

He  adopts  the  view  that  the  existing  insects  are  derived 
from  an  ancestor,  in  which  the  larvae  resembled  the 
existing  genus  Campodea,  with  a  hemimetabalous  meta- 
morphosis, and  an  open  tracheal  system  ;  and  he  dwells 
on  the  important  fiact  that  in  Campodea  each  spiracle  has 
an  independent  set  of  tracheae.  So  also  in  the  course  of 
embryonal  development,  the  tracheal  systems  rise  sepa- 
rately, and  then  the  anterior  and  posterior  branches  unite 
to  form  the  lateral  ducts. 

In  a  still  earlier  stage  he  thinks  it  probable  that  the 
tracheae  resembled  those  of  the  curious  genus  Peripatus. 
He  observes  that  the  skin-glands  of  certain  worms  secrete 
not  only  fluid,  but  also  gas  (carbonic  acid),  and  from  this 
to  an  absorbing  function  would  be  a  comparatively  small 
step.  He  supposes,  then,  that  the  tracheae  are  derived 
from  the  skin- glands  of  worms,  passing  firstly  through  the 
stage  now  represented  by  Peripatus,  in  which  there  are  a 
number  of  tracheal  tubes  with  numerous  scattered  open- 
ings ;  secondly,  though  one  represented  now  by  Campodea 
and  certain  myriapods,  in  which  the  spiracles  are 
situated  in  pairs,  and  are  connected  with  separate 
tracheal  systems.  1.  L. 


ON   THE   EVOLUTION  OF  HEAT  DURING 
MUSCULAR   ACTION^ 

PROF.  A.  FICK,  of  WUrzburg,  in  continuing  his 
researches  on  the  source  of  muscular  power,  has 
obtained  some  new  and  exceedingly  important  results,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  condensed  account : — 

It  is  obviously  an  interesting  question  in  the  phy- 
siology of  muscle  what  fraction  of  the  work  yielded  by 
chemical  action  in  muscular  tissue  can  be  emploved  in 
overcoming  mechanical  resistance?  the  remainder  of 
the  chemiod  work  appearing,  in  all  probability,  as  heat 

Many  years  ago  Helmholtz  calculated,  from  certain 
considerations,  into  which,  however,  there  entered  several 
hypothetical  factors,  that  possibly  one-fifth  of  the  total  work 
yielded  by  chemical  fotce  in  the  human  body  might  be 
employed  in  muscular  action,  the  remaining  four-fifths  ap- 
pearing as  sensible  heat.  From  this  it  necessarily  follows 
that  a  much  larger  proportion  than  one-fifth  of  the  work 
yielded  by  chemical  force  in  the  muscle  itself  can  be 
employed  in  overcoming  mechanical  resistance,  inasmuch 
as  it  IS  assumed  that  a  great  part  of  the  oxidation  takes 
place  in  other  tissues,  where  mechanical  work  is  quite  out 
of  the  question,  and  where  heat  alone  can  be  the  result 

If,  however,  thermodynamical  experiments  show  that 
of  the  chemical  work  gomg  on  in  the  muscle  only  a  small 
fraction,  not  much  exceedingone-fifth, produces  mechanical 
effect ;  then,  supposing  the  coefficient  of  Helmholtz  to  be 
true,  it  would  be  i>roved  that  only  minute  quantities  of 
combustible  material  are  oxidised  dsewhere  than  in  the 
muscles.  The  author's  experiments  have  been  made  with 
a  view  to  answer  the  first  of  the  above  questions — what 
fraction  of  the  chemical  force  eliminated  in  the  muscle  is 
used  in  mechanical  work?  Such  experiments  can,  of 
course,  with  the  present  means  of  research,  only  be 
carried  out  upon  the  muscles  of  the  frog.  How  far  the 
results  obtained  are  applicable  to  other  classes  of  animals, 
is  a  distinct  question. 

Thus  two  magnitudes  have  to  be  determined  in  absolute 
measure,  viz.,  the  mechanical  work  performed  by  the 
muscle,  and  secondly,  the  amount  of  chemical  work  that 
the  muscle  has  yielded  during  the  action. 

The  amount  of  heat  produced  in  the  muscle  was  of 
coarse  measured  by  multiplying  the  rise  in  temperature 
of  the  muscle  by  its  capacity  for  heat  In  the  calcula- 
tions the  specific  heat  of  muscle  was  tsJcen  as  equal  to 
that  of  water.    It  cannot  be  greater,  and  is  probably  not 

s  U«ber  iam  Wanaetatwicktliing  bd  der  Muskelrackung/*  in  the  ^r 


much  less,  inasmuch  as  three-fourths  of  living  muscle  are 
water.  The  rise  in  temperature  was  measured  by  thermo- 
electrical  means.  The  galvanoineter  used  had  no  fixed 
magnet,  and  its  constancy  was  proved  to  extend  over 
many  weeks,  and  even  months.  The  thermopile  had  to 
be  so  arranged  that  it  was  as  much  as  possible  surrounded 
by  the  mass  of  muscle ;  its  construction  will  be  better 
understood  after  the  preparation  has  been  described.  The 
gastrocnemius  muscle,  which  is  the  favourite  preparation 
m  such  experiments,  was  replaced  by  the  masses  of 
muscle  which  pass  from  the  pelvis  to  the  tibia  on  the 
inner  side  of  each  thigh,  whilst  the  other  muscles,  with 
the  sartorius  and  biceps,  as  well  as  both  the  thigh-bones, 
were  removed.  Then,  on  suspending  the  pelvis,  the  two 
prepared  masses  of  muscle  hung  vertically  downwards  in 
intimate  contact  with  each  other,  all  the  nerves  belonging 
thereto  being  easily  preserved.  One  end  of  the  thermo- 
pile, with  very  fiat  and  thin  elements,  was  then  placed  in 
the  fissure  between  the  two  masses  of  muscle,  this 
arrangement  being  foimd  by  experience  to  be  a  perfectly 
trustworthy  one. 

A  remark  is  necessary  concerning  the  method  of 
irritating  the  preparation.  Some  years  ago  the  author 
had  the  opportunity  of  observing,  in  some  unpublished 
experiments,  that  an  electric  current  of  sufficient  strength 
to  produce  the  most  powerful  contraction  in  a  muscle, 
does  not  appreciably  raise  the  temperature  of  the  latter. 
Even  with  Heidenhain's  exceedingly  delicate  thermopile 
there  was  scarcely  any  evidence  of  heat  t>eing  produced 
in  a  dead  muscle  through  which  a  current  of  twenty-four 
Daniell's  elements  was  passing  for  several  seconds ;  and 
even  induction  currents  of  immense  strength  produced  no 
visible  thermal  effect  This  fact  is  of  great  interest  in 
myothermic  experiments,  as  it  is  thus  no  longer  necessary 
to  impart  the  stimulus  through  the  nerve,  but  simply  to 
subject  the  muscle  to  direct  electrical  irritation. 

In  his  experiments,  the  author  has  adopted  preferen- 
tially the  method  of  direct  irritation,  one  of  the  two  copper 
wires  connected  with  the  induction-coil  being  attached  to 
the  pelvis,  and  the  other  to  the  knee  of  the  frog. 

The  mechanical  work  was  measured  by  connecting  the 
preparation  with  one  arm  of  a  lever  to  which  a  weight 
was  attached,  and,  in  some  of  the  experiments,  there  were 
also  two  balanced  weights  placed  upon  the  lever  to 
increase  its  inertia,  by  which  it  was  found  that  the  work 
performed  was  very  considerably  increased. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  chief  results  arrived 
at  by  these  experiments  : — 

1.  By  the  interposition  of  a  thin  thermopile  between 
suitable  masses  of  muscle,  it  is  possible  to  determine  with 
great  accuracy  the  absolute  amount  of  heat  produced  by 
Uieir  contraction. 

2.  The  determination  of  the  muscle-temperature  is  not 
interfered  with  by  electrical  currents,  which,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  irritation,  are  passed  through  the  muscle.  There- 
fore direct  electrical  irriution  of  the  muscle  is  permissible, 
and  indeed  far  preferable,  in  myothermic  researches. 

3.  To  the  fundamental  law  ot  Heidenhain,  that  a  muscle 
contracting  to  its  greatest  extent  evolves  more  heat  the 
greater  its  initial  tension,  we  may  now  add  that,  with 
equal  initial  tension,  a  muscle  will  evolve  more  heat  if,  by 
means  of  weights  in  equilibrium,  greater  tension  be  pro- 
duced during  the  contraction. 

4.  A  muscle  overcoming  a  greater  resistance,  works  not 
only  with  more  activity  but  also  with  more  economy  than 
when  occupied  in  a  smaller  effort. 

5.  In  an  energetic  muscular  contraction  against  as 
great  a  resistance  as  possible  the  eliminated  chemical 
force  is  about  four  times  as  great  as  the  mechanical  work 
it  performs.  Widi  a  less  resistance  the  chemical  is  a 
greater  multiple  of  the  mechanical  force,  and  with  no 
resistance  at  all  it  is  obviously  indefinitely  greater. 

6.  The  amount  of  heat  produced  by  the  eliminated 
chemical  force  in  an  energetic  contraction  of  i  grm.  of 

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{Feb.  7,  1878 


untired  frog's  muscle  is  sufficient  to  raise  3  mgrm.  of 
water  from  o®  to  i**  C. 

7.  By  adopting  some  very  probable  assumptions  it  can 
be  inferred  that  the  combustion  of  assimilated  food,  as  far 
as  the  oxygen  inspired  is  employed  in  producing  chemical 
force,  takes  place  almost  exclusively  in  the  muscular 
tissues.  P.  Frankland 

ERNST  HE  IN  RICH  WEBER 

WE  are  called  upon  to  chronicle  the  death,  at  Leipzig, 
on  January  26,  of  Prof.  Ernst  Heinrich  Weber, 
whose  name  is  so  closely  united  with  the  fundamental 
principles  of  modem  optics  and  acoustics.  He  was  bom 
at  Wittenberg,  June  24,  1795,  and  after  having  studied  at 
the  university  of  that  city  received,  in  18 15,  the  degree  of 
M.D.  Two  years  later  he  published  a  short  work  on  the 
anatomy  of  the  sympathetic  nerves,  which  brought  his 
name  at  once  into  prominence.  The  following  year  he 
was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  anatomy  at 
the  University  of  Leipzig,  and  m  1821  he  became  ordi- 
nary professor  of  human  anatomy.  He  was  early  well  known 
by  his  edition  of  Htldebrandt's  Anatomie,  of  which  he 
wrote  anew  a  considerable  part,  1830.  The  chair  of  physio- 
logy was  offered  to  him  in  1840,  and  he  actively  fulfilled 
the  duties  of  this  position  until  a  short  time  before  his 
death.  During  this  period  he  issued  several  manuals  of 
physiology,  and  published  a  number  of  investigations,  the 
most  valuable  of  which  are  gathered  together  in  his  book 
'*  Annotationes  anatomicae  et  physiologicae "  (1851). 
Science  is,  however,  chiefly  indebted  to  Prof.  Weber  for 
the  classical  researches  carried  out  by  him  and  his 
brother  Wilhelm  Eduard  while  still  young  men,  on  which 
is  grounded  the  celebrated  wave-theory.  The  work  in 
which  their  investigations  are  recorded—"  Die  Wellen- 
lehre  auf  Experimente  gegriindet "  (1825),  is  a  remarkable 
relation  of  the  most  delicate  and  ingenious  observations 
ever  undertaken  to  establish  a  series  of  physical  laws. 
Among  the  most  notable  of  these  might  be  mentioned 
the  experiments  on  waves  of  water  in  mirrored  troughs, 
by  means  of  which  they  found  that  the  particles  near  the 
surface  move  in  circular  paths,  while  those  deeper  in  the 
liquid  describe  ellipses,  the  horizontal  axes  of  which  are 
longer  than  the  vertical.  By  another  series  of  com- 
parative observations  on  water  and  mercury  the  law 
was  established  that  waves  moved  |with  equal  rapidity 
on  the  surfaces  of  different  mediums,  while  the  rapidity 
increases  in  both  cases  with  the  depth  of  the  liquid. 
These  and  a  multitude  of  other  facts,  studied  and  elabo- 
rated in  the  most  scrupulous  and  conscientious  manner, 
form  the  basis  for  the  whole  theoretical  structure  accepted 
at  present  as  explanatory  of  the  phenomena  of  light  and 
sound.  So  thoroughly  and  scientifically  were  these  re- 
searches carried  out  that  subsequent  physicists  have 
never  been  called  upon  to  correct  them.  In  1850  Prof. 
Weber  completed  an  extensive  series  of  experiments 
designed  to  study  the  wave-movement  in  the  arterial 
system  and  explain  the  fact  that  the  pulse-beat  was  lelt 
at  the  chin  a  fraction  of  a  second  sooner  than  in  the  foot 
The  results  showed  that  the  pulse-beat  travels  with  a 
rapidity  of  about  thirty-five  feet  per  second,  and  that  in 
general  the  rapidit3r  of  a  wave  in  small  elastic  tubes  is 
not  affected  by  the  increase  of  pressure  on  the  walls.  At 
a  later  date  Pro£  Weber  published  some  interesting 
results  of  experiments  on  the  mechanism  of  the  ear,  as 
well  as  on  the  microscopic  phenomena  visible  on  bringing 
together  alcohol  and  resin  suspended  in  water  in  capil- 
lai  y  spaces. 


DR.  P,  BLEEKER 

ON  January  24  death  quite  suddenly  overtook  one  of 
the  most  indefatigable  workers  in  the  field  of  zoolo- 
gical science,  the  well-known  ichthyologist.  Dr.  P.  Sleeker, 
who  died  at  his  residence  in  the  Hague,  at  the  age  of 
fifty-nine.  Born  at  Zaandam  in  1819,  he  had  an  eariy 
taste  for  natural  history,  and  studied  medicine  with  a 


view  to  an  appointment  in  the  army.  In  1838  he  received 
an  appointment  in  the  medical  staff  of  the  East  Indian 
army,  and  left  for  Batavia.  Here  an  immense  field  was 
soon  opened  to  his  activity.  He  set  himself  to  form  an 
immense  collection  of  fishes  from  different  parts  of  the 
colonies,  assisted  in  many  ways  by  a  number  of  his  medi- 
cal colleagues  at  different  stations.  He  himself  always 
remained  at  Batavia,  gradually  rising  in  his  profession 
till  he  obtained  the  inspectorate  of  the  Colonial  Medical 
Service.  At  the  same  time  he  was  the  centre  of  a  keen 
scientific  movement  in  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  Indies, 
starting  several  societies  and  taking  the  chair  in  the 
principal  of  them  for  many  consecutive  years.  His  con- 
tributions to  the  Indian  ichthyological  fauna  were  regu- 
larly published  in  Batavian  scientific  journals.  In  i860 
he  returned  to  his  native  country,  and  first  took  up  his 
residence  at  Leyden,  with  a  view  to  comparing  the  trea- 
sures contained  in  the  zoological  collections  there  with 
his  own.  Extensive  consignments  of  fishes  had  been 
made  by  him  to  this  institution  at  the  time  of 
his  residence  in  Batavia,  part  of  the  arrangement 
and  determination  of  which  he  now  took  upon 
himself.  Not  long  afterwards  he  went  to  live  at  the 
Hague,  where  the  dignity  of  Councillor  of  State  Extra- 
ordinary was  conferred  upon  him.  He  set  to  work  at  the 
gigantic  task  he  had  undertaken — the  publication  of  his 
**  Atlas  Ichthyologique  des  Indes  Orientales  N^rland- 
aises,"  seven  volumes  of  which,  illustrated  by  several 
hundreds  of  coloured  plates  have  appeared.  He  was 
herein  largely  assisted  by  g^rants  from  the  Colonial  Go- 
vernment Many  important  groups,  the  Gobioidas,  the 
Scombridse,  the  Scorpaenidse,  &c,  as  well  as  the  whole  of 
the  Elasmobranchs  are  left  unfinished.  He  himself  esti- 
mated that  little  less  than  half  of  the  work  remained  to 
be  published,  and  latteriy  had  misgivings  whether  he 
would  really  be  able  to  finish  it. 

The  number  of  separate  publications  on  East  Indian 
fishes  which  have  appeared  from  his  hand  in  different 
joumals  exceed  three  hundred  ;  they  form  the  basis  on 
which  he  gradually  raised  the  structure  of  his  Atlas. 

He  had  brought  home  his  large  collection  of  spirit 
specimens  which  has  always  remained  in  his  private 
possession.  Of  late  years,  as  he  advanced  with 
the  publication  of  his  Atlas,  he  disposed  of  the  speci- 
mens of  those  groups  which  he  had  finished ;  in  this 
way  no  less  tlmn  150  of  his  unique  type-specimens 
were  acouired  by  purchase  by  the  Brituh  Museum. 
Another  disadvantage  under  which  a  private  collection  of 
these  dimensions  often  labours — and  Bleeker's  was  no 
exception —is  the  loss  of  the  exact  localities  from  which 
the  different  specimens  of  one  species  were  procured,  a 
detail  which  is  afterwards  of  such  high  importance  in 
determining  the  geographical  range  of  varieties.  Here, 
however  aU  the  specimens  are  mixed  together  in  one 
bottle  without  being  separately  labelled. 

An  extensive  collection  of  reptiles  and  amphibians  from 
the  Archipelago,  on  which  he  had  published  several 
papers  during  his  stay  in  India,  have  passed  to  the 
British  and  Hamburg  Museums. 

ABOUT  FISHES'  TAILS 

MOST  people  know  the  difference  in  shape  that  there 
is  between  the  tail  (caudal  fin)  of  a  salmon  and  that 
of  a  shark  ;  how  in  the  former  the  lobes  of  the  fin  seem 
to  be  equal  or  synmietrical  (homocercal),  and  in  the  latter 
only  the  lower  lobe  of  the  fin  is,  as  it  were,  developed,  and 
the  back  bone  (vertebras)  of  the  fish  seems  to  be  prolonged 
into  the  feebly-developed  upper  lobe  (heterocercal).  This 
remarkable  distinction  was  first  of  all  recognised  by 
Agassiz,  and  long  ago  Owen  wrote,  ''the  preponderance 
of  heterocercal  fishes  in  the  seas  of  the  geological  epochs 
of  our  planet  is  very  remarkable ;  the  prolongation  of  the 
superior  lobe  characterises  every  fossil  fish  of  the  strata 
anterior  to  and  including  the  magnesian  limestone  ;  the 


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homocercal  fishes  first  appear  above  that  formation  and 
gradually  predominate  tfndl,  as  in  the  present  period,  the 
heterocercal  bony  fishes  are  almost  limited  to  a  single 
ganoid  genus  (Lepidosteus)."  **  Indeed,"  writes  Prof. 
Owen  in  another  place,  "  it  [the  heterocercal]  was  the 


Fig.  z. 

fuhion  of  t2ul  which  prevailed  in  fishes  throughout  the 
psdaeozoic  and  triassic  periods."  It  never  seems  to  have 
been  settled  whether  the  fish  with  the  homocercal  tail  was 
or  was  not  better  off  than  the  fish  with  the  heterocercal 
tail  If  the  more  recent  fishes  have  improved  in  this  matter 
of  tails  upon  the  more  ancient  fishes,  as  was  to  have  been 


of  fishes'  tails  has  engaged  the  attention  of  most  of 
our  comparative  anatomists,  and  the  student  will  find 
large  stores  of  facts  collected  and  arranged  for  him 
by  Agassiz,  Vogt,  Owen,  KQlliker,  Hsckel,  Huxley, 
and  Lotz.  The  latter  four  anatomists  have  plainly 
shown  that  while  the  external  appearance  of  the 
tail  of  modern  bony  fishes  is,  as  we  have  seen,  homo- 
cercal, their  real  structure  is  only  a  modified  heterocercal 
one,  so  that,  as  far  as  we  now  know,  the  tail  of  all  fishes  is 
built  upon  modifications  of  the  same  type,  and  in  a  paper 
just  published  by  ^exander  Agassiz,  "On  the  Young 
Stages  of  some  Osseous  Fishes,"  he  proves  still  further  that 
this  tail  fin  does  not  differ  in  its  mode  of  development  from 
the  primitive  embryonic  fin,  or  from  that  of  the  back 
(dorsal)  fin.    He  describes  the  gradual  change  of  the 


Fig.  a. 


expected,  certain  it  is  that  the  shark  of  to-day  can  wheel 
quickly  enough  about  in  pursuit  of  his  prey,  and  that  the 
sword-fish  can  come  thundering  against  a  ship's  timber 
with  a  vigour  not  easily  matched  by  any  fish  with  a  sym- 
metrical tail    Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  the  structure 


Fig.  3. 


embryonic  tail  in  several  species  of  bony  fishes,  and  he 
calls  attention  to  the  remarkable  presence  of  an  embryonic 
caudal  lobe,  which  has,  to  this,  apparently  escaped  the 
attention  of  naturalists,  and  which  shows  remarkably  well 
the  identity  of  growth  between  the  tails  of  ganoid  and  of 
bony  fish. 

Alexander  Agassiz  traces  the  changes  gradually  taking 
place  in  the  tail  of  the  common  fiounder,  from  the  time 
the  little  fish  leaves  the  t^z  until  it  has  nearly  assumed 
the  final  shape  of  the  adult  At  first  (Fig.  i)  the  caudal 
end  of  the  chorda  is  straight  The  caudal  fin  is  rounded. 
In  the  next  the  caudal  extremity  of  the  chorda  has  become 
slightly  bent  upwards,  and  there  will  be  found  the  first 


Fia  4. 


trace  of  the  division  line  between  the  embryonic  and  the 
permanent  caudal  fins.  In  further  stages  this  indentation 
between  these  two  becomes  more  marked  the  chord 
becomes  more  arched,  and  the  permanent  caudal  at 
length  projects  well  beyond  the  outline  of  the  embryonic 


fin  fold,  so  that  antecedent  to  the  ossification  of  any  of 
the  vertebral  column,  the  tail  has  assumed  a  hetero- 
cercal form. 

In  the  stage  (Fig.  2)  in  which  the  embryonic  caudal 
assumes  the  shape  of  a  large  independent  lobe,  while  the 


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[Feb.  7,  1878 


permanent  fin  appears  like  a  second  anal  fin,  the  resem- 
blance to  the  tail  of  a  young  Lepidosteus  is  most  striking. 
The  extremity  of  the  notochord  at  last  disappears  pre- 
paratory to  the  formation  of  the  urostyle,  while  the 
permanent  caudal  gradually  deyelop8,^and  soon  it  (Fig.  3) 
presents  the  generad  outline  of  the  adult  form. 

A.  Agassiz  has  traced  the  presence  of  this  remarkable 
embryonic  caudal-lobe  in  a  large  number  of  genera  of 
bony  fish.  In  the  young  of  Syngnathus  it  is  well  marked. 
In  the  young  of  the  f^hing-frog  (Fig.  4)  (Lophius)  the 
.  termination  of  the  notochord  remains  unchanged  quite 
late  in  Ufe,  but  in  all  the  genera  examined  the  permanent 
tail  passes  quite  gradu^y  from  a  strictly  ventral  ap- 
pendage placed  below  the  dorsal  column  to  that  of  a 
terminal  tail  placed  in  the  continuation  of  the  vertebral 
column. 

A.  Agassiz  thinks  that  though  Agassiz  and  Vogt  were 
mistaken  as  to  their  details,  their  great  generalisation  will 
stiU  remain  true,  and  that  there  is  a  complete  accordance 
between  the  embryonic  growth  of  fishes'  tails  and  the 
development  of  fishes  in  time,  only  we  must  now  remem- 
ber that  the  heterocercal  tail  is  not  the  earliest  stage — 
that  the  earliest  stage  is  a  nearly  synmietrical  one  ;  this 
which  he  calls  the  leptocardial  stage  is  that  assumed  by 
the  tails  of  bony  as  well  as  of  all  other  fishes,  djidi^precedes 
the  heterocercal  stage.  As  to  the  paiseontological  record,  if 
one  examines  the  tails  of  the  Devonian  fish  as  we  know  J 
them  from  the  restorations  of  Agassiz,  Hugh  Miller, 
Hxckel,  Huxley,]  and  others,  one  is  quite  struck  by  the 
perfect  parallelism  of  these  ancient  fishes,  as  far  as  the 
structure  of  their  tail  is  concerned,  with  the  structure  of 
the  stages  of  the  flounder's  tail  already  referred  to,  thus 
carrying  out  the  parallelism  of  Agassiz  and  Vogt  far  beyond 
anything  they  even  conjectured.  This  important  paper 
of  A.  Agassiz  was  presented  to  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences  in  October  last,  and  for  an  early 
copy  of  it  we  are  indebted  to  the  author. 

E.  Perceval  Wright 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Literature  of  the  NEBULiE  and  Clusters.— No. 
311  of  the  Smiihsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections  \s  yist 
received.  It  contains  an  "  Index  Catalogue  of  Books  and 
Memoirs  relating  to  the  Nebulae  and  Clusters,  &c,''  by 
Prof.  Holden,  of  Washington,  commenced  in  1874  for  his 
own  use,  and  now  published  in  the  hope,  as  he  states, 
that  it  may  be  found  as  useful  to  others  as  it  has  already 
been  to  himself.  It  is  believed  to  be  nearly  complete  so 
far  as  the  uses  of  the  astronomer  can  require,  but  it  has 
not  been  Pro£  Holden's  object  to  make  an  index  for  the 
bibliographer.  The  present  catalogue  affords  facilities  in 
the  several  cases  that  are  most  likely  to  arise,  as  first,  in 
the  event  of  all  that  is  published  on  nebulae  and  clusters 
in  a  particular  series — the  PJiilosophiccd  TramcLctions^ 
for  instance — being  required;  again,  where  all  papers 
upon  the  subject  by  any  one  author  are  sought  for,  and 
further,  when  all  papers  written  upon  any  special  subject, 
no  matter  by  what  author,  are  in  question.  A  very  useful 
indication  of  the  contents  of  a  large  number  of  the 
memoirs  and  notices  forms  a  feature  in  the  work.  Sir  W. 
Herschel's  papers  being  noticed  in  abstract  with  par- 
ticular fulness.  The  great  nebula  in  Orion  and  the 
variable  nebulae  claim  separate  sections.  There  are  also 
lists  of  figured  nebulae  and  an  index  to  Sir  W.  Herschel's 
Catalogues  adopting  the  identifications  of  his  son's 
General  Catalogue. 

Pro!  Holden  has  rendered  an  essenti:d  service  to  all 
who  may  be  occupied  with  this  interesting  branch  of 
astronomy,  who  will  find  his  index  of  the  greatest  assist- 
ance in  enabling  them  to  learn,  at  the  expense  compara- 
tively of  little  time  and  trouble,  all  that  has  been  written 
upon  many  special  subjects  and.  upon  the  nebulae  smd 
cUisters  geneially. 


New  Southern  Variable  Star.— Mr.  Tcbbutt—who, 
it  will  be  remembered,  was  the  discoverer  of  the  great 
comet  of  1 86 1  while  yet  telescopic — writing  from  Windsor, 
New  South  Wales,  on  November  23,  notifies  his  having 
detected  what  would  appear  to  be  a  remarkable  variable 
star  in  the  constellation  Ara.  He  had  seen  it  as  a  star  of 
the  fifth  magnitude  while  observing  Comet  III.,  1862, 
between  October  3  and  9 ;  it  was  then  brighter  than  o- 
Arae,  and  plainly  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  Its  place  was 
fixed  by  sextant-distances  from  four  stars.  At  the  time 
of  writing,  Mr.  Tebbutt  mentions  that  the  only  star  in 
the  observed  position  was  one  of  the  eleventh  magnitude, 
barely  distinguishable  in  moonlight  in  his  4^iQch  equa- 
torial When  this  star  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  field 
of  about  45',  no  stars  above  the  tenth  magnitude  were 
visible.  But,  in  this  case,  what  has  become  of  No.  6142 
of  the  Paramatta  Catalogue,  rated  7*8  m.  ?  Mr.  Tebbutt 
found  the  place  of  his  star  for  18780,  ILA.  I7h.  30m.  I3f'2, 
N  P.D.  135°  24'  17'',  in  which  case  Brisbane's  star  would 
be  distant  i6'*8  on  an  angle  of  193^  and  should  therefore 
have  been  in  the  field. 

While  writing  on  the  subject  of  variable  stars,  we  may 
mention  that  the  Annuaire  du  Bureau  des  Longitudes  for 
1878  contains  very  full  lists  and  ephemerides  of  these 
objects,  which  have  been  ably  prepared  from  Prof.  Schdn- 
feld's  catalogue  and  other  sources  by  M.  Loewy,  who  now 
has  charge  of  the  popular  French  work.  In  other  respects 
the  Annuaire  for  the  present  year  is  to  be  reconunended 
as  a  valuable  repertory  of  scientific  facts  and  data. 

The  Royal  Observatory,  Brussels.— M.  Houzeau, 
the  successor  of  the  late  M.  Quetelet  in  the  direction  oif 
this  establishment,  has  issued  his  report  on  the  wOrk  of 
-the  year  1877.  The  Observatory  is  at  present  in  a  tran- 
sition state,  the  instruments  which  have  long  been  in 
use  being  about  to  be  replaced  by  others  of  greater 
capacity.  A  meridian  circle,  almost  entirely  sinular  to 
that  constructed  for  the  new  Observatory  at  Strasburg, 
has  been  ordered  from  Repsold  ;  and  Dent,  of  London^ 
supplies  the  standard  sidereal  dock,  to  be  accompanied 
by  a  chronograph :  various  modifications  have  been 
introduced  into  these  instruments  after  careful  con- 
sideration. A  refractor  of  38  centimetres  aperture  is  in 
course  of  construction  by  Merz^  the  object-glass  having 
already  arrived  at  .Brussels.  The  ancient  meridian 
instruments  have  been  employed  on  the  observation  of 
stars  exhibiting  decided  proper  motion,  a  work  long 
pursued.  On  the  mounting  of  the  large  refractor,  M. 
Houzeau  proposes  to  fix  his  attention  upon  three  prin- 
cipal objects  : — ist  Micrometrical  measures  of  a  certain 
number  of  double  stars — binaries,  and  those  which  are 
affected  with  rapid  proper  motion.  2nd.  To  observe, 
wiUi  particular  care,  the  passages  of  the  satellites  of 
Jupiter  across  his  disc,  and  their  occultations  and  the 
transits  of  their  shadows.  3rd.  Spectroscopic  obser- 
vations, for  which  a  smaller  refractor  will  also  be  avail- 
able. Meteorological  observations  which  have  occupied 
much  of  the  time  of  the  observers  during  M.  Quetelet's 
superintendence,  will  be  continued,  but  in  a  department 
distinct  from  that  devoted  to  astronomy,  a  very  necessary 
arrangement  if  observations  of  a  routine  nature  are  not 
to  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  those  of  a  higher  class. 

A  Forecast  of  the  Satellites  of  Mars.— In  the 
last  number  of  the  Astronomiscke  Nachrichten^  Profl  von 
Oppolzer,  of  Vienna,  draws  attention  to  the  curious 
passage  in  the  "  Traveb  into  Several  Remote  Nations  of  the 
World  by  Lemuel  GuUiver**— of  Swift,  which  he  transcribes 
from  the  edition  of  1755.  A  correspondent  of  the  Times 
referred  to  the  same  passage  soon  after  the  discovery  of 
the  satellites  of  Mars  by  Prof.  Asaph  Hall  became  known 
in  this  country.  We  read  **  they  have  likewise  discovered 
two  lesser  stars  or  satellites  which  revolve  about  Mars, 
whereof  the  innermost  is  distant  from  the  centre  of  the 
prinuuy  planet  exactly  three  of  his  diameters,  and  the 
outermost  five ;  the  former  revolves  in  the  space  of  ten 


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hours,  and  the  latter  in  twenty-one  and  a  half;  so  that 
the  squares  of  their  periodical  times  are  very  near  in  the 
same  proportion  with  the  cuhes  of  their  distances  from 
the  centre  of  Mars,  which  evidently  shows  them  to  be 
governed  by  the  same  law  of  gravitation  that  influences 
the  other  heavenly  bodies,"  This  idea  of  Swift's,  which 
appears  to  have  only  recently  come  to  the  knowledge  of 
Prof.  V.  Oppolzer,  is  so  singular  a  one  taken  in  connection 
with  the  facts  of  the  discovery  of  the  satellites  of  Mars, 
that  it  is  not  surprising  the  editor  of  the  Astronomische 
Nachrichten  should  have  transferred  it  to  his  columns. 
Possibly  the  opinion  which  has  prevailed  largely  amongst 
astronomers  that,  if  satellites  of  Mars  existed,  thev  must 
be  very  small  and  close  to  his  disc,  may  have  had  origi- 
nally some  connection  with  Swift's  fancy. 


BIOLOGICAL  NOTES 

Papuan  Plants.— In  the  Appendix  to  Baron  von 
Mueller's  "  Descriptive  Notes  on  Papuan  Plants,"  which 
we  have  just  received  we  find  some  interesting  additions 
to  orders  already  considered,  and  which  we  have  had 
occasion  to  refer  to  before.  In  Leguminosae,  Acacia 
holosericea  is  recorded  from  Geelvink  Bay,  found  by 
Beccari ;  from  the  Fly  River,  by  D'Albertis  ;  and  Baxter's 
River,  by  Reedy.  In  Myrtaceae  are  four  additions — 
Tristania  tnacrosperma^  Myriella  beccarii^  M,  hirsutula^ 
and  Backea  fruUscens,  A  remarkable  myrtaceous  plant, 
with  the  habit  of  a  Psidiunty  is  stated  to  be  contained  in 
Dr.  Beccari's  collection,  which  Baron  Mueller  thinks  is 
probably  referable  to  the  genus  Eugenia,  The  only 
flower  available  for  examination  had  eight  petals,  being 
double  the  number  of  the  calyx  lobes.  Unless  this  aug- 
mentation arose  from  monstrous  growth  we  are  remind^ 
that  we  have  here  a  species  abnormal  not  only  in  the 
genus  Eugenia  (and  to  which  the  name  of  E,  pleiopetala 
might  be  given),  but  also  in  the  whole  order  of  Myrtaceae, 
except  Gustavia,  From  Mount  Arfak,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  6,000  feet  Dr.  Beccari  obtained  the  first  epacrideous 

giant  recorded  from  New  Guinea,  though  in  all  likeli- 
ood  others  will  yet  be  detected  in  the  higher  mountain 
regions. 

Horse-shoe  Crabs.— With  referenceito^he  fact  that 
large  numbers  of  trilobites  are  found  on  their  back,  and 
the  inference  that  when  living  they  probably  swam  in 
this  position,  Mr.  Alex.  Agassiz  states  {Sillimanf^s  Jour- 
nal) that  he  has  for  several  summers  kept  young  Limuli 
(horse-shoe  crabs)  in  his  jars,  and  has  noticed  that  besides 
often  swinmiing  on  their  backs,  they  will  remain  in  a 
similar  position  for  hours,  perfectly  ouiet,  at  the  bottom. 
When  they  cast  their  skin  it  invariably  keeps  the  same 
attitude  on  the  bottom  of  the  jar.  It  is  not  uncommon  to 
And  on  the  shores,  where  Limuli  abounds,  hundreds  of 
skins  thrown  up  and  left  dry  by  the  tide,  most  of  which 
are  turned  on  their  backs.  Again,  young  Limuli  generally 
turn  on  their  back  whUe  feeding.  Moving  at  an  angle 
with  the  bottom,  the  hind  extremity  Raised,  they  throw 
out  their  feet  beyond  the  anterior  edge  of  the  carapace, 
browsing,  as  it  were,  on  what  they  find  in  their  road,  and 
whiskmg  away  what  they  do  not  need  by  means  of  a  power- 
ful current  produced  by  their  abdominal  appendages. 

Green  ALGiE. — Our  knowledge  of  the  life-history  of 
those  green-coloured  algae  which  seem  to  possess  a 
true  reproductive  system,  is  progressing  with  rapid  strides, 
and  in  the  Botanische  Zeitung  for  October  and  November 
last  two  most  remarkable  papers  on  two  well  known  (so 
far  as  external  form  goes)  species  have  very  considerably 
advanced  our  knowledge  of  the  group.  The  earlier  in 
date  (October)  of  these  two  memoirs  is  by  the  well-known 
botanists  Rostaflnski  and  Woronin  on  Botrydium  grct^u- 
latum.  This  alga  was  described  by  Ray  nearly  200  years 
ago,  and  is  probably  known  to  many  as  growing  up  in 
damp  clayey  spots,  and  presenting  the  appearance  of  bright 


green  blobs  about  the  size  of  large  mustard  seeds. 
Common  as  this  plant  is^  it  is  only  now  that  after  several 
years'  consecutive  watchmg  the  authors  have  been  able  to 
clear  up  the  mystery  of  its  life,  and  to  determine  that  the 
formation  of  ordinary  zoospores  can  eventuate  in  the 
four  following  ways  {a)  from  the  vegetative  plant,  (fi)  from 
an  ordinary  zoosporangium,  {c)  from  the  root-cells,  and 
{d)  from  a  Hypnosporangium  :  and  as  still  further  means 
of  increase  we  have  (J)  cell  division,  (/)  formation  of 
spores,  and  {g)  formation  of  isospores.  Botrydium  would 
also  seem  to  enjoy  a  five-fold  resting  state  :  i.  The 
asexual  aquatic  zoospores  with  a  quiescence  of  one  month. 
2.  The  root-cells,  quiescence  the  year  through  in  which 
they  are  formed.  3.  The  hypnosporangia,  quiescence 
the  same.  4.  The  spores,  quiescence  a  year.  5.  The  iso- 
spores, quiescence  at  least  over  the  year  in  whic^  they 
were  formed.  The  next  memoir  is  a  joint  one  by  A. 
de  Bary,  the  able  editor  of  the  joumd,  and  E.  Stras- 
burger,  and  is  about  that  very  beautiful  green  sea- 
weed not  uncommon  in  the  Mediterranean,  called  Aceta- 
bularia  mediterranea.  This  genus  was  so  called  by 
Lamouroux  on  accoimt  of  the  saucer  (acetabulum)  like 
form  assumed  by  the  little  rows  of  filaments  that  crown 
the  cylindrical  stalks.  There  are  three  species  known, 
perhaps  they  may  be  all  varieties  of  the  one  now  referred 
ta  Prof,  de  Bary  was  only  enabled  to  watch  the  pro- 
gress of  the  spore  development  to  a  certain  stage,  but  by 
Strasburger's  researches,  carried  on  at  Spezia,  we  are 
enabled  to  read  the  whole  history  and  to  know  that  the 
motile  bodies  of  protoplasm  set  free  from  a  mother-cell, 
can  and  do  conjugate,  forming  a  resting  body  which  can 
and  does  vegetate.  At  the  close  of  this  memoir  Stras- 
burger  proposes  that  we  should  call  the  body  formed  by 
the  conjugation  of  the  contents  of  two  cells  (Gametae)  by 
the  name  of  Zygote,  and  that  those  plants  whose  Gametae 
are  active  might  be  called  Planogameta,  and  those  where 
(as  in  Desmids)  the  Gameta  are  at  least  quasipassive, 
might  be  called  Aplanogatneta, 

Deep  Sea  AsCiDiANS.— -Mr.  H.  N.  Moseley  has  pub- 
lished {Transactions,  Linnean  Soc.  S.S.  ZooL,  vol  i)  a 
description,  accompanied  by  excellent  figures,  of  two  very 
remarkable  forms  of  ascidians.  The  first  described  was 
obtained  from  the  great  depth  of  2,900  fathoms  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  and  is  called  Hypobythius  calycodes 
in  allusion  to  its  occurrence  at  so  vast  a  depth  and  to  its 
cup-like  form.  Its  outer  skin  is  hyaline  and  extremely 
transparent,  but  in  certain  places  it  is  strengthened  by 
the  presence  of  tough  cartilaginous  plates,  and  these  are 
arranged  in  a  nearly  synunetrical  manner.  It  is  attached 
by  means  of  a  stalk.  It  is  probably  allied  to  the  genus 
Boltenia,  but  is  abundantly  distinct  from  all  known  forms. 
The  second  is  a  beautiful  stellate  form  taken  1070  fathoms, 
not  far  from  one  of  the  Schouten  Islands.  From  its 
having  eight  long  radiating  processes  it  was  at  first  taken 
for  a  medusoid  form.  Its  test  is  hyaline  and  gelatinous 
and  it  is  also  an  attached  form,  but  the  stalk  is  short. 
The  respiratory  sate  is  flattened  out  so  as  to  become  nearly 
horizontal,  and  there  is  no  gill  net-work  present  It  has 
been  called  Octacnemus  bythius. 

The  Byssus  in  the  Mussel.— Tycho  Tulberg  has 
published  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Nattiral  History  of  Upsala  (July,  1877)  an  account  of  the 
structure  of  the  byssus-forming  gland  in  Mytilus  edulis. 
The  strong  silky  threads  formed  by  this  ^and,  which 
moor  the  mussel  shell  so  firmly  to  its  resting-phice,  must 
be  familiar  to. most.  In  an  allied  genus  (Pinna)  these 
threads  have  been  even  spun  and  formed  into  gloves. 
The  manner  in  which  the  tongue-like  foot  can  affix  these 
threads  is  easily  to  be  seen  by  watching  a  small  specimen 
of  the  common  mussel  when  in  a  heathy  condition  and 
confined  in  a  glass  jar.  The  minute  structure  of  the 
gland  that  secretes  the  threads  is  well  described  by  Mr. 
Tulbergi  who  promises  further  to  publish  an  accoimt  of 


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[Feb.  7,  1878 


the  structure  of  this  organ  in  some  other  species  of 
byssus-forming  bivalves. 

Aquatic   Respiration.— Some  experiments  on  the 

breathing  of  aquatic  animals  (both  fresh  and  salt  water) 

have  been  recently  described  by  MM.  Jolyet  and  Regnard 

in  the  Archives  de  Physio  lope.    The  results  are  briefly  as 

follows  : — These  animals,  living  in  a  medium  very  poor 

in  oxygen,  and  having  a  blood-liquid  with  small  respiratory 

capacity,  have  the  least  vigorous  respiration.     In  the  free 

natural  act  of  respiration  the  oxygen  which  disappears 

is  not  exactly  represented  by  the  oxygen  in  the  carbonic 

CO 
acid  jnroduced ;  the  ratio  — ^  is  always  less  than  i ; 

/./.,  aquatic  animals,  in  the  normal  state,  never  give  off 
more  carbonic  acid  than  the  oxygen  they  absorb.  (The 
opposite  result  got  by  some  physiologists  is  attributed  to 
keeping  the  animals  in  an  enclosed  medium  whose 
oxygen  they  gradually  exhausted.)  As  with  other  ani- 
mals, heat-variations  m  the  surrounding  medium  has  a 
marked  influence  on  the  chemical  phenomena  of  respira- 
tion. Taking  2'*  and  30**  as  the  limits  of  bearable  external 
temperature,  the  quantities  of  the  absorbed  oxygen  vary 
(other  conditions  being  equal)  in  the  ratio  of  i  to  10.  Among 
other  causes  which  may  have  an  influence  on  the  vigour 
of  breathing  (apart  from  those  connected  with  species) 
the  most  impiortant,  after  temperature,  are  the  state  of 
hunger  and  digestion,  the  amount,. and  the  greater  or  less 
intensity  of  muscular  action.  In  the  experiments  there 
was  sometimes  a  sh'ght  development  of  nitrogen,  some- 
times an  absorption.  No  deflnite  opinion  could  be  ex- 
pressed with  reference  to  this  point 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Exploring  Colonies.— The  Soci^t^  des  Colons 
Explorateurs,  lately  organised  in  Paris,  is  developing  a 
most  healthful  degree  of  activity.  Its  purpose  is  to 
organise  a  systematic  method  of  exploration  and  colonisa- 
tion, based  on  the  same  principles  as  those  which  animate 
the  newly-founded  international  society  for  the  explora- 
tion and  civilisation  of  Africa,  but  embracing  in  its  field 
all  the  undeveloped  portions  of  the  globe.  The  Society 
has  formed  two  councils  to  direct  its  operations.  In  the 
first,  which  is  charged  with  the  scientific,  geographical, 
and  exploratory  secuons,  we  notice  the  names  of  Malte- 
Brun,  de  Le»seps,  de  Quatrefages,  Milne-Edwards, 
Admiral  La  Ronci^re  le  Noury,  &c.  The  second,  devoted 
more  especially  to  agriculture,  commerce,  and  industry, 
embraces  Michael  Chevalier,  Tisserand;  CoL  Solignac, 
F.  Gamier,  and  other  well-known  names.  The  plan 
adopted  by  the  Society  for  the  attainment  of  its  objects 
is  eminenUy  practical.  A  colony  is  formed  from  repre- 
sentatives of  various  classes  and  occupations,  who  are  well 
fitted  to  investigate  and  develop  the  resources  of  a  new 
country ;  it  is  provided  with  a  complete  equipment,  and 
despatched  to  a  promising  locality.  Here  a  firm  foothold 
is  established,  and  the  new  settlement  made,  as  soon  as 
possible,  not  only  self-supporting,  but  a  centre  for  geo- 
graplucal  and  general  scientific  investigation.  The  band 
of  pennanent  colonists  are  accompanied  by  a  certain 
number,  who,  after  obtaining  a  degree  of  familiarity  with 
the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  a  new  settlement,  are 
ready  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  new  colony.  In  this 
manner  not  only  will  the  various  colonies  increase  the 
sphere  of  their  activities  at  a  rapid  rate,  but  drill  at  the 
same  time  groups  of  hardy  explorers  well  fitted  to  extend 
the  circle  of  the  Society's  undertakings.  The  first  experi- 
mental colony  has  already  been  started  on  the  coast  of 
Sumatra,  and  embraces  in  lis  personnel  graduates  of  the 
leading  technical  and  professional  schools  of  Paris.  If 
this  simple  practical  programme  is  carried  out  success- 
fully, it  IS  evident  that  the  new  Society,,  increasing  the 
extent  of  its  operations  in  arithmetical  progression,  will 


soon  become  a  most  important  factor  in  the  slow  process 
of  civilising  the  world. 

Sumatra. — In  the  January  session  of  the  Dutch  Geo- 
graphical Society  it  was  announced  that  Lieut.  Comelissen 
had  been  appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  Sumatra  explorr 
ing  expedition,  lately  deprived  by  death  of  its  commander, 
M.  Schow-Sandvoort.  He  leaves  in  March  to  assume 
the  direction  of  the  Gcplorations.  During  the  past  three 
months  14,000  guilders  have  been  contributed  for  the 
Sumatra  exploring  fund. 

NiAS  Island. — In  Petermann's  Mittheilungen  for 
February  is  a  very  full  account,  with  map,  of  the  Island  of 
Nias,  on  the  west  of  Sumatra,  by  Dr.  A.  Schreiber.  The 
island  now  belongs  to  the  Dutch,  and  by  them  has  in 
recent  years  been  pretty  thoroughly  explored.  The  island 
is  hilly,  the  highest  summit  being  2,000  feet,  the  formation 
being  mostly  sandstone  and  coraL 

Arctic  Exploration.— Admiral  La  Ronci^rele  Noury 
in  his  capacity  of  president  of  the  Paris  Geographical  So- 
ciety, M.  Quatrefafj^es,  and  M.  Maunoir,  general  secretary, 
have  written  an  official  letter  to  Capt  Howgate,  U.S.A., 
conveying  to  him  their  approbation  of  his  scheme  for 
establishing  a  polar  colony  in  Lady  Franklin  Bay.  They 
trust  this  document  may  induce  the  Congress  to  vote 
the  required  credit  for  starting  the  contemplated  expe- 
dition. They  express,  moreover,  their  gratitude  for  the 
sending  out  of  Capt  Tyson's  preliminary  expedition,  and 
they  trust  Capt  Howgate-  will  soon  be  in  a  position  to 
take  advantage  of  the  means  which  his  hardy  lieutenant 
has  been  sent  to  collect.  Capt  Howgate  has  written  to 
the  Danish  Government,  asking  them  to  send  instructions 
to  the  Disco  authorities,  authorising  them  to  place  the 
Government  storehouse  at  the  disposal  of  Capt  Tyson, 
if  he  has  failed  in  collecting  a  sufficient  number  of  furs 
during  the  present  winter  season.  Mr.  S.  R.  Van  Campen 
has  been  asked  by  the  Hon.  B.  A.  Willis,  of  the  Committee 
on  Naval  Affairs  in  the  United  States  Congress  for  a 
report  on  the  Arctic  expeditions  abroad,  and  has  complied 
with  the  request  Besides  speaking  particularly  of  the 
proposed  expeditions  of  Holland  and  Sweden,  Mr.  Van 
Campen  suggests  to  the  Committee,  as  it  has  in  charge  the 
bill  now  before  Congress  for  an  American  expedition, 
proposed  in  accordance  with  Capt.  Howgate's  scheme, 
the  incorporation  of  a  clause  granting  rewards  upon  a 
graduated  scale  to  individual  explorers  of  whatever 
nationality,  who  may  reach  latitudes  or  make  discoveries 
in  Arctic  territory  beyond  points  hitherto  attained. 

ROHLFS'  Expedition.-— Herr  Gerhard  Rohlfs  has  re- 
ceived  no  less  than  300  applications  for  participation  in 
his  expedition  to  the  Libyan  Desert  Of  course  the 
great  traveller  can  only  consider  very  few  of  them.  We 
learn  further  that  he  intends  also  to  explore  the  Shari, 
Binue,  and  Ogowai  Rivers  and  their  tributaries.  We 
hope  he  will  succeed  in  accomplishing  this,  as  it  will  solve 
many  of  the  questions  raised  by  Stanley's  discovery  of 
the  course  of  the  Congo.  The  date  of  his  departure  is 
not  yet  fixed. 

Spitzbergen. — A  very  interesting  series  of  nine  maps 
of  Spitzbergen,  partly  rare  and  little  known,  are  published 
in  the  Tijdschriftoi  the  Amsterdam  Geographic^  Society, 
with  an  essay  by  Capt  de  Bas,  on  the  geographical 
names  of  Spitzbergen.  The  maps  begin  with  that  of 
Barentz's  third  voyage  of  1596,  followed  by  those  of 
Gerritz,  1612  ;  Edge,  162?  ;  Middlehovcn,  1634  ;  Daniel, 
1642  ;  two  others  of  1648,  and  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century  ;  that  of  Johannes  van  Keulen,  1710, 
and  finally  the  Dundr-Nordenskjold  map  of  1864. 

Japan. — In  the  Monatsbericht  of  Petermann's  MiU 
theilungen  for  February,  Dr.  Behm  gives  some  information 
concerning  recent  geographical  work  in  Japan.  There  is 
an  itinerary  by  Dr.  Schulz,  of  a  journey  he  made  in 


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291 


August,  1877,  from  Tokio  to  Hatsuishi  (Nikko),  and  from 
Nikko  to  Takasaki ;  an  account  of  the  observations  made 
by  Dr.  Naumann  last  summer  during  a  journey  into  the 
little  known  western  part  of  Nippon,  and  another  at  the 
same  time  into  the  north  of  that  island  by  Herr  Gebauer ; 
and  some  information  from  the  Tokio  Times,  by  Y. 
Watanabc^  on  Chikuzen,  a  province  in  the  north-west  of 
Uie  Kiushiu. 


NOTES 

Thb  following  grants  have  just  been  made  from  the  Research 
Fond  of  the  Chemical  Society  to  aid  the  carrying  out  of  the 
following  reiearohet  ^— 50/.  to  Dr.  Wright,  of  St  Mary's 
Hospital  Medical  School  for  the  continuation  of  hit  researches 
in  chenucal  dynamics  ;  25/.  to  Dr.  Armstrong  for  an  faivestiga* 
tion  of  camphor  and  aUied  compounds ;  20/.  to  Dr.  Camelly,  of 
Owens  College,  Manchester,  for  a  research  on  the  hydrocarbons 
dipheny],  ditolyl,  &c.,  and  their  derivatives;  10/.  to  Mr.  P. 
Phillips  Bedsoa,  of  Owens  College,  Manchester,  for  a  research 
on  derivatives  of  phenyl  acetic  acid,  and  on  the  constitution  of 
isatin ;  and  5Z  to  Mr.  J.  R.  Crow,  of  Owens  College  Manchester, 
for  a  research  on  the  action  of  sine  ethyl  on  the  chloride  oif 
vanadium, 

Ws  regret  to  announce  the  death,  at  Nice,  of  the  cdebrated 
Danish  conchologist,  Dr.  A.  L.  Mdrch. 

Ws  hear  with  great  regret,  from  an  Italian  correspondent,  that 
the  well-known  astronomer.  Father  Secchi,  has  been  seriously 
ill  for  several  weeks,  and  that  Uttle  hope  is  entertained  of  his 
recovery.  The  Roman  correspondent  of  the  Lancet  states, 
however,  that  Dr.  Ceccarelli,  who  is  attending  him,  does  not 
absolutely  despair  of  his  recovery.  Father  Secchi  is  not  yet 
sixty,  and  is  of  robust  frame. 

At  the  General  Monthly  Meeting  of  the  Royal  Institution 
on  Monday,  Dr.  Warren  De  la  Rue,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  in  the 
chair,  the  special  thanks  of  the  members  were  given  to  Mr. 
William  Bowman,  F.R.S.,  for  his  present  of  an  ivory  bust  of 
Prof.  Faraday,  by  the  late  Matthew  Noble,  M.R.I.  In 
reference  to  the  telephone  which  Mr.  Preece  had  explained 
to  the  members  last  Friday,  the  chairman  stated  that  he  had 
made  attempts  to  measure  the  current  produced  by  the  vibrations 
of  the  disc  of  iron  in  front  of  the  magnet  of  the  telephone,  and 
that  he  was  unable  to  detect]  any  by  means  of  a  most  sensitive 
dynamometer  which  would  render  evident  the  current  of  a 
Daniell's  cell  through  2,000  ohms.  Moreover,  by  other  experi- 
ments made  by  other  means,  he  concluded  that  the  current 
produced  did  not  amount  to  that  which  a  Daniell's  cell  would 
send  working  through  100,000,000  ohm  resistance. 

Ths  New  York  Tribune  ^vt%  an  account  of  a  public  exhibition 
in  that  city  of  Eddison's  Phonogn^h,  which  seems  to  have  been 
very  successful  The  tones  reproduced  by  the  vibrating  disk  of 
the  machine  were  so  distinct  that  they  could  be  heard  and  under- 
stood in  different  portions  of  the  crowded  room.  Worda  spoken 
in  a  high  key  and  with  forcible  emphasis  were  reproduced  with 
much  greater  distinctness  than  those  spoken  in  a  low  tone,  even 
when  the  latter  were  uttered  very  loudly.  A  difference  in  the 
sound  of  different  voices  could  be  easily  discerned.  Several 
fragments  of  songs  were  sung  in  a  high  key  and  repeated  by  the 
machine  with  wonderful  fidelity.  The  inventor  stated,  that  the 
machine  has  yet  to  be  perfected  before  its  full  power  is  deve- 
loped, and  that  ultimately  it  can  be  used  to  receive  and  repro- 
duce the  songs  of  popular  singers  as  they  are  rendered  on  the 
stage. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  in 
connection  with  a  letter  from  New  York  describing  the  phono- 
graph. Sir  William  Thomson  gave  some  explanation  of  the 


macUne.  Ail  prevKMis  attempts  to  raoocd  lonnd  w«i«,  he  said, 
founded  on  the  motion  of  a  style  or  marker  mt  a  true  paimUel  to 
the  paper.  Mr.  Kddison's  ingenious  inventkm  of  the  electric 
pen  was  different  It  consisted  of  a  fine  point,  which,  by  an 
excessively  rapid  vibration  perpendicular  to  the  paper,  caused  by 
a  small  electric  machme  connected  with  two  thin  wires  to  the 
point,  left  a  trace  of  any  person's  handwriting  in  a  row  of  very 
fine  hc^  from  which  the  handwriting  could  be  printed.  Mr. 
EddisoB,  firom  this  invention,  elaborated  the  phonograph.  By 
the  greater  or  less  pressure  produced  through  tiie  action  of  tiie 
alternate  condensation  and  expansion  of  the  air  caused  by 
the  mechanism  of  the  voice,  the  diaphragm  operated  upon  the 
point  and  recorded  the  sounds.  It  was  the  most  interesting 
mechanical  and  scientific  invention  they  had  heard  of  in  this  cen- 
tury. There  could  be  no  limit  to  its  application.  A  man  could 
speak  a  letter  through  the  phonograph— it  would  be  recorded  on 
tinfoil,  sent  in  an  envelope  through  the  post,  and  his  friend,  by 
applying  the  point  of  the  phonograph  to  the  tinfoil,  could  repro- 
duce the  words  and  tones  uttered.  In  fact  they  could  take  down 
the  tinging  of  a  Titiens  (had  we  one),  which  might  be  ^produced 
to  a  tone  two  hundred  years  hence. 

Both  Houses  of  Legislature  have  unanimously  passed  a  reso- 
lution  giving  the  thanks  of  the  U.S.  Congress  to  Mr.  Henry  M. 
Stanley  for  his  achievements  in  the  field  of  African  exploration. 
Mr.  Stanley  meets  the  Geographical  Society  in  St  James's 
Hall  to-night  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  many 
applicants  beyond  the  a,  000,  which  the  hall  will  hold,  have  been 
disappointed.  The  officials  of  the  Society  have  had  a  trying 
time  of  it  in  attending  to  the  loads  of  applications  they  have 
received.  Mr.  Stanley  will  be  entertained  at  dinner  by  the  Society 
on  Saturday. 

In  connection  with  the  recent  election  of  Prof.  Simon  Newcomb 
as  a  foreign  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  it  was  stated  that  pre- 
vious to  that  Prof.  Asa  Gray  was  the  only  living  American  who 
enjoyed  that  honour.  We  find,  however,  among  the  list  of 
foreign  members  the  name  also  of  Prof.  Benj.  F.  Peirce,  of 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

We  have  received  an  interesting  volume :  **  Estudios  sobre  la 
flora  y  fauna  de  Venezuela,^  by  A.  Ernst  The  author,  in  two 
ably  written  articles,  gives  a  general  idea  of  each  of  the  two  large 
kingdoms  as  they  appear  in  Venezuela,  and  further  adds  some 
details  on  the  fungi,  orchids,  molluscs,  and  birds  of  that  country. 
The  book  is  published  at  Caracas,  and  consists  of  over  100 
quarto  pages. 

Thb  first  meeting  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  was  held  on  Friday  afternoon  at  the  rooms 
of  the  Chemical  Society,  Burlhigton  House.  Prof.  Frankland, 
F.R.S.,  the  first  President,  read  an  address  in  which  he  gave  an 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  institute.  At  a  dinner  given  to 
Prof.  Canizzaro  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to  London  in  May,  1872, 
Profl  Frankland  drew  attention  to  the  increasing  importance  of 
chemistry  in  relation  to  the  wants  of  communities,  and  suggested 
the  usefiilness  of  an  institute  that  should  be  to  chemists  what  the 
Colleges  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  are  to  the  medical  profes- 
sion, the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers  is  for  civil  engineers,  and 
the  Inns  of  Court  are  to  the  legal  profession.  Although  the 
need  of  experts  in  connection  with  water  and  gas  analysis,  l^al 
proceedings,  and  nuisances  was  recognised,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  chemistry  to  agriculture  and  manufactures  was  known 
to  be  of  great  importance,  the  suggestion  was  not  taken 
up  in  a  practical  way  until  the  b^inning  of  1876,  when 
a  meeting  to  consider  the  subject  was  held  at  the  roomi 
of  the  Chemical  Society  on  April  26.  A  committee  was 
appointed  to  draw  up  a  scheme  for  the  constitution  of  the  insti- 
tute, which  was  laid  before  a  meeting  held  in  November.  At 
one  time  it  was  thought  that  the  objects  might  be  efiteted  by 


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NATURE 


[Feb.  7,  1878 


establishiDg  a  separate  branch  of  the  Chemical  Society  with  the 
Fellows  of  the  Chemical  Society.  After  mnch  discussion  the 
formation  of  the  present  institute  was  decided  on.  The  institute 
has  power  to  appoint  examiners  as  to  the  fitness  of  candidates 
for  its  membership.  Prof.  Frankland,  in  the  course  of  his 
address,  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  under  the  Pharmacy  Act 
of  1868  no  one,  not  even  the  President  of  the  Chemical  Society, 
mav  c^ll  himself  a  chemist  unless  he  is  duly  registered  as  a 
pharmaceutical  chemist.  There  are  already  225  members  and 
142  as-sociaves,  and  a  fund  of  over  1,000/.  for  the  new  institute. 

Thb  Naturwissenschaftliche  Gesellschaft  of  Jena  celebrated 
the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  its  foundation  on  January  17  last 
Upon  that  occasion  Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  Prof.  M.  I.  Schleiden, 
of  Wiesbaden,  and  Prof.  Oscar  Schmidt,  of  Strasburg^  were 
named  honorary  members  of  the  society. 

Further  information  shows  that  the  earthquake  of  Monday, 
January  28,  was  felt  at  several  places  in  London,  at  Ryde, 
Osborne,  Southampton,  and  Lyme  Regis.  Shocks  were  felt  in 
Neumarkt  at  10  A.M.  on  the  27th  and  5  A.M.  on  the  28th. 
At  Judenburg  (Upper  Styria)  two  different  shocks  were  felt  on 
the  27 h,  at  10.6  AM.,  and  on  the  following  day  at  4.32  A. M. 
At  Waldshut,  on  the  Rhine,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  an 
earthquake  was  felt  on  the  evening  of  January  16  shortly  before 
midnight  The  shock  lasted  about  a  second  and  seemed  to 
proceed  in  the  direction  from  south-west  to  north-east  Subter- 
ranean noise  was  plainly  audible.  The  same  phenomenon  was 
simultaneously  observed  at  Alb,  Karsau,  Beuggen,  Schopf  heim> 
and  other  places  in  Baden,  as  well  as  in  all  the  north-Westerly 
cantons  of  Switzerland. 

The  recent  investigations  of  Sergius  Kern,  resulting  in  the 
discovery  of  davyum  to  which  we  have  had  occasion  frequently 
to  refer,  are  being  submitted  to  a  careful  examination  in  the 
Heidelberg  laboratory  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Bunsen.  The 
results  so  tan  coincide  with  those  of  the  Russian  chemist,  and  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  entire  research  may  stand  the  crucial  test 
of  the  leading  authority  on  the  platinum  metals. 

M.  PiCTET  delivered,  during  the  past  week,  two  very  interest- 
ing addresses  in  the  laboratory  of  the  ^ole  de  M^edne,  before 
the  chemists  of  Paris,  in  which  he  gave  a  very  'complete  and 
detailed  description  of  his  late  experiments  on  the  liquefaction 
of  gases.  He  is  a  young  man  of  scarcely  thirty,  an  easy  and 
fluent  speaker,  and  made  a  pleasant  impression  on  his  Parisian 
auditory.  A  brochure  of  lOO  pages,  which  he  has  just  issued, 
with  drawings,  gives  a  very  elaborate  description  of  the  .  whole 
series  of  experiments  on  the  compression  of  gases. 

The  Hon.  Rollo  Russell  sends  us  some  notes  on  experiments 
he  has  made  which  go  to  prove  that  there  is  no  neel  to  insulate 
the  wires  connecting  a  pair  of  telephones,  at  least  when  used 
for  short  distances.  No.  18  uncovered  copper  wire  was  laid 
along  grass  and  trees  418  yards,  the  two  lines  being  kept  well 
apart  Articulation  and  a  small  musical  box  were  very  well 
heard.  The  same  wire  buried  for  three  yards  in  wet  clay,  the 
lines  being  about  5  ft  apart  and  the  telephones  20  yards  apart^ 
gave  good  results,  and  it  appears  that  the  bare  wires  may  be 
taken  under  roads,  &c,  without  diminution  of  the  audible  effect. 
With  the  same  wire  taken  across  a  pond,  the  lines*being  sub- 
merged in  water  about  40  yards,  and  lying  on  the  grass  the  rest 
of  the  distance  about  28  yards — the  wires  were  about  a  yard 
apart  in  the  water— conversation  in  low  tones  was  distinctly 
heard  when  not  overpowered  by  the  noise  of  a  strong  wind 
blowing  at  the  time.  Probably  No.  18  copper  wire,  uninsulated, 
might  be  laid  across  rivers  and  straits  and  used  for  telephonic 
purposes  without  appreciable  loss  of  sound,  as  Mr.  Russell,  not 
in  any  of  the  above  cases,  noticed  a  /ecbler  effect  than  with 
insulated  wires. 


Interesting  antiquities  have  recently  been  excavated  at 
Neumagen  on  the  Moselle.  The  Roman  poet  Ausonius  mentions 
in  his  "  Mosella  "  that  the  Emperor  Constantine  possessed  there 
a  "beautiful  castle,**  which  was  doubtless  destroyed  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  when  Treves  was  several  times  ravaged 
by  the  Franks.  About  a  century  afterwards  the  famous  castle  of 
Nicetia  was  built  by  the  Archbishop  Nioetius,  who  probably 
utilised  the  foundations  of  the  old  Roman  structure.  Nicetia 
was  rased  to  the  ground  in  the  year  881  by  the  Normans.  Many 
of  the  old  foundations  are  now  being  again  excavated  and  are 
tolerably  well  preserved ;  the  materials  of  which  they  arc  con- 
structed are  sandstone,  marble,  and  limestone. 

M.  MARife  Davy  has  published,  through  Gauthier  Villars, 
the  Montsottris  Observatory's  Meteorological  Annuaire,  The 
volume  contains  a  number  of  important  improvements. 

The  first  ordinary  meeting  of  the  newly-established  Physical 
and  Chemical  Section  of  the  Bristol  Natundists'  Society  was  held 
on  January  22  in  the  Library  of  the  Bristol  Museum.  A  paper 
was  read  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Stoddart,  F.C.S.,  F.G.S.,  "On a 
Remarkable  Occurrence  of  Indican  in  the  Human  Body."  A 
paper  was  then  read  by  Mr.  S.  P.  Thompson,  B.Sc,  B.A,,  of 
University  College,  Bristol,  "On  Vortex  Motion  in  Liquids." 
The  paper  was  illustrated  by  experiments  showing  the  produc- 
tion of  smoke  rings  in  air  and  of  rings  of  coloured  liquid  in 
water.  The  author  had  lately  tried  the  action  of  electro- 
magnetism  upon  the  rings  projected  through  water  and  had 
observed  their  retardation  and  partial  destruction  in  passing 
through  a  powerful  magnetic  field.  His  experiments  are  at 
present  incomplete. 

The  third  volume  of  C.  L.  Michelet's  "  System  der  Philo- 
sophie  als  exacter  Wissenschaft  *'  (Berlin  :  Nicolai)  will  shortly 
be  published.  It  will  contain  the  philosophy  of  the  mind.  The 
fourth  volume  will  treat  of  the  philosophy  of  history  and  will 
close  the  interesting  and  elaborate  work. 

Experiments  with  a  new  telegraph  apparatus  have  lately 
been  made  at  Vienna,  by  means  of  which  some  100  or  120 
messages  may  be  sent  by  a  single  wire  in  the  remarkably  short 
space  of  one  hour.  Under  certain  conditions  this  number  may 
even  be  raised  to  200  or  even  250  messages.  The  inventor  of 
the  new  apparatus  is  Herr  August  Eduard  Granfeld,  an  Austrian 
telegraph  official  At  the  end  of  December  he  presented  to  the 
Austrian  "  Telegraphenanstalt "  eight  working  and  two  principal 
apparatus  of  his  invention  for  practical  trials.  The  experiments 
were  crowned  with  complete  success. 

A  NEW  watchman-controlling  dock  has  been  constructed  by 
Messrs.  Fein  at  their  telegraph  works  at  Stuttgart,  which  on  a 
single  dial  records  the  times  at  which  a  watchman  visits  any 
given  number  of  stations  however  far  apart,  as  well  as  the 
succession  in^which  they  are  visited,  and  thus  also  the  intervals 
which  elapse  while^the;  man  is  proceeding  from  place  to  place. 
I'he  same  firm  has  constructed  an  automatic  alarum  for  unia* 
habited  or  locked  localities. 

It  is  stated  that  such  enormous  quantities  of  snow  are  now 
lying  in  the  Austrian  "  Salzkammeigut "  as  have  not  been  seen 
there  for  the  last^fifty  or  sixty  years,  and  a  sudden  thaw  is 
dreaded  extremely,  as  it  would  unavoidably  cause  enormous 
inundations.  News  from  Pesth  reports  that  on  January  27  the 
Danube  broke  through  the  dykes  at  Domsod,  and  caused  a  vast 
inundation  in  Rumania,  for  a  distance  of  some  fifty  miles,  as  fax 
as  Baja.  Nine  villages  are  under  water.  Other  inundations  are 
reported  from  the  valley  of  the  Vesdre  River  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Belgium. 

An  exceptionally  mild  winter  is  reported  firom  the  north- 
western states  of  North  America.  In  the  districts  near  St 
Paul,  Minnesota,  the  fanners  ploughed  their  fields  in  Christmas 


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week.  On  Christmas  Day  excunions  were  made  by  steamer  on 
the  Mississippi  River.  In  former  years  the  river  was  generally 
frozen  over  on  that  day. 

Ths  Vienna  Society  for  the  Protection  of  Animals  offers  a 
prize  of  thirty  ducats  in  gold  for  the  best  pamphlet  recommending 
the  protection  of  animals.  The  little  work  must  be  of  general 
interest  and  must  be  written  specially  for  teachers.  It  must  be 
in  the  German  language  and  is  [not  to  exceed  six  sheets  in  print. 
Competitors  must  send  in  their  manuscripts,  on  or  before  July  i 
next,  to  the  Committee  of  the  Society  at  Vienna  (Johannes- 
gasse,  4). 

In  the  Geographicdl  Magaune  for  January  and  February  will 
be  foimd  Language  Maps  of  India  and  Further  India,  in- 
cluding the  Indian  Archipelago,  with  accompanying  text,  by 
Mr.  Robert  Cust  Mr.  Cust  announces  that  he  is  collecting 
materials  for  a  language  map  of  Africa.  Such  a  map  already 
exists  in  Stanford's  "Compendium  of  Geography — Africa," 
constructed  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Keane,  who,  besides,  gives  there 
material  for  such  a  map  to  which,  we  should  think,  it  would 
be  scarcely  'possible  to  add.  Is  not  Mr.  Cust's  work  one  of 
supererogation  ? 

The  Geographical  Magasiru  for  February  contains  a  curious 
and  interesting  antobiography  of  an  Eskimo,  Hans  Hendrik, 
who  served  in  the  Arctic  expeditions  of  Kane,  Hayes,  Hall,  and 
Sir  George  Nares.  It  was  written  in  Eskimo  and  translated 
by  Dr.  Henry  Rink,  who  writes  an  introduction. 

Ethnologists  will  be  interested  in  a  paper  in  the  February 
number  of  the  Geographical  Magazine,  by  Fr.  A.  de  Roepstorif, 
on  the  inland  tribe  of  the  Great  Nicobar.  The  author  concludes 
that  this  tribe  is  certainly  not  Negrito^  the  specimen  he  saw 
having  Mongolian  characteristics. 

The  mathematical  reader  will  peruse  with  interest  the  eleventh 
number  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  Belgian  Academv  of  Sciences 
(voL  xliv.),  where  he  will  find  a  paper  by  M.  Gnysens,  on  the 
determination  of  volumes  and  superifices,  being  the  application 
of  an  ingenious  and  new  general  formula  to  several  difficult  and 
interesting  problems ;  an  interesting  note  by  Prof.  Catalan,  on  a 
new  principle  of  subjective  probabilities  ;  and  aj^first  paper  by 
Pro^  Folic,  on  the  extension  of  the  notion  of  the  anhiumonic 
relation. 

The  movements  of  sediments  in  the  sea  it  has  been  common 
to  regard  as  exclusively  an  effect  of  wave-motion.  M.  Fuchs 
has  recently  pointed  out  that  while  this  is  an  obvious  cause,  it 
is  not  the  only  one.  Another  factor  (and  one  which  is  probably 
more  powerful  in  its  action),  consists  in  the  accumulations  which 
the  water  undergoes  periodically,  partly  through  the  flood-tide, 
partly  through  winds  prevailing  on  the  coasts.  Suppose  the  sea 
on  a  coast  heaped  up  ten  to  thirty  feet  (and  this  is  not  un- 
common), the  hydrostatic  equilibrium  must  be  thereby  greatly 
disturbed,  and  a  current  must  arise  in  the  depths  from  the  point 
of  greater  to  that  of  less  pressure,  ue.,  from  the  coast  to  the 
deeper  parts.  If  a  calculation  be  made  of  the  excess  of  weight 
caused  by  such  accumulations  of  water,  such  enormous  sums  are 
obtained  that  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  cmrent  generated  will  be 
strong  enough  to  move  not  only  fine  detritus,  but  large  blocks, 
towards  the  depths. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Banksian  Cockatoo  {Calyptorhynchus 
banksii)  from  New  South  Wales,  presented  by  the  Lady  EUes- 
mere ;  a  Common  Badger  (Meles  taxus)  from  Scotland,  presented 
by  Lord  Saltoun;  a  Brown  Bear  (Ursus  arctos)  from  North 
Europe^  presented  by  Mr.  J.  N.  Allen ;  a  Yaguarondi  Cat 
{Felis  yaguarondi),  two  YarrcU's  Curassows  {Crax  yarrdli),  two 
White.beUied  Guans  (Ortalide  albiventris),  a  White-fronted  Guan 
(Penelope  jacucaca),  a  Common  Trumpeter  (Psophia  crepitans)^  a 
SnXLBiiXcniiEurypygahelias),  an  American  Kestrel  ( rwnwii- 
culus  sparverius\  all  firom  South  America,  purchased. 


AMERICAN  SCIENCE 

'HPHE  eighth  paper  of  Prof.  Loomis'  interesting  series  of  "  Con- 
-*•  tributions  to  Meteorology  (American  Journal 0/ Science  and 
Arif  (or  J KouMTf,  1878),  treats  of  the  origin  and  development  of 
storms,  violent  winds,  and  barometric  gradient,  the  data  being 
obtained  from  the  United  States  Signal  Service  observations. 
Of  forty-four  different  storms  recorded  between  September,  1872, 
and  May,  1874,  twenty-one  (nearly  a  haU)  appear  to  have 
originated  on  or  very  near  the  chain  of  the  Rocky  Moimtains 
(the  others  were  of  various  origin).  More  than  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  originated  north  of  latitude  36^  (We  refer  to  this  subject 
elsewhere. ) 

This  number  of  the  journal  also  contains  some  observations 
by  Capt.  Belknap,  of  the  Tuscarora  (during  her  cruise  in  the 
Pacific)  proving  once  more  that  a  cold  stratum  may  exist  in  the 
ocean  between  two  warmer  ones  above  and  below.  The  case 
occurred  off  the  Kurile  Islands,  between  49*  and  52*  N.  lat. 
and  Ij8*»  and  167^  E.  long.  The  upper  part  of  the  stratum  in 
one  place,  showing  a  temperature  of  33°' 7  F.,  was  only  twenty 
fathoms  below  the  surface,  while  at  ten  fathoms  below  the  sur- 
face the  temperature  was  4I^  At  a  depth  of  too  fathoms  the 
temperature  was  32° ;  below  that  curve  to  a  depth  of  200  fathoms 
the  lange  of  temperature  was  from  34° '5  to  38*'7.  The  widih 
of  the  cold  stratum  gradually  narrowed  to  a  point  in  an  easterly 
direction  from  the  coast,  or  as  the  edge  of  the  Japan  stream  was 
approached.  (Several  data  are  furnished  regarding  the  currents 
in  that  region.) 

An  able  revision  of  the  atomic  weight  of  antimony  has  lately 
been  carried  out  by  Mr.  Josiah  P.  Cooke,  jun.,  and  the  first 
portion  of  his  paper  to  the  American  Academy  on  the  subject  is 
here  given  in  abstract  A  new  mineral,  pyrophosphorite,  an 
anhydrous  pyrophosphate  of  lime  from  the  West  Indies,  is 
described  by  Prof.  Shephard,  jun.  Pro£  Rockwood  furnishes 
notices  of  some  recent  American  earthquakes ;  and  Maria 
Mitchell,  observations  on  Jupiter  and  his  satellites,  with  the 
equatorial  telescope  at  the  observatory  of  Vassar  College. 
Attention  may  also  be  called  to  a  summary  of  the  field  work  of 
the  United  States  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of  the 
Territories,  under  the  charge  of  Dr.  Hayden,  for  the  season  of 
1877.  The  surveys  in  Colorado  having  been  completed  during 
the  previous  year,  the  parties  prosecuted  their  work  in  a  belt  of 
country  lying  mainly  in  the  western  half  of  Wyoming,  but  also 
embracing  adjacent  portions  of  Utah  and  Idaha  Among  other 
imp  rtant  results.  Dr.  White  has  demonstrated  the  identity  of 
the  lignitic  series  of  strata  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colo- 
rado with  the  Fort  Union  group  of  the  Upper  Missouri  River, 
and  with  the  great  Laramie  group  of  the  Green  River  basin  and 
other  portions  of  the  region  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
botany  of  the  Survey  was  represented  (it  is  known)  by  Sir  Joseph 
Hooker  and  Prof.  Asa  Gray.  Mr.  Jackson  has  visited  the 
strange  ruins  found  in  Northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and 
procured  the  necessaiy  data  for  plastic  representation  of  the 
pueblos,  or  communal  town  dwellings,  of  Taos  and  Acoma, 
models  of  which  he  has  constructed.  Contact  with  Europeans 
has  somewhat  modified  their  ancient  style  of  building-,  but  one 
can  readily  see  that  they  are  constructed  after  their  ancient  pro- 
totypes, the  dwellings  of  the  forgotten  people ;  forgotten,  because 
the  builders  of  the  modem  structures  are  as  ignorant  of  the 
ancient  builders  as  we  are  ourselves. 

The  first  number  of  the  American  Journal  of  Mathematics 
will  be  published  early  this  month,  with  contributions  by  Prof. 
Simon  Newcomb.  Mr.  G.  W.  Hill,  Mr.  H.  T.  Eddy,  Cincinnati, 
O.,  Dr.  Guido  Weichold,  Zittau,  Saxony,  Prof.  Cay  ley,  Mr. 
H.  A.  Rowland,  Prof.  Charles  S.  Peirce^  Prof.  Sylvester,  and 
Mr.  William  E.  Story. 

We  recently  announced  that  the  American  Naturalist  has 
becA  removed  to  Philadelphia  for  publication  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Prof.  Cope.  This,  with  other  new  conditions,  has  given 
dissatisfaction  to  a  number  of  the  old  contributors.  This  dis- 
satisfaction has  taken  definite  form  and  is  expressed  in  a  circular 
as  follows  :— *'  The  undersigned,  who  have  in  past  years  con- 
tributed articles  and  by  other  means  helped  to  suppoit  the 
American  Naturalist,  protest  against  the  continued  use  of  their 
names  in  the  same  connection  under  the  new  conditions  adver- 
tised in  the  December  number  of  1877.'*  The  circular  is  signed 
by  Profs.  Agassiz,  Gray,  Whitney,  Hagen,  Shaler,  Allen, 
Farlow,  Dana,  Marsh,  Verrill,  Newberry,  Grote^  and  Lock- 
wood. 


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NATURE 


\Feb.  7,  1878 


PRIZES   OF  THE  PARIS  ACADEMY  OF 
SCIENCES 

'T'HE  foUowiog  is  a  complete  list  of  the  prizes  awarded  hj  the 
^      Academy  at  its  anniuil  meeting,  January  2S. 

The  two  great  prizes  in  mathematics  and  physics  'were  not 
awarded  this  year. 

In  mechanics  the  Poncdet  prize  was  awarded  to  M.  Laguerre 
for  his  mathematical  works  ;  the  Montyon  prize  to  M.  Caspari 
for  his  work  on  Chronometers ;  the  Plnmey  prize  to  M.  Fre- 
minville  for  his  improvements  in  steam-engines ;  the  Foameyron 
prize  to  M.  Mallet  for  his  tramway  engine. 

In  astronomy  the  Lalande  prize  was  given  to  Prof.  Asaph 
Hall,  the  discoverer  of  the  satellites  of  Mars  ;  the  Vaillant  pnze 
to  M.  Schuloff  for  his  method  of  detecting  the  small  planets  ;  the 
Valz  prizes  to  MM.  Paul  and  Prosper  Henry  for  their  star  maps. 

In  physics  the  Lacaze  prize  was  awarded  to  M.  A«  Comu  for 
his  researches  on  the  determination  of  the  rate  of  light 

In  chemistry  the  Jecker  prize  was  awarded  to  M.  A.  Hou- 
zeau  for  his  researches  on  the  production  of  ozone ;  the  Lacaze 
prize  to  M.  Troost  for  his  many  valuable  chemical  researches. 

In  botany  the  Barbier  prize  was  divided  between  M.  Galippe 
for  his  toxicological  studies  on  cantharides,  MM.  Lepage  and 
Patrouillard  for  their  services  to  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and 
M.  Manouvriez  for  various  physiological  researches.  The 
Desmazi^es  prize  was  divided  in  part  between  Dr.  Qudet  for 
his  work  on  the  fungi  of  the  Jura  and  the  Vosges,  and  M. 
Bagnis  for  his  memoir  on  the  pucdnia.  From  the  Bordin  prize 
an  encouragement  of  1,000  francs  was  awarded  to  M.  Charies 
Eugene  Bertram  for  his  work  on  the  lyoopodiacese ;  another 
Bonlin  prize  was  awarded  to  the  same  botanist  for.  his  work  in 
connection  with  angiosperms  and  gymnosperms. 

In  anatomy  and  physiology  the  Shore  prize  was  awarded  to 
M.  Jousset  de  Bellesme  for  his  researches  on  the  physiology  of 
insects. 

Among  prizes  in  medicine  and  surgery,  one  of  2,500  francs 
was  given  to  Prof.  Hannover,  of  Copenhagen,  for  his  work  on 
the  retina  of  man  and  the  vertebrates ;  1,500  francs  to  Dr. 
Topinard  for  his  work  on  anthropology. 

In  physiology  the  Montyon  prize  was  divided  between  Prof. 
Ferrier  and  MM.  Carville  and  Duret.  The  Lacaze  prize  was 
given  to  M.  Dareste  for  his  researches  on  the  artificial  pro- 
duction of  monstrosities. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge. — ^The  Smith's  Prizes  have  been  adjudged  as 
follows :— First  prize,  Tohn  Edward  Aloysius  Stegg^l,  B.A., 
Trinity,  second  wrangler,  1878 ;  second  prize,  Christopher 
Graham,  B.A.,  GonviUe  and  Caius  College,  third  wrangler, 
1878.  By  this  award  it  will  be  seen  that  the  senior  wrangler 
has  failed  to  secure  either  of  the  Smith  prizes,  an  unusual  cir- 
cumstance, which  has  only  occurred  seven  times  since  the  foun- 
dation of  the  prizes  by  Dr.  Smith  in  1769,  viz.,  in  1770,  1830, 
1859,  1867,  1874,  1875,  and  again  this  year. 

Edinburgh.— The  Falconer  Memorial  Fellowship  in  Palaeon- 
tology  and  Geology,  of  the  annual  value  of  about  100/.,  tenable 
for  two  years  (and,  under  certain  conditions,  for  a  longer  period), 
is  now  vacant,  and  is  open  for  competition  by  graduates  in 
Science  or  Medicine  of  the  University,  of  not  more  than 
three  years'  standing  at  the  time  of  the  competition.  Names  of 
candidates  must  be  sent,  on  or  before  the  ist  of  April,  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  University,  from  whom  further  details  may  be 
obtained. 

The  Shaw  Fellowship  in  Mental  Philosophy,  of  the  annual 
value  of  about  170/.,  tenable  for  five  yeax^  will  be  open  to  com- 
petition in  December  next  by  graduates  in  arts  of  either  of  the 
four  Scottish  Universities,  of  not  more  than  five  years'  standing 
at  the  time  of  the  competition,  and  by  all  studoits  of  the  said 
Scottish  Universities,  who,  although  they  have  not  graduated 
in  arts,  have  successfully  passed  all  the  examinations  necessary 
for  graduation  in  arts  within  the  period  of  five  years  before  the 
time  of  the  competition.  Candidates  must  give  their  names  and 
addresses  to  the  Secretary  of  the  University  before  December  i. 

Prussia. — The  ten  Prussian  universities  cost  yearly  7, 146,000 
marks  (357»ocx)/. ),  of  which  sum  about  two-thirds  is  con- 
tributed directly  by  the  State.  This  amount  is  divided  as 
follows :— Berlin,  1,334,700  marks;  Bonn,  712,500;  Konigs- 


berg,  668,600;  Breslau,  620,300;  Kiel,  478,800;  Marburg, 
430^400;  Halle,  368,800;  Gottingen,  268,600;  Greifswald, 
i3S>6oo,  and  Miinster,  102,  <oo.  The  Saxon  Government 
has  difficulty  in  inducing  its  parliament  to  bestow  its  usual  aminal 
grant  of  700,000  marks  on  the  University  of  Leipzig,  the  argu- 
ment being  advanced  that  only  one-third  of  the  students  were 
natives  of  the  kingdom. 

Francs. — ^The  new  Ministry  is  making  rapid  strides  in  the 
direction  of  general  education.  In  a  law  lately  laid  before  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  we  notice  an  appropriation  of  120,000^000 
francs,  which  is  intended  to  serve  for  the  erection  or  purchase  of 
over  27,000  new  school-houses,  as  well  as  their  equipment. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Annalm  der  Physik  undChemie,  No.  12,  1877. — On  the  laws 
according  to  which  gases  spread  in  liquid,  viscous,  and  solid 
bodies,  by  M.  v.  Wroblewski — On  the  galvanic  resistance  of 
selenium,  by  M.  Forssmann. — On  the  rdalion  of  the  electric 
conductivity  of  selenium  to  heat  and  light,  by  M.  W.  Siemens. 
— Influence  of  light  on  the  electric  resistance  of  meUls,  by  M. 
Hanseman. — On  the  significance  of  polarisation  for  the  electric 
behaviour  of  liquids,  by  M.  Her  wig. — On  a  mode  of  inference 
employed  by  M.  Clausius  in  the  electrodynamic  theory,  by  M. 
2^11ner. — Supplement  to  a  paradox  of  the  mechanical  theory  of 
heat,  by  M.  Ritter.— On  the  Crookes's  radiometer,  by  M.  HankeL 
— On  the  perception  of  colours,  by  M.  Wdnhold. — On  the 
composition  of  seschynice  and  samarskite,  by  M.  Rammelsberg. 
— On  the  inventor  of  the  plate  of  the  air-pump,  by  M.  Gerland. 
— Supplement  to  "  Studies  on  ChemioU  Volumes,"  1^  M. 
Ostwald. 

Real€  IsHtuto  Lombardo  di  Seienzt  e  Letteriy  RemdkonH,  voL  zL 
fasc  xvii. — Memoir  of  Prof.  Giuseppe  Ferrari. — Reports  of  th« 
classes,  announcement  of  prizes,  &c. 

Fasc.  xviii.— Experimenu  with  regard  to  the  action  of  heat  on 
the  radiometer,  by  M.  Hajech. — Researches  on  diflferential  equa- 
tions, by  M.  Casorati — On  seismic  movements  in  the  valley  of 
Chiana  and  their  influence  on  the  hydrographic  condition  of  the 
valley  of  the  Tiber,  by  M.  Verri.— On  a  peculiar  horny  growth, 
by  M.  Sangalli. 

Journal  dt  Physique^  December. — Telephones,  by  M.  Niaudet 
— On  a  new  apparatus  for  measuring  the  frequency  of  periodic 
movements,  by  M.  Marey. — Continuity  of  the  liquid  and  the 
gaseous  state  of  matter,  by  M.  Bouty. — Study  on  Uie  formatioa 
of  the  negative  photograpnic  image,  by  M.  Lermontoff. 

Morphologisches  Jahrbuch^  vol.  iiL,  Part  4. — R.  Wiedersheim, 
on  the  cranial  skeleton  of  Urodela,  ninety  pages,  four  plates, 
dealing  with  Siredon,  Ambljrstoma,  Salamandra,  Chioglossa, 
Triton,  and  the  Salamandridae  generally. — W.  Salensky,  on  the 
budding  of  Salpse,  fifty-four  pages,  3  plates. — W.  Rauber,  on 
the  last  spinal  nerves  and  ganglia. 

SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 
Geological  Society,  January  9.— Prof.  P.  Martin  Duncan, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Ephraim  Brunt,  T.  W.  Cowao, 
and  Henry  Fox  were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Society. — The  fol- 
lowing  communications  were  read  : — On  the  great  flat  lode  south 
of  Redruth  and  Camborne,  by  Dr.  C.  Le  Neve  Foster,  B.A. — 
On  some  tin-mines  in  the  parish  of  Wendron,  Cornwall,  \xj  Dr. 
C.  Le  Neve  Foster,  B.A. — On  some  of  the  stock  works  of  Corn- 
wall, by  Dr.  C.  Le  Neve  Foster,  B.A.— The  precarboniferous 
rocks  of  Chamwood  Forest,  Part  II.,  by  the  Rev.  E.  HilL 
F.G.S.,  Fellow  and  Tutor,  and  the  Rev.  T.  G.  Bonney,  F.G.S., 
Fellow  and  late  Tutor  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  The 
authors  described  the  result  of  the  microscopic  examination  of  a 
considerable  series  of  the  clastic  rocks  of  Chamwood.  Many  of 
these,  even  among  the  finer  beds^  prove  to  be  of  pyroclastic 
origiiu  The  coarser  are  generally  composed  of  a  ground  mass  of 
pulverised  felspar,  with  viridlte  and  some  iron  peroxide,  full  of 
larger  fragments  of  felspar  crystals  (generally  both  of  orthodase 
ana  plagioclase)  and  lapillL  The  structure  of  these  is  often  dis« 
tinct,  some  are  certainly  andesites,  others  some  kind  of  trachyte ; 
slaty  Augments  are  also  present,  and  occasional  grains  of  quarta^ 
The  authors  express  their  opinion  that  all  the  larger  telspa^ 
ovstals,  and  most,  if  not  all,  the  quartz  grains,  are  of  elastic 
origin,  even  in  the  more  highly  altered  vaneties.    Some  of  die 


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larger  fragments  in  the  breccias  were  examined,  and  referred  in 
part  to  devitrified  trachytes  not  very  rich  in  silica.  The  igneous 
rocks  were  then  described.  The  syenites  of  the  southern  and 
northern  districts  were  shown  probably  to  belong  to  one  system 
of  intrusion.  The  homblendic  granite  of  the  Quomden  district 
was  also  described,  and  the  microscopic  structure  of  the  different 
varieties  of  it  and  the  above  investigated.  A  number  of  igneous 
rocks  genendly  forming  dykes  in  these  was  described ;  some 
appear  to  be  altered  basalts,  others  andesites,  one  is  a  felsite, 
another  a  diorite.  A  group  of  outlying  igneous  rocks  in  the 
vicinity  of  Narborough  was  described.  Of  these,  one  is  a  quartz 
feltsite  with  some  hornblende  ;  another  varies  between  this  and 
a  quartziferous  syenite ;  the  rest  are  syenites,  and  one  contains 
so  much  plagioclase  as  to  be  almost  a  diorite.  One  of  the  above, 
near  Enderby,  is  seen  to  be  distinctly  intrusive  in  an  altered  slaty 
rock,  whidi  the  authors  have  no  doubt  belongs  to  the  Forest 
series.  This  discovery  proves  the  isneous  character  of  these 
rocks  also,  and  extends  the  area  of  the  slaty  series  five  miles 
further  south  than  was  previously  known.  A  section  was  devoted 
to  the  faults  of  the  Forest  region.  Here  the  principal  fault  runs 
along  the  anticlinal  axis,  with  a  downthrow  on  its  eastern  side 
which  diminishes  from  2,500  feet  at  the  north  end  to  500  feet  at 
the  south  end.  East  of  tUs  the  beds  seem  undisturbed,  but  on 
the  west  they  are  shattered  by  many  faults,  whose  course  cannot 
be  traced.  These  are  most  numerous  near  Whit  wick.  The 
anticlinal  fault  is  pre-carbonifeious.  Inl  conclusion,  the  age  of 
the  dastic  and  of  Uie  igneous  rocks  was  discussed.  The  authors 
inclined  to  the  opinion  that  the  former  are  of  the  same  age  as 
the  Borrowdale  series  of  the  Lake  district  (lo^er  Silurian),  but 
admitted  that  the  recent  discovery  of  agglomerates  in  the  pre- 
Cambrian  rocks  of  Wales,  and  in  the  probably  pre-Cambrian 
ridges  of  the  Wrekin  district,  weakens  the  arguments  for  this 
correlation.  They  do  not  think  that  there  is  any  reason  for  sup- 
posing them  Cambrian.  If  the  Chamwood  series  is  lower 
Silurian,  they  think  it  most  probable  that  the  syenites  and  the 
Quomden  granite  were  intruded  in  some  part  of  the  old  red  sand- 
stone perioid,  and  that  the  later  dykes  were  very  probably  post- 
carboiUferous  but  prc-triassia 

Meteorological  Society,  January  16.— Mr.  H.  S.  Eaton, 
M.A.,  president,  in  the  chair. — ^The  Coundl,  in  their  Report, 
express  their  gratification  at  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
the  Fellows  and  stations  of  the  Society,  the  greater  size  of  the 
Quarterly  Journal^  and  the  higher  value  placed  on  it  by  foreign 
scientific  sodeties,  the  augmentation  of  the  library,  and  the 
addition  to  the  sum  hitherto  contributed  by  the  Meteorological 
Coundl,  as  well  as  at  other  evidences  of  vigour  and  progress 
manifested  during  the  year.  The  number  of  Fdlows  now 
amounts  to  417.  The  presuient  then  delivered  his  address: — 
During  his  tenure  of  office  the  alliance  between  the  Meteoro- 
logical Coundl  and  the  Sodety  had  been  further  cemented,  the 
Society  supplying  the  Government  with  certain  statistics,  and 
getting  some  assistance  from  the  Council  in  return.  Hiis  arrange- 
ment nad  been  completely  successful,  and  the  president  con- 
sidered it  calculat^l  to  foster  the  growth  of  dimatic  meteorology 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Sodetv,  and  likely  to  remove  any 
jealousy  on  tne  part  of  the  public  towards  a  govcmmentu 
department  so  peculiarly  constituted  as  the  Meteorological 
Council  After  criticising  some  of  the  work  undertaken  by  the 
last-mentioned  body,  Mr.  Eaton  exhilnted  curves  of  the  r^ults 
of  the  hourly  observations  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  for 
Uie  year  1876  at  Valentia,  Armagh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen,  Fal- 
mouth, Stonyhurst,  and  Kew,  these  beinc  the  stations  established 
in  1868  for  determining  the  meteorologicd  constants  of  the 
British  Ides.  The  curves  showing  the  combined  diurnal  and 
semi-diurnal  variation  of  atmospheric  pressure  might  be  referred 
to  one  of  two  distinct  types.  In  one  of  them  the  minimum  of 
pressure  was  most  pronounced  in  the  morning,  in  the  other  in 
the  afternoon.  The  former  type  was  founa  at  the  maritime 
stations  of  Valencia  and  Falmouth,  the  latter  at  inland  stations 
such  as  Kew.  The  diurnal  range  of  the  temperature  of  the  air 
was  dosdy  related  to  the  pressure.  It  was  least  at  the  maritime 
stations,  readiing  only  4*'*8  at  Falmouth,  and  attaining  a  maxi* 
mum  of  9**3  at  ICew. — The  following  gentlemen  were  elected 
Officers  and  Council  lor  the  current  year : — President :  Charles 
Greaves,  M.InstC.E.,  F-G.S.  Vice-Preskients :  Henry  Storks 
Eaton,  M.A.,  James  Park  Harrison,  M.A.,  Robert  Tames 
Mann,  M.D.,  F.R.A.S.,  Charles  Vincent  Walker,  F.R.S. 
Treasurer:  Henry  Perigal,  F.R.A.S.  Trustees:  Sir  Antonio 
Brady,  F.G.S.,  Stephen  William  Silver,  F.ILG.S.  Secre- 
taries :  George  James  Symons,  Joha  W.  Tripe,  M.D.    Foieigii 


Secretary:  Robert  H.  Scott,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  Council:  Hon. 
Ralph  Abercromby,  Arthur  Brewin,  F.R.A.S.,  Charles  Brooke, 
F.R.S.,  Edward  Ernest  Dymond,  William  Ellis,  F.R.A.S., 
Rogers  Fidd,  B.A.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  John  Knox  Laughton, 
F.R.  A.S.,  Rev.  William  Clement  Ley,  M.A.,  Richard  Strachan, 
Henry  Samuel  Tabor,  Capt.  Henrv  Toynbee,  F.R.A.S.,  George 
Mathews  Whipple,  B.Sc. — A  resolution  was  passed  to  the  effect 
that  ladies  be  admissible  as  Fellows  of  the  Society. 

Physical  Society,  January  19.— Prof.  G.  C.  Foster,  president 
in  the  chair. — The  following  were  elected  Members  of  the 
Society  :— J.  Angell,  Lieut  G.  S.  Clarke,  R.E.,  T.  F.  IseHn, 
M.  A.,  J.  W.  RusseU,  M,A.— Mr.  W.  H.  Prcece  read  a  paper 
on  some  physical  points  connected  with  the  telephone.  This 
instrument  may  be  employed  both  as  a  source  of  a  new  kind  of 
current  and  as  the  detector  of  currents  which  are  incapable  of 
influencing  the  galvanometec  It  shows  that  the  form  and 
duration  of  Farad av*3  magneto-dectric  currents  are  dependent 
on  the  rate  and  duration  of  motion  of  the  lines  of  force  pro- 
ducing them,  and  that  the  currents  produced  by  the  alteration  of 
a  magnetic  field  vary  in  strength  with  the  rate  of  alteration  of 
that  fidd;  and  further,  that  the  infinitely  small  and  possibly 
only  molecular  movement  of  the  iron  pl&te  is  suffident  to  occa- 
sion the  requisite  motion  of  the  lines  of  force.  He  pointed  out 
that  the  telephone  explodes  the  notion  that  iron  takes  time  to  be 
magnetised  and  de-magnetised.  Mr.  R.  S.  Brough  has  calcu- 
lated that  the  strongest  current  employed  in  a  telephone  is 
^oooo^ooooy^  of  the  C.  G.  S.  unit.  Mr.  Preece  explained  that  the 
dimensions  of  the  coil  and  plate  depend  on  the  strength  of  the 
magnet,  but  the  former  should  always  consist  of  fine  wire  and  be 
made  as  fiat  and  thin  as  possible.  The  adjustment  of  the 
]>osition  of  the  magnet  (as  near  as  possible  to  the  plate  without 
touching)  is  easilv  effected  by  sounding  a  vowd  sound  ah  or  o 
dearly  and  loudly ;  a  jar  is  heard  when  they  are  too  near 
together.  After  briefly  enumerating  the  attempts  which 
have  been  made  to  improve  the  instrument,  he  mentioned 
the  various  purposes  to  which  it  can  be  applied.  In 
addition  to  bemg  useful  in  the  lecture  room,  in  conjunction  with 
several  wdl-known  forms  of  apparatus,  it  forms  an  excellent 
detector  in  a  Wheatstone  bridge  for  testing  short  lengths  of  wire, 
and  condensers  can  be  adjusted  by  its  means  with  great  accuracy. 
M.  Niaudet  has  shown,  by  employing  a  doubly  wound  coil, 
that  it  can  be  used  to  detect  currents  uom  doubtful  sources  of 
dectridty,  and  it  is  excdlent  as  a  means  of  testing  leaky  insu* 
lators.  Among  the  facts  already  proved  t^  the  telephone  may 
be  mentioned  the  existence  of  currents  due  to  induction  in  wires 
contiguous  to  wires  carrying  currents,  even  when  these  are  near 
each  other  for  only  a  short  distance.  Mr.  Preece  finds  that  if 
the  tdephone  wire  be  indosed  in  a  conducting  sheath  which  is 
in  connection  with  the  earth,  all  effects  of  dectric  induction  are 
avoided ;  and  further,  if  the  sheath  be  of  iron,  mastic  induc- 
tion also  is  avoided,  and  the  tdephone  acts  pofectly.  A  great 
number  of  experiments  on  the  use  of  the  instrument  on  tele- 
graphic lines  were  then  described,  from  which  it  a^^pears  that 
conversation  can  be  carried  on  through  100  miles  of  submarine 
cable,  or  200  miles  of  a  single  wire  without  difficulty,  with  the 
instrument  as  now  constructed.  The  leakage  occurring  on  pole- 
lines  is  fatal  to  its  use  in  wet  weather,  for  distances  beyond  five 
miles.  An  interesting  series  of  tdephones  was  exhibited,  and  by 
means  of  one  of  very  large  dimensions  Mr.  Preece  showed  that 
the  currents  produced  by  pressing  the  centre  of  the  plate  sensibly 
affect  a  Thomson  galvanometer,  and  that  the  motion  of  the  needle 
ceases  in  a  remarkably  instantaneous  manner  as  soon  as  the  pres* 
sure  is  removed,  a  necessary  condition  in  order  that  the  receiving- 
plate  should  accurately  reproduce  the  motions  of  the  sending-plate. 
In  the  discussion  which  fc^owed,  Mr.  R.  Sabine  suggested  that 
the  failure  of  all  attempts  at  improving  the  instrument  by 
increasing  its  dimensions  might  be  due  to  the  damping  action  of 
the  permanent  magnet  on  the  plate,  the  strain  on  it  being  pro- 
portional to  the  sise  of  magnet  and  rendering  it  less  sensitive  to 
me  sonorous  waves.  Mr.  Coffin  pointed  out  how  interesting  it 
would  be  if,  instead  of  employing  a  receiving-histrument,  the 
currents  could  be  communicated  directly  to  the  auditory  nerves, 
and  Prof.  Adams  explained  the  relation  subsisting  between  the 
character  of  the  vibrations  of  the  disc  and  the  character  of  the 
electric  currents  to  which  they  give  rise. — Dr.  Lodge  described 
a  simple  form  of  apparatus  for  determining  the  thermal  conduc- 
tivity of  rare  substances,  such  as  crystels,  which  cannot  be 
obtamed  in  slabs  or  rods.  It  consists  of  two  small  tin  cans  with 
a  copper  arm  about  eight  inches  long  projecting  horizontally 
firom  each,  the  external  ends  being  dean  and  flat    They  are 


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placed  ia  a  straight  line  with  the  crystal  between  them,  and  held 
together  by  a  slight  horizontal  pressure.  Holes  are  drilled  in 
the  copper  rods  for  thermometers,  and  the  curves  of  tempera- 
ture being  given  by  these,  that  for  the  intermediate  crystal  can 
be  at  once  calculated. 

Victoria  (Philosophical)  Institute,  January  21.— Prof. 
Lias,  of  St  David's  College,  read  a  paper  on  Matthew  Arnold 
and  modem  culture. 

February  4.— The  Right  Reverend  Bishop  Cotterill  read  a 
paper  upon  scientific  thought  and  religious  belieC 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  January  22.— Mr.  Bateman, 
president,  in  the  chair. — The  paper  read  was  on  some  recent 
improvements  in  dynamo-electric  apparatus,  by  Dr.  Higgs, 
Assoc.  Inst  C.E.,  and  Mr.  Brittle,  Assoc.  Inst  CE. 

Manchester 

Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  December  11,  1877. 
— Mr.  E.  W.  Binney,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  ehair. — Note  on 
the  daguerreotype  portrait  taken  of  the  late  Dr.  Dalton,  bv  J.  B. 
Dancer,  F.R.  A.S.— Note  on  metallic  niobium  and  anew  niobium 
chloride,  by  Prof.  H.  E.  Roscoe,  F.R.S.— On  the  retention  of 
saline  impurities  by  hydrated  ferric  oxide,  by  Mr.  Charles  Fre- 
derick Cross,  Dalton  Scholar  in  the  Owens  College.  Com- 
municated by  Prof.  H,  E.  Roscoe,  F.R.S. 

December  26.— -Mr.  E.  W.  Binney,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the 
chair. — Notice  of  a  large  boulder  stone  at  Old  Trafford,  Man- 
chester, by  E.  W.  Binney,  F.R.S. — On  the  feometrical  repre- 
sentation of  the  equation  of  the  second  degree,  by  Charles 
Chambers,  F.R.S.,  Superintendent  of  the  Colaba  Observatory, 
Bombay.     Communicated  by  J.  A.  Bennion,  F.R.  A.S. 

Edinburgh 

Chemical  Society,  January  16. — Mr.  W.  Inglis  Clark, 
B.Sc,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — ^A  paper  was  read  by  Mr. 
John  Gibson,  PIlD.,  F.R.S.E.,  on  yttnum  and  erbium,  being 
the  second  part  of  an  historical  sketch  of  the  rarer  elements. 

January  30. — Mr.  Newton  Bums  presiding. — Papers  were  read 
by  Mr.  G.  Carr  Robinson,  F.R.S.E.,  on  the  solid  fatty  acids  of 
cocoa-nut  oil,  and  by  Messrs.  Robinson  and  Thomson  on  the 
composition  of  gases  from  lime-kilns. 

Philadelphia 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  July  3. — Prof.  G.  A. 
Konig,  on  protovermiculite,  a  new  micaceous  mineral  from  Ar- 
kansas, R'jR^Si'^O'u  +  HjO,  related  to  jefferisite  and  colsage- 
cite. 

July  24. — Mr.  J.  A.  Ryder,  on  colour  variation  in  mammals. 
The  distribution  of  colour  in  wild  and  domestic  animals  was 
compared,  showing  that  bilateral  symmetry  of  colouring  is  inter- 
fered with  in  some  way  by  domestication,  wild  animals  almost 
invariably  being  symmetrically  coloured 

July  3 1. — Dr.  Rothrock,  on  the  poisonous  properties  of  the 
Lqguminosae. 

August  14. — Prof.  G.  A.  Kdnig,  on  ttrengite,  from  Virginia. 
This  mineral^  Fe,P,08  +  4H,0,  was  discovered  in  cavities  in 
dufrenite. 

August  28.— Dr.  D.  J.  Jordan  and  W.  S.  Brayton,  on  Ligo- 
chila,  %  new  genus  of  catostomoid  fishea.  known  in  Georgia  as 
the  Hare-lip  Sucker. 

Welungton 

Philosophical  Society,  August  4, 1877.— W.  T.  L.  Travcrs, 
F.L.S.,  M.H.R.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Dr.  Hector  drew 
attention  to  several  mteresting  additions  to  the  museum,  which 
were  arranged  on  the  table.  Among  the  most  important  was  a 
handsome  bird  from  New  Guinea,  the  Goura  v'uUria, — Mr. 
Kirk  also  called  attention  to  a  log  of  black  maire,  a  species  of 
olive  (Olea  apUUa\  sent  by  Mr.  Elliotte,  of  the  Pakuratahi, 
which,  on  account  of  its  great  hardness,  is  much  used  as  blocks 
and  cogs  in  machinery. — Capt.  Edwin  read  a  letter  from  Mr. 
Rawson,  on  the  reciprocity  of  seasons,  the  character  of  the 
seasons  in  Europe  being  followed  by  a  similar  season  in  Aus- 
tralia and  New  2^ealana  Mr.  Carruthers  thought  that  even  in 
New  Zealand  the  seasons  did  not  agree ;  and  Dr.  Hector  said  it 
would  be  necessary  to  fix  upon  the  one  place  for  comparison,  as 
seasons  were  not  uniform,  a  moist  season  on  the  east  coast 
being  freouently  a  dry  season  on  the  west  coast  Dr.  Newman 
considered  that  the  seasons  were  affected  all  over  the  world  by 
sun-spots. — Mr.  McKay  then  read  a  paper  on  gold  found  in  the 
Mackenzie  district  of  Canterbury ;  on  which  subject  Dr.  Hector 
added  some  interesting  information  regarding  the  occurrence  of 


gold  generally  in  that  district,  and  pointing  out  that  Mr* 
McKay's  observation  that  the  gold  and  associated  quartz  were 
found  only  in  the  last  formed  moraines  and  alluviums,  confinned 
his  theory  that  the  retirement  of  the  glaciers  was  chiefly  due  to 
the  erosion  of  the  mountains. 

Vienna 

Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  December  13,  1877. — 
On  the  present  state  of  the  water  question,  by  M.  Wex.  —On 
the  anatomy  of  the  African  elephant^  by  M.  Mojsisovics. — ^The 
electrical  afrer-currents  of  transversally  magnetised  iron  bars,  by 
M.  Streintz. 

December  20. — The  protoplasm  of  the  pea,  by  M.  TangL  — 
On  a  new  apparatus  for  direct  volumetric  determination  of  the 
moisture  of  the  air,  bvM.  Schwackhofer. — Elementary  deduc- 
tion of  the  complete  formula  for  determination  of  the  tone  oi 
vibration  of  a  mathematical  pendulum,  by  M.  Pscheidl — Con- 
tribution to  knowledge  of  cupric  chloride,  by  M.  Rosenfeld. — 
On  the  air-pressure  at  Vienna,  with  supplemental  remarks  on  the 
temperature  of  Vienna,  by  M.  Hann. 

GOTTINGEN 

Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  November  3,  1877. — 
Attempt  at  a  theory  of  electric  separation  through  friction,  by 
M.  Riecke. 

December  i. — Report  of  the  Secretary  (126th  anniversary). — 
Obituary  notice  of  von  Baer. — Announcement  of  subjects  for 
prize  competition,  &c.— On  the  formation  of  the  volcano  of 
Fuego  in  Guatemala,  and  account  of  an  ascent  of  it,  by  M.  von 
Seebach. — On  the  origin  of  language,  by  M.  Benfey. 

December  26, 1877. — New  geometrical  and  dynamical  constants 
of  the  earth,  by  M.  Listing. 


CONTENTS  Page 

Thb  SoasTY  or  Tblboraph  Enginssrs •  977 

Tait's  "  THBaMODYHAMics,"  II.    By  FroC   J.  Clbrk  Maxwbxx, 

F.R.S 378 

OuK  Book  Shblf  >^ 

D'Anven'  *'  Heroes  of  North  ATrican  Discovery  *       aSo 

Henderson's  *'  Manual  of  Agriculture ;  includini;  the  Application 
thereto  of  Chemistry,  Geology»  Botany,  Animal  Physiology,  and 

Meteorology" aSo 

Lbttbrs  to  thb  Sditok  :^ 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Magnetism.^Dr.  John  Allan  BaouN, 

KKS aSo 

Terrestrial  Magnetism.^Prof.  Wm.  LbRoy  Broun 98 1 

Seiches  and  Earthquakes.— Dr.  F.  A.  Forbl aSx 

Electrical  Experiment.— Prof  R  Collsy a8< 

Oriental  Affinities  in  the  Ethiopian  Insect-Fauna.— W.  L  Dis- 
tant    9?a 

Sense  in  Insects— Drowned  by  a  Devil- Fish. —W.  M.  Gabb     .    .  aSs 

DrownedbyaDevil-Fish—OBORCBM.  Dawson aSa 

Eucalyptus.— Dr.  Calmy •    •  aSj 

Explosive  Dust- F.  £.  L aSj 

Dendritic  Gold.— R. 

Dbmonstration  or  Cubbbnts  originatbd  by  thb  Voicb  in  Bbll's 

Tblbphonb.    By  F.  J.  M.  Pacb 383 

Chbmistry  anb  Algbbra.    By  Prof.  J.  T.  Sylvestbr,  F.R.S..    .    .  984 

pALMfiNON  THBMoBPHOLOGYOPTHbIbACHBALSySTBM  .      .     .      •  aS4 

On  thb  Evolution  op   Hbat  during  Muscular  Action.    By 

P  Frankland aE6 

Ernst  Hbinrich  Wbbbb a86 

Db.  p.  Blbbkbb aS6 

About  Fishbs'  Tails.    By  Dr.  E.  Pbbcbval  Wright  {.With  Ilius- 

tratifftu) a86 

OvB  Astbomomical  Column  :— 

Literature  of  the  Nebulae  and  Ousters a88 

New  Southern  Variable  Scar a88 

The  Royal  Observatory,  Brussels aSS 

A  Forecast  of  the  Satellites  of  Mars a88 

Biological  Notbs  : 

Papuan  PlanU aSg 

Horse-shoe  Crabs     •    .    .    • '  a89 

Green  Algae • aSg 

Deep  Sea  Asddians sSq 

The  B;rssus  in  the  Mussel sSq 

Aquauc  Respiration     ..••• 990 

Gbographical  Notbs  :— 

Exploring  Colonies • 990 

Sumatra 090 

Nias  Island •  •90 

Arctic  Exploration 290 

Rohlfs'  Expedition 390 

Spitzbeiigen 390 

Japan     .....••••t««««..*....99o 

Notbs •91 

Ambbican  Scibncb >93 

PRKBS  OF  THB  Paris  ACADBMY  OF  SCIBNCBS »94 

UNiVBBsmr  AND  Educational  Intblligbncb ^94 

SaiNTiFic  Sbrials 394 

SoCIBTIBS  and  ACADBMIBS •94 


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THURSDAY,  FEBRUARY    14,  1878 

MR.   STANLEY 

SIR  SAMUEL  BAKER  spoke  the  truth  on  Thursday 
night  last  in  St.  James's  Hall  when  he  told  Mr. 
Stanley  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  might  be  regarded  as  the 
spokesman  of  the  nation  when  he  addressed  the  great  ex- 
plorer in  warm  words  of  welcome  and  admiration.  Not 
for  many  years  has  there  been  so  much  excitement  in 
London  as  there  was  on  Thursday  in  connection  with  the 
wild  rumours  on  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  East ;  it  seemed 
^  as  if  people  could  not  possibly  have  a  shred  of  attention 
to  bestow  on  any  other  matter,  but  nearly  two  hours 
before  the  lime  at  which  the  meeting  of  the  Geographical 
Society  was  to  commence  the  doors  of  St.  James's  Hall 
were  besieged  by  an  eager  crowd  ;  and  many  hundreds,  if 
not  thousands,  had  to  be  left  out  in  the  distribution  of  tickets. 
The  welcome  which  Mr.  Stanley  received  could  not  pos- 
sibly have  been  more  enthusiastic.  In  view  of  the  many  hard 
words  that  have  been  spoken  of  Mr.  Stanley's  conduct 
under  certain  trying  circumstances,  the  sight  on  the  plat- 
form of  the  stately  figure  and  genial  face  of  the  venerable 
missionary  and  explorer,  Dr.  Mofiat,  father-in-law  of 
Livingstone,  was  exceedingly  gratifying,  showing,  as  we 
think  it  did,  that  so  humane  and  experienced  an  ''African" 
as  he  does  not  consider  that  Mr.  Stanley  has  greatly  sinned. 
That  Mr.  Stanley  should  be  received  with  all  the 
enthusiasm  of  hero-worship  by  the  civilised  world  is  just 
what  might  have  been  expected.  It  is  seldom,  however, 
r  that  a  hero  receives  the  glory  due  to  his  heroism  so 
J  promptly  as  Mr.  Stanley  has  done,  especially  when  that 
glory  has  been  earned  in  the  field  of  exploration.  Hitherto 
it  has  only  been  through  the  tardy  mediiun  of  a  book  that 
the  public  at  home  have  learned  of  an  explorer's  work ; 
but  in  Mr.  Stanley's  case  we  have  been  able  to  watch  his 
progress  step  by  step  by  means  of  the  eagerly-looked-for 
letters  he  sent  home  from  the  heart  of  Africa,  like  spec- 
tators watching  the  progress  of  an  assault  against  a 
hitherto  impregnable  stronghold.  Thus  when  Stanley 
emerged  once  more  into  ''the  light  of  conmion  day"  the 
very  first  white  man  at  Emboma  into  whose  hands  that 
memorable  appeal  for  help  came  knew  at  once  that  one 
of  the  greatest  deeds  of  all  time  had  been  accomplished. 
The  exact  grade  to  be  allotted  to  Mr.  Stanley  among 
the  dii  majores  of  explorers  must  be  left  to  a 
future  generation,  but  this  we  may  be  sure  of  that 
when  the  man  and  his  work  shall  stand  clearly  out 
against  the  "azure  of  the  past,"  when  all  the  accidental 
circumstances  that  accompanied  the  ever-memorable 
journey  shall  have  been  forgotten,  Mr.  Stanley  will  take 
his  place  among  the  foremost  of  pioneer  explorers,  as 
one  of  the  greatest  benefactors  to  humanity  and  science. 
He,  indeed,  has  shown  that  there  is  work  in  the  world  for 
many  generations  of  men  of  science,  and  it  will  be  long 
after  the  region  has  been  openedup  to  commerce  ere  science 
will  have  obtained  an  adequate  Imowledge  of  its  treasures. 
Mr.  Stanley  has  been  termed  "  the  Bismarck  of  African 
exploration ; "  as  Bismarck  has  united  into  one  great 
empire  the  fragmentary  states  of  Germany,  so  has  Stanley 
by  the  work  he  has  accomplished  united  into  one  great 
whole  the  disjecta  membra  of  African  exploration.  But 
the  likeness  between  the  two  men 'extends  further  than 
Vol.  XVII,— No.  433 


this  ;  in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other  there  has  been  a 
well-defined  purpose  carried  out  by  means  of  a  clear  and 
cool  head,  firm  nerve,  unflinching  will,  and  (perhaps  more 
important  than  all)  an  iron  constitution. 

What  then  has  Mr.  Stanley  done  to  justify  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  he  has  been  universally  received 
by  high  and  low,  by  learned  and  unlearned  ? 

One  of  the  most  lemarkable  characteristics  of  his  work 
is  the  unprecedented  rapidity  with  which  it  was  accom- 
plished, considering  the  rich  harvest  of  results.  As  he 
told  his  followers  at  Zanzibar  he  meant  to  do,  he  shot 
across  the  continent  like  an  arrow.  In  two  years  and  a 
half,  with  many  zigzags  and  subsidiary  explorations, 
Africa  was  crossed  from  Bagamoyo  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo.  The  great  work  of  the  expedition,  the  exploration 
of  the  Lualaba  from  Nyangpve  to  the  sea  occupied  only 
five  months  ;  looking  at  it  in  all  its  aspects,  no  explorer 
ever  did  so  great  a  work  in  anything  like  the  time. 

For  thousands  of  years  has  the  Nile  been  a  mystery 
which  civilised  humanity  has  never  ceased  to  seek  to 
penetrate ;  no  other  geographical  problem,  not  even  the 
pole  itself,  has  had  such  a  fascination  for  Europe.  Many 
and  many  a  life  has  been  sacrificed  in  the  attempt  to  find 
the  source  of  the  sacred  stream,  and  it  was  in  seeking 
this  goal  that  Livingstone  wandered  away  south  to  find 
"  the  fountains  of  Herodotus,"  only  to  find  a  grave  on 
the  marshy  shore  of  Lake  Bangweolo.  The  glory  of 
virtually  settling  the  problem  has  remained  to  Living- 
stone's discoverer  and  pupil,  Stanley.  In  his  march 
northwards  from  Ugogo  to  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza,  the 
explorer  came  upon  a  river  which  flows  into  the  south  of 
that  lake,  the  river  Shimeeyu,  about  350  miles  long,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  remote,  if  not  the  most 
remote,  of  the  sources  of  the  old  Nile.  Further,  into  the 
west  side  of  the  lake  flows  Speke's  Kitanguld  river,  which 
Mr.  Stanley  has  re-baptised  the  Alexandra  Nile ;  this 
river  the  latter  explored  with  much  thoroughness  while 
staying  at  the  court  of  the  gentle  Rumanika.  He  found 
it  to  be  a  broad  lake-river,  giving  off  many  lagoons,  one 
of  them  Speke's  Lake  Windermere,  and  having  its  source 
in  Speke's  Lake  Akanyaru  (now  the  Alexandra  Nyanza) 
which  again  has,  Mr.  Stanley  believes,  a  river  of  con- 
siderable length  flowing  into  its  west  side,  and  another 
coming  from  the  south,  having  its  origin  on  the  east  of 
Lake  Tanganyika.  Here  then,  no  doubt,  we  have  the 
ultimate  sources  of  the  Nile,  which  have  been  sought  for 
since  history  began.  Mr.  Stanley,  we  believe,  has  vir- 
tually set  the  question  at  rest,  though  we  are  sure  he  will 
willingly  share  the  credit  of  the  discovery  with  Speke, 
whose  geographical  instinct  was  astonishing,  and  the 
essential  accuracy  of  whose  discoveries  have  been 
throughout  confirmed  by  his  successor. 

For  the  first  time  we  have,  through  Mr.  Stanley's  ex- 
ploration, an  approximately  accurate  idea  of  the  outline 
and  extent  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza.  Any  map  of  Africa 
published  two  years  ago  shows  this  lake  in  a  triangular 
shape,  with  an  offshoot  in  its  north-east  comer.  Mr. 
Stanley  has  broadened  it  out  into  an  irregular  square, 
with  a  coast-line  of  about  1,000  miles  in  length,  studded 
with  islands,  many  of  them  inhabitedi  and  its  shores 
peopled  by  many  different  tribes. 

The  geography  of  the  region  between  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  Albert  Nyanza  may  now  be  plotted  with  considerable 


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{Feb.  14,  1878 


fulness  after  the  work  of  Mr.  Stanley,  who,  however,  was 
unable  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  doing  for  the  Albert  what 
he  did  for  the  Victoria.  Through  one  of  the  valleys  which 
run  north  and  south  between  the  mountains  of  this  region 
flows  another  tributary  of  the  Alexandra  Nyanza,  and  on 
Mount  Gambaragara  dwell  those  mysterious  fair-skinned 
people  that  Speke  heard  of,  but  specimens  of  whom  Mr. 
Stanley  actually  saw.  About  the  time  of  Mr.  Stanley's 
visit,  we  may  remind  the  reader,  Signor  Gessi  explored 
the  Albert  Lake,  and  we  believe,  to  judge  from  his  narra- 
tive, was  unwittingly  driven  to  its  southern  shore,  about 
I**  S.  lat  Quite  recently,  as  we  recorded  at  the  time, 
Col.  Mason  has  sailed  round  the  lake,  and  reports  it  to  be 
comparatively  small  and  land-locked,  with  no  important 
affluent  other  than  the  Victoria  Nile. 

On  Lake  Tanganyika  Mr.  Stanley  completed  the  work 
of  his  predecessors.  He  circumnavigated  the  lake,  and 
for  the  first  time  accurately  plotted  the  outline  of  its 
southern  part,  adding  considerably  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  people  and  products  of  its  shores.  We  have  already 
spoken  at  some  length  of  his  examination  of  the  Lukuga, 
which  Cameron  set  down  on  the  middle  of  the  western 
shore  as  the  long-sought-for  outlet  of  the  lake.  Stanley 
examined  the  Lukuga  with  great  care,  and  concludes  that 
at  present  it  is  only  a  creek,  but  that  as  the  waters  of  the 
lake  are  encroaching  on  the  shore,  either  by  the  rise  of 
the  former  or  subsidence  of  the  latter,  the  Lukuga  will,  in 
a  very  short  time,  actually  become  an  outlet  What  Mr* 
Stanley  has  told  us  of  the  lake  and  the  surrounding 
region  is  well  calculated  to  whet  the  curiosity  of  the 
geologist  and  physical  geographer.  We  have  already 
alluded  to  Mr.  Stanley's  theory  of  the  past  physical 
history  of  the  region  ;  but  even  if  his  knowledge  of 
geology  were  adequate  to  the  formation  of  an  acceptable 
theory,  he  had  scarcely  time  enough  to  collect  the  neces- 
sary data.  Here,  at  any  rate,  is  a  splendid  field  for  the 
geologists  of  the  future. 

Had  Mr.  Stanley  returned  home  after  his  exploration 
of  Tanganyika,  or  had  the  toss  between  himself  and  poor 
Pocock  been  "  tails  to  go  south  "  and  leave  the  problem 
of  the  Lualaba  unsolved,  no  one  would  have  blamed  him, 
and  his  work  in  the  Nyanza  region  would  have  added 
very  considerably  to  his  previous  reputation  as  an  ex- 
plorer. But  his  daring  dash  down  the  Lualaba  is  a  coup 
that  has  immortalised  him ;  it  has  done  for  him  what  the 
publication  of  "  Pickwick "  did  for  Dickens,  it  has  com- 
pelled the  world  to  admit  that  in  his  own  line  he  is  a 
genius  of  the  first  rank.  Indeed  we  cannot  but  regard 
the  spirit  which  animated  Stanley  at  this  crisis  of  his 
ioumey  in  Africa  as  a  really  heroic  one.  He  himself 
happily  and  aptly  expressed  it  in  his  address  at  St  James's 
Hall  by  quoting  the  words  which  Tennyson  puts  into  the 
mouth  of  Ulysses,  and  which  he  applied  to  the  position  of 
himself  and  his  followers  when  they  were  left  by  their 
Arab  escort  on  the  broad  bosom  of  the  Lualaba,  at  the 
very  gate  of  the  unknown  region  : — 

"  My  nuurinerH^ 
Souls  that  have  toil'd,  and  wrought,  and  thought  with  me^ — 

Come,  my  friends, 
'Tis  not  too  late  to  seek  a  newer  world. 
Push  off,  and  sitting  well  in  order  smite 
The  sounding  furrows  ;  for  my  purpose  holds 
To  sail  beyond  the  sunset,  and  the  oaths 
Of  all  the  western  stars,  until  I  die. 


It  may  be  that  the  gulfs  will  wash  us  down : 
It  may  be  we  shall  touch  the  Happy  Isles 
And  see  the  great  Achilles  whom  we  knew. 
Thon^  much  is  taken,  much  abides  ;  and  tho' 
We  are  not  now  that  strength  which  in  old  days 
Moved  earth  and  heaven  ;  that  which  we  are,  we  are ; 
One  equal  temper  of  heroic  hearts, 
Made  weak  by  time  and  fate,  but  strong  in  will 
To  strive,  to  seek,  to  find,  and  not  to  yield." 

The  mouth  of  the  Congo  has  been  known  since  the 
Portuguese,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  began  to  creep  down 
the  African  coast,  and  Tuckey,  in  the  beginning  of  die  pre* 
sent  century,  traced  it  about  150  miles  to  the  lower  cataracts. 
Its  origin  and  course  was  one  of  the  few,  probably  the 
greatest  of  remaining,  mysteries  in  geography.  Long  ago 
the  Pombeiros  and  other  travellers  came  across  streams 
inland  from  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  south-west 
Africa,  which  run  northwards,  and  latterly  Livingstone 
made  known  the  great  river  Lualaba,  which,  however, 
against  all  evidence,  he  believed  to  be  connected  with  the 
Nile.  One  of  the  principal  streams  known,  at  least  since 
the  time  of  the  Pombeiros,  is  the  Casai,  a  considerable 
river  running  northwards,  and  which  some  geographers 
maintained  must  be  the  upper  course  of  the  Congo. 
Others  again  maintained,  and  the  reports  of  the  natives 
seemed  to  confirm  it,  that  in  the  region  between  Nyangw6 
on  the  Lualaba  and  the  sea,  was  a  great  lake  into  which 
that  and  other  rivers  flowed,  while  some  seemed  to  think 
that  the  Lualaba  ran  southwards,  and  probably  ultimately 
flowed  into  Lake  Chad.  Livingstone,  as  we  have  said, 
thought  the  Lualaba  belonged  to  the  Nile,  while  Cameron 
was  convinced  it  was  the  Upper  Congo,  but  that  it  flowed 
almost  straight  westwards.  The  solution  of  the  problem 
was  a  task  well  calculated  to  fascinate  a  man  Uke  Stanley, 
a  task  in  which  all  his  rare  qualities  as  an  explorer  would 
be  developed  to  the  utmost,  but  a  task  for  which  he  has 
proved  himself  easily  equal  It  is  difficult,  indeed,  to  see 
how  the  work  could  have  been  accomplished  for 
generations  except  by  a  man  of  Stanley's  cha- 
racter, and  by  the  method  adopted  by  him.  In 
whatever  light  we  regard  this  part  of  his  recent 
work  in  Africa — whether  as  a  mere  exploit,  or  as  a 
vast  addition  to  geographical  knowledge,  or  in  the  light 
of  the  great  results  that  are  likely  to  follow  to  civilisation, 
commerce,  and  science — it  has  scarcely,  if  ever,  been 
surpassed  in  the  history  of  geographical  exploration. 
We  have  in  previous  numbers  shown  the  magnitude  and 
importance  of  this  discovery.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
months,  by  the  daring  genius  of  one  man,  there  has  been 
thrown  open  to  our  knowledge  a  river  of  the  first  rank, 
watering  a  region  of  apparently  exhaustless  resources 
both  for  the  man  of  science  and  the  trader.  It  is  about 
3,oco  miles  long,  has  many  large  tributaries,  themselves 
affording  many  hundred  miles  of  navigable  water;  waters 
a  basin  of  nearly  a  million  square  miles,  and  pours  into 
the  sea  a  volume  estimated  at  1,800,000  cubic  feet  per 
second.  Such  a  piece  of  work  is  surely  enough  to 
immortalise  a  man. 

Such, briefly,  is  the  work  accomplished  in  so  short  a  space 
by  the  Commissioner  of  the  Tele^aph  and  the  Herald^ 
a  work  which  he  set  about  as  a  mere  piece  of  business  in 
connection  with  his  calling  of  special  correspondent,  but 
for  which  Mr.  Bennett  had  the  insight  to  see  he  was 
unusually  well  adapted.  A  private  business  enterprise 
has  thus  accomplished  what   the  much-instructed  and 


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elaborately-equipped  expeditions  of  learned  societies  have 
failed  to  do.  It  would  be  a  pity  were  Mr.  Stanley's  ex- 
ceptional aptitude  for  the  work  of  exploration  allowed  to 
lie  fallow.  Even  in  the  basin  of  the  Congo  much  remains 
to  be  done,  and  we  doubt  if  any  great  results  will  follow 
the  Portuguese  expedition  which  Mr.  Stanley  met  at 
Loanda.  There  is  also  South  America,  the  centre  of 
which  is  now  more  unknown  than  Central  Africa,  and 
which  awaits  a  pioneer  like  Stanley  to  show  the  way  to 
the  minute  explorer  and  surveyor.  It  is  stated  that  Mr 
Gordon  Bennett  contemplates  equipping  a  polar  expe- 
dition, so  that  we  fear  he  thinks  he*  has  done  enough  for 
Africa.  But  whether  or  not  Mr.  Stanley  again  enters  the 
field  as  an  explorer,  he  has  written  his  name  in  indelible 
letters  alongside  that  of  Livingstone,  on  the  heart  of 
Africa. 

WAS  GALILEO  TORTURED  f- 
1st  Galilei  gefoltert  ivor(Un?  Eine  kritische  Studie.  Von 
Emil  WoUwill      (Leipzig :    Duncker   and   Humblot, 
1877.) 

THIS  work  treats  with  exhaustive  thoroughness  a 
question  first  raised  about  a  century  ago,  as  early, 
in  fact,  as  advancing  political  liberty  rendered  its  public 
discussion  consistent  with  personal  safety,  and  which  has 
occupied  scientific  biographers  pretty  continuously  since 
that  time.  The  author's  main  object  in  reopening  an  issue, 
which'the  majority  of  recent  authorities  consider  as  settled 
in  the  negative,  is  to  bring  into  due  prominence  the  bear- 
ing on  it  of  fresh  evidence  rendered  accessible  only  within 
the  last  ten  years.  Up  to  1867,  though  it  was  known  that 
a  detailed  official  record  of  Galileo's  trial  was  preserved 
in  the  archives  of  the  Inquisition,  only  a  few  isolated  and 
questionable  extracts  from  it  had  been  made  public.  In 
that  year,  however,  M.  Henri  de  TEpinois,  by  permission 
of  the  Papal  authorities,  published  in  exUnso  the  most 
important  of  the  documents  contained  in  the  trial-record. 
These,  supplemented  by  still  more  recent  corrections  and 
additions,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  particularise  here, 
supplied  a  body  of  new  evidence  bearing  more  or  less 
durectly  on  the  issue  whether  the  Roman  Inquisition,  in  its 
treatment  of  the  great  astronomer,  had  recourse  in  any 
degree  to  that  test  of  physical  endurance  which  formed  a 
recognised  part  of  its  procedure  as  of  that  of  contem- 
porary secular  courts  in  cases  like  his. 

It  was  of  course  to  be  expected  that  in  documents 
drawn  up  exclusively  for  the  use  of  the  Inquisition  itself 
there  would  occur  a  number  of  technical  expressions  the 
exact  meaning  of  which  would  be  far  from  obvious  to  a 
reader  unacquainted  with  the  details  of  procedure  in  the 
holy  office.  This  accordingly  turns  out  to  be  the  fact, 
and  interposes  no  slight  obstacle  to  the  interpretation  of 
the  fresh  evidence  thus  presented.  Wohlwill,  in  order  to 
overcome  it,  has  put  himself  through  an  elaborate  course 
of  Inquisitional  literature,  studying  minutely  the  fixed 
technical  forms  for  conducting  suits  in  the  holy  office  laid 
down  in  manuals  and  instructionspublishedforthe  guidance 
of  its  own  officials.  It  is  obvious  how  firm  is  the  foundation 
thus  to  be  secured  in  comparison  with  the  precarious 
guessing  which  would  otherwise  be  inevitable.  The  tasks 
both  of  preliminary  inquiry  and  of  subsequent  application, 
have  been  performed  with  the  utmost  diligence,  accuracy, 
and  sagacity. 


It  would  be  impossible,  within  the  limits  of  this  notice, 
to  enter  upon  the  detailed  arguments  by  which  Wohlwill 
supports  his  views.  All  that  can  here  be  done  is  to  state 
the  chief  results  at  which  he  arrives,  together,  where 
feasible,  with  some  indication  of  the  line  by  which  he  has 
travelled. 

The  final  sentence  delivered  by  the  Inquisition  in 
Galileo's  case  contains  a  statement  that  the  court  had 
judged  it  necessary  to  proceed  against  him  to  "the 
rigorous  examination."  ^  Llbri  had,  as  early  as  1841, 
asserted,  on  the  authority  of  various  inquisitional  manuals, 
and  in  particular  of  one  entitled  "  Sacro  Arsenale  della  S. 
Inquisuione,"  that  "  esame  rigoroso  "  *  was  exactly  equi- 
valent to  "  torture,"  and  that  this  passage  of  the  sentence 
was  absolutely  decisive  of  the  whole  question.  Wohlwill 
shows,  by  a  complete  scrutiny  of  the  "  Sacro  Arsenale," 
that  a  "  rigorous  "  examination  in  most  cases  meant  one 
conducted  under  torture,  but  that  this  expression  some- 
times denoted  a  less  severe  procedure.  It  appears  that 
where  the  course  of  the  preliminary  investigation  led 
the  judges  to  suspect  that  the  accused  had  not  stated 
the  entire  truth,  three  distinct  and  increasingly  intense 
trials  of  fortitude  and  endurance  were  prescribed  for 
successive  adoption.  First  the  prisoner  was  brought 
into  the  ordinary  hall  of  audience  and  told  briefly  and 
sternly  that  unless  he  could  make  up  his  mind  to  confess 
the  truth,  recourse  would  be  had  to  the  torture.  If  this 
produced  no  result,  lie  was  next  carried  into  the  torture- 
chamber,  where  the  use  of  the  various  instruments  was 
explained  to  him,  or  he  was  even  seized  by  the  attendants, 
stripped  of  his  clothes,  and  bound  upon  the  rack,  so  that 
nothing  remained  but  to  set  its  machinery  in  action.  In 
this  situation  he  was  again  invited  to  save  himself  by 
confession.  If  he  still  remained  firm,  the  infliction  of 
the  torture  at  once  ensued.  The  two  preliminary  appeals 
to  terror  were  described  as  the  "  vcrbsd  scaring  "  {territio 
verbalis\  and  the  "  real  scaring "  {territio  realis),  while 
the  words  "  rigorous  examination  "  were  reserved,  strictly 
speaking,  for  the  final  scene  of  actual  agony.  It  is  clear 
however,  from  passages  of  the  "  Sacro  Arsenale,"  that  in 
certain  cases  confessions  elicited  by  the  second  method  ' 
of  proceeding  were  described  as  made  under  the  rigorous 
examination,  though  this  laxity  of  expression  is  explicitly 
stated  not  to  extend  to  the  first  The  text  of  the  sentence 
against  Galileo  therefore  implies,  at  the  least,  that  he  was 
carried  into  the  torture- chamber  and  submitted  to  some 
form  of  the  territio  realis. 

The  same  authoritative  document  informs  us  what  was 
the  general  character  of  his  replies  under  this  ordeal. 
He  answered  **  in  a  catholic  manner,"  />.,  denied  that  he 
held  the  reputedly  heretical  doctrines  attributed  to  him. 
While  stating  this  fact  the  Court  were  careful  to  insert  a 
saving  clause  that  the  answers  so  given  were  not  to  pre- 
judice other  points  admitted  by  or  proved  against  the 
accused.  The  significance  of  this  clause,  which  preceding 
writers  appear  to  have  passed  uimoticed,  is,  according  to 
Wohlwill,  as  follows  :— So  great  was  the  regard  professed 
by  the  Inquisition  for  assertions  steadfastly  adhered  to 
under  the  torture,  that  in  regard  to  whatever  formed  the 
actual  subject-matter  of  a  rigorous  examination,  the  an- 
swers of  the  accused,  if  he  thus  stood  by  them,  had  to  be 

*  **  Giudicafsimo  ess«r  necessario  vcnir  contro  di  te  al  rigoroso  csamc." 
'  Wohlwill  has  &hown  that  Italian,  and  not,  as  has  hitherto  been  assumed, 
Latb,  was  the  language  in  which  the  sentence  was  promulgated. 


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accepted  as  true.  It  was  therefore  the  interest  of  the 
Court  carefully  to  define  the  limits  within  which  it  pro- 
posed to  allow  the  accused  this  chance  of  escape.  The 
saving  clause  under  consideration  was  devised  for  this 
very  purpose,  so  as  to  prevent  answers  made  during  the 
rigorous  examination  from  possessing  the  power  of  voiding 
articles  of  charge  or  admission  not  explicitly  included  in 
the  questions  of  the  interrogating  official  Its  actual 
application  was,  of  course,  made  at  the  opening  of  the 
rigorous  examination  as  a  preliminary  to  the  torture,  and 
the  fact  of  the  caveat  being  formally  recited  in  the  sub- 
sequent sentence  is  held  by  WohlwiU  to  confirm  his  view 
that  Galileo  was  submitted  at  least  to  a  ierritio  realis  in 
the  torture- chamber. 

After  this  examination  of  the  evidence  supplied  by  the 
sentence,  our  author  next  shows,  in  opposition  to  a  con- 
siderable body  of  influential  opinion,  that  there  was 
nothing  in  the  circumstances  of  Galileo's  case  to  negative 
antecedently  the  application  of  torture,  and  no  ascertained 
subsequent  fact  inconsistent  with  its  having  been  inflicted. 
The  absence  of  any  reference  to  it  in  his  few  remaining 
letters  of  later  date  than  the  trial  is  completely  accounted 
for  by  the  oath  of  absolute  silence  imposed  upon  all  who 
appeared  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition.  The  fact 
that  Galileo  was  released  from  the  custody^of  the  Court 
three  days  after  his  final  examination,  and  Jen  days  later 
was  able  to  take  active  exercise,  shows  only.that  severe 
torture  was  not  inflicted,  but  by  no  means  excludes  the 
milder  form  {leggiera  ioriura)^  to  which  the  Inquisitional 
manuals  distinctly  refer.  The  advanced  age  of  the 
prisoner,  who  was  at  this  time  seventy,  does,  it  is  true, 
afford  a  certain  degree  of  presumption  in  this  direction, 
inasmuch  as  Inquisitional  authorities  usually  incline  to 
stop  at  the  terriHo  realis  in  the  case  of  aged  persons  ; 
they  give,  however,  the  alternative  of  applying ''  a  kind  of 
torture  suitable  to  old  people,"  so  that  this  indication  is, 
after  all,  far  from  conclusive. 

This  clearing  of  the  ground  is  followed  by  a  detailed 
investigation  of  the  minutes  of  the  trial  contained  in  the 
Vatican  record,  so  far  as  they  bear  on  the  question  at  issue. 
It  thence  appears  that  on  June  16,  1633,  .Pope  Urban 
VIII.  ordered  the  prisoner  to  be  interrogated  as  to  his 
object  in  publishing  his  dialogues  on  the  Ptolemaic  and 
Copemican  systems,  threatened  with  the  torture,  and,  if 
this  failed  to  elicit  a  confession,  condenmed  to  abjuration 
and  imprisonment  during  the  pleasure  of  the  Congrega- 
tion. On  June  21  this  examination  accordingly  took 
place.  Galileo  was  asked  whether  he  held,  or  had  held, 
that  the  earth  was  in  motion  and  the  sun  at  rest.  He 
denied  having  done  so  since  the  decree  of  the  Index  on 
March  5, 16 16,  and  though  pressed  by  his  interrogator 
with  the  contrary  indications  afforded  by  the  dialogues 
themselves  and  repeatedly  urged  to  tell  the  truth.freely, 
clung  to  the  denial.  On  being  told  that  if  he  persisted 
further  recourse  would  be  had  to  the  torture,  he  simply 
reiterated  his  former  statement  with  this  addition:  ''I 
am  here  in  your  hands,  deal  with  me  as  you  please."  At 
this  point  the  report  abruptly  terminates  with  a  few 
words  stating  that  nothing  further  could  be  done,  followed 
by  the  signature  of  Galileo  in  attestation  of  his  own 
deposition.  Wohlwill  points  out  that  the  threat  of  torture 
here  recorded  as  delivered  in  the  ordinafy  hall  of  audience 
cannot  possibly  count  as  a  rigorous  examination,  since, 


according  to  the  fixed  language  of  the  Inquisition,  the 
latter  proceeding  did  not  begin  until  the  officials  and  the 
accused  had  taken  up  their  positions  in  the  torture- 
chamber.  There  is  therefore  a  direct  contradiction  between 
the  sentence,  which  affirms  that  a  rigorous  examination 
was  held,  and  the  official  minutes,  which  relate  nothing 
capable  of  answering  to  that  designation.  It  is  the  de- 
liberately expressed  opinion  of  the  German  investigator 
that  this  contradiction  points  to  a  fraudulent  tampering 
with  the  trial-record,  perpetrated  at  a  time  when  it  had 
become  advisable,  in  the  interest  of  the  Roman  hierarchy, 
to  obliterate,  as  far  as  possible,  the  traces  of  a  mode  of 
treatment  adopted  towards  the  great  Italian  astronomer  t 
which,  if  once  allowed  to  become  notorious,*would  raise 
a  cry  of  indignation  throughout  Europe.  In'support  of 
this  view  its  author  has  arrayed  a  very  strong  body  of 
evidence,  many  particulars  of  which  are  of  singular 
cogency.  It  is  indeed  in  this  latter  portion  of  his  work, 
where  he  examines  the  general  claims  of  the  Vatican 
manuscript  to  be  considered  a  complete  authentic  and 
unaltered  record  of  Galileo's  trial,  that  Wohlwill  does  the 
most  meritorious  service.  An  attempt  to  determine  to 
what  precise  sUge  of  barbarity  the  Inquisition  advanced 
in  its  dealings  with  its  illustrious  prisoner  is  after  all  a 
matter  of  secondary  interest  On  the  other  hand  an 
energetic  effort  to  ascertain  how  far  the  only  official 
account  we  possess  of  perhaps  the  greatest  event  in  the 
whole  history  of  science  is  genuine  and  trustworthy,  must 
be  admitted  to  be  an  undertaking  of  signal  importance. 
Enough,  and  far  more  than  enough,  has  been  achieved  in 
this  direction  in  the  present  work  to  excite  the  gravest 
suspicions  and  fully  to  justify  the  warning  which  at  its 
close  Wohlwill  addresses  to  the  Roman  authorities,  that 
in  the  present  condition  of  affairs  only  two  courses  remain 
open  to  them ;  either  to  appear  as  accomplices  in  atrocious 
frauds,  or  to  bring  the  whole  truth  to  the  light  of  day 
Nothing  less  than  a  thorough  examination  of  all  the 
remaining  original  records  by  competent  and  trustworthy 
palaeographers  can  possibly  settle  the  issues  now  definitely 
raised.  Sedley  Taylor 

The  current  number  (January  16)  of  the  RiiHsta 
Europea^  which  reached  me  after  I  had  completed  the 
above  notice,  brings  a  review  of  Wohlwill's  work  by  Dr. 
Scartazzini,  containing  original  matter  due  to  his  own 
independent  research.  The  Italian  critic  has  made 
strenuous  use  of  the  latest,  and  incomparably  best,  edition 
of  the  Vatican  manuscript,  that  by  Herr  v.  Gebler,  and 
arrived  at  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  falsification  of  its 
text  considerably  more  sweeping  than  those  based  by 
Wohlwill  on  the  less  complete  information  accessible 
prior  to  the  appearance  of  v.  Gebler's  edition.  As  far  as 
the  two  writers  cover  the  same  ground  they  essentially 
agree  in  their  verdict ;  the  difference  between  them  merely 
being  that  the  Italian  theory  is  more  extensive  than  its 
German  predecessor.  It  is  gratifying  to  me  to  find  the 
eminent  position  among  historicad  critics  to  which  the 
depth,  clearness,  and  high  originality  of  Wohlwill's 
writings  on  this  subject  in  my  judgment  entitle  him^ 
claimed  for  him  with  equal  confidence  by  Scartazzini  I 
regret  that  the  exceedingly  technical  nature  of  the  new 
arguments  now  advanced  makes  it  impossible  to  give  any 
idea  of  them  here.    They  aim  at  pointing  out  the  exact 


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nature  of  the  excisions,  transpositions,  and  other  devices 
by  which  the  Roman  forger  set  to  work  to  eliminate  from 
the  manuscript  all  trace  of  Galileo's  having  been,  as 
Scartazzini  stoutly  maintains  that  he  was,  submitted  to 
the  actual  torture.  S.  T. 

THE    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY 
The   Journal  of  ihi   Royal  Agricultural  Society   of 
England,    Part  II.,  1877. 

TH  E  current  number  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society's 
Journal  is  chiefly  occupied  with  reports  of  the 
agricultural  exhibitions  held  during  the  present  summer 
at  Liverpool  and  at  Hamburg,  and  with  reports  on  farms 
in  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and  North  Wales,  which  ob- 
tained the  Society's  prizes  for  good  management  at  th6 
Liverpool  meeting.  Another  report  deals  with  prize 
farms  in  Ireland  in  connection  with  the  competition  for 
.small  farms  instituted  by  Earl  Spencer.  Besides  these 
we  have  two  lengthy  papers  on  the  American  export  meat 
trade,  by  Prof  Sheldon,  of  Cirencester,  and  by  Prof. 
Alvord,  of  Easthampton,  Massachusetts  ;  three  papers  on 
village  clubs,  by  Sir  E.  C.  Kerrison,  and  Mr.  Lawes  ;  a 
paper  on  the  impurities  of  clover  seed,  by  Mr.  Carruthers  ; 
and  a  short  report  of  some  investigations  on  foot-and- 
mouth  disease,  conducted  at  the  Brown  Institution. 

The  international  exhibition  at  Hamburg  was  one  of 
considerable  importance  :  it  was  devoted  exclusively  to 
dairy  husbandry.  Lying,  as  Hamburg  does,  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  great  dairy  countries  of 
Northern  Europe,  an  excellent  opportunity  was  afforded 
of  noting  the  advance  made  in  dairy  work  during  the  last 
few  years.  The  great  improvement  which  has  sig- 
nalised this  period  is  undoubtedly  the  use  of  ice  in 
cream-setting.  This  invention  dates  from]  1864,  and 
is  the  work  of  J.  G.  Swartz,  a  Swedish  farmer.  In  the 
ordinary  method  of  cream-setting  the  milk  is  placed  in 
very  shallow  pans,  and  stands  for  thirty-six  hours  or  more 
while  the  cream  is  rising.  The  milk  during  this  time 
usually  turns  sour,  and  the  cream  becomes  contaminated 
with  free  fatty  acids,  with  partially  decomposed  albu. 
minous  bodies,  and  with  other  products  injurious  to  the 
flavour  or  keeping  qualities  of  the  butter.  In  Swartz's 
plan  the  milk,  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the  dairy,  is  placed 
in  deep  metal  pails,  standing  in  a  vessel  full  of  ice.  Not 
only  does  the  low  temperature  reduce  the  process  of 
change  to  a  ininimum,;but,  quite  unexpectedly,  it  also 
greatly  facilitates  the  rising  of  the  cream  ;  so  that  in  pails 
having  sixteen  inches'^depth  of  milk  the  cream  is  neariy 
all  obtained  in  twelve  hours.  The  butter  churned  from 
this  sweet  cream  is  not  only  very  pure  in  flavour,  but  has 
remarkable  keeping  qualities.  This  plan,  which  is  rapidly 
spreading  in  the  north  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
States,  is  at  present  scarcely  known  in  England.  One 
obstacle  to  the  general  use  of  the  method  is  undoubtedly 
the  difficulty  of  procuring  a  sufficient  supply  of  ice  in 
such  a  climate  as  ours.  This  difficulty  has  been  greatly 
diminished  by  the  investigations  of  Prof.  Fjord,  of  Copen- 
hagen. He  has  shown  that  snow,  if  collected  after 
thawing  has  begun,  may  be  easily  trodden  into  as  small 
a  compass  as  ice,  and  may  be  used  with  equal  economy. 
The  collection  of  snow  is  also  far  less  laborious  than  the 
carting  of  ice,  as  the  snow  may  be  gathered  in  the  imme- 


diate neighbourhood  of  the  homestead.  Let  us  hope  that 
English  dairy  farmers  will  not  be  slow'to  adopt  the  scien« 
tific  methods  of  their  continental  brethren. 

Statistics  regarding  the  meat-producing  capabilities  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  are  fully  given  by  Profs. 
Sheldon  and  Alvord.  The  number  of  cattle  in  the 
United  States  is  at  present  about  28,000,000,  or  three 
times  as  many  as  those  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
The  proportion  of  cattle  to  population  is,  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  about  67  :  100  ;  while  in  the  British 
Isles  the  proportion  is  about  29  :  loa  The  total  area  of 
the  farms  in  the  United  States  is  about  8^  times  that  of 
the  farmed  land  in  the  British  Isles,  while  vast  tracts  of 
country  yet  remain  to  be  cultivated.  In  1875  the  number 
of  acres  under  Indian  com  in  the  United  States  all  but 
equalled  the  whole  number  of  acres  under  cultivation  in 
our  own  country. 

With  such  enormous  capabilities  of  production,  the 
only  condition  wanting  for  a  large  export  trade  is  a  cheap 
and  efficient  means  of  transit.  That  such  a  mode  of 
transit  has  now  been  established  is  proved  by  the  quan- 
tities of  meat  already  exported  to  England.  We  received 
in  1876,  from  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  19,838,895  lbs. 
of  fresh  beef ;  and  the  trade  has  so  rapidly  extended,  that 
in  the  first  four  months  of  1877  the  imports  exceeded 
the  whole  import  of  the  preceding  year,  and  amounted 
to  22,812,128  lbs. 

The  means  adopted  to  preserve  so  perishable  an  article 
as  fresh  meat  during  the  long  journey  from  America  to 
England  is  artificial  cold.  The  cattle  are  slaughtered  at 
the  port  of  embarkation.  At  the  establishment  in  New 
York  an  ox  is  killed,  and  the  skin  and  offal  removed  in 
the  space  of  three  minutes.  The  carcase  is  then  cooled 
to  40°  F.  in  a  room  through  which  a  constant  current  of 
cold  air  is  maintained  from  an  ice  chamber.  After  forty- 
eight  hours  the  carcase  is  cut  up,  and  placed  in  the 
refrigerators  of  the  steamer,  and  thus  conveyed  to 
England.  During  the  voyage  a  temperature  of  yf — 40^ 
is  maintained,  a  stream  of  dry  cold  air  being  circulated 
through  the  meat-chamber. 

The  source  of  cold  has  hitherto  been  ice,  but  a  new 
cooling  agent  of  great  power  and  adaptability  promises 
soon  to  supersede  the  use  of  ice.  The  invention  is  due 
to  Messrs.  Gififard  and  Berger,  of  Paris.  In  their  process 
air  is  condensed  by  a  steam-engine,  the  heat  evolved  on 
condensation  being  removed  by  a  stream  of  cold  water. 
The  cool  condensed  air  is  then  conveyed  to  the  chamber 
which  is  to  be  refrigerated,  on  entering  which  it  is 
allowed  to  expand  again  to  atmospheric  pressure.  The 
cold  thus  produced  is  intense.  The  ease  with  which  the 
cooling  power  can  be  conveyed  to  distant  places,  and  the 
fact  that  ventilation,  as  well  as  cold,  is  accomplished,  will 
probably  procure  numerous  applications  for  this  valuable 
invention. 

For  the  extension  and  success  of  the  American  meat 
trade  we  now  only  require  to  erect  suitable  refrigerating 
stores,  and  to  provide  refrigerating  railway-cars,  for  the 
safe  conveyance  and  preservation  of  the  carcase  after  it 
has  reached  our  shores. 

We  have  no  space  to  refer  in  detail  to  the  remaining 
articles.  Those  who  feel  an  interest  in  the  improvement 
of  the  agricultural  labourer  will  find  much  suggestive 
matter  in  the  papers  on  village  clubs,  while  the  kindred 


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^abject  of  the  improvement  of  peasant  £anners  is  ably 
discussed  in  Prof.  Baldwin's  report  on  the  Irish  prize 
farms.  R.  W. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Oregon  :  its  Resources,  ClimaU,  People,  and  Productions, 
By  H.  N.  Moseley,  F.R.S.    (Loncfon :  Stanford,  1878.) 

This  little  manual  is  the  result  of  a  visit  paid  in  July  and 
August  last  by  Mr.  Moseley  to  Oregon.  Mr.  Moseley  gives 
not  only  the  results  of  his  own  observations,  but  has  taken 
the  trouble  to  consult  carefully  and  give  the  gist  of  official 
publications  on  the  state,  the  result  being  a  thoroughly 
satisfactory,  full,  and  trustworthy  account  of  the  present 
condition  of  Oregon.  Mr.  Moseley  has  done  a  public 
service  in  undertaking  this  task,  and  we  recommend  his 
book  to  all  who  contemplate  emigrating.  It  will  answer 
nearly  ever^  question  an  intending  emigrant  is  likely  to 
ask,  and  gives,  moreover,  very  definite  advice  as  to  the 
kind  of  people  for  which  the  state  at  present  is  suited. 
The  booic  contains  an  excellent  map  of  the  state. 

A  Handbook  of  Common  Sait.    By  J.  J.  L.  Ratton,  M.D., 

M.C.  Madras  College.    (Madras  :  Higginbotham  and 

Co.,  1877.) 
This  work  is  not  to  be  judged  as  a  scientific  treatise,  but 
as  a  practical  guide  to  the  manufacture  of  common  salt 
from  sea-water.  The  author  has  fulfilled  the  purpose 
which  he  set  before  himself  in  compihng  the  lx>ok. 
Starting  with  a  brief  historical  introduction,  he  proceeds  to 
lay  before  the  reader  a  concise  statement  of  the  principal 
chemical  and  physical  qualities  of  salt.  The  occurrence 
of  salt  as  a  mineral  \s  then  shortlv  discussed;  the 
analysis  of  natural  salt  occupies  a  small  chapter,  which  is 
succeeded  by  others  upon  the  hygienic  value  of  salt,  and 
upon  the  agricultural  uses  of  the  same  substance.  The 
principal  rock-salt  deposits  are  described,  and  the  mining 
operations  sketched. 

After  these  chapters,  which  must  be  considered  as 
introductory,  the  composition  of  sea  water  is  discussed  ; 
the  leading  facts  concerning  evaporation  of  solutions  of 
mixed  salts,  and  fractional  precipitation  of  the  saline  sub- 
stances, are  clearly  laid  down,  and  upon  these  the  theory 
of  salt  manufacture  is  shown  to  be  based. 

Details  of  the  salt  manufacture  are  then  given,  followed 
by  descriptions  of  the  growth  of  ^  spontaneous  salt,'^  of 
the  manufacture  of  salt  from  brine  springs,  of  **  earth 
salt,**  and  lastly,  of  salt  lakes.  The  final  chapter  is 
devoted  to  a  discussion  of  the  bearings  of  taxation  upon 
the  salt  trade. 

The  book  is  written  from  the  Indian  view-point,  and  is 
rich  in  local  illustrations  of  the  manufacture ;  but  the 
author  has  endeavoured  to  make,  and  we  think  has 
succeeded  in  making,  the  work  a  really  good  manual  of 
general  applicability. 

The  antnor  is  to  be  praised  for  the  carefulness  with 
which  he  has  gathered  together  and  arranged  a  large 
mass  of  facts  ;  the  result  is  a  most  useful  and  convenient 
little  book  of  reference.  M.  M.  P.  M. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himsdf  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  uftdertahe  to  return, 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anotiymous  communications, 

[The  Editor  urgctUly  nquats  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  as 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com- 
munications containing  interesting  and  novd  facts,'] 

The  "  Phantom »»  Force 

The  ftmons  principles  of  conserration  and  dissipation  of 
energyi  which  have  done  so  mach  to  promote  the  progress  of 


physical  science  m  recent  jrears,  were  tmdoubtedlv  first  inferred 
and  genoalised  from  oertam  similar  laws  in  the  theory  of  forces 
which,  as  we  find  noticed  by  Prof.  Tait  in  Natur£  (vol.  ziv. 
p.  462),  were  first  propounded  by  Newton.^  If  in  any  me* 
chanical  system,  Newton  obsenres,  urged  by  any  forces,  to 
which  we  most  add  those  which  arise  firom  friction,  the  action  of  a 
force  reckoned  AT  a^^'if  in  the  system  is  measured  by  the  product 
of  its  impulse  and  the  space  through  which  it  is  pushed  back,  or 
as  a  loss  in  the  system  when  the  product  relates  to  a  space 
through  which  the  force  is  allowed  to  act,  and  if  as  action  of  the 
same  kind  in  the  system  we  also  count  its  gains  and  losses  of 
actual  energy  of  motion,  the  whole  amount  of  action  in  the 
sjTStem  remains  unchanged  during  the  motion.  Viewed  firom  the 
standpoint  of  the  laws  of  motion,  force,  and  matter,  which 
Newton  starts  with  in  the  "  Prindpia,"  and  keeping  in  mind  the 
special  definition  here  given  (coinciding  with  the  modem  term 
"  potential  increase  ")  of  the  **  action  "  of  a  foroe^  obviously  the 
reverse  of  what  would  vulgarlv  be  called  the  action  of  a  forct  in 
increasing  a  body's  energy  of  motion,  this  proposition  at  first 
looks  like  a  truism ;  but  the  idea  of  potential  ener]^  here  coined 
by  Newton'  is  really  an  essential  one ;  and  it  besMes  allows  the 
mode  of  action  of  some  forces  of  very  common  occurrence  in 
nature  to  be  described  more  simply  than  they  could  be  without 
it  The  force  of  gravitation,  of  attraction  and  repulsion  between 
two  bodies  permanently  electrified  or  magnetised,  and  all  dual 
forces  or  actions  and  reactions  directed  along,  and  depending  only 
on  the  distance  between  two  bodies,  and  not  at  all  upon  the 
time^  are  of  this  kind.  The  force  can  be  completdy  described 
in  these  cases  (and  it  may  be  looked  upon  in  the  first  instance  as 
only  a  measure  of  convenience)  by  the  permanent  gradient  of 
energy-variation  everywhere ;  and  hence  also  by  the  permanent 
change  of  energy  from  one  distance  to  another,  when,  as  is  sup- 
posed in  this  example,  the  dual  force  pair  acts  along  the  line  of 
centres ;  since  then  the  changes  of  actual  energy  whi<m  it  produces 
(acting  alone  upon  the  bodies)  are  independent  of  the  rotation  of 
this  line,  and  may  be  r^arded  either  as  produced  with  the 
natural  motion  of  this  line^  rotation  or  by  the  same  forces  acting 
along  a  fixed  line  of  centres.  When  two  such  bodies  i^>proacb, 
or  recede  from  each  other,  whatever  time  elapses  or  whatever 
course  they  may  pursue  about  their  centre  of^  mass,  not  only 
are  the  momentary  transfers  between  actual  and  potentid 
energy  eciual  in  energy  value  at  every  moment  of  the  motion 
(for  this  is  general,  and  by  this  condition  only  the  bodies  return- 
ing twice  to  the  same  distance  from  each  other  might  have  very 
different  energies  of  motion  at  the  two  returns) ;  but  the  whole 
energy  of  mouon  which  can  be  gained  between  two  distances  is 
a  definite  one,  and  as  this  would  not  be  so  if  the  bodies  returned 
twice  to  the  same  distance  with  difiierent  actual  energies,  nor  if 
they  returned  twice  to  the  same  distance  with  different  poten- 
tial energies,  it  follows  at  once  that  not  only  is  the  sum  of 
the  actual  and  potential  energies  at  any  one  distance  invariable 
with  the  lapse  of  time  and  with  any  intervening  motions  of  the 
bodies,  but  since  the  gain  of  actual  energy  from  this  distance  to 
any  other  is  the  loss  of  potential  energy,  the  sum  of  these  two 
energies  is  also  the  same  at  one  distance  as  it  is  at  another,  and 
it  therefore  varies  neither  with  the  time  nor  with  the  distance  of 
the  bodies  from  each  other. 

In  this  illustrative  example^of  two  bodies  (otherwise  un- 
impelled)  exerting  upon  each  other  a  permanent  action  and 
reacdon,  several  points  coimectcd  with  the  use  of  the  term 
"potential  energy,"  as  just  descril>ed,  require  attention.  In 
the  first  place,  vdiatever  the  real  forces  are  (acting  in  "absolute 
space  "  *)  upon  the  two  bodies,  the  Newtonian  laws  of  motion 

'  On  reading  the  pMsage  anin  (which  I  here  dcscttbed  from  memory) 
I  find  that  its  statement  is  veroally  but  not  substantially  diflferent  from 
what  I  wrote  above,  and  that  in  Newton's  statement  th«  signs  are  merely 
taken  oppositely .  Newton  thus  describes  an  "  acceleration  "  (a  gain  of  actual 
energy)  as  a  **  resistance  "  (/.^. ,  a  force)  overcome,  with  a  corresponding  loss 
of  action  in  the  system.  This  is  the  modem  view  of  cquivalrace  between 
potential  and  actual  "action  "  or  energy,  but  with  tht  signs  e/" these  actions 
changed. 

a  Newton^  in  fact,  anticipated  D'AIembert's  prbciple ;  and  if  we  apply 
P'AIembert  s  principle  to  the  motion  of  a  single  particle,  the  way  in  which 
it  likewise  coincides  with  the  modem  definition  or  recognition  of  potential 
energy  will  presently  be  understood,  although  it  lUso  reverses  the  signs  of 
both  of  the  energies  concerned. 

3  The  term  **  absolute  space,"  or  the  simpler  word  *' space."  used  in 
Newton 'f  enunciations  of  the  laws  of  motion  as  the  field  of  action  of  '*  force  ** 
b  nothing  more  than  a  space  whose  oiigin  is  either  the  centre  of  mass  of  all 
the  bodies^  under  actual  observation,  or  any  space  in  which  that  centre  is 
moving  uniformly  in  a  straight  line.  If  we  extend  our  observation  to  new 
bodies  found  not  to  be  moving  uniformly  in  the  origiaal  space,  the  old  space 
must  be  given  up,  and  a  new  one  must  be  adopted  (recogniung  the  new 
massesX  to  enable  us  to  state  all  the  forces  and  to  describe  the  motions  com. 
pletely,  of  all  the  bodies  under  observation  (which  is  the  sole  problem  aod 


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establish  that  their  whole  effect  ia  altering  the  energy  of  motion 
of  the  two  bodies  at  any  instant  is  di¥isible  into  two  parte,  that 
which  the  forces,  removed  to  the  centre  of  mass  of  the  pair,  and 
acting  there  on  their  joint  mass,  will  have  on  the  joint  mass  in 
absolute  space^  and  that  which  ik  represented  by  the  som  of  the 
bodies'  changes  of  actual  energy  reckoned  in  a  space  which  has 
this  centre  ofthe  masses  for  its  origin.  If  we  call  the  latter  changes 
their  local  chan^  of  energy,  and  professing  ourselves  entirely 
ignorant  of  motion  and  position  in  absolute  space,  confine  our 
attention  to  describing  the  motions  of  the  bodies  in  the  specified 
or  local  space,  the  abstract  laws  of  dynamics  again  tell  us  that  in 
this  local  space  the  motion  of  the  bodies  is  what  arises  from  an 
equal  and  opposite  action  and  reaction  exerted  mutually  between 
them.  Suppose  this  to  be  of  the  permanent  kind  above 
described  (which  occurs  frequently  in  natural  actions,  aa  already 
mentioned),  then  as  regards  the  local  motion  and  its  forces  (now 
equal  and  opposite,  and  quite  distinct  from  what  they  were 
abstractly),  Uie  above  proposition  may  be  predicated  of  them 
which  asserts  that  tiie  local  energy  of  motion  and  local  potential 
energy  together  have  a  constant  sum.  In  our  circumscribed 
sphere  of  observation  the  energy  of  motion  is  entirely  known,  or 
in  other  words,  if  we  follow  the  bodies  sUong  any  course  from 
one  point  to  another,  not  only  all  the  changes  and  the  stun  of 
the  changes  of  their  actual  energies,  but  also  their  energies  at 
first,  and  therefore  their  enei^es  at  last,  are  known  by  a  successive 
process  of  integration.  We  know  from  the  permanency  of  the 
energy-gradients  along  the  line  of  centres  that  the  sum  of  the 
energy  changes  between  the  two  ^ven  points  is  independent  of 
the  course  or  lapse  of  time  in  which  the  final  point  is  reached. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  making  a  new  successive  integration  for  every 
course,  one  such  integration  for  all  expresses  the  total  change  of 
energy  between  the  points,  and  as  this  is  possible  for  all  points 
or  ccmfigurations  which  the  bodies  can  reach  firom  their  first 
configuration,  if  a  scale  of  such  energy  changes  reckoned  from 
some  starting  one  is  made  out  for  all  me  different  distances  from 
each  other  at  which  the  bodies  can  be,  the  scale  value  will  be 
nothing  at  the  starting  distance,  and  will  have  determined  values 
at  all  other  distances.  We  would  use  the  scale  bv  saying  that 
the  actual  energy  at  any  distance  only  differs  from  the  scale  value 
by  the  starting-energy  to  be  super-added ;  or  the  excess  of  the 
actual  energy  above  the  scale  value  is  everyidiere  constant,  and 
everywhere  ecjutl  to  the  actual  energy  at  the  initial  point.  This 
concise  ^descnption  of  the  motion,  as  far  as  the  actual  ene^rgy 
at  any  moment  is  concerned,  accords  with  the  mathematical 
usage  of  collecting  variable  quantities  thus  simply  related 
to  each  other  and  to  constant  quantities  on  one  side,  and 
constant  quantities  on  the  other  side  of  an  e<)uality ;  but  a  further 
simplification  of  its  expression  is  effected  if  those  scale  values 
which  mean  increase  of  energy  from  the  starting-point  are  called 
"negative,"  and  those  denoting  loss  or  decrease  of  actual  eneigy 
are  called  "  positive  " ;  for  having  constructed  a  new  scale  on  this 
convention  (which  we  may  call  the  negative  scale),  to  use  it  we 
must  first  change  the  sign  of  any  value  in  it  before  applying  the 
last  proposition.  As  that  expression  tells  us  that  the  remainder, 
on  subtracting  the  former  scale  value  from  the  actual  energy  at 
any  point,  is  constant,  this  operation  of  subtraction,  after  altering 
the  sign  of  the  new  scale  value,  is  simply  equivalent  to  adding 
the  new  scale  value  without  altering  its  sign.  With  this  con- 
vention, therefore,  that  an  increase  of  actual  energy  is  a  nega- 
tive increase,  or,  in  other  words,  a  decrease  of  the  negative  scale 
value,  we  may  put  the  sentence  describing  the  actual  ener^^ 
every  part  of  tne  motion  in  these  much  simpler  words.  The 
sum  ofthe  actual  energy  and  of  the  negative  scale  value  is  erery- 
where  constant  and  equal  to  the  actual  energy  at  the  sUrting- 
point  of  the  scale,  which  we  may  call  the  initial  actual  energy. 
When  increase  of  actual  energy  coincides  with  decrease  of  "  nega- 
tive scale  value"  (as  we  have  just  seen),  and  also  as  it  is  usual  to 
express  it  with  "work  done  by  a  force,"  increase  of  negative 

purpose  of  mechanicsX  If  we  continue  this  process  until  all  the  bodies  of  the 
material  uniyerse  are  brought,  with  a  knowledge  of  their  masses,  under  cur 
observation,  we  reach  that  abstmct  field  of  force,  or  force-space,  which  is 
contemplated  in  Newton's  enundatbns.  This  space  may  be  identified  with 
absolute  space,  because  the  centre  of  mass  of  the  universe  by  which  it  u 
defined  is  as  perfectly  abstract  and  metaphysical  an  idea  as  any  that  we  can 
form  of  absolute  space,  on  the  simple  ground  that  we  have  no  reason  to 
attribute  to  matter  a  less  botmdless  and  limitless  extent  in  the  universe  than 
w«  ascribe  to  space  itself.  To  define  one  metaphysical  idea  by  another  is 
not  imscientific,  nor  is  the  description  of  force  wluch  Newton  gives  more 
reptignant  to  the  eyes  of  common  sense  than  the  ideas  which  we  form, 
though  quite  indefinite,  of  the  extent  of  the  material  universe,  and  of  the 
boundless  realms  of  space.  A  special  office,  it  may  also  ^  s^SS^^  ** 
verv  probable,  nu; 
poBtion  and  ming 


very  probable,  but  be  assigned  to  force,  to  avoid  ^the  (^ctaxence  of^«"P^ 
poAtion  and  mingling 
matter  impenetnbility. 


:  of  matter  in  the  same  poina  of  space,  or  to  give 


scale  value  represents  work  done  against  a  force  as  it  is  expressed 
in  the  new  phraseology  of  the  science  of  energy,  or  with  "  potential 
work."  The  actual  energy  of  the  material  couplet  is  everywhere 
fixed  and  determinate  (when  it  is  once  started),  but  if  we  spofik 
of  the  negative  scale  value  as  *'  potential  energy "  the  amount 
of  this  at  various  distances  depends  upon  the  distance  chosen  as 
the  initial  one,  when  it  is  zero.  Thus  if  we  reckon  the  potential 
energy  of  a  swinging  pendulum,  drawn  by  gravitation  towards 
the  centre  of  the  earth  (whose  motions  of  rotation  and  of  oscil- 
lation relatively  to  the  common  centre  of  the  globe  and  of  the 
pendulum-bob  may  be  disregarded,  so  that,  wim  the  exception 
of  gravity,  only  a  force  perpendicular  to  its  motion  guides  the 
bob  in  a  space,  referred  to  the  common  centre  as  origin,  whidi 
we  may  identify  with  the  place  of  the  experiment)  from  the  top 
of  the  arc,  where  the  actual  energy  of  the  bob  is  sero,  this  must 
be  the  sum  of  the  values  ^of  the  actual  and  potential  energies 
throughout  the  motion,  and  consequently  at  the  highest  point 
the  potential  energy  is  zero,  and  everywhere  else  it  is  negative, 
while  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  arc,  where  the  actual  energy  is 
a  maximum,  the  potential  energy  reaches  its  greatest  negative 
value.  If,  on  the  contrary,  we  select  the  lowest  point  of  the  arc 
as  the  starting-point,  and  call  the  potential  energy  at  this  point 
zero,  making  the  sum  of  the  two  in  all  parts  of  the  motion 
thereby  equal  to  the  greatest  value  which  the  actual  energy  can 
have,  the  potential  energy  must  elsewhere  suppl3r  the  deficiency  as 
the  actual  energy  abates,  or  have  positive  value  in  all  other  posi- 
tions of  the  bob,  and  at  the  highest  points  of  its  swing,  when  the 
actual  energy  entirely  disappears,  it  will  reach  its  greatest  posi- 
tive value,  equal  to  tne  greatest  value  of  the  actual  energy  at  its 
lowest  point.  By  one  such  system,  therefore,  the  motion  is  as 
perfect!^  described  as  by  the  other,  and  by  a  different  choice  of 
zero-pomts  the  individual  amount  of  the  potential  eneigy  is  thus 
evidentiy  disposable  at  pleasure,  while  its  difference  between  two 
points  yet  always  remains  the  same.  But  by  taking  the  zero 
point  where  the  actual  energy  has  its  greatest  value,  the  advan- 
tage is  obtained,  as  in  the  last  arrangement  for  a  pendulum,  that 
the  potential,  like  its  partner,  actual  energy,  will  never  be  less 
than  nothing,  and  its  \alues  will  always  be  positive.  With  its 
zero  point  so  taken,  and  with  a  special  choice  of  mass  in  the 
moving  body  attracted  or  repelled,  whose  course  is  folio  ived,  the 
series  of  negative  scale  values  or  of  potential  energies  just  de- 
scribed is  termed  "  the  potential" or  the  ** potential  functiofi"  of 
the  force  upon  it ;  but  its  definition  for  any  permanent  force-pair 
supposes  the  total  absence  of  all  such  constraining  forces  as  th(  se 
of  the  pendulum  string,  and  the  bodies  must  be  left  perfedly 
free  to  approach  or  rec^e  from  each  other  to  the  centre,  or  lu 
the  furthest  imaginable  distance  unimpeded  bv  any  forces  foreign 
to  the  pair.  In  such  material  couplets  it  is  also  sometimes  cus* 
tomary  to  reckon  their  combined  energies  actual  and  potential  in 
a  space  having  for  its  origin  one  of  the  bodies  themselves  instead 
of  the  centre  of  their  mass.  The  motion  of  the  standard  body 
then  disappears,  and  that  of  the  other  body  becomes  the  relative 
motion  of  the  two,  while  at  the  same  time  a  certain  mean  miss 
must  be  supposed  centred  in  the  moving  body,  so  that  when  the 
product  of  this,  multiplied  by  its  new  acceleration,  is  taken,  its 
impulse  relatively  to  the  stationary  body  (which  is  now  the  rate 
of  change  of  energy  of  the  pair  with  the  distance  between  them) 
may  not  undergo  any  alteration  by  the  change  of  origin.  Reckoned 
in  this  way,  either  of  the  bodies  may  be  said  to  have  energies  of 
motion  and  configuration  in  the  space  relative  to  the  other  body, 
whose  sum  is  constant 
Newcastie-on-Tyne  A.  S.  Herschil 

(To  he  ctmHmied.^ 


Aid  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evolution 

It  is  not  often  that  it  will  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  physicist  to 
harmonise  such  important  theories  as  those  of  evolution  and  the 
nebular  hypothesis,  and  much  credit  is  due  to  the  boldness  and 
the  originality  of  Dr.  Croll*s  attempt  to  do  this.  At  the  present 
time  the  great  majority  of  scientific  men  hold  the  truth  of  both 
of  these  hypotheses  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  serious  difficulties 
exist  in  them  which  admit  of  only  doubtful  explanation,  so  that 
it  is  certain  they  would  be  considerably  strengthened  if  it  were 
found  possible  to  dovetail  them  one  to  the  other  without  unduly 
straining  the  conditions  of  either.  That  Dr.  Croll  has  effected 
this  important  service  is,  I  think,  very  questionable,  although  I 
fidly  bdieve  it  is  attainable. 

In  advocating  his  own  views  in  Nature  (vol.  xviL  pp.  206, 
d  seq,\  and  in  bis  other  publications  Dr.  Crdl  has  antidpated 

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304 


NATURE 


{Feb.  14,  1878 


two  formidable  objections  which  he  foresaw  would  be  brought 
against  them,  namely,  the  improbability  of  two  bodies  endowed 
with  enormous  energy  in  the  form  of  rapid  motion  coming 
into  actual  collision  with  one  another,  and  secondly,  the 
want  of  experience  of  like  movements  in  the  universe.  It  is 
but  seldom  that  a  theory,  however  ingenious,  can  be  upheld 
against  two  antecedent  improbabilities,  but  granting  Dr.  Croll 
afi  he  asks,  even  to  the  existence  of  non-luminous  bodies  moving 
through  space  with  a  velocity  of  i,  700  miles  per  second,  there 
may  still  be  brought  more  serious  objections  than  either  of  the 
above.  Our  knowledge  of  the  actual  motions  of  the  stars  in 
space  has  recently  b^n  greatly  extended,  and  it  is  now  well 
Imown  that'proper  motions  exceeding  thirty  miles'per  second  are 
very  rare,  and  that  probably  there  is  no  well-authenticated  case 
of  a  velocity  greater  than  forty  miles  per  second.  It  has  long 
since  been  ascertained  also  that  the  proper  motion  of  our  own 
sun  in  space  is  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  per  second  only.  It  is, 
of  course^  possible  or  fortunate  that  the  two  bodies  from  whose 
collision  the  solar  nebula  originally  derived  its  vast  stores  of 
heat  might  be  of  such  equal  masses  and  velocities  [that  the  mo- 
tion of  translation  ^ould  be  so  nearly  destroyed,  and  the  whole 
converted  into  heat,  but  it  is  inconceivable  that  amid  all  the 
diversity  of  dimensions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  it  should  invari« 
ably  happen  that  the  resultant  movement  of  the  combined  masses 
should  bs  reduced  to  such  insignificant  figures  as  the  above. 

It  is  strange  that  it  should  not  have  occurred  to  Dr.  CroU  that 
the  heat  generated  by  the  impact  of  two  bodies  in  such  rapid 
motion  cannot  be  considered  as  remaining  constant  for  nearly  the 
length  of  time  he  computes^  because  the  rate  of  radiation  from 
so  mtensely  heated  a  sun  will  be  enormously  greater  t^an  it  is 
now.  Indeed  the  origin  of  the  solar  heat  does  not  materially 
affect  the  question  at  issue,  which  is  rather  of  the  means  of  con- 
tinuous and  equable  supply  than  of  the  primary  source.  The 
contraction  theory  of  Hdmholtz  addresses  itself  to  meet  this 
difficulty,  but  alone  it  is  probably  insufficient  In  the  Popular 
Science  Review  of  January,  1875,  I  have  directed  attention  to 
other  possible  and  supplementary  means  of  heat  supply,  which, 
bdng  continuous,  will  tend  to  prolong  the  period  during  which 
the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  sun  shall  be  nearly  constant,  and 
hence  favourable  to  the  development  of  organic  life.  Without 
advocating  any  peculiar  views  of  my  own  which  recent  .disco- 
veries have  necessarily  somewhat  modified,  I  content  'myself 
with  pointing  out  what  appear  to  me  to  be  grave  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  accepting  the  theories  and  explanations  of  Dr. 
Croll.  John  I.  Plummer 

Nacton,  Ipswich  ■ 

Parada/s  "  Experimental  Researches  " 

Doubtless  many  of  your  readers  will  have  observed  an 
advertisement  of  a  well-known  antiquarian  bookseller  professing 
to  be  able  to  supply  "a  perfect  copy"  of  Farada/s  **  Experi- 
mental Researches  "  at  a  price  not  too  exorbitant  for  a  complete 
original  copy  of  that  priceless  work. 

Any  who  may  have  applied  for  Uie  work  will,  perhaps,  share 
with  me  the  indication  with  which  they  discover  that  the  so- 
called  perfect  copy  is  only  such  in  virtue  of  being  a  **  facsimile  re- 
print "  (sic)  not  twelve  months  old,  though  dated  on  the  title-page 
1839.  But  perhaps  scientific  men  are  too  innocent  of  the  ways 
of  antiquarian  caterers  to  receive  with  calm  contentment  the 
assurance  that  they  have  not  been  deceived. 

SiLVANus  P.  Thompson 

University  College,  Bristol,  February  5 


CLAUDE  BERNARD 

T  N  rapid  succession  we  are  compelled  to  chronicle  the 
■■•  recent  serious  losses  by  death  to  French  science. 
To  the  names  of  Leverrier,  Becquerel,  and  Regnault,  we 
regret  to  add  that  of  the  equally  famous  physiologist^ 
Prof.  Claude  Bernard,  who  died  in  Paris  on  the  evening 
of  February  11.  He  was  bom  at  St  Julien,  near  Ville- 
franche,  in  the  Rh6ne  department,  July  12,  181 3.  After 
completing  a  course  of  study  in  the  Paris  faculty  of 
medicine  he  was  appointed  hospital- surgeon  in  1839. 
Two  years  later  he  oecame  assistant  to  the  well-known 
physiolo^st,  Prof.  Magendie,  in  the  College  de  France, 
and  continued  in  close  connection  with  him  for  thirteen 
years,  during  the  last  half  of  this  time  lecturing  himself 
as  privat'doccnt,    A  series  of  notable  discoveries  made 


during  this  period  caused  his  election^  m  1854,  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  his  appointment  to  die  newly- 
founded  professorship  of  general  physiology  in  the  Col- 
Idge  de  France.  This  he  exchanged  in  the  following 
year  for  the  chair  of  experimental  physiology,  a  position 
which  he  occupied  up  to  the  time  of  his  death. 

As  an  original  investigator,  Bernard  stands  among  the 
foremost  of  the  century.  He  entered  upon  his  career  at 
the  epoch  when  Magendie,  the  chief  founder  of  the 
modem  French  school  of  physiology,  had  completely 
altered  the  character  of  this  study  by  the  introduction  of 
a  variety  of  experiments  on  living  animals,  such  as  the 
action  of  the  alkaloids,  &c.  Bernard  entered  with  en- 
thusiasm on  the  new  field  of  experimental  activity  opened 
up  by  his  master,  and  by  a  swift  succession  of  remarkable 
discoveries  with  regard  to  the  changes  taking  place  in  the 
human  organism,  guided  the  young  science  into  a  com- 
pletely new  channel.  Of  these  the  most  important  were 
connected  with  the  phenomena  of  digestion,  and  espe- 
cially the  relation  of  the  nerves  to  these  processes.  Per- 
haps the  most  valuable  was  the  exhaustive  investigation 
into  the  functions  of  the  pancreatic  juice  (in  1850),  in 
which  he  showed  that  this  nuid  was  the  only  one  in  the 
digestive  apparatus  capable  of  so  modifying  fatty  matter 
that  it  can  be  absorbed  by  the  chyle  ducts,  and  that  the 
digestion  of  this  portion  of  the  nourishment  introduced 
into  the  system  was  its  sole  purpose  in  the  animal 
economy.  Another  discovery  at  this  period,  which 
attracted  universal  attention,  was  that  of  the  saccharine 
formation  in  the  liver.  Bernard  found  that  not  only  was 
sugar  a  normal  constituent  of  the  liver,  but  that  while  the 
blood,  on  entering  into  this  organ,  was  completely  free 
from  saccharine  matter,  large  amounts  of  the  latter  could 
be  detected  after  it  left  the  uver  to  pursue  its  way  to  the 
heart.  Interesting  as  this  fact  was,  it  was  eclipsed  by  the 
discovery  of  the  two  remarkable  connections  between 
this  function  of  the  liver  and  the  nervous  system. 

It  was  ascertained,  first  that  this  normal  formation  of 
sugar  in  the  liver  could  be  totally  interrupted  by  severing 
the  pneumo-gastric  nerve  in  the  neighbourholod  of  the 
heart ;  and  secondly,  that  by  wounding  a  certain  place  on 
the  fourth  ventricle  of  the  brain,  near  the  origin  of  the 
eighth  pair  of  nerves,  it  was  possible  (to  cause  such  an 
abnormal  formation  of  sugar  tnat  an  animal  within  two 
hours  after  such  an  operation  showed  all  the  symptoms 
of  diabetes.  In  recognition  of  these  brilliant  experiments 
the  physiological  prizes  of  the  French  Academy  were  be- 
stowed upon  Bernard  in  i8$i  and  1853.  In  a  continuation 
of  this  line  of  research  in  1859  he  made  the  important  dis- 
covery that  the  sugar  for  the  embryo  is  prepared  in  the 
placenta,  and  not  in  the  liver.  Shortly  previous  to  Uiis  time 
he  published  the  results  of  extensive  observations  on  tiie 
temperature  of  the  blood,  in  which  he  showed  that 
remarkable  alterations  in  the  degree  of  warmth  take  place 
on  the  passage  of  the  blood  from  one  organ  to  another, 
especially  in  the  different  parts  of  the  digestive  and 
respiratory  systems.  The  absorption  of  oxygen  by  the 
blood  formed  the  subject  of  a  memoir  in  18^8,  from  which 
it  appears  that  the  coefficient  of  absorption  diminishes 
gradually  with  an  increase  of  temperature,  and  becomes 
zero  at  38°— 40^  C.  in  the  case  of  manmials,  and  40^—44** 
C.  in  the  case  of  birds,  viz.,  at  the  temperatures  at  which 
death  sets  in.  The  respective  amounts  of  oxygen  in  the 
arterial  blood,  and  red  and  black  venous  blood  were  like- 
wise carefully  estimated,  and  the  chemical  causes  for  the 
differences  in  colour  revealed.  Amon|^  the  other  leading 
researches  of  Bernard  must  be  mentioned  those  on  the 
comparative  properties  of  the  opium  alkaloids ;  on  the 
poisonous  properties  of  curarine ;  on  the  sympathetic 
nerves  in  general ;  as  well  as  numerous  investigations 
on  the  inmvidual  processes  in  the  act  of  digestion. 
Many  of  these  discoveries,  as  well  as  the  results  deduced 
from  them,  have  formed  subjects  for  long-continued 
controversies.    With  rare  exceptions,  however,  not  only 


Digitized  by 


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Feb.  14,  1878] 


NATURE 


305 


Bernard's  experimental  correctness,  but  the  soundness  of 
his  theoretiod  deductions,  have  been  universally  recog- 
nised by  leading  physiologists. 

As  an  author  Bernard  was  not  so  fertile  as  most  of 'the 
scientists  of  the  present  day  in  France.  The  few  works 
emanating  from  his  pen  are  regarded  as  standard  even 
outside  the  limits  of  his  own  country.  This  is  especially 
true  of  his  "  Legons  de  Physiologie  Expdrimentale  Appli- 
qude  k  la  M^decine  "  (1865),  a  work  valuable  not  only  for 
the  exceedingly  thorough,  systematic,  scientific  treatment 
of  the  subject,  but  also  on  account  of  the  numerous  indi- 
cations for  the  application  in  medicine  and  surgery  of  the 
results  gained  by  physiological  research.  His  other  works 
are  "  Lemons  sur  les  tffets  des  Substances  Toxiques  et 
M^icamenteuses,''  1857,  "Introduction  k  I'Etude  de  la 
M^decine  Expdrimentale/'  1865,  and  "  Legons  de  Patho- 
logic Expdrimentale,"  1874. 

As  a  lecturer  Prof.  Bernard  was  not  only  peculiarly 
successful  in  the  professor's  chair,  but  was  also  distin- 
guished among  the  savans  of  Paris  for  his  able  and  lucid 
presentation  of  scientific  facts  to  general  audiences.  He 
was  busily  engaged  in  the  fulfilment  of  his  professorial 
duties  when  the  short  sudden  disease  preceding  his  death 
interrupted  the  courses  of  lectures,  and  put  an  end  to  a 
life  of  rich  and  varied  scientific  activity. 

As  a  mark  of  the  universal  respect  and  honour  in  which 
he  was  held,  the  authorities  of  the  French  Republic  have 
decided  that  his  funeral  shall  be  at  the  expense  of  the 
nation.  T.  H.  N. 


A  PHYSICIAN'S  EXPERIMENT 

AT  a  public  lecture  at  Salisbury  Hall,  Oxford  Street, 
recently,  Dr.  T.  L.  Nichols,  of  Malvern,  related 
particulars  of  a  "  Dietetic  Experiment "  upon  him- 
self which  he  had  made  with  a  view  to  solving  a 
difficulty  as  to  the  q>iantity  of  food  per  diem  which 
would  best  sustain  health.  He  had  always  been  tempe- 
rate, his  only  excess  being  to  be  overworked.  He  rose 
between  five  and  six,  and  worked  well  through  the  day, 
but  avoided  night-work.  He  seldom  knew  pain,  never 
took  medicine,  and  had  excellent  health.  He  usually  ate 
twice  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  at  nine  and  five,  because, 
for  him,  long  rest  for  the  stomach  was  better  than  shorter 
intervals.  He  appeared  to  sleep  better  for  not  eating  after 
four  o'clock.  Every  one  should  sleep  upon,  at  least  a  quiet 
stomach.  He  had  carefully  noted  the  "  dry  weight "  of 
the  food  he  had  taken,  oatmeal,  &c.,  he  counted  as  dry 
weight.  The  weight  of  water  forming  a  large  portion  of  all 
food  had  not  been  reckoned,  because  it  did  not  supply  nutri- 
tion. Eggs  and  milk  were  perfect  foods,  but  were  largely 
composed  of  water.  Milk  was  the  most  perfect  food,  though 
not  the  best  for  adults.  He  began  on  November  5,  his  food 
being  chiefly  bread,  fruit,  milk,  and  vegetables.  During 
the  experiment  he  had  taken  no  flesh  meat,  wine,  beer, 
spirits,  tea,  coffee,  or  tobacco.  With  regard  to  smoking, 
if  it  were  the  good  thing  people  said  it  was,  why  not 
encourage  their  wives  and  daughters  to  smoke  ?  Medical 
authorities  differed  as  to  the  quantity  of  food  that  should 
be  eaten,  and  it  was  a  common  belief  that  the  more  food 
we  ate  the  greater  would  be  our  strength. 

The  first  week,  the  lecturer  stated,  he  lived  on  bread, 
milk,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  the  total  weight  being  31b. 
9^02 ,  costing  ys,  id,^  />.,  a  daily  average  of  8^^oz.,  costing 
S^d, ;  this  was  slightly  below  his  standard  of  td.  a  day. 
He  felt  better,  and  clearer,  and  brighter  than  usual. 
The  second  week  he  studied  quality  rather  than  cheap- 
ness, his  food  being  Food  of  Health,  milk  and  fruit 
Total  weight  41b.  4ioz.,  cost  3^.  8//.,  average  per  diem 
9foz.,  costing  6f^.,  and  nothing  could  have  been  better, 
physiologically,  than  the  effect  of  that  food  upon  him. 
His  digestion  was  simply  perfect,  and  the  action  of  the 
whole  system  as  good  as  it  could  be.  He  then  dis- 
continued milk  as  unnecessary.  For  the  third  week  the 
total  amounted  to  3  lbs.  2  oz.  »  i^.  91/.,  giving  an  average 


of  7}  oz.  of  food  costing  only  3^.  per  day.  Milk  was  not 
so  cheap  for  food  as  Gloster,  Dutch,  and  American 
cheese  ;  because  they  had  to  pay  for  the  water  it  con- 
tained. Doctors  recommended  2  or  3  lt>s.  of  food  daily 
to  repair  the  waste  of  the  system  ;  but  he  asserted  that 
ihe  waste  of  brain  atoms  and  nerve  force  could  not  be 
measured.  The  food  eaten  had  to  be  disposed  of  at  great 
cost  of  life  and  strength,  and  he  believed  the  wisest  plan 
was  to  eat  the  smallest  quantity  that  would  properly  support 
the  body.  The  fourth  week,  his  food  being  similar,  weighed 
3  lbs.  6  oz.,  costing  \s,  2\d,^  giving  an  average  of  8  oz. «  2iL 
per  day.  He  considered  8  oz.  the  minimum  and  ijf  oz. 
the  maximum  quantity  of  food  that  should  be  taken  per 
day.  The  total  weight  of  his  food  during  the  four  weeks 
was  14  lbs.  6  oz.,  costing  91.  %\d.,  average  per  week 
3  lbs.  9i  oz.  ;  per  day  8^  oz.,  costing  per  week  2s,  $d.,  and 
per  day  4^.  He  then  added  soups,  puddings,  eggs,  &c., 
and  the  fifth  week  his  food  weighed  3  lbs.  12^  oz.,  costing 
31.  4//.,  being  at  the  rate  of  8J  oz.,  b>  S^d,  per  day.  For 
the  sixth  week  the  figures  were  63  oz.,  at  2s,  id.,  or  9  oz. 
at  3f^/.  per  day.  He  had  taken  the  diet  without  stimulants 
and  had  experienced  a  constant  increase  of  health  and 
strength  and  power  to  work,  and  his  weight  had  remained 
at  about  12  st.  2  lbs.,  except  that  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
week  there  had  been  a  slight  decrease  which  had  since 
been  recovered.  The  experiment  had  been  fairly  made 
upon  an  average  subject  and  the  results  were  satisfactory. 
He  was  convinced  that  they  ought  to  give  rest  to  the 
stomach,  and  that  this  would  cure  all  cases  of  dyspepsia. 
The  diet  question  was  at  the  root  of  all  diseases.  Pure 
blood  could  only  be  made  from  pure  food.  Proper  atten- 
tion to  diet  would  reduce  the  rate  of  infant  mortality  and 
remove  many  diseases.  If  the  drink  of  a  nation  were 
pure  and  free  from  stimulating  qualities  and  the  food  was 
also  pure  the  result  would  be  pure  health. 

SOCIAL  ELECTRICAL  NERVES 

OUR  modem  Mercury  since  the  year  1846,  when  the 
first  system  of  electrical  highways  was  laid  down 
from  the  metropolis  to  Norwich,  Southampton,  Crewe,  and 
Exeter,  has  not  been  idle.  The  wonderful  development 
of  the  laws  enunciated  by  Wheatstone  which  regulate 
the  transmission  of  electric  currents  through  solid  con- 
ductors has  resulted  in  some  very  remarkable  inven- 
tions. At  the  date  at  which  we  write,  from  a  crude 
beginning  when  with  difficulty  electric  speech  could  be 
conveyed  to  such  limited  distances  as  Manchester  and 
Norwich,  we  are  now  able  to  record  the  transmission  ot 
the  Queen's  speech  to  the  confines  of  the  empire  in  a 
few  minutes. 

Since  the  first  introduction  of  private  and  social  tele- 
graphy in  1 861,  when  Renter  first  proposed  to  connect 
5ie  Reporting  Gallery  of  the  House  of  Commons  with 
the  editor's  room  of  each  of  the  leading  metropolitan 
newspapers,  the  electrical  wire  has  become  the  means  of 
reducing  the  cost  of  newspnpers  and  of  sending  the  news 
almost  simultaneously  over  the  country.  Before  that 
time  the  press  paid  large  sums  for  "  special  correspond- 
ents," and  papers  were  exceedingly  jealous  of  each  oth  .*r's 
privileges. 

Year  by  year  the  public  have  reaped  additional  advan- 
tages. Submarine  telegraphy  now  includes  within  its 
grasp  New  Zealand,  Japan,  and  the  western  shores  of 
South  America.  The  private  wire  system  of  alphabetical 
telegraphy  between  offices  and  works,  carried  out  over  the 
chief  centres  of  the  United  Kingdom  by  Holmes  iu 
1861-S,  isin  still  further  process  of  development  The 
express  speed  of  the  Wheatstone  automatic  system, 
duplex  and  quadruplex  telegraphy,  and  the  telephone  of 
Bell,  with  its  delicate  electrical  sound-wave  indications, 
have  all  passed  into  practical  existence  and  become  the 
property  of  the  civilised  globe.  Still,  notwithstanding 
the  advances  indicated,  much  remains  to  be  done. 


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A  recent  remarkable  advance  in  the  arrangements 
necessary  for  utilising  the  transmitting  power  of  Uie  elec- 
tric fluid  over  the  metallic  nerves  of  speech  we  propose 
to  bring  briefly  under  notice. 

In  every  electrical  circuit,  so  far,  the  limit  of  usefulness 
has  been  restricted  to  the  number  of  speaking  stations  or 
instruments  that  could  effectively  be  placed  in  circuit 
upon  the  wire,  and  by  the  interference  and  confusion  that 
arises  when  more  than  one  instrument  is  used  at  the  same 
time  on  such  a  circuit.  To  place  upon  an  electrical  circuit 
more  than  eight  or  ten  instruments  has  been  practically 
found  impossible,  the  resistance  of  the  instruments  them- 
selves being  no  small  element  of  trouble,  while  the  ipter- 
ference  and  interruption  from  multiple  speaking  has 
hitherto  been  found  an  insuperable  difficulty,  and  one 
that  has  greatly  tended  to  clip  the  wings  and  usefulness 
of  our  modem  Mercury.  A  system  that  will  obviate  this 
trouble  and  enable  any  number  of  instruments  to  be 
placed  in  connection  upon  the  same  circuit  without  the 
possibility  of  interference  or  confusion,  opens  up  a  new 
era  in  the  usefulness  of  the  telegraph  as  applied  to  social 
purposes.  It  is  such  a  system  that  will  now  be  described, 
a  system  that  promises  to  revolutionise  the  systems  that 
at  present  spread  over  our  chief  manufacturing  cities,  and 
guard  the  security  of  property. 

A  simple  illustration  will  explain  the  principles  of  this 
auto-kinetic  system.  Let  us  suppose  a  tramway  to  be  laid 
down  through  the  streets  and  suburbs  of  any  of  our  large 
manufacturing  centres ;  the  two  rails  wiU  thread  the 
thoroughfares  in  every  direction,  and  at  each  junction,  or 
point  of  deviation  down  a  bye  street  or  other  divergence, 
a  set  of  points  are  laid.  There  is  practically  no  limit  to 
the  number  of  these  points  that  may  be  placed  along  the 
line  ;  they  may  be  one  or  one  thousand.  They  remain 
quiescent  and  of  no  value  as  far  as  the  effective  running 
of  the  car  upon  the  tramway  is  concerned  until  the  car 
passes  over  the  special  set  of  points  that  happen  to  be 
required  in  the  transit  of  the  car  from  its  starting-point  to 
its  destination.  The  other  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine 
sets  of  points  remain  ready  for  use  whenever  the  car  has 
occasion  to  pass  over  them,  and  their  presence  does  not 
in  any  way  impair  the  usefulness  of  the  tramway.  The  one 
set  of  points  brought  into  use  has  been  effective  in  so  far 
that  they  have  enabled  the  car  to  reach  its  destination, 
and,  having  been  used  for  a  moment,  they  have  again 
reverted  to  their  original  position  ;  while  the  fact  of  Uieir 
being  used  has  in  no  way  affected  the  utility  or  efficiency 
of  the  remaining  points  ^ovdd  any  be  required  to  pass  a 
car. 

Again,  suppose  two  or  three  cars  to  be  running  over 
various  sections  of  the  tramway  at  the  same  time,  each 
car  could  pass  over  its  points  on  its  journey  without 
detriment  to  the  others,  although  all  the  cars  might  be 
passing  points  upon  the  tramway  at  the  same  instant  of 
time  ;  the  using  of  these  two  or  three  sets  of  points  would 
not  interfere  with  the  remaining  990  odd  sets  of  points 
which  at  any  moment  might  also  individually  be  called 
into  requisition.  Now  the  system  of  electric  circuits  to 
]}e  described  may  be  likened  to  that  of  the  tramway-line, 
with  its  accessory  junctions  and  points.  A  system  of  two 
parallel  wires  is  carried  through  a  town.  These  wires  in 
pairs  may  be  supposed  for  the  purpose  of  the  present 
explanation  to  ramify  continuously  in  every  direction  from 
a  central  station  up  this  street  and  down  that,  and  to 
embrace  within  their  area  the  entire  conmiercial  and 
social  community.  Like  the  points  in  the  tramway 
system,  so  upon  the  metallic  circuit  laid  down,  speaking 
instruments  may  be  placed  at  various  points  and  stations 
along  the  route,  one  or  1,000,  because  m  the  auto-kinetic 
system  under  notice,  no  instrument  is  in  circuit  unless  it 
is,  like  the  points  on  the  tramway-line,  beine  used.  A 
car  going  over  the  points  makes  those  points  for  the  time 
being  a  portion  of  the  tram  way- line.  So  the  circum- 
stanceof  using  the  instrument  upon  the  auto-kinetic  system 


makes  that  instrument  for  the  time  being  a  portion  of  the 
electric  circuit,  and  the  wires  are  alone  occupied  by  this 
transmission. 

Should  any  second  or  third  instrument  in  other  portions 
of  the  circuit  be  brought  into  requisition  at  the  same 
interval  of  time,  no  interference  can  take  place.  As  no 
two  cars  could  run  over  the  same  points  on  the  tramway 
at  the  same  moment,  so  no  two  instruments  in  the  system 
under  notice  can  speak  at  the  same  time,  but  the  second 
or  third  instrument  will  automatically  succeed  the  first  in 
the  order  iii  which  they  stand  along  the  line  from  the 
central  station  ;  just  as  two  or  three  cars  would  pass 
the  tram  points  in  the  order  in  which  they  had  been 
placed  upon  the  line. 

The  value  of  this  new  system  of  arrang^ing  metallic 
circuits  and  the  instrumental  connections,  whereby  the 
instrument  is  only  a  part  of  the  electrical  circuit  so  long 
as  it  is  speaking,  being  thrown  off  immediately  upon  the 
cessation  of  the  speaking  current,  cannot  be  estimated  or 
appreciated  except  by  a  special  reference  to  its  practical 
development  as  regards  the  public  and  social  telegraphy 
of  a  large  city.  This  will  be  fully  demonstrated  in  a 
subsequent  paper  by  reference  to  the  system  of  police, 
fire,  and  social  telegraphs  proposed  to  be  shortly  carried 
out  for  the  Corporation  of  Glasgow,  a  system  at  once  the 
most  comprehensive  and  complete  that  has  as  yet  been 
devised  for  affording  multiple  speaking  stations  upon  the 
same  conducting  wires  without  possibility  of  interference 
or  confusion. 

{To  be  continued,) 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 
The  Star  Lalande  19,034.— It  is  somewhat  singular 
that  this  star,  which  was  observed  bv  Lalande,  on  March  21, 
1797,  and  then  rated  \\xxi.  should  have  been  so  little 
observed  since  that  year.  It  is  not  in  Piazzi  or  Taylor, 
but  it  was  observed  three  times  by  Argelander  in  the 
Bonn  southern  zones,  viz.,  Z.  283,  March  o,  1850,  when  it 
is  called  6m. ;  in  Z.  358,  February  16, 185 1,  where  we  find 
it  estimated  4m.,  and  again  in  Z.  400,  March  8, 1852, 
where  it  is  5  m.  These  circumstances  taken  together 
appear  to  point  to  considerable  variability.  The  star  is 
in  an  isolated  position  on  the  borders  of  the  constellations 
Hydra  and  Antlia.  The  mean  of  the  Bonn  observations 
gives  for  its  position  1850*0,  R, A  9h.  34m.  2640s., N.P.D. 
112°  54'4i''*o.  Lalande's  R.A.  is  one  minute  less  than 
Argelander's— yet  it  looks  right  in  the  Histoire  Celeste. 
Perhaps  one  of  our  meridional  observers  may  find  oppor- 
tunity to  revise  its  position  and  the  star  may  be  further 
recommended  to  attention  on  the  score  of  probable  fluc- 
tuation of  h'ght ;  though  it  should  be  remarked  that  there 
are  other  cases  of  discordant  magnitudes  in  the  Bonn 
southern  zones  for  stars  not  yet  entered  on  the  list  of 
variables,  as  in  17  Canis  Majoris  for  instance,  for  which  in 
three  observations  the  magnitudes  are  5,  3,  and  2. 

Variable  Nebula— Prof.  Winnecke  in  directing 
attention  to  the  nebula  H.  II.  278  as  probably  affording 
the  first  indications  of  periodical  variability  of  a  nebula, 
refers  to  the  one  discovered  in  Taurus  on  October  11, 
1852,  by  Mr.  Hind,  as  affording  the  single  case  where 
astronomers  generadly  have  been  agreed  as  to  variation. 
That  nebula  was  detected  on  the  morning  of  October  11, 
in  one  of  the  most  magnificent  sides  experienced  in  the 
Regent's  Park,  being  caught  at  once  in  slow  sweeping, 
with  the  low  power-comet  eye-piece  of  the  7-inch  refractor. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  year  187^  in  a  fine  sky  with  the 
same  telescope  and  eye-piece,  not  a  vestige  of  it  was 
perceptible,  and  the  same  result  attended  several  attempts 
to  discern  the  nebula  in  1874  and  1875.  Pro£  Winnecke 
mentions  that  it  is  not  at  present  visible  in  our  most 
powerful  telescopes. 

Minor  Planets.— Observers  who  are  still  engaged  in 
the  exploration  of  the  region  of  the  ecliptic  have  given 


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sig^s  of  much  activity  of  late.  First  we  hear  of  a  small 
planet  detected  by  M.  Perrotin  at  Toulouse,  on  January 
29,  position  at  loh.  in  R.A.  8h.  43m.  13s.  N.P.D.  71*41 
twelfth  magnitude,  which  appears  to  have  been  inde- 
pendently discovered  by  Herr  Palisa  at  Pola,  on  Feb- 
ruary I  :  by  an  observation  at  Pola,  January  27,  it  seems 
this  object  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  Rhodopey  No. 
166,  of  which  a  corrected  ephemeris  is  given  in  the 
Circular  of  the  Berliner  Jahrbuchy  No.  84,  but  it  is  there 
conjectured  that  it  may  be  Urda  Na  167,  found  by  ProC 
Peters  1876,  August  28.  Calculating  from  the  elements 
of  Urda  in  Circular  No.  64,  for  the  time  of  the  Berlin 
observation  of  M.  Perrotin's  planet  on  February  3,  it 
results  that  with  the  correction  ^M  =  +  5®  24'  9  the  com- 
puted and  observed  longitude  will  agree,  but  there  is  a 
difference  of  ~  i®  38'  from  the  observed  latitude  which, 
in  the  present  case,  throws  doubt  upon  the  presumed 
identity.  Again,  on  February  2,  M.  Cottenot,  at  Mar- 
seilles, detected  a  planet,  tenth  magnitude,  position  at 
I3h.  2m.  in  R.A.,  loh.  2m.  29s.  N.P.D.,  78'  51',  which  was 
also  found  by  Prof.  Peters  at  Clinton,  U.S.,  on  February 
4  ;  -this  object  is  probably  new.  Finally,  on  February  6, 
Prof.  Peters  met  with  another  planet,  also  of  the  tenth 
magnitude,  in  R.A.  loh.  i6m.  N.P.D.  76°  17',  which  he 
notified  to  the  Paris  Observatory  through  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  by  cable  ;  it  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  presence  close  to  this  position  of  his  previously- 
discovered  planet  Antigone^  No.  129,  has  escaped  his 
attention,  and  as  its  brightness  would  also  be  about  equal 
to  that  of  stars  of  the  tenth  magnitude,  it  is  most  likely 
to  be  the  object  observed. 

The  number  of  minor  planets  appears  now  to  have 
reached  180,  and  possibly  i8(. 

The  Supplement  to  the  Berliner  J ahrbuchy  for  1880, 
contains  ephemerides  for  the  present  year,  of  the  small 
planets  to  No.  172  inclusive,  excepting  only  Dike  and 
Scylla^  for  which  the  necessary  materials  are  not  avail- 
able. Polyhymnia  in  opposition  on  August  30,  in  1 1*  S. 
declination,  is  distant  from  the  earth  088  ;  Atalanta  in 
opposition  October  27,  declination  37"  N.,  is  distant  0*98, 
and  Felicitas  in  opposition  November  if,  declination 
30®  N.,  is  distant  0*92  ;  these  are  the  three  cases  of 
nearest  approach  during  the  year.  Of  the  minor  planets 
discovered  since  1845,  Hebe  attains  the  greatest  bright- 
ness —  7*4  m.  in  the  mi  idle  of  November,  1878,  while  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  e  EridanL 


METEOROLOGICAL  NOTES 

Atmospheric  Movements.— A  first  paper  on  this 
subject,  by  Mr.  FerreL  has  been  published  by  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey^  OfRce,  in  which  the  inquiry  is  limited 
to  an  investigation  mto  the  mechanics  and  general  motions 
of  the  atmosphere  which  are  dependent  on  wide-spread 
and  periodically-recurring  disturbances.  In  consideration 
of  the  enormous  difficulties  in  the  way  of  investigating  the 
effects  of  friction,  the  author  adopts  the  only  course  open 
to  him,  viz.,  to  introduce  unknown  functions  into  the  equa- 
tions representing  the  resistances  from  friction  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  co-ordinates,  leaving  these  to  be  determined  ap- 
proximately from  a  comparison  of  the  final  results  deduced 
from  the  equations  with  observation.  From  a  mathematical 
examination  of  the  question  it  is  concluded  that  in  what- 
ever direction  a  body  moves  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
there  is  a  force  arising  from  the  earth's  rotation  tending 
to  deflect  it  to  the  right  in  the  northern  but  to  the  left  in 
the  southern  hemisphere ;  and  that  this  deflecting  force 
is  exactly  the  same  for  motions  in  all  directions,  so  that  if 
any  sensible  effects  of  this  sort  arise  in  the  case  of  nvers 
or  of  railroads  running  north  or  south,  the  very  same 
effects  must  take  place  where  they  run  east  or  west  or 
in  any  other  direction.  The  amount  of  this  deflecting 
force  is  exactly  double  of  that  which  is  obtained  in 
accordance  with  the  principle  adopted  by  Hadley,    An 


elaborate  examination  is  made  of  the  distribution  of  tem- 
perature over  the  earth,  the  most  important  of  the  results 
being  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  whole  surface  of 
the  earth  is  60°  2,  the  mean  for  the  northern  hemisphere 
being  59^  5,  and  that  for  the  southern  hemisphere  60^*9. 
With  reference  to  this  result  Mr.  Ferrel  remarks  that  if 
important  data  collected  by  Dr.  Hann  for  the  extreme 
southern  latitudes  had  been  at  hand  while  he  was  engaged 
with  the  investigation,  the  results  obtained  for  the  mean 
temperatures  of  the  two  hemispheres  might  have  been 
nearly  equal  This  result,  which  is  essentially  different 
from  the  commonly  received  opinion,  has,  it  is  obvious, 
important  bearings  on  many  questions  of  terrestrial 
physics.  The  distribution  over  the  globe  of  atmospheric 
pressure  is  similarly  examined  with  results  of  great  im- 
portance in  their  relations  to  meteorological  theories. 
The  coefficient  of  the  annual  inequality  of  pressure  in 
North  America  amounts  to  only  about  one-third  of  that 
of  the  interior  of  Asia,  from  which  the  important  con- 
clusion is  drawn  that  the  difference  between  Asia  and 
America  in  this  respect  does  not  depend  so  much  upon 
the  difference  in  the  extremes  of  temperature  of  the  two 
continents,  which  is  inconsiderable,  as  upon  the  difference 
in  the  extent  of  the  two  continents.  The  annual  maximum 
of  barometric  pressure  for  the  United  States,  except  the 
Pacific  coast,  occurs  about  December  23,  which  is  about 
sixteen  days  earlier  than  in  Europe.  In  both  continents 
the  time  is  considerably  earlier  than  the  time  of  the 
minimum  of  temperature.  The  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture and  pressure  and  the  prevailing  normal  winds  of  the 
globe  are  shown  on  seven  well-executed  maps.  In  suc- 
ceeding papers  Mr.  Ferrel  intends  to  investigate  those 
disturbances  in  the  distribution  of  temperature  and 
humidity  which  are  of  a  comparatively  local  character, 
and  which  result  in  the  locally  developed  phenomena  of 
cyclones  and  other  storms  ;  and  finally  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples of  atmospheric  mechanics  thus  developed  to  the 
explication  of  oceanic  currents. 

Climate  of  India. — We  notice  in  a  recent  number  of 
the  Isvestia  of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society,  an 
interesting  paper  by  M.  Wojeikoff,  being  a  sketch  of  the 
climate  of  India  according  to  the  recent  werks  of  Mr. 
Blanford,  the  reports  of  Mr.  Wilson,  and  some  notes 
taken  by  the  author  during  his  recent  visit.  M.  Wojei- 
koff describes  very  clearly  the  main  features  of  the 
climate,  and  accompanies  his  description  by  some  tables 
which  illustrate  the  prevailing  and  characteristic  directions 
of  the  winds.  Besides,  by  a  comparison  of  the  tempe- 
ratures of  some  places  in  India  and  South  America, 
situated  the  one  in  parts  devoid  of  forests,  and  the  others 
in  places  where  the  forests  are  yet  preserved,  M.  Wojei- 
koff shows  what  a  great  infiuence  forests  have  on  climate, 
and  he  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  absence  of  great 
heats  and  a  continuous  humidity  of  air  are  always  met 
with  at  those  places  which,  however  far  from  sea,  are 
situated  in  forest  lands.  He  concludes,  therefore,  as  to 
the  importance  of  preserving  the  forests  in  India,  and 
expects  that  detailed  observations  would  yet  more  show 
their  importance  as  welfas  the  beneficent  influence  of  the 
irrigation  on  climate. 

Low  Barometric  Reading  in  the  Hebrides, 
November  ii,  1877. — We  have  received  from  Mr, 
Buchan,  Scottish  Meteorological  Society,  a  communi- 
cation on  this  subject.  The  following  readings  of  the 
barometer,  reduced  to  32°  and  sea-level,  were  made  by 
Mr.  Youngdause,  the  Society's  observer,  at  Monach 
Lighthouse  (57*»  31'  N.  lat,  7^42'  W. long),  on  November 
II,  at  9  A.M.,  28*330;  II  A.M.,  28*120;  12.43  p.m., 
28008;  1.30  P.M.,  27-912  ;  4.20  P.M.,  27-861  ;  8  P.M.  and 
9  P.M.,  27752  ;  and  at  9  A.M.  of  the  12th,  27968  ;  and  at 
12*43  P'M.,  28-038  inches.  Thus  for  nearly  twenty-four 
hours  the  barometer  at  this  place  was  under  28*000  inches, 
and  fell  to  27*752  inches,  the  observer  remarking  that 
the  rise  which  followed  proceeded  at  a  very  slow  rate. 


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At  Monacby  on  November  15,  at  12.43  P'^m  the  baro- 
meter was  29703  ;  9  P.M.,  29*051  ;  11  P  M.,  28  807  inches ; 
after  which  it  began  to  rise,  and  at  9  A.M.  of  the  following 
morning  it  had  risen  to  29*828  inches,  a  fluctuation  of 
nearly  two  inches  having  taken  place  during  the  twenty 
hours  ending  9  A.M.  of  the  i6tn.  The  storm  accom- 
pany  tng  this  depression  of  the  barometer  rose  at  10.30  p.m., 
about  the  time  of  lowest  pressure  to  the  force  of  a  true 
hurricane,  the  worst  the  observer  had  ever  seen  during 
his  tweDty  years'  service  as  a  lightkeeper.  At  the  same 
dates,  at  Thorshavn,  Fard,  the  readings  of  the  barometer 
were — lowest  at  midnight  of  the  nth,  281 19  inches; 
15th,  at  9  A.M.,  29xx>2  inches,  and  at  9  p.m.,  29350 
inches,  the  barometer  thus  rising  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
Faro  during  the  time  that  it  fell  about  an  inch  in  the 
outer  Hebrides,  accompanied  by  a  storm  of  extra- 
ordiuary  violence,  being  the  heaviest  storm  experienced 
m  the  north-west  of  Scotland  generally  for  very  many 
years. 

Cumulative  Temperatures.— To  simplify  the  dif- 
ficulty of  obtaining  sums  of  temperature  (a  highly 
important  climatological  factor,  particularly  in  its  appli- 
cation to  agriculture)  for  any  district,  from  the  ordinary 
instruments,  M.  von  Stemeck  has  recently  proposed  to 
obtain  these  indirectly  by  obsenration  of  the  sums  of 
actions  produced  by  the  temperature.  A  suitable  appa- 
ratus for  this  we  have  in  the  pendulum-clock.  The  course 
of  this  represents  the  sums  of  the  heat-changes,  since  it 
represents  the  sum  of  the  changes  of  length  of  the 
pendulum,  produced  by  different  temperatures,  which 
changes  cause  variations  in  the  time  of  oscillation.  As. 
the  laws  of  pendulum  vibrations  and  the  expansion  of 
substances  through  heat  are  known,  the  true  sums  of  tem- 
perature can  be  deduced  from  the  going  of  the  clock. 
While  the  watch-maker  is  concerned  to  obtain  as  uniform 
working  as  possible,  and  uses  arrangements  to  compen- 
sate the  changes  in  length  of  the  pendulum,  the  present 
case  requires  that  these  changes  should  be  brought  into 
prominence  ;  so  the  pendulum  is  made  of  some  substance 
(like  zioc)  which  expands  greatly  through  heat.  The 
clock  will  reveal  the  variations  of  temperature  by  its 
slowness  or  fastress,  and  by  comparing  its  indications,  at 
certain  times,  with  those  of  a  uniformly-going  clock,  the 
sum  of  divergences  of  the  temperature  from  any  given 
temperature  will  be  ascertained.  The  principle  of  this 
method  can  also  be  applied  (as  the  author  shows)  to 
determine  the  variations  in  atmospheric  pressure  and  in 
the  intensity  of  magnetism. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 
Brazil.— Mr.  Herbert  H.  Smith  has  returned  to  Balti- 
more, U.S.,  after  an  absence  of  several  years  employed 
in  scientific  explorations  in  Brazil.  Leaving  the  United 
States  in  January,  1874,  for  Pard,  he  ascended  the  Ama- 
zon to  Santarem,  where  he  was  engaged  for  two  years  in 
collecting  and  studying  the  insect  fauna  of  that  region. 
Subsequently  he  extended  his  explorations  to  the  north 
side  of  the  Amazon  and  on  the  tributary  rivers,  as  far  as 
the  base  of  the  great  northern  table-land.  A  collection 
of  insects  made  by  him  during  this  period  amounted  to 
12,000  species,  with  100,000  specimens,  accompanied  by 
copious  notes  on  the  habits,  geographical  distribution,  &c. 
During  1876  and  the  early  part  of  1877  he  was  connected 
with  the  Brazilian  Geological  Commission  in  examining 
the  geological  structure  of  the  country.  He  succeeded  in 
making  a  section  of  the  Devonian  rocks  of  the  Amazon 
region,  and  discovered  a  rich  carboniferous  bed  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Amazon,  in  the  vicinity  of  Alenguer. 
The  results  of  this  labour  are  in  the  course  of  publication 
by  Pro£  Hant,  of  the  Geological  Survey.  Several  months 
of  his  absence  were  spent  in  the  southern  part  of  Brazil, 
near  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Minas.  Mr.  Smith  has  been 
able  to  make  some  interesting  inferences  in  regard  to  the 
geological  distribution  of  Brazilian  animals.    Bates  and 


Wallace  have  pointed  out  that  the  Amazon  forms  a  limit 
to  the  migration  of  many  animals.  Mr.  Smith  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  flood  plains  of  the  valley,  which  average 
forty  miles  in  width,  constitute  a  far  more  effectual  barrier 
than  a  body  of  water  of  the  same  breadth.  Birds  and 
insects  of  powerful  flight  pass  this  distance  without  diffi- 
culty, and  are  generally  found  on  both  sides ;  but  the 
sluggish  species,  especially  the  wingless  forms,  like 
spiders,  are  generally  confined  to  one  side  or  the  other. 
This  is  especially  shown  in  those  hymenopterous  species 
in  which  the  females  are  wingless,  as  the  mutiltarias, 
pezomactri,  &c.  Here  the  distinction  between  the  north- 
ern and  southern  groups  is  very  striking.  The  broad 
alluvial  belt  through  which  the  Amazon  flows  constitutes 
a  very  distinct  zoological  province,  in  which  many  of  the 
forms  appear  to  have  been  derived  from  those  of  the  high 
land.  The  contributions  of  Mr.  Smith  to  geog^phi^ 
knowledge  have  not  been  inconsideiable.  His  maps  of 
the  physical  geography  of  the  Lower  Amazon  and  of 
three  important  tributaries,  the  Cuma,  the  Maecuni.  and 
the  Jaurucd,  are  especially  noteworthy.  The  last-men- 
tioned has  been  entirely  lost  sight  of  by  modem  geogra- 
phers, though  referred  to  by  earlier  travellers.  This  enters 
the  delta  of  the  Xingil  close  to  the  Amazon,  and  is 
apparently  navigable  for  steamers  to  a  distance  of  150 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Mr.  Smith  returns  to  the  United 
States  for  the  purpose  of  making  arrangements  for  con- 
tinuing his  explorations  for  several  years  longer,  so  as  to 
accumulate  a  sufficient  body  of  facts  to  work  out  satis- 
factorily the  entire  problem  of  the  derivation  and  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the  insects  of  BraziL 

Africa. — Herr  Scbiitt,  who  has  been  despatched  by 
the  Deutsche  afrikmische  Gesellschaft  to  equatorial 
Africa,  has  safely  arrived  in  San  Paul  de  Loando,  and 
starts  at  once  for  the  interior  to  complete  the  work  of 
exploration  commenced  by  Eduard  Mohr,  whose  un- 
timely fate  we  lately  recorded.  The  series  of  geographical 
lectures  in  Berlin,  delivered  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Afrikanische  Gesellschaft,  was  opened  on  January  23,  by 
Dr.  Nachtigal,  who  gave  a  graphic  description  of  the 
African  ^kingdom  Darfur,  which  was  conquered  in  1874 
by  the  Egyptians. 

Arctic  Exploration.— We  learn  from  VExplorateur 
that  Mr.  Gordon  Bennett,  of  the  New  York  Herald^ 
intends  to  equip  an  expedition  for  polar  exploration. 

The  Angara.— At  its  last  meeting,  February  5,  the 
Section  of  Physical  Geography  of  the  Russian  Geogra- 
phic^ Society  discussed  the  question  of  the  expedition 
to  be  sent  for  the  exploration  of  the  Angara  and  of  the 
water- divide  between  the  Obi  and  Yenisei  rivers,  where, 
it  is  expected,  a  water  communication  could  be  established 
between  the  two  main  rivers  of  Siberia.  An  elaborate 
report  wai  read,  being  a  sketch  of  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge  of  these  tracts,  and  of  the  recent  explora- 
tions of  the  water-divide  ;  the  route  the  expedition  will 
have  to  folio  kt  was  also  discussed. 

An  Azimuth  Instrument.— Capt  Mouchez  has  pre- 
sented to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  a  portable 
instrument  for  taking  azimuths  and  altitudes  in  travelling. 
The  weight  is  only  a  few  pounds,  and  the  experiments 
made  at  Montsouris  show  that  the  latitude  can  be  taken 
with  an  error  of  a  few  minutes.  This  instrument  is  to  be 
used  by  some  travellers  that  the  Paris  Geographical  Society 
is  sending  out  to  Africa.  A  single  man  can  cany  the 
apparatus  and  use  it  without  losing  much  time.  A  com- 
plete observation  requires  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

NOTES 
At  the  meetinj^  of  the  Linnean  Society  on  Thvnday  list,  it 
was  nnaniiDoiuly  resolved  to  send  a  ooDgratoUtory  letter  to  voa 
Siebold  on  the  occasion  of  his  jabilee.    This  graceful  act,  how- 
ever, brings  into  prominence  the  neglect  of  the  Society  to  take 


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any  notice  of  the  Linnean  centenary,  the  celebration  of  which  in 
Sweden,  Holland,  and  Gennany,  were  recently  noticed  in  oar 
colomna.  Of  coarse  the  excuse  may  be  urged  with  some  force 
that  such  formalities  are  foreign  to  English  habits,  bat  perhaps 
an  exception  might  have  been  allowed  in  the  case  of  a  Society 
which  bears  the  name  and  jealously  guards  the  collections,  books, 
and  manuscripts  of  the  great  naturalist  Perhaps,  howerer, 
another  reason  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  constitution  of 
ihe  Society  places  the  initiative  in  (every  case  in  the  hands  of  the 
officers  whose  tenure  of  office  is  practically  indefinite,  and  who 
not  very  accessible  to  any  impulses  of  enthusiasm  from  the 
general  body  of  the  Society  even  if  there  were  any  permissible 
way  by  which  expression  could  be  given  to  them.  Some  dis- 
quieting rumours  as  to  the  present  condition  of  the  Society's 
business  affairs,  coupled  with  its  rather  troubled  history  during 
the  'past  few  years,  seem  to  point  to  the  desirability  of  some 
changes  in  its  mode  of  government  which  would  bring  the 
executive  into  closer  relation  with  the  general  body  of  Fellows. 

We  gave  last  week  a  list  of  the  grants  just  made  from  the 
research  fund  of  the  Chemical  Society;  we  are  glad  to  state  that 
since  making  these  grants  the  fund  has  been  increased  by  the 
following  donations  and  subscriptions  from  the  "  Alkali  Manu- 
facturers* Association.'*  The  donations,  amounting  to  229/.,  are 
from  Messrs.  CHiarles  Tennant  and  Ca,  45/. ;  Messrs.  J.  and  L. 
Pattinson  and  Co.,  35/. ;  Messrs.  R.  *  Beaiey  and  Co.,  15/. ; 
Messrs.  Roberts,  Dale  and  Ca,  5/. ;  Messrs.  James  Muspratt 
and  Sons,  35/. ;  Mr.  A.  G.  Kurtz,  50/. ;  Mr.  Henry  Baxter, 
25/. ;  Mr.  C  J.  Scho6eld,  5/. ;  Mr.  Thomas  Walker,  9/. ;  Mr. 
D.  McKechnie,  5/.  The  following  are  the  annual  subscriptions 
to  be  continued  for  five  years : — Messrs.  Gaskell,  Deacon,  and 
Co.,  11/.  I4r.  ;  Messrs.  Chance  Brothers  and  Co.,  4/L ;  The 
Netham  Chemical  Company,  4/. ;  W.  Pilkington  and  Son,  7/. . 
Mr.  James  McBryde  and  Co.,  3/. ;  W.  Gossage  and  Son, 
4/.  lOf. ;  Watson,  Kipling,  and  Co.,  2/.  \%s, ;  amounting  alto- 
gether to  37/.  2/. 

The  President  of  the  Institute  of  Chemistry  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  oflfers  two  prizes  of  50/.  each,  to  be  awarded  by  the 
Council  of  the  Institute  on  February  i,  1879^  for  the  two  best 
original  investigations  involving  gas  analysis,  and  conducted  by 
an  associate  of  the  Institute.  The  investigations  must  have  been 
made  within  two  years  of  the  date  of  the  award,  and  must  not 
have  been  published,  if  at  all,  more  than  six  months  previous  to 
the  award.  The  prizes  will  not  be  awarded  unless,  in  the  of^on 
of  the  Council,  the  work  is  of  sufficient  merit  to  qualify  the  can- 
didate for  Fellowship  of  the  Institute. 

In  his  interesting  communication  on  the  analogy  between 
chemistry  and  algebra  in  our  last  number.  Prof.  Sylvesterjattri- 
butes  the  exception  of  valence  or  atomicity  to  Kekul^  No 
doubt  the  theory  in  its  present  developed  form  owes  much  both 
to  Kekul^  and  Cannizaro ;  indeed,  until  the  latter  chemist  had 
placed  the  atomic  weights  of  the  metallic  elements  upon  a 
consistent  baris,  the  satisfactory  development  of  the  doctrine  wit 
impossible.  The  first  conception  of  the  theory,  however, 
belon(;s  to  Frankland,  who  first  announced  it  in  his  paper  on 
Organo*metallic  Bodies,  read  before  the  Royal  Society  on  June 
17,  1852.  After  referring  to  the  habits  ol  combination .  of 
nitrogen,  phoq>horus^  antimony,  and  arsenic,  he  says,  "It  is 
sufficiently  evident,  from  the  examples  just  given,  that  such  a 
tendency  or  law  prevails,  and  that,  no  matter  what  the  cha- 
racter 61  the  uniting  atoms  may  be^  the  combining  power  of  the 
attracting  element^  if  I  may  be  allowed  the  term,  is  ahoays 
satisfied  by  the  same  number  if  these  atoms**  He  thcsi  proceeds 
to  illustrate  this  law  by  the  oigano-compounds  of  arsenic, 
zinc^  antimony,  tin,  and  mercury.  In  conjunction  with  Kolbc^ 
Frankland  was  also  the  first  to  apply  this  law  to  the  organic 
compounds  of  carbon ;    their  paper  on  this  subject,   braring 


date  December,  1856,  having  appeared  in  liebig's  Annalen  in 
March,  1857,  whilst  Kekul^'s  first  memoir,  in  which  he  mentions 
the  tetrad  functions  of  carbon,  is  dated  August  15,  1857,  and 
was  not  published  until  November  30  in  the  same  year.  Kekul^'s 
celebratel  paper,  however,  in  which  this  application  of  the 
theory  of  atomicity  to  carbon  was  developed,  is  dated  March 
16,  1858,  and  was  published  on  May  19,  1858.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  "chemtcographs,"  or  graphic  formulae,  which  Prof. 
Sylvester  has  so  successfully  applied  to  algebra,  were  the  inven- 
tion of  Crum  Brown,  although  Frankland  has  used  them  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  any  other  chemist 

At  the  General  Meeting  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 
00  February  8tb,  the  Gold  Medal  was  awarded  to  Baron  Dem« 
bowski  for  his  double-star  measurements. 

We  learn  from  the  Diario  de  Campinas  of  the  death  in  that 
town,  on  December  20^  1877,  of  Joaquim  Conr^a  de  Mdlo,  a 
Brazilian  botanist,  who  was  well  known  as  a  correspondent  to 
many  scientific  men  in  the  Old  World. 

The  Rev.  Andrew  Bloxam,  M.A.,  rector  of  Harborough 
Magna,  Rugby,  formerly  incumbent  of  Twycross,  Leicestershire, 
died  on  February  2,  aged  76.  He  was  well  known  to  British 
botanists,  especially  as  a  diligent  student  of  brambles  and  roses. 

A  SUBSCRIPTION  has  been  opened  at  Paris  with 'the  view  to 
erect  a  monument  to  the  late  M.  RaspaiU 

Among  the  exports  of  Corsica  it  is  said  that  there  are  annually 
between  35<^ooo  and  400^000  blackbirds  (merles)  whidi  are  sent 
to  this  continent.  They  visit  Corsica  in  vast  numbers  each 
winter  to  feed  on  the  berries  of  the  myrtle  ^nd  arbutus  with 
which  the  mountains  are  covered.  In  the  month  of  December 
they  become  very  fat,  and  the  flavour  and  perfume  given  to  their 
flesh  by  their  food  cause  them  to  be  much  esteemed  by  the 
gourmets  of  Paris.    A  patidefoie  de  merit  is  a  great  delicacy. 

Mr.  Francis  Day  writes  that  in  our  notice  of  Dr.  Bleeker 
last  week,  seven  volumes  of  his  "  Atlas  "  are  said  to  have  ap- 
peared, whereas  the  first  part  of  volume  9  has  been  issued  to 
subscribers,  and  the  second  part  wiU  be  shortly.  The  number 
of  volumes  which  the  work  was  intended  to  fill  was  twelve^  the 
whole  of  the  MSS.  for  which  has  been  left  complete,  as  wdl  as 
most  of  the  figures,  and  we  may  hope  that  they  may  yet  be 
published. 

Wb  are  glad  to  learn  that  Prof.  Abich  is  preparing  a  complete 
edition  of  his  numerous  and  well-known  works  on  the  Caucasus, 
under  the  title  of  "  Forschungen  in  Kaukasus-Lindem."  The 
first  fascicule  will  contain  a  new  paper  on  the  coal-measures  of 
the  middle  parts  of  the  Araxus  valley,  with  numerous  pUtes ; 
and  the  second,  a  description  of  the  Trialet  mottntaln*range  and 
of  its  volcanic  rocks  and  mineral  waters,  with  a  geological  map 
on  a  large  scale. 

Prop.  Lbucrart  has  just  issued,  in  Berlin,  the  first  part  of 
his  '*Bericht  iiber  die  wissenschafUichen  Leistungen  in  der 
Naturgeschichte  der  niederen  Thiere"  for  1872-75,  the  continu- 
ation of  the  reviews  which  he  has  hitherto  been  accustomed  to 
compile  at  intervals  in  this  department  of  zoology. 

Thb  Soci^e  Centrale  d'Apicnltnre  et  d'Insectologie  has  had 
constructed  a  paviUon  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  for  the  purpose  of 
exhibiting  in  1878,  in  the  most  complete  manner,  everything 
relating  to  the  education  of  nsefiil  insects,  especially  bees,  and 
the  means  of  preservation  of  all  kinds  against  noxious  insects. 

Qum  recently  we  had  a  band  of  Nubians  in  London ;  a 
•mall  band  of  Eskimo  are  at  present  encamped  in  Pkris,  and 
now,  we  hear,  that  shortly  Europe  will  have  an  opportunity  of 
viewfaig'a  group  of  Aborigines  fitom  the  opposite  side  of  America. 
A  number  of  Tierra  del  Fuegans  are  to  b    broi^t  to  Brusseb, 


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where  they  will  be  installed  in  the  Zoological  Garden?.  The 
enterprising  anthorities  of  the  Paris  Zoological  Gardens  contem- 
plate, moreover,  importing  some  specimens  of  North  American 
Indians,  their  plan  evidently  being  to  keep  np  a  kind  of  anthro- 
pological review  of  the  various  civilised  and  semi-dvilised  peoples 
of  the  globe. 

Thk  German  War  Department  has  recently  carried  out  some 
experiments  on  a  large  scale  with  the  electric  light  at  Metz,  in 
order  to  test  its  practicability  for  military  purposes.  One  of  the 
largest  known  electric  lanterns  was  used  for  the  trials,  and  it  was 
found  possible  to  distinguish  small  detachments  out  of  rifle-shot 
with  sufficient  accuracy  to  direct  on  them  artillery  fire. 

Thi  alarming  rapidity  with  which  shortsightedness  is  increasing 
among  German  students  formed  the  subject  of  a  recent  debate 
in  the  Prussian  Parliament  From  extended  observations  made 
in  the  gymnasia,  it  appears  that  the  number  of  the  shortsighted  in- 
creases from  twenty-three  per  cent  in  the  first  year  to  seventy*five 
per  cent  in  the  ninth  or  Uat  year.  The  too-frequent  custom  in 
Germany  of  forcing  lads  to  study  during  the  evenings  with  in- 
sufficient light,  in  ill-ventilated  rooms,  is  undoubtedly  a  main 
cause  of  this  widespread  evil. 

**  Heroes  of  South  African  Discovery,"  by  M.  D*Anvcrs,  that 
we  referred  to  in  our  last  number,  will  be  published,  we  under- 
stand, next  week  by  Messrs.  Marcus  Ward  and  Ca  This  volume 
will  contain  an  account  of  Stanley's  expedition,  and  the  accom- 
panying map  will  show  the  route  taken  by  that  discoverer. 

The  Soci^t^  d'Hygiene  of  Paris  is  making  arrangements  to 
establish,  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  France,  chemical  laboratories 
for  the  purpose  of  examining  articles  of  food  and  detecting 
adulterations  or  unhealthful  constituents.  In  this  respect 
France  is,  like  Germany,  following  the  example  of  England, 
where  the  value  of  public  analysts  has  long  since  been  satis- 
factorily demonstrated. 

While  of  course  the  thermo-electric  pile  is  the  most  useful 
measuring  apparatus  in  investigations  on  radiant  heat,  it  is  pos- 
sible, M.  Violle  suggesU  {Journal  de  Physique)  to  repeat  easily 
all  fundamental  experiments  with  the  radiometer  ;  by  moving  it 
along  the  spectrum  one  may  readily  show  (even  with  the  Drum- 
mond  light)  the  distribution  of  the  heat  in  the  luminous  part  and 
ia  the  infra-red  region.  Theactkm  of  coloured  glasses,  the 
absorption  of  heat  by  vrater,  in  layers  of  difierent  thickness,  and 
all  similar  phenomena,  can  be  shown  without  any  difficulty. 
The  beam  of  light  employed  falls  directly,  or  after  passage 
through  the  absorbent  substance^  on  the  radiometer,  the  image 
of  which  is,  by  means  of  a  lens,  thrown  on  a  screen.  The 
experiment  is  very  distinct  and  pretty ;  it  may  be  rendered  more 
precise  by  adopting  an  arrangement  for  counting  the  number  of 
turns  of  the  radiometer.  M.  Violle  says  he  has  had  constructed 
by  M.  Alvergniat  a  small  radiometer  for  the  purpose ;  it  is  placed 
on  a  Duboscq  projection  apparatus ;  and  the  turns  can  be  easily 
counted  on  the  screen. 

In  order  to  determine  the  ratio  of  the  ipecific  heats  of  air  at 
constant  pressure  and  constant  volume  (a  value  so  important  for 
the  doctrine  of  heat),  M.  Kayser  has  recently  made  fresh  experi- 
ments on  the  velocity  of  sound  in  tubes.  He  adopted  Kundt's 
method ;  in  tubes  of  difierent  diameter,  air  waves  were  produced 
by  means  of  a  transversely  vibrating  rod,  and  the  length  of  these 
was  measured  by  the  dust  figures  remaining  on  the  tube.  Five 
tubes  of  difierent  width  were  used,  and  three  difierent  steel  rods. 
The  results  of  the  inquiry  are  these :  (i)  The  velocity  of  sound 
in  tubes  depends  on  their  diameter  and  on  the  pitch  of  the  tones, 
and  the  retardation  of  the  sound  is  inversely  proportional  to  the 
diameter  of  the  tubes,  and  the  square  root  of  the  number  of 
vibrations.  (2)  The  velocity  of  sound  in  unconfined  space  is 
accordingly  at  any  rate  greater  than  in  tubes ;  these  experiments 
showed  it  to  be  greater  than  331*646  m.    (3)  The  velocity 


of  sotmd  in  free  space  can  be  calculated  from  that  in  tubes 
when  two  tubes  of  different  width  are  used ;  from  i" these 
experiments  the  value  obtained  for  it  was  332*5  m.  (4)  From 
this  the  ratio  of  the  specific  heats  of  air  at  constant  volume  and 
constant  pressure  is  inferred  to  be  »  i  '4106. 

Three  experiments,  made  with  a  view  to  find  how  weak  induced 
currents  in  the  telephone  would  still  suffice  to  give  distinct  per- 
ceptions by  ear,  have  lately  been  descrit>ed  to  the  Vienna 
Academy  by  Prof.  Sacher,  of  Salzberg  :  i.  The  closed  circuit  of 
the  telephone  was,  for  a  length  of  20  metres,  placed  parallel  with 
the  insulated  wire  (cloth  and  wax)  of  an  ordinary  telegraph 
apparatus.  The  (Morse)  signals  were  given  first  by  means  of 
six,  then  three,  Smee  elements.  The  induced  currents  gave  a 
distinctly  audible  effect  in  the  telephone,  so  that  the  messages 
could  be  understood.  2.  The  insulated  wire  was  laid  bare  at 
two  points  20  metres  apart,  and  the  ends  of  a  telephone  wire 
120  metres  long,  and  equally  thick,  were  connected  to  it  at 
those  points.  Only  a  small  portion  of  the  carrent  could  have 
passed  through  the  thin  wire  in  the  telephone.  Yet  the  tapping 
was  heard  vrith  sufficient  clearness  to  enable  one  to  understand 
the  message.  (It  is  an  advantage  to  use  a  telephone  at  each 
ear.)  3.  A  telephone  wire  about  40  metres  long  was  connected 
with  the  inner  thick  wire  of  an  ordinary  induction  coil,  and  a 
second  telephone  line,  about  120  m.  long,  with  the  outer  thin 
wire.  To  Prof.  Sacher's  surprise  it  was  found  possible  to  com- 
municate through  the  first  to  the  second  telephone,  and  also 
(somewhat  better,  it  seemed)  in  the  opposite  direction  ;  and  this 
nearly  as  well  as  with  direct  connection.  The  words  were  per- 
ceived more  distinctly  when  two  induction-coils  were  inserted 
in  the  same  way.  The  experiment  did  not  succeed  with  a 
Ruhmkorfil 

The  improvement  of  the  air-pump,  which  consisted  in  dis- 
pensing with  the  flask-like  reoeptade  (with  stop-cock)  as 
employed  by  Otto  v.  Guericke  and  Robert  Boyle,  and  intro- 
ducing the  much  more  convenient  plate,  is  genmlly  attributed 
to  Papin.  This  is  shown^by  M.  Gerland  (P^,  Amm,,  Na  12, 
1878)  to  be  a  mistake.  In  Papin's  first  paper,  "Nouvdles 
Experiences  du  Vuide^"  ftc,  which  appeared  in  Paris  in  1674, 
and  which  in  1686  had  become  rare  (the  only  two  copies  of  it 
now  extant  are  in  possession  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  the 
British  Museum  library),  he  describes  and  gives  a  figure  of  the 
madune  with  which  the  experiments  were  made,  and  says : — 
'*  Monsieur  Hugens  (/rV)  fit  fiure  cette  machine,  ensuite  ceUe  de 
M.  Boyle^  et  il  apporta  divers  changemens  qu'on  remarquera  en 
comparant  leurs  figures."  Thb  machine  (whose  figure  M.  Ger- 
land reproduces)  is  the  first  which  has  a  plate.  Additional  proof 
that  Huygens  has  the  credit  of  the  device  is  furnished  by  a  letter 
of  Huygens  himself,  and  the  date  at  which  the  improvement 
was  introduced  is  shown  to  have  been  1661. 

The  Paris  Jardin  d'Acdimatation  has  just  received  a  pair  of 
those  peculiar  Siberian  hares,  which  are  grey  in  summer  and 
white  in  winter,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  effects  of  a 
temperate  zone  on  the  dianges  of  colour. 

The  first  telegraph  Ibie  of  the  Chinese  Empire  has  recently 
been  established  between  the  arsenal  of  Tian  Tsin  and  the  house 
of  the  provincial  governor.  The  constructor  was  Mr.  Betts,  the 
director  of  the  School  of  Mines  of  Tian  Tsin.  Although  the  line 
is  only  some  ten  kilometres  in  length  yet  its  construction  marks 
a  new  epoch  in  the  administration  of  the  Empire.  The  Great 
Northern  Tdegraph  0>mpany,  in  spite  of  repeated  efforts  made 
at  Foo  Chow,  have  not  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  permission  of 
coimecting  this  port  with  Amoy  by  a  tdegraph  cable,  and  after 
vainly  trying  for  two  years  have  finally  given  up  the  idea.  The 
line  of  Tian  Tsin  has,  however,  been  constructed  by  order  of  the 
Chinese  Government ;  and  the  population  offered  not  the  least 
resistance  wherever  the  tdegraph  poles  were  erected.    A  cable 


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was  required  for  the  Pi-ho  river,  which  interKcts  the  line.  The 
appanttus  nsed  are  Moxse's  die-writers  worked  by  Ledanch^ 
elements.  Mr.  Betts  and  some  of  his  assistant  pupils  have  been 
invited  to  visit  Formosa  in  order  to  construct  a  line  on  the  west 
coast  of  this  island,  viz.,  between  Kee  Lung  and  Tay-wan-foo. 
It  is  also  proposed  to  establish  another  line  >t  Tian  Tsin,  con- 
necting that  city  with  the  capital  of  the  province  Paou-ting«foo. 

During  the  year  1877  ^^  Parisian  press  numbered  no  lest 
than  836  different  newspapers  and  seriab  (against  754  in  1875). 
Of  these,  51  daily  and  14  weekly  papers  are  political,  49  serials 
are  theological  (37  Catholic,  10  Protestant,  and  a  Israelitic); 
66  are  dedicated  to  law,  85  to  political  economy,  20  to  geo- 
gniphy,  74  to  bdUs  Utires ;  20  are  pedagogic,  52  literary- 
scientific,  56  artistic,  68  treat  of  fashions,  77  of  technology,)  75 
of  medicine  ;  the  contents  of  43  are  matlwamatical  and  natural* 
sdentificy  of  22  military,  of  31  agriculturaL  Besides  the  above 
there  are  16  sporting  papers,  13  of  various  contents,  and  4  dedi* 
cated  to  Freemasonry. 

Many  alloys  of  tin  and  other  soft  metals  hardened  by  addition 
of  antimony,  copper,  &c,  do  not  give  a  clear  tone  on  being 
struck,  but  a  lead>like,  dull  one.  It  has  been  found  by  M. 
Lilliman  (PoL  NoHzblait)  that  the  power  of  sounding  clearly 
may  be  imparted  to  them,  by  immerring  them  for  a  half  to  one 
minute  in  a  paraffin  or  oil  bath,  heated  to  a  temperature  5^  to 
5*"5  below  the  boiling-point,  then  taking  out  and  allowing  to 
cool.  This  does  not  produce  any  diminution  of  density,  but  a 
considerable  increase  of  the  hardness  and  rigidity. 

Thb  Proceedings  of  the  Bristol  Naturalists'  Society  (voL  ii. 
part  I,  new  series)  contains  as  usual  some  papers  of  more  than 
average  value.  There  are  three  papers  on  the  microscope  by 
Dr.  Fripp,  two  on  the  Bristol  coalfield  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Stoddart, 
besides  other  two  geological  papers  by  the  same  author,  a  paper 
by  Mr.  W,  Evans  on  the  scientific  aspects  of  tannings  and  other 
matters  of  importance.  The  Transaetiom  of  the  Bedfordshire 
Natural  History  Society  for  1876-7  contains  a  number  of  good 
papers  on  local  natural  history. 

Thb  gasworks  at  the  Grasbrook  at  Hamburg  have  recently 
been  covered  with  a  gigantic  iron  roof,  constructed  by  the 
"  Essener  Union.*'  Its  weight  is  5i»5oo  kilogrammes,  its  length 
84  metres.  With  the  exception  of  the  roof  on  ^the  Liverpool 
gasworks,  it  is  the  largest  in  Europe. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin, 
on  January  24,  Prof.  Du  Bois  Reymond,  as  President  of  the 
Conmiittee  of  the  Humboldt  Institution  for  Naturalists  and 
Travellers,  read  a  detailed  report  of  the  activity  of  this  institu- 
tkm  during  the  past  year.  The  first  undertaking  was  that  of 
Herr  J.  M.  Hildebrandt,  and  referred  to  the  ezpk>ration  [of  the 
snow^cUd  mountains  of  Equatorial  Africa,  viz.,  of  the  Mt. 
Kenia  and  of  the  Kilima-Ndjaro.  The  ;well-known  traveller, 
although  he  approached  the  former  mountain  to  within  a  few 
days'  march,  could  not  reach  it  altogether  on  account  of  the 
unconquerable  difficulties  placed  in  his  way  by  the  enmity  of 
the  native  tribes,  but  he  will  again  take  up  his  plan  after  having 
recruited  his  health  at  home.  Herr  Hildebrandt,  however,  has 
brought  home  rich  scientific  collections  from  his  journey,  and 
has  presented  them  to  the  scientific  societies  at  Berlin ;  his  geo- 
logical collections  are  of  special  interest  The  second  traveller 
sent  out  by  the  Humboldt  Institution,  Dr.  Karl  Sachs,  continued 
and  terminated  his  investigations  on  the  electric  eels  (Gymnotus 
tlecirkus)  at  Calabozo,  an  important  town  in  the  Llanos  of 
Venezuela.  He  succeeded  in  addincr  to  our  knowledge  of  Gymnotm 
considerably,  so  that  of  this  species  now  quite  as  much  is  known 
as  of  Torpedo;  he  failed,  however,  to  throw  any  light  upon 
^e  development  of  Gymnotm,     Dr.  Sachs  is  now^  occupied  in 


writing  a  treatise  on  this  subject,  as  well  as  a  description  of  th« 
country  and  the  people  of  Venezuek  and  his  *own  experiences 
while  travelling. 

It  is  very  unsatisfactory  to  hear  that  the  oonsigiiment  of  soles 
and  turbot  whidi  left  the  Southport  Aquarium  on  January  3  for 
the  purpose  of  stocking  the  Bay  of  Massachussetts  has  turned 
out  ahnost  a  total  fidlure,  one  pair  of  the  former  only  having 
arrived  at  their  destination  in  safety.  Prot  Baird,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries,  is  so  anxious  to  in- 
troduce the  above-named  fishes  into  American  waters  that 
another  journey  to*Eogland  is  contemplated  about  May  next 
Much  experience  has  been  gained  in  the  transit  of  live  fish 
across  the  Atlantic,  which  will  be  of  considerable  importance 
in  facilitating  future  arrangements.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
the  bony  pike  and  other  American  fishes,  many  of  which  are 
remarkable  for  their  brilliancy  of  colour,  will  ere  long  find  a 
home  in  English  aquaria. 

Thb  additions  to  the  2^1ogical  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Common  Swan  (Cypms  olor)  from  Holland, 
presented  by  Mr.  John  Colam,  F.Z.S.  ;  two  Crested  Gdnea 
Fowls  (Nufnida  cristcUa)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr. 
Collingwood ;  two  Canadian  Geese  {Bermeia  canademis)  firom 
North  America,  presented  by  Mr.  Edward  J.  Philpot;  four 
Reeves's  Terrapins  (Clemmys  reevesi)  firom  China,  presented  by 
Mr.  A.  Thomson  ;  a  BrazUian  Tortoise  ( Testudo  taMata)  from 
Cartagena,  presented  by  Capt.  King ;  a  Poitou  Donkey  (Asinus 
vuigaris)  from  the  souUi  of  France,  deposited;  on  Azora's  Fox 
(Canis  atara)  from  South  America,  purchased. 


^ARRESTS  SPECTROSCOPICAL 
RESEARCHES 

"IXTHEN  the  late  Pro!  d' Arrest  was  called  to  superintend  the 
*  ^  buildmg  of  the  new  observatory  in  Copenhagen  and  the 
erection  of  a  laige  refractor  (16  feet  focal  loigth  by  11  inches 
aperture),  he  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  thus  offered  to 
enter  into  more  extensive  researches  on  the  nebuhe,  than  he  had 
been  able  to  undertake  at  Leipzig^.  He  intended  at  first  to 
observe  all  the  nebulae  which  were  visible  in  his  refractor,  but  he 
soon  found  that  a  work  beyond  human  power,  and  that  in  fact 
the  nebulae  are  infinite  in  number.  Working  hard  for  sU  years 
he  was  only  able  to  collect  the  eighth  part  of  the  observations 
required  for  laying  down  approximate  positions  of  all  those 
nebtdae  which  are  distinctly  visible  in  the  ^Copenhagen  refractor, 
and  whose  places  could  be  exactly  determmed.  Tnese  observa- 
tions vrere  published  as  "  Siderum  nebulosorum  observationes 
Havnienses,^'  in  1867,  for  which  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Socie^  was  awarded  to  him  in  1875.  P'^^'^* 
d' Arrest  died  eight  years  afler  the  publication  of  his  great  work, 
his  health  broken  down  by  constant  nigh^vmtches.  •  These  years 
were  spent  mostljr  on  spectroscopical  researches,  which  were 
partly  published  m  the  Astronomische  Nachrichten^  partly  in  a 
separate  paper,  "  Undersogelser  over  de  nebulose  Stjemer  i 
Henseende  til  deres  spectralanalytiske  Egenskaber,"  in  1872. 
Tliis  latter  paper  does  not  appear  to  be  so  widely  known  as  it 
deserves,  and  an  abstract  in  the  colunms  of  Naturb  mig^t 
therefore  be  acceptable  to  many. 

It  took  D'Arrest  several  years  to  get  suffidently  acquainted 
with  the  use  of  the  new  apparatus— so  (Efferent  from  those  usually 
handled  by  astronomers  of  the  old  school.  Various  forms  of 
spectroscopes  are  employed  according  to  the  subject  to  bs 
examined.  To  observe  the  protubeninces  or  their  lines  the 
greatest  possible  dispersion  is  required  in  order  to  weaken  on  one 
hand  the  sun's  light,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  diffuse  atmo- 
spherical light  wmdi  forms  the  background  on  which  the  lines  are 
projected ;  while  prisms  of  small  dispersive  power  are  employed 
when  for  instance  the  bright  lines  of  comets  or  nebulae  are 
examined.  D* Arrest's  spectroscope  was  not  intended  for  any 
extreme  application ;  it  was  a  so-called  Janssen's,  after  Amici's 
principle  composed  h  vision  ditecte  of  three  crown  and  two  flint- 
glass  prisms  m«i  Merz. 

The  soUr  light  has  lately  been  made  to  go  twice  through 
the  system  of  prisms,  and  the  dispersive  power  thus  doubled 
l^s  rendered  many  more  bright  lines  visible  than  were  known 


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NATURE 


[Feb.  14,  1878 


heretofore.  Besides  the  principal  lines  C,  Dt,  and  F,  dis- 
covered in  i868,  onlj  three  or  four  feeble  secondary  lines 
of  nnnsoal  occurrence  were  known  in  the  spectrum  of  the 
sun's  chromosphere,  until  Prof.  Young,  in  the  autumn  of  187 1, 
succeeded  in  raising  tiie  number  of  the  visible  bright  lines  to  103 
in  the  course  of  om^  four  weeks  by  the  above  method.  These 
lines  are  almost  uniformly  distributed  over  the  whole  spectrum 
Anom  wave-length  706  to  41a  The  lines  are,  however,  of  very 
varying  brightness  and  frequency.  But  that  artifice  is  of  no  good 
for  investigating  the  planets  or  planetary  nebulae,  for  vmich 
instruments  of  £e  greatest  possible  amount  of  light  are  required. 

D' Arrest  did  not  make  any  profound  study  of  the  sun's 
protuberances,  but  convinced  himself  of  most  of  the  many 
peculiarities  that  have  been  discovered  since  autumn  1868.  He 
mentions  especially  the  pointed  extremities  of  C  and  D5,  and  the 
broad  basis  and  finefoint  of  F.  This  is  explained  by  a  lowering 
of  temperature  and  density  at  a  distance  from  the  sun's  surface, 
but  it  is  certain  that  this  phenomenon,  with  its  physical  conse- 
quences, appears  widi  very  different  intensity  by  C  and  by  F,  from 
^hat  it  does  by  Ha  and  H/9  of  hydrogen.  It  appears  remarkably 
enough  most  distinctly  by  the  feeblest  of  the  twa  The  lines 
H7  and  H8  are  in  themselves  far  more  insignificant,  and  their 
extension  no  doubt  smaller.  Dt  is  of  another  unknown  origin. 
He  often  observed,  besides,  the  oblique  position  and  distortion 
of  the  F-lme  in  protuberances,  which  were  evidently  produced 
by  violent  eruptions,  but  he  never  saw  distortions  so  violent 
that  the  line  shoots.branches  to  both  sides,  and  at  last  is  alto- 
gether dilacerated.  'Lockyer  has  represented  many  such  cases 
in  vol.  xviiL  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society.  Secchi 
does  not  mention  them  in  his  book  on  the  sun  (Paris,  1871),  and 
they  have  perhaps  only  been  seen  by  Young  besides.  As  to 
the  exphmation,  we  meet  with  a  difficulty  simuar  to  that  above ; 
the  phenomenon  shows  itself  principally  and  nearly  exclu- 
sively in  this  single  line.  D'Arrest  never  noticed  such  a  thing  in 
Ha.  It  is  explained  by  the  rapidly  rotating  mass  of  hydrogen 
towards  or  from  the  slit  of  the  spsctroscope^  the  wave- length  of  the 
light  being  thus  alternately  lessened  and  increased.  He  odculated 
a  vdodty  of  fifty  or  sixty  geographical  miles  in  the  second  from 
the  greatest  displacement  he  noticed  by  the  F-line.  The  direct 
consideration  of  the  occasional  explosive  alterations  of  pro- 
tuberances leads  to  similar  conclusions.  It  is  bevond  doubt  that 
the  velocity  is  so  enormous.  Much  smaller  displacements  could 
besides  haraly  be  ascertained  by  means  of  the  spectroscope. 

The  spectra  of  the  sun-spots  have  been  examined  ably  by  dif- 
ferent investigators,  and  a  rich  material  exists  which  shows  the 
most  probable  assumption  to  be  that  the  sun-spots  are  the  results 
of  cooling.  It  is  in  fair  accordance  with  this,  interpretation  that 
the  increu«d  absorption  of  light  which  the  spot-spedtrum  shows  by 
augmentation  of  the  lines  in  breadth  and  darkness  is  considered  a 
proof  of  the  condensation  of  the  gases,  to  whose  absorption  the 
dark  lines  in  the  normal  sun-spectrum  owe  their  origin.  Ac- 
cording to  d' Arrest's  opinion,  this  pervading  ilargissement  must 
be  mainly  attributed  to  the  circumstance  that  the  lines  are  seen 
on  a  darker  background  where  the  irradiation  is  greatly  lessened, 
and  he  believes  that  the  whole  theory,  which  is  founded  on  the 
supposition  of  elective  absorption  of  the  spots  is  not  quite  to  be 
trusted  as  yet  He  never  saw  bright  lines  in  any  spot-spectrum, 
and  mentions  that  other  assiduous  observers  have  likewise  failed 
in  tins  respect  The  normsd  dark  lines  in  the  sun-spectrum  are 
of  very  different  degrees  of  darkness  and  breaddi ;  some  exhibit 
sharp  borders,  while  others  are  winged,  &c.  These  intrinsic 
relations  he  remarked  did  not  change  in  the  spot-spectra  from 
what  they  were  in  the  neighbouring  region.  He  found,  for 
instance  Do  to  enlarge  more  than  D^  in  proportion  to  their  dif- 
f^ent  breadths  in  the  normal  spectrum.  From  the  lessened  irra- 
ciation,  moreover,  some  sharp  lines  of  the  normal-spectrum  may 
become  somewhat  foggy  in  the  spot-spectrum,  as  Secchi  {Compt. 
Rend,  1869,  p.  520)  states  is  the  case  with  the  principal  lines  of 
sodium,  a  circumstance  which,  however,  d' Arrest  did  not  con- 
firm any  more  than  the  remark  by  the  same  astronomer  that  the 
3ines  of  magnesium  are  hardly  enlarged  in  the  spot-spectrum. 
Lockyer  says  {Proceedings,  Royal  Soaety,  voL  xvii.  p.  352)  that 
they  are  tMcker  when  observed  in  a  spot  than  usuaL  Vogel 
has  remarked  a  similar  thickening  of  easily  visible  dark  lines  in 
Jupiter's  spectrum  in  those]  pscrts  of  the  spectrum  which  cor- 
resDond  to  the  dark  bands  on  the  planetary  disk. 

t>' Arrest  does  not  consider  his  observations  as  sufficient  to 
establish  anything  as  to  the  encroachment  of  the  gas  lines  in  the 
»pot-spectra  which  occasionally  has  been  observed  by  the  so- 
called  light-bridges  in  the  interior  of  the  spots ;  he  remarks  that 
•  similar  phenomenon  inay  be  produced  spontaneously  by  looking 


at  the  image  of  one  of  the  gas-lines  of  the  protuberances,  when 
the  slit  b  not  placed  exactly  in  accordance  to  the  refrangibility  of 
this  particular  line,  and  investigators  may  not  have  been  suffi- 
ciently attentive  to  this  circumstance.  The  light  concentrated  in 
the  few  protuberance-lines  is  of  course  stronger  than  the  lig^t  of 
the  continuous  spectrum  of  the  border,  and  when  the  slit  is  even 
very  slightly  displaced  the  protuberances  appear  distinctly  to 
reach  within  it  The  same  is  the  case  with  protuberances  inside 
on  the  disc  of  the  sun,  where  they  mainly  betray  themselves  by 
partial  reversal  of  some  lines  from  dark  to  bright. 

The  whole  of  astronomical  spectrum  analysis  is  founded  upon 
the  law  that  the  source  of  the  light  of  a  continuous  (with  or 
without  dark  lines)  spectrum  containing  rays  of  every  refrangi- 
bility, is  a  solid  or  fluid  substance,  and  that  the  source  is  a 
glowing  gas  whenever  the  spectrum  is  discontinuous  and  reduced 
to  separate  bright  lines.  This  must  within  certain  limits  of  pres- 
sure be  considered  as  raised  beyond  doubt,  although  most  skilful 
chemists  disagree  as  to  the  nature  of  spectra  of  different  orders. 
Pliicker  and  Wiillner  state  that  the  same  subs^nce  gives  different 
spectra  at  different  pressures  and  temperatures.  Dubmnfaut, 
Reitlineer,  and,  above  all,  Anestrom  deny  this.  The  special  use 
wbidi  has  been  made  of  Geisslei^s  tubes  in  astronomical  obser- 
vatories is  at  any  rate  rather  doubtful,  since  chemists  have  shown 
the  true  nature  of  the  compound  spectra  which  such  tubes  ;may 
furnish — for  instance  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen. 

Dr.  Huggins  examined  for  the  first  time  on  August  29,  1864, 
one  of  the  brightest  planetary  nebulae  (H.,  iv.  37)  and  found  the 
spectrum  concentrated  in  three  short  bright  lines.  This  discovery 
proved  the  nebula  to  consist  of  glowing  gas  under  a  feeble  pres- 
sure. Thus  also  for  the  first  time  was  obtained  the  means  of 
distinguishing  between  true  nebulae  and  conelomerations  of  stars. 
The  hitter,  bv  far  the  most  commoni  show  the  continuous 
spectrum,  t^e  former  the  linear.  This  Question  would  hardly 
ever  have  been  definitely  answered  by  aid  of  any  telescope. 
First  Huggins^  then  Rosse  and  Secchi  examined  sdmost  all  those 
nebulse  in  the  northern  sky,  which  were  visible  in  their  apparatus, 
and  (mly  one  or  two  observers  have  since  made  further  investiga- 
tions on  the  single  objects.  Capt.  J.  Herschd  examined  (1868) 
in  India  the  southern  nebulse  spectroscopically.  Most  gaseous 
nebulae  are  planetary.  D*Arrest  had  already  in  his  smaller 
catalogue  in  1855  remarked  about  H.  iv.  18  :  "  bluish  ouiet 
light,  as  all  planetarv  nebulae  seen  by  me  show  it,"  ana  in 
1866  in  "Obs.  Havn.'^  about  H.  iv.  37  :— "Unica  prope  inter 
nebulas  et  prorsus  singularis.  Ellipsis  est  egregie  cserulea 
cet."  We  now  know  both  these  to  be  gaseous  nebulae,  analysis 
showing  the  Ught  concentrated  into  three  lines  near  each  other  in 
the  green  and  blue  regions  of  the  spectrum. 

The  exact  determination  of  the  place  of  the  lines  in  the  normal 
spectrum  was  connected  with  great  difficulties  on  account  of  their 
feeble  light  It  was  therefore  at  first  uncertain  whether  the  three 
lines  were  identical  in  the  different  spectra,  but  there  can  now  b« 
no  doubt  as  to  this,  and  d'Arrest  found  by  a  discussion  of  the 
observations  of  Capt.  Herichel,  Secchi,  and  especially  Vogel  the 
following  wave-lengths  for  the  lines.  The  line  Neb.  (3)  has  by 
Huggins  and  Miller,  Secchi,  and  lately  Vogel,  been  proved  to 
coinade  with  the  F-line  (Hi3)  and  d'Arrest  assumes  in  conse- 
quence its  wave-length  after  Angstrom  : — 


Wave-length. 
Neb.  (l)     ...     500*40  mill.  miUim. 
Neb.  (2)     ...    49566        „      „ 
Neb.  (3)    ...    486-06       „      „ 


Vibra^ons  tn  t  second. 
596*64  billions. 
602-35      „ 
61425      „ 


Beyond  Neb.  (3)  is  occasionally  (by  H.  iv.  18  and  the  Orion 
nebuia)  perceived  a  fourth  line  H7,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to 
see  it. 

The  spectra  of  the  different  objects  are,  however,  verv  unlike 
each  other  on  account  of  the  different  intemUyoi  the  bright  lines* 
There  is  even  occasion  to  presume  that  the  mixed  gcks  spectra  do 
not  ever  continue  unchanged  with  regard  to  the  relative  intensity 
of  the  lines,  which  is  veiy  likely,  as  the  relative  brilliancy  of  both 
the  green  Unes  of  glowing  H  and  N  depends  upon  the  mixture 
of  the  gases. 

We  know  that  air  when  under  a  feeble  pressure  heated  by  an 
induction-current, exhibits  the  line  Neb.  ( 1 ) ;  it  belongs  to  nitrogen}- 
Lockyer  and  Frankland  {Proceedings,  Royal  Society,  voL  xviL 
p.  454)  have  shown  that  the  in  reality  very  complicated  spectrum 
of  nitrogen,  under  certain  circumstances  of  pressure  and  tempe- 
rature^ is  rcKiuced  to  this  bright  line  with  but  feeble  traces  of  the 

>  D'Arrest  mentions  that  the  above  wave-length  agrees  perfectly  with 
Muggins's  observation,  when  be  identifies  Neb.  (z)»  not  with  the  middle  gf 
the  double  line,  (Mat  with  the  least  refrangible  of  the  two. 


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Others.  It  is,  beddet,  the  brightest  of  them  aU.  Extensive 
investigations  published  on  this  subject  cannot,  however,  be  said 
fully  to  elucidate  the  question  why  the  other  lines  of  nitrogen 
do  not  appear  in  the  spectrum,  nor  do  physicists  agree  as  to  the 
temperature  and  density  which,  under  tnese  circumstances,  must 
be  supposed  in  the  nebulie.  It  is,  besides,  precarious  to  draw 
from  pnenomena  observed  in  Geissltf's  tubes  conclusions  as  to 
circumstances  prevailing  in  the  vast  nebulae  (Zollner,  BerichU  der 
h,  scuksischiH  Gesettschaft  d,  Wissensck^  for  1870,  p.  254).  It 
appears  less  important  that  nobody  has  been  able  to  comply  with 
Angstrom's  demand  when  he  says  ("  Recherches  tur  le  Spectre 
solaire,"  p.  37)  :—*•  This  line  is  double.  ...  It  appear?,  there- 
fore, that  we  ought  to  be  able  to  show  this  duplicitv  in  the  cor- 
responding line  of  the  nebular  spectrum."  To  their  separation 
is  required  too  narrow  a  slit  for  the  feeble  light  of  the  nebulae. 
AU  conudered,  nitrogen  is  at  present  very  likely  one  of  the 
constituents  of  nebnlse. 

The  origin  of  Neb.  (2)  is  not  known.  The  idea  at  first  occurred 
to  Huggins  of  one  of  the  many  barium-lines,  but  he  soon  gave 
this  idea  up.  One  of  the  iron  lines  holds  exactly  its  place ;  it  is 
a  dark  line,  but  not  one  of  the  principal  of  the  rich  spectrum ; 
of  course  this  coincidence  is  accidentaL  This  line  is  t^ain  met 
with  in  the  spectrum  of  many  red  and  variable  stars.  The 
measures  of  Vogel  (Ber.  d.  k,  sacks.  GesdlscK  d,  Wissensch.y  1871, 
December  17)  agree  well  enough  with  the  gaseous  line  when  the 

Sreat  difficulties  of  the  cases  are  taken  into  account.     Neb,  (2) 
oes  not  occur  in  the  n>ectra  of  comets. 

Neb.  (3)  is  identical  with  the  line  H/5  of  hydrogen,  whose 
existence  in  gaseous  nebuls  was  proved  when  Hoggins  discovered 
Neb.  (4),  which  is  H7,  that  was  so  long  sought  for  in  vain. 
Hydrogen  is  evervwhere  found  as  one  of  Uie  constituents  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  but  the  comets  contain  no  traces  of  it.  The 
hydrogen-lines  appear  even  in  the  spectra  of  many  fixed  stars,  at 
least  through  lla  and  Hi3,  but  sometimes  HjS  and  H7  are  the 
strongest  (Jl  Lyrse),  and  three  hydrogen  lines  are  distinctly  seen 
in  the  spectra  of  a  Aquilse  and  a  Lyrse. 

D^Anest  then  gives  in  his  paper  a  list  of  al!  the  nebulae 
which  have  been  spectroscopically  examined  by  himself  or  others. 

He  speaks  first  of  the  gaseous  nebulae,  of  which  H.  iv.  37  is 
the  most  remarkable ;  then  he  mentions  those  whose  spectra  are 
continuous,  and  thus  proved  to  be  mere  conglomerates  of  stars. 
The  latter  are  by  far  the  most  difficult  to  examine,  the  feeble  light 
bein^  distributed  over  a  large  space,  and  generally  minima 
visibilia.  An  astronomer  well  versed  in  the  use  of  the  spectro- 
scope is,  however,  often  able  to  decide  whether  the  spectrum  is 
continuous,  even  if  it  be  not  visible  by  glimpses.  Aheady 
the  absence  of  the  spectrum  n^ay  occasionally  hint  about 
the  true  nature  of  ihe  body.  He  estimates  the  number  of 
nebulae  known  in  the  middle  of  1872  to  be  about  6,000  ;  of  ihese 
150  have  been  examined  with  the  spectroscope.  It  is,  therefore, 
only  the  fortieth  part,  which  is  brignt  enough  to  be  seen  through 
the  svstem  of  prisms.  Ahhough  it  is  hardly  possible  to  draw 
ccncfusions  from  so  small  a  fraction  of  the  whole,  still  d' Arrest 
thinks  it  possible,  on  account  of  the  critical  revision  he  has 
given  the  observations,  to  arrive  by  induction  at  a  few  results. 
He  finds  that  of  a  given  number  of  nebulae  about  a  fourth 
give  the  discontinuous  spectrum,  while  three-fourths  give  the 
continuous. 

Gas  nebulae  are,  with  but  few  exceptions,  known  by  their 
green-blue  light,  their  sharpl^-defined,  round,  or  elliptic  discs 
with  annular  bright  condensations  inside.  There  are,  however, 
large,  extensive,  irregular,  and  complicated  nebulae,  which  also 
consist  of  the  three  gases,  nitrogen  ever  foremost,  though  the 
gases  are  mixed  in  different  proportions.  The  very  feeble  con- 
tinuous spectrum  which  appears  in  many  planetary  nebulae  can 
in  most  cases  be  shown  to  arise  from  the  consolidated  nucleus, 
the  fluid  or  solid  central  mass.  The  distribution  of  brightness 
in  extensive  nebulosities  is  very  irregular,  and  the  heat  in  certain 
regions  rises  and  falls  occasionally  a  little,  though  no  rod  idtera- 
tions  in  the  form  are  known  as  yet. 

The  ray-nebulae  are  surely  mere  conglomerations  of  stars. 
Those  are  the  long,  lenticular  nebulae,  often  so  narrow  and  fine 
that  such  an  object  may  resemble  a  thin  bright  line  drawn 
through  the  nucleus.  No  such  nebula  is  hitherto  known  to  give 
a  tri-cbromatic  spectrum. 

It  was  in  1866  that  Secchi  commenced  to  examine  red  stars 
with  remarkable  broad  bands  in  the  spectra,  and  he  was  already, 
in  1868,  compelled  to  add  a  fourth  cmss  to  his  three  classes  of 
ttar-q>ectia.  A  systenuUical  search  after  remarkable  star-spectra 
was  undertaken  m  1873  and  following  years  in  Copenhagen. 
D'Arrest's  four  papers  in  AsirtmomischiNachruhien  contain  only 


the  most  remarkable  of  those  he  found,  and  only  such  as  had 
not  previously  been  mentioned.  That  most  are  above  the  eighth 
magnitude  is  evidently  only  founded  on  the  difficulty  of  seeing 
spectra  of  smaller  stars. 

The  circumstance  which  Secchi  remarked  in  1868,  that  yellow 
and  red  colours  are  so  often  connected  with  prominent  spectra, 
seems  certainly  to  be  of  importance,  but  the  many  exceptions 
should  warn  us  from  here  expecting  any  great  cosmical  law. 
Neither  is  their  connection  with  variability  a  rule  without  excep- 
tions. There  are  many  strongly  coloured  stars  with  very  indif- 
ferent spectra. 

Most  of  the  spectra  described  are  of  the  third  class.  These 
are  not  uncommon,  for  when  we  examine  140  stars  we  may 
expect  to  find  one  of  the  third  class.  They  are  uniformly  dis* 
tributed  over  the  sky,  and  found  also  by  white  stars.  The  cha- 
racter of  spectra  of  this  dass  is  constant  throughout.  The 
positions  of  the  dark  bands  were  also  shown  by  Vogel,  in  1872, 
to  be  the  same  for  four  bright  stars.  The  columns  are  generally 
more  distinctly  separated  towards  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum, 
though  the  contrary  occurs  also,  and  it  is  even  possible  to  follow 
the  steps  from  but  finely-indicated  bands  to  absolute  discon- 
tinuity, but  the  colour  has  nothing  to  do  with  these  gradations. 

Still  more  intimately  connected  with  orange  colour  is  the 
fourth  class,  and  specimens  of  this  class  are,  in  consequence, 
very  uncommon.  D  Arrest  ascertained  that  the  dark  bands  in  the 
s*ar-spectra  are  formed  by  groups  of  compressed  dark  lines 
against  Secchi's  experience.  He  examined  spectra  of  stars  with 
great  proper  motion,  and  found,  for  instance,  the  spectra  of 
61  Cygni  and  1830  Groomb.  to  be  indifferent,  uniform,  and  con- 
tinuous. General  similarity  of  the  spectra  ui  certain  parts  of 
the  sky  does  not  exist  at  aU,  or  has  not  been  proved  yet ;  for 
instance,  it  is  not  true  that  red  and  yellow  are  wanting  in  the 
spectra  of  small  stars  in  Orion.  W.  D. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  METEOROLOGY^ 

AT  the  opening  of  his  address  Dr.  Neumayer  regretted  that 
the  general  knowledge  and  public  appreciation  of  meteo- 
rology was  still  very  small  in  comparison  with  that  of  other 
branches  of  science.  The  main  object  of  his  address  was  there- 
fore to  induce  his  hearers  to  do  all  in  their  power  to  effect  a  more 
perfect  and  detailed  understanding  of  this  branch  of  science 
among  their  countrymen  in  their  respective  spheres  of  activity. 
He  treated  the  subject,  and  particularly  the  weather-forecasts, 
mainly  from  his  own  point  of  view  as  a  naval  officer,  and  pointed 
out  how  desirable  a  greater  interest  in  marine  affairs  would  be  in 
all  circles  of  German  home  life.  The  course  which  meteorology 
in  its  application  to  daily  life  has  taken  may  be  divided  into  two 
categoiies  of  observations,  first  the  uninterrupted  mtematic 
meteorological  investigations,  and  second,  the  atmospheric  dis- 
turbances or  phenomena  governed  by  the  laws  of  winds,  as  first 
described  some  fifty  years  ago  by  Prof.  Dove.  He  then  gave  a 
sketch  of  the  progress  of  meteorology  in  other  countries ;  of  the 
establishment  of  the  numerous  meteorological  stations,  and  the 
application  of  telegraphy  to  this  science;  of  the  enormous 
help  afforded  by  the  introduction  of  rapid  means  of  communi- 
cation. He  pointed  out  how  the  greatest  progress  was 
made  by  the  United  States  of  North  America ;  that  England 
was  second  in  this  respect,  and  was  followed  by  HoUand, 
France,  and  Denmark.  According  to  the  latest  news,  the 
yearly  budget  for  meteorological  observations  in  the  United 
States  was  raised  from  250,000  to  4^0,000  doUars,  apart  from 
all  personal  expenses.  The  rise  in  this  sum  is  explained  by  the 
necessity  of  having  special  telemph  wires  and  sUtions  solely  for 
the  meteorologictd  service  and  by  the  increase  in  the  staff  of 
observers.  If  m  Europe  the  practical  results  of  observations  are 
not  quite  as  satisfactory  as  might  be  desired,  it  is  because  the 
European  organisation  of  the  meteorological  service  is  far  more 
impeifect  than  the  American  one.  The  German  Government 
has  given  its  fiill  attention  to  this  important  science,  particularly 
with  regard  to  the  German  navy  and  the  coast  population.  The 
poor  German  fishermen  in  the  Baltic  and  the  German  Ocean  are 
aheady  deriving  great  benefit  from  the  numerous  meteorological 
stations  which  have  been  establi^ed  along  the  German  coast-line, 
although  it  is  only  eighteen  months  since  the  service  has  begun. 
The  German  "Seewarte"  has  been  established  and.now  performs 
its  share  of  international  work  along  with  the  sister-establish- 
ments of  England,  Holland,  and  France.  Agriculturists  will 
«Meteorok>gy  in  Daily  Life.  Addre«i  deUvewd  at  the  meednf  ctf  the 
German  Association  at  Munich,  by  Dr,  G.  Neumayer,  Director  of  the 
Deutsche  Seewarte  at  Hamburg. 


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[Feb.  14,  1878 


derive  equal  benefit  from  the  meteorological  service  if  inland 
stations  are  established  and  care  is  taken  that  the  general  popn* 
lation  of  the  country  are  taught  how  to  appreciate  their  work. 
Dr.  Neumayer  condnded  with  the  sentence : — It  is  not  only  the 
duty  of  the  State  to  found  beneficial  institutions  and  to  oiiganise 
them  efficiently,  it  is  also  the  duty  of  the  State-citizen  to  learn  to 
understand  and  to  appreciate  these  institutions  and  to  enter  into 
this  spirit  of  the  work  they  are  called  upon  to  perform. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

St.  Andr£W*s. — ^The  Senatus  Academicus  of  St.' Andrew's 
University  have  conferred  the  degree  of  LL.D.  upon  Mr.  Henry 
Woodward,  F.R.S.,  of  the  British  Museum,  and  Dr.  W.  C. 
Macintosh,  of  Murthly,  well  known  for  his  researches  on  British 
aonelides. 

Thb  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds.— Mr.  Arnold  Lupton, 
F.G.S.,  has  been  elected  Instructor  of  Coal  Mining,  a  depart- 
ment recently  endowed  by  the  Drapers'  Company  of  Lcmdon. 

Higher  Education  of  Women. — A  public  meeting  com- 
posed  for  the  most  part  of  ladies^  was  held  on  the  6lh  instant  in 
the  Vestij  Hall,  Kensington,  to  inaugurate  the  system  of  lectures 
for  the  higher  education  of  v^men,  undertaken  by  the  Principal 
and  Professors  of  King's  Collie  with  the  co-operation  of  the 
Women's  Educational  Union.  The  object  of  the  lectures,  which 
commenced  on  the  i  ith  instant,  is  to  supplement  and  continue 
school  education,  and  the  instruction  will  have,  as  far  as  possible, 
reference  to  the  examinations  open  to  women  in  the  University 
of  London  or  elsewhere.  The  minimum  age  of  students  is  fixed 
at  17,  except  in  such  cases  as  receive  the  special  sanction  of  the 
committee.  The  classes  will  be  at  present  held  in  the  Vestry- 
hall,  High  Street,  Kensington.  The  curriculum  embraces  Holy 
Scripture  and  Church  history,  logic  and  moral  philosophy, 
modem  and  ancient  history,  the  English,  Latin,  French,  and 
German  languages  and  literatures,  mathematics,  mechanics,  and 
botany,  ^perimental  physics,  chemistry,  and  drawing  will 
also  be  taught  as  soon  as  suitable  arrangements  can  be  made. 
Other  classes,  if  necessary,  will  aUo  be  formed.  The  fees  vary 
from  los,  6d,  to  2/.  2x.  per  term ;  for  any  four  complete  courses 
they  will  6/.  6s.  For  ladies  engaged  in  teaching  there  will  be  a 
remission  of  25  per  cent 

Prizes  in  Botany  for  Young  Women.— The  Sodetj;  of 
Apo^ecaries  of  London  announce  their  intention  to  award  prizes 
to  young  women  students  in  botany  for  proficiency  in  that  saence, 
the  prizes  to  be  competed  for  under  the  following  conditions  :— 
The  competition  will  be  open  to  all  young  women  who  shall 
produce  from  their  teachers  certificates  that  their  age  at  the  time 
of  examination  does  not  exceed  twenty  ^ears.  The  examina- 
tion will  be  in  general  and  not  medical  botany.  It  will 
consist  of  questions  both  written  and  oral,  in— (l)  Structural 
Botany ;  (2)  Vegetable  Physiology ;  (3)  Description  of  Living 
Plants ;  (4)  Systematic  Botany ;  so  far  as  these  subjects  are  con- 
tained in  Sir  Joseph  Hooker's  **  Science  Primer— Botany,"  and 
in  Prof.  Oliver's  "  Lessons  in  Elementary  Botany."  The  first 
examination  will  take  place  in  London  on  the  third  Wednesday 
and  the  tturd  Friday  m  June^  1878.  Candidates  will  be  required 
to  send  their  names  and  their  residences,  at  least  fourteen  davs 
before  the  examination,  to  the  Beadle^  Apothecaries'  Hall, 
Blackfiriars,  E.C.9  when  they  will  receive  tickets  of  admission  to 
the^examination. 

France.— M.  Bardoux,  tiie  French  Minister  of  Public  In- 
struction has  taken  preliminaiy  steps  for  organising  at  Paris  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Universal  Exhibition,  a  great  coi^[ress  of 
schoolmasters.  A  delegate  from  each  district  will  be  sent  by  his 
fellow-teachers.    Not  less  than  4,000  are  expected  to  be  present. 

M.  Bardoux  has  anin  taken  up  in  the  French  Chamber  the 
proposed  erection  of  new  sdiocds  in  France.  M.  Waddington 
was  the  originator  of  the  scheme.  It  is  intended  to  build  no 
less  than  17,320  new  school-houses,  and  purchase,  enlarge,  or 
restore  12,000  others. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

VerhandhmgM  der  k^k.  Mooltgiuk^bdauiuhm  Gesdhchaft  in 
Wim  (voL  L,  1877).—- This  volume  contains  the  continuations  of, 
and  additions  t0|  several  important  papers  commenced  in  the 


volumes  for  previous  years.  We  mention  particnlarlT  the  myco- 
logical  resettfches  by  Herr  Schulzer  von  MiiggeniMirg.^The 
other  pap^s,  of  which  some  are  very  elaborate,  are  :— On  CVn- 
domytda^  by  Dr.  Franz  Low.— On  the  Diptera  genus  Medderus^ 
Fisher,  by  F.  Kowarz. — On  the  fungus  flora  of  Vienna,  by  W. 
Voss.— On  some  spiders  from  Madagascar,  by  Count  E.  Keyser- 
Ibg. — On  some  American  spider  genera  from  the  families  Pkoi- 
coida,  Scytodcida,  and  Dysderoida^  by  the  same.— On  the 
Holcihuria  fauna  of  the  Mediterranean,  by  Dr.  Emil  von 
Marenzeller. — On  Psylloda^  by  Dr.  Franz  Low. — On  the 
Chalcidia  genus  Olmxg  by  Dr.  Gustav  Mayr.— Coleopteruin, 
species  novae,  by  £.  Reitter.— On  the  passage  of  Pastor  roseus 
(Temm.)  through  Austria,  Hungary,  and  the  neighbouring 
countries  in  1875,  ^  ^*  ^^"^  Tschusl — Ornithological  notes,  hj 
B.  P.  Hanf.— On  the  flora  of  Southemf  Istria,  bv  L  Freyn.— On 
the  lepidoptera  fauna  of  the  Dolomite  district,  by  L  Mann  and 
A.  Rogennofer.— On  the  coleoptera  fauna  of  Central  Africa,  by 
P.  V.  Gredler. — ^The  volume  concludes  with  an  interesting  de- 
scription of  the  pisdcultural  establishment  of  Herr  A.  Fmwirth 
at  Freiland,  near  St  Polten  (Lower  Austria),  by  Dr.  E.  von 
Marenzeller. 

Memorie  deUa  Societh  de%li  SpeUroscopisti  Italiani^  May,  1S77. 
— A  note  on  the  solar  eruptions  during  1876,  by  Pio^  Tacchini. 
Number  of  days  of  observation,  106 ;  number  of  eruptions,  9, 
two  on  eastern  limb  and  7  on  western  limb. — Note  by  the  same 
author  on  the  present  solar  phenomena  as  compared  with  those 
during  the  maximum  spot  period  ;  the  number  of  eruptions  ob- 
served at  Palermo  in  X071  were  97,  while  only  one  was  seen  la 
the  first  four  months  of  this  year.— Letter  from  Father  Secchi  to 
Prof.  Tacchini  on  the  above  subject,  also  a  letter  between  the 
same  persons  relative  to  Winnecke's  comet — ^Drawings  of  solar 
prominences  for  January  and  February,  1876,  accompany  this 
number. 

June. — Note  on  a  water-prism,  by  Father  Seccht  Path  of  solar 
protuberance  observed  at  Rome  in  April,  1877  ;  same  for  May. — 
Note  by  Prof.  Tacchini,  on  a  metallic  solar  eruption  seen  in  June 
last ;  the  following  lines  were  visible  in  the  spectrum  :  ^^,  ^,  d*, 
^,  1474^,  4923^1  501 7^»  sodium,  5369^. 

July. — Continuation  of  the  above  note. — Note  by  Prof. 
Millosevicb,  on  the  contact  of  Mercury  with  the  sun*s  chromo- 
sphere on  May  6,  1878.— Drawings  of  the  chromosphere  for  the 
months  of  March,  April,  and  May,  1876^  accompany  this 
number. 

August — Note  on  the  zodiacal  light,  by  Prot  Serpieri — An- 
nouncement of  the  death  of  Eduanlo  Heis. — Descnption  of  a 
new  form  of  gravity  escapement,  bv  Prof.  Young. — The  spec- 
troscopic drawings  of  the  chromosphere  for  June  and  July,  1876, 
accompanv  this  number. 

Septemiier. — A  paper  on  the  discovery  of  oxygen  in  the'suo 
by  photography,  and  a  new  theory  of  the  solar  spectrum,  by 
Prof.  H.  Draper.  [This  discovery,  and  all  matter  relating 
thereto,  have  already  been  fully  reported  in  our  columns.  ]  —Table 
of  solar  protuberances  observed  at  Rome  in  June,  1877. — ^Table  of 
solar  spots  seen  at  Palermo  in  July  and  August,  1877.  Four 
maps,  together  with  a  preface  by  Prof.  Heis  explaining  them';  the 
maps  are  of  a  portion  of  the  heavens  adjoining  the  ecliptic,  and 
show  stars  down  to  the  fifth  magnitude,  and  they  are  for  use  in 
determining  the  position  of  the  zodiacal  light 

Journal  dt  Physique^  January. — On  the  employment  of 
rotating  discs  for  the  study  of  coloured  luminous  sensations,  by 
M.  RosentiehL— On  the  use  of  the  radiometer  as  an  apparatus 
of  demonstration,  by  M.  VioUe. — Rheostatic  machine^  by  M. 
Plants. — Experimental  researches  on  the  interferences  of  light, 
by  M.  Righi. . 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  January  10.— "On  the  Structure  and 
Development  of  the  Skull  in  the  Common  Snake  ( Tropidoncius 
nairix);'  by  W.  K.  Parker,  F.R.S. 

"Observations  on  the  Nervous  System  of  Aurelia  auri/a,**  by 
Edward  Albert  Schafer,  Assistant-Professor  of  Physiology  in 
University  College,  London.  Communicated  by  W.  Sharpey, 
M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R,S. 

January  24. — ^The  Cortical  Lamination  of  the  Motor  Area  of 
the  Brain,"  by  Bevan  Lewis,  F.R.M.S.,  Pathologist  and  Assist. 
Med.  Officer  to  the  West  Riding  Asylum,  and  Henry  Clarke, 
L.R.C.P.  Lond.,  Med.  Officer  to  the  West  Riding   Prison, 


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Commanicated  by  D.  Ferrier,  M.A.,  M.D.»  F.KS.,  Professor 
of  Forensic  Medicine^  Kiog's  College^  London. 

/aniuurv  31. — "  Further  Researches  on  the  Minute  Structure 
the  Thjroid  Gland."  Preliminary  Communication.  Bv  E 
Cresswell  Baber,  M.B.  Lond.  Communicated  by  Dr.  K[ein» 
F.R.S. 

*<  On  the  Limits  to  the  Order  and  Degree  to  the  Fundamental 
Invariants  of  Binary  Quantics,"  by  J.  J.  Sylvester,  M.  A.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  Professor  m  the  Johns  Hopkins  Universityi  Baltimore, 
U.S. 

"Remarks  connected  with  the  Number  of  Figures  in  the 
Periods  of  the  Reciprocals  of  Prime  Numbers,"  by  William 
Shanks,  communicated  \ij  Rev.  Dr.  Salmon,  F.R.S. 

.  Linnean  Society,  January  17.— Prof.  AUman,  president,  in 
the  chair. — Specimens  of  Dipterocarpaceae  collected  by  Signor 
Beocari,  in  New  Guinea,  were  exhibited  and  commented  on  \ij 
Mr.  Thiselton  Dyer.— Attention  was  drawn  by  Mr.  £.  Id. 
Holmes  to  a  Japanese  book  containing  sections  of  native  woods 
botanically  named  in  English,  Latin,  and  Japanese. — Several 
examples  of  iasciated  stems  of  the  Fuller's  Teazel  (Dipsacus  ful- 
hrum)  were  exhibited  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Jackson,  who  stated  these 
curiously  malformed  stems  were  now  successfully  introduced  for 
the  handles  of  sunshades  ;  he  also  made  remarks  on  a  bird's  nest 
formed  of  wool  and  cotton-pod,  sent  by  Sir  Bartle  Frere  to  the 
Kew  Museum. — Prof.  Owen  then  read  a  paper  on  Hypsiprym* 
nodortf  a  genus  indicative  of  a  dbtinct  family  in  the  Diprotodont 
section  of  the  marsupials.  The  animal  in  question  is  an  in- 
habitant of  the  Rocicingham  Bay  district,  Queensland,  and 
sparingly  frequents  the  dense,  damp  scrubs  bordering  the  coast. 
It  is  diurnal,  and  feeds  on  insects,  worms,  and  tuberous  roots,  or 
mlm  b^es,  hokling  these  in  its  fore-paws,  and  sitting  on  its 
naunches,  after  the  manner  of  the  phalangers.  They  breed 
during  the  rainy  season,  February  to  May.  Both  sexes  have  a 
musky  odour,  are  nearly  alike  in  size,  and  somewhat  over  a  foot 
long.  This  Rat  Kangaroo  (/T.  mosckatus)  Mr.  Ramsay,  of 
Sydney,  first  named  and  gave  a  short  description  of,  and  Prot 
Owen  now  supplements  by  a  fuller  account  of  its  skeleton,  &c 
Besides  peculiarities  in  dentition  and  skuU,  the  latter  dwells  on 
the  structural  conditions  of  the  hind  foot,  a  modification  between 
that  of  the  Potoroos  and  Kangaroos.  He  thereafter  enters  into 
comparisons  with  the  feet  of  the  ostrich  gioup  {Struihiomda), 
and  speculates  on  the  modifications  of  the  five-toed  feet  revealed 
by  palaeontology,  and  as  applicable  to  the  living  marsupials  &c. 
— Mr.  Francis  Darwin*s  communication,  experiments  on  the 
nutrition  of  Drosera  roiundifoUa^  we  gave  an  abstract  of  in 
Nature,  voL  xvi.  p.  222. — Notes  touching  recent  researches  on 
the  RadioUria,  was  the  title  of  a  paper  by  Prof.  St.  G.  Mivart. 
In  this  rSsumi^t,  history,  progress,  and  present  condition  of 
the  subject  are  elucidated.  These  remarkable  marine  sur£sce- 
swimming  organisms  the  author  proposes  to  arrange  after  the 
classification  adopted  by  Prof.  Haeckel,  but  considerably 
modified.  The  primary  groups  are  reduced  from  fifteen  to 
seven  as  follows :— i.  Disdda ;  2.  Flagellifera ;  3.  Ento- 
sphorida ;  4.  Acanthometrida  ;  5 .  Polydstina ;  6.  Collozoa ; 
and  7.  Vesicnlata.— Mr.  J.  Kerswill  was  elected  a  Fellow  of 
the  Society. 

Anthropological  Institute,  January  29. — Mr.  John  Evans, 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair  .--Anniversary  Meeting. 
— ^The  president,  m  the  course  of  his  address,  alluded  to  the  late 
conference  on  the  "  Antiquity  of  Man,"  and  expressed  his  opinion 
that  the  question  might  be  discussed  with  as  great  advantage 
from  a  pmely  English  point  of  view,  as  from  one  embracing  a 
larger  area,  which  to  some  extent  held  good  with  rerard  to  the 
question  as  to  whether  the  palseolithic  implements  of  the  river- 
gravel  might  not  be  referred  to  an  inteiglacial  period.  As  to  the 
relics  of  human  workmanship  thought  to  have  been  discovered 
in  beds  of  pliocene  and  even  miocene  age  in  Italy,  Switzerland, 
and  France,  Mr.  Evans  again  on  this  occasion  repeated  the 
words  of  caution  he  had  previously  expressed,  but  nevertheless 
believed  that  eventually  traces  of  man  would  be  found  of  an 
earlier  date  than  that  which  can  be  assigned  either  to  the  cave  or 
river-cravels  of  Western  Europe.  These  traces  were  to  be  rather 
looked  kx  in  the  east  than  in  the  temperate  west  or  colder  north. 
A  strong  hope  was  expressed  that  Indian  geologists  wonkl  ere 
long  solve  in  a  satisfactory  manner  the  date  and  origin  of  the 
so-odled  laterite  deposits  of  Madrai^  but  Mr.  Evans  was  able  to 
announce  that  in  Borneo  there  appeared  a  chance  of  some  cave 
explorations  being  carried  on  which  will  probably  throw 
light  on  the  date  of  man's  appearance  in  tnat  part  Tof  the 
globe.     Mr.  Everilt,  whoee  experience  in  cave  explorations 


is  well  known,  has  proposed  to  devote  a  year  to  further  re- 
searches, and  Mr.  Evans  having  guarsinteed  ttie  necessary  fiiods 
appealed  to  all  those  who  were  mterested  in  the  eariy  history  of 
man  or  in  palaeontology  to  assist  in  raising  the  by  no  means 
inconsiderable  amonnt  The  following  are  the  council  elected 
to  serve  for  the  ensuing  year : — President,  John  Evans,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S. ;  Vice-presidents,  ProC  George  Busk,  F.R.S.,  Hyde 
Clarke,  Major-General  A.  Lane  Fox,  F.R.S.,  Francis  Galton, 
F.R.S.,  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  Bart,  M.P.,  D.C.L,  F.R.S..  Prof. 
Rolleston,  M.D.,  F.R.S. ;  Directors  and  Hon.  Sees.,  E.  W.  Bra- 
brook,  F.S.A.,  W.  L.  Distant,  J.  E.  Price,  F.S.A. ;  Treasurer, 
F.  G.  Hilton  Price,  F.G.S. ;  Council,  J.  Beddoe,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 
James  Bonwick,  F.  R.G.S. ,  C.  H.  £.  Carmichael,  M.  A. ,  J .  Bamard 
Davis,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  W.  Boyd  Dawkins,  F.R.S.,  Capt  Harold 
DiUon,  F.S.A.,  Prof.  W.  rf.  Flower,  F.R.S.,  A.  W.  Franks, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Charles  Harrison,  F.S.A.,  J.  Park  Harrison, 
M.  A.,  Prof.  Huxley,  F.R.S.,  A.  L.  Lewi^  R«  Biddulph  Martin, 
F.  W.  Rudler,  F.G.S.,  C.  R.  Des  RufHires,  F.R.S.L.,  Lord 
Arthur  Russell,  M.P.,  Rev.  Prof.  Sayce,  M.A.,  M.R. A.S.,  E. 
Burnet  Tylor,  D.C.L.,  C.  Staniknd  Wake,  M.  J.  Walhouse, 
F.R.A.S. 

Physical  Society,  February  2.— Apnual  General  Meeting. 
— Prot  G.  C.  Foster,  president,  in  the  chair. — ^The  pre- 
sident xt»A  the  report  of  the  Council  for  the  past  year. 
After  pointing  with  satisfaction  to  the  present  condition  of 
the  Society,  the  report  goes  on  to  show  how  it  is  hoped 
to  extend  its  usefulness  in  the  future.  In  addition  to  a  second 
edition  of  Pr6f.  Everett's  work  on  the  C.  G.  S.  svstem 
of  units,  the  Council  hopes  very  shortly  to  publish  Sir  Charles 
Wheatstone's  papers  in  a  collected  form,  and  it  is  making 
arrangements  for  the  publication,  at  intervals,  of  translations 
of  foreign  scientific  papers,  especially  such  as  have  had  a 
marked  efiect  on  the  progress  of  physical  science.  A  portion  of 
the  funds  of  the  Society  is  to  be  devoted  annually  to  the  forma- 
tion of  a  library,  and  an  exchange  of  publications  u  already  made 
with  various  learned  societies  abroad.  Spedal  stress  was  laid 
on  the  distinctive  object  held  in  view  at  the  formation  of  the 
Society,  namely  the  exhilntion,  when  practicable^  of  the  experi- 
ments referred  to  In  papers  resd  at  the  meetings. — ^The  followii^ 
officers  and  council  were  elected  for  the  ensuing  year  :--Presi- 
dent,  Prof.  W.  G.  Adams,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  ;  Vice-presidents  (who 
have  filled  the  office  of  president),  Dr.  J.  H.  Gbuistone^  F.R.S., 
and  Prof.  G.  C.  Foster,  F.R«S. ;  Vioe-preskients,  Prot  R.  B. 
Clifton,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  W.  Spottiswoode,  LL.D.,  F.R.S; 
W.  H.  Stone,  M.B.,  F.R.CP.,  Sir  W.  Thomson,  LL.D. 
F.R.S.  ;  Secretaries,  ProC  A.  W.  Reinold,  M.A.,  W.  Chandler, 
Roberts,  F.R.S. ;  Treasurer,  Dr.  E.  Atkinson ;  Demonstrator, 
Prof.  F.  Guthrie,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.;  other  Members  of  Council, 
Capt  W.  de  W.  Abney,  R.E.,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  W.  F.  Barrett, 
F.R.S.E.,  Major  E.  R.  Festing,  R.E.,  W.  Huggins,  D.CL. 
F.R.S.,  Prof.  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy,  C.E.,  O.  J.  Lodge,  D.Sc, 
Prof.  H.  M.  McLeod,  the  Eari  of  Rosse,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  Prof. 
W.  C  Unwin,  B.Sc.,  R.  WormeU,  D.Sc  Prof.  H.  L.  F.  Helm- 
holtz  and  Prof.  W.  £.  Weber  were  elected  Honorarv  Members  of 
the  Society.  After  votes  of  thanks  had  been  passed  to  the  Lords 
of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  for  theuseof  the  physical 
lecture  room  at  South  Kensington,  as  well  as  for  the  other 
advantages  enjoyed  by  the  Society,  and  to  the  several  officers  of 
the  SocMty,  the  meetinglwas  resolved  into  an  ordinary  one.  The 
following  candidates  were  elected  Members  of  the  Socie\y  :— 
M.  T.  Cormack,  C.J.  Faulkner,  M.A.,  E.M. Jones,  F.R.A.S., 
C.  Lcudesdorf,  M.A.,  and  C  E.  WaUuck.— ProC  S.  P.  Thomp- 
son  exhibited  a  method  of  showing  the  lines  of  force  doe  to  two 
currents  of  electridtv  running  in  parallel  directions.  A  plate  of 
glass  is  perforated  by  two  holes  dose  together,  which  are  tra- 
versed by  one  and  the  same  wire,  and  this  may  be  so  anranged 
that  the  current  traverses  the  purallel  lengths  in  the  same  or 
opposite  directions.  If  now  the  plate  be  held  horizontally  while 
the  current  passes,  and  fine  iron  filings  be  sprinkled  on  the  plate, 
they  will  arrange  themselves  In  the  well-known  forms.  In  the 
plates  exhibited  the  filings  had  been  fixed  by  gum,  so  that  their 
arrahgement  could  be  eschilnted  to  an  audience  by  projection  on 
asoeen. 

Chemical  Society,  February  7.— Dr.  Gladstone,  president, 
in  the  chair.— The  foIk>wing  papen  were  read  x— The  alkaldds 
of  the  aconites.  Part  II.— On  tne  alkaloids  contained  in  Aeomium 
ferox^  by  Dr.  Wright  and  Mr.  Luff.  The  alkaloid  pseodaco- 
nitin  .from  AconUum  ftrox  kna  C(ystallised  salts  [with  diffi< 
cnlty/  Aconitin,  firom  A.  napdlus^  on  the  other  hand,  crystal- 
lises irith  facility.     When  acted  upon  by  saponifying  agent«. 


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{Feb.  14,  187S 


psendaoonitin  is  converted  into  dimethylprotocatedmic  add,  and 
a  new  base^  pseudaconin ;  mineral  acids  saponify  psendaoonitin ; 
tartaric  acid  forms  the  anhydro^erivative  apopsendaconitin. 
With  glacial  acetic,  and  benzoic  acids  an  acetyl  and  a  benzoyl 
derivative  are  respectively  formed.  The  properties,  constitution, 
&c,  of  the  above  substances  have  been  investigated  by  the 
authors.  The  nitrate  and  the  gold  salt  of  pseudaconitin  were 
obtained  in  the  crystalline  form. — Notes  on  tne  tannins,  by  Dr. 
Paul  and  Mr.  Kingzett  The  authors  conclude  that  (a)  the  sup- 
position that  natural  tannin  from  gall-nuts  is  a  gluooside  is 
doubtful,  {b)  the  astringent  principle  common  to  cutch  and  extract 
of  mimosa  bark  is  shown  to  be  a  gluooside  and  to  yield  on 
decomposition,  unfermentable  su^  and  a  peculiar  acid  distinct 
from  gallic  add.— On  the  estimation  of  phosphorus  in  iron  and 
sted.  oy  £•  Riley.  The  author  has  instituted  a  series  of  experi- 
ments as  to  the  rdative  value  of  the  molybdate  and  magnesia 
processes  for  determining  phosphorus ;  as  a  general  result,  he 
concludes  that  the  molybdate  process  always  ^ves  results  which 
are  too  low,  and  that  the  magnesia  method  is  the  only  one  to 
be  trusted — An  inquirvinto  the  action  of  the  oopper-zinc  couple 
on  alludine  oxy-salts,  bv  Dr.  Gladstone  and  Mr.  Tribe.  The 
action  c^  the  couple  on  these  o^-salts  is  of  an  electrolytic  nature ; 
nitrites  and  ammonia  are  at  first  formed,  but  ammonia  is  the 
final  product,  when  nitrates  are  taken  :  chlorides  are  formed, 
when  chlorates  are  decomposed,  but  no  chlorites  or  hypochlorites 
could  be  detected.  When  ammonium  nitrate  is  acted  on  at  the 
boiling-point  nitric  oxide  is  evolved.— On  a  new  method  for  the 
determination  of  boiling-points,  by  H.  C  Jones.  A  glass  tube 
4  mm.  internal  diameter  and  200  mm.  long  is  bent  into  [a  U,  so 
that  the  one  end,  which  is  open,  projects  15  mm.  beyond  the 
other  v^di  is  dosed.  The  closed  leg  is  filled  completdy,  and 
the  open  leg  partly,  with  mercury,  and  a  bubble  of  liquid  mani- 
pulated into  the  closed  end  of  the  U.  On  immersing  the  U  in  a 
paraffin  paUi  and  heating  the  latter,  the  liquid  boils  and  the 
temperature  at  which  the  levels  of  the  mercury  in  the  two  limbs 
are  equal  is  the  uncorrected  boiling-point  of  the  liquid. 

Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences,  February  4. — ^M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair. 
—Telegraphic  determination  of  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  Paris  and  the  Observatory  of  the  war  depdt  at  Algiers, 
by  MM.  Loewy  and  Perrier. — Portable  instrument  for  deter- 
mining itineraries  and  geographical  positions  in  journeys  of  ex- 
ploration on  land,  by  M.  Mouchez. — On  some  applications  of 
elliptic  functions  (continued),  by  M.  Hermite. — New  observa- 
tions on  chemical  reactions  of  the  effluve,  and  on  persulphuric 
add,  by  M.  Berthelot.  When  binary  compounds  are  acted  on 
by  the  efHave  one  part  is  decomposed  while  the  other  forms  more 
complex  combinations.  Persulphuric  add,  as  well  as  ozone  and 
oxygenated  water,  is  gradually  destroyed  when  the  external 
influence,  under  which  it  has  appeared,  has  ceased  to  act — On 
definite  hydrates,  formed  by  hydracids,  by  M.  Berthelot.— Ex- 
perimental researches  on  the  fractures  which  traverse  the  earth's 
crust,  particularly  those  known  as  joints  and  faults  (continued), 
by  M.  Daubr^. — The  vibrations  of  matter  and  the  waves  of  the 
eUier  in  phosphorescence  and  fluorescence,  by  M.  Fave. — ^Trans- 
versal vibrations  of  liquids,  by  M.  Dubois.  He  puts  a  little 
liquid,  with  vermilion  in  it,  on  the  branches  of  a  tuning-fork,  or 
on  a  paper  strip,  over  the  open  end  of  a  sounding  pipe,  and 
studies  the  stnse  formed  in  it. — On  some  results  obtained  in 
treatment  of  phylloxerised  vines,  by  M.  Boiteau. — Discovery  of 
a  small  planet  at  the  Observatory  of  Toulouse,  by  M.  Perrotin. 
— Ditto  at  Uie  Observatory  of  Marseilles,  by  M.  Cottenot — Note 
on  some  consequences  of  the  theorem  of  M.  Villarceau,  by  M. 
Lemoine. — On  the  employment  of  the  graphic  method  for  pre- 
diction of  occultations  and  eclipses,  by  M.  Hatt. — On  a  new 
note  by  M.  Boussinesq  rdatiog  to  the  theory  of  elastic  plates,  by 
M.  Levy.^-On  the  formula  2»  —  i,  by  M.  Pepin. — On  the  de- 
terminant whose  elements  arc  all  the  possible  minors  of  given 
order  of  a  given  determinant,  by  M.  Picquet, — On  the  similarity 
of  the  photographic  ristau  of  the  sun  and  the  craters  of  the 
moon,  by  M.  Lamey.    A  similar  cause  is  inferred. — On  the 

Xtion  of  Lame,  by  M.  Briosdu. — On  the  dark  lines  of  the 
spectrum  and  the  constitution  of  the  sun,  by  M.  Comu. 
By  arranging  in  order  of  quantitv  the  elements  volatilised 
at  the  sun's  surface  (fipom  the  position  and  rdative  brightness 
of  the  dark  lines),  he  considers  the  composition  of  the  aliorbent 
layer  to  be  similar  to  that  of  volatilised  aerolites. — ^The  ele- 
ments present  in  the  layer  of  the  sun  which  produces  reversal  of 
the  spectral  rays,  bv  Mr.  N.  Lockyer.— On  the  refraction  of 
gases  and  vapours,  by  M.  Mascart  The  results  are  f^iven  for 
some  substances  of  mineral  chemistry.    It  is  shown,  inter  alia. 


that  refraction  furnishes  a  method  for  determining  divergences 
from  Maxiotte's  law  where  direct  experiments  on  changes  or 
volume  or  measurement  of  densities  are  diffiodt.— On  the  repul- 
sion resulting  from  luminous  radiation,  by  Mr.  Crookes.— Re- 
searches on]  acddental  double  refraction,  by  M.  Mac6. — ^New- 
direct  vision  spectroscope,  hj  M.  ThoUon.    This  has  a  central 
fixed  part  and  two  syinmetncal  movable  systems  (oonsistinE  of 
metallic  plates  connected  by  joints  and  having  pnsins  fixed  on 
them)  capable  of  turning  alxrat  fixed  axes  parallel  to  the  slit — 
On  the  densities  of  vapour,  by  M.  Troost.     The  density  of 
vapour  of  acetic  add  takes  its  theoretical  value,  oorrespcmd* 
ding   to   four   volumes,   even  at]  temperatures   bordering  on 
120 ,    if   a   weak   pressure   be  operated  with.— Dissociation 
of  carbonate  of   baryta,  by]  M.   Isambert — Memoir  on    tfae^ 
solubility  of  lime    in   water,  b^  M.  Lamy.    This  aolubilitjr' 
varies   with    the   nature    or   origin    of  the    lime,    its   state 
of  molecular  aggregation,  the  temperature  of  its  preparation,  its 
ddiydration  or  rec^cination,  its  duration  of  contact  with  water, 
and  previous  heating  of  the  milk  of  lime. — On  anhydrous  ^• 
chloracetic  acid,   hy  M.  Clermont— On  the  combinations  of 
querdte,  by  M.  Prunier. — On  the  nature  of  the  very  volatile 
products  contained  in  raw  boizines,  by  MM.  Vincent  and  Dela.* 
chanaL    Besides  carburets  of  hydrogen  and  coal  oils,  the  authors 
find  ordinary  alcohol,  cyanide  of  methyl,  and  sulphide  of  carbon. 
— On  the  employment  of  rotatory  discs  for  study  of  colour  sen- 
sations (continued) ;  harmony  of  colours,  by  M.  RosenstiehL — 
On  UM  of  the  polaruing  microscope  with  parallel  light  for  deter- 
mination of  the  mineral  spedes  contained  in  thin  plates  of  erup- 
tive   rocks,    by  M.  Levy. — On  the   leadhillite  of  Matlock, 
by  M.  Bertrand. — On  a  new  density  apparatus,  by  M.  PisanL 
— Experiments  demonstrating  tiie  rSU  of  air  introduced  into 
the  arterial  and  venous  systems,  by  M.  Fdtz.      Air  introduced, 
even    in    a   ver^    small    quantity,   into   the   aortic    system, 
works   great   mischief ;   introduced   into   the   venous  system 
it  is  almost  without  danger. — New   researches  on  the  func- 
tion of  mucedineae  and  their  property  of  inverting  cane-sugar 
(Apropos  of  a  note  by  M.  Gayon)^  by  M.  Bechamp. — Treatment 
of  cancers  of  the  breast  by  ischaemia  of  the  manunary  gland  by 
means  of  vulcanised  caoutchouc,  by  M.  Bouchut — Barometric 
differences  between  neighbouring  stations,  by  M.  Roiou. — Re- 
marks on  M.  Faye's  note  r^arding  relations  between  phenomena 
of  terrestrial  magnetism  and  the  rotation  of  the  sun,  by  M.  Broun. 
— On  the  tdephone,  by  M.  Champvallier.     It  is  ponible  to 
correspond  tdephooicaUy  on  wires  carried  on  posts  which  also 
support  wires  for  ordinary  tel^japhy  to  an  extent  of  at  least  ten 
kilometres,  andprobably  much  fnrtlier. — On  the  telephone^  by 
M.  Breguet    The  effect  is  improved  by  placing  erne  or  more 
vibrating  plates  (perforated  at  the  centre)  at  about  one  millimetre 
in  front  of  the  ordinary  plate  of  the  telephone.— On  the  earth- 
quake at  Paris  on  January  28,  by  M.  de  Cannes. — On  the  same^ 
by  M.  Lefebvre. 

CONTENTS  Fags 

Ms.  STANLtY .     .     997 

WasGALILBO  TOKTORBDr     , 999 

Thb  Agriculturai.  SociBTY •    ...    301 

OvK  Book  Shxlt  :« 

Moadey's  *' Oregon :  iu  Resources,  CUnuUe,  People,  and  P!roduc- 
tSons^.    •• .....JOS 

Rmtton's  *' Handbook  of  Common  Salt" •    .    30s 

LSTTBXS  TO  THB  SdITOB  :—> 

The  "Phantom"  Force.~Pro£.  A.  S.  Hbbscrbl 303 

Aid  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evolution.— John  I.  PLumna .    .  303 
Faraday's  ''Experimental  Researches."~SiLVANU8  P.   Thomp- 

soif 30a 

Clauds  Bbrnasd 304 

A  Physician's  Expsriubnt 305 

Social  Klbctrical  Nsrvbs 30s 

OUS  ASTROMOMICAL  COLUBCM  :— 

The  Star  LAUnde  19,034 306 

Variable  Nebula: 306 

Minor  Planets Jl,  306 

MSTBOROLOGICAL  NOTSS :  -~ 

Atmospheric  Movements  .......        m 307 

Climate  of  India •307 

Low  Barometric  Reading  in  the  Hebrides,  November  ix,  1877  .    .    307 

Cumulative  Temperatures 308 

Gso  graphical  Notss  :— 

Brazil 308 

Africa 308 

An  Arimuth  Instrument .....308 

Arctic  Exploration 308 

The  Angara •• 30S 

NoTiu 30^ 

D'Akrkst's  Spbctroscopical  Rsssarcubs 31X 

Thb  Progrbss  op  Mbtborolocv.    By  Dr.  G.  Nbumavbr,  ...    .3(3 

UmvBBSiTv  AND  Sdvcational  Imtblugbmcb 314 

SasNTiPic  Sbrials 314 

SoOBTIBS  AMD  AcAOBMIBS 314 


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THURSDAY,  FEBRUARY   21,  1878 


THE  HEAD^MASTERS    ON    SCIENCE 
TEACHING^ 

IT  is  much  to  the  credit  of  the  head-masters  that  they 
should  have  moved  voluntarily  in  the  matter  of 
science  teaching.  The  great  majority  of  them  are  known 
to  look  upon  it  without  hostility,  but  have  hesitated  to 
introduce  it  into  their  schools,  in  ignorance  of  its  educa- 
tional value,  of  the  time  and  teaching  poi/er  necessary, 
of  subjects,  methods,  cost  Since  the  Report  of  the 
Science  Commission  all  see  that  it  must  come,  and  that 
it  is  better  for  the  schools  to  shape  the  system  to  be 
adopted  leisurely  and  in  concert  than  to  wait  till  it  is 
forced  upon  them  from  without.  A  few  schools  have 
already  accepted  it  in  principle ;  a  very  few  have  worked 
it  adequately  for  some  years  past ;  to  these  the  Head- 
Masters'  Conmiittee  have  applied  for  information^  and 
their  published  answers  are  before  us. 

Questions  were  issued  to  the  masters  of  twenty-four 
schools,  of  whom  nineteen  replied.  They  refer  to  the 
time  spent  on  science  in  actual  school  work,  the  per- 
cenUge  of  boys  taught,  the  age  at  which  teaching  should 
begin,  the  subjects  included,  the  methods  and  texts  em- 
ployed, the  intellectual  results  apparent,  the  value  of 
laboratory  work,  the  cost  of  appliances,  the  influence, 
good  and  evil,  of  imiversity  scholarships,  the  textbooks 
reconunended ;  and  it  was  requested  that  the  answers 
might  convey  not  individual  theories  of  what  might  and 
ought  to  be,  but  a  record  of  what  had  been  and  was  being 
done  in  each  particular  school. 

It  is  evident  that  the  first  question,  as  to  time  spent  in 
teaching,  is  vital  to  the  whole,  and  should  determine 
primarily  the  comparative  weight  due  to  the  answers  sent 
from  each  head-master.  Unfortunately  the  answers  to  it 
are  in  a  great  measure  unreliable.  Only  one  school  gives 
the  total  number  of  its  actual  working  hours  ;  some  do, 
and  some  do  not  apparently  include  hours  of  "  prepara- 
tion'' in  their  estimate  ;  one  large  school,  Clifton,  omits 
to  reckon  the  extra  time  given  to  special  classes,  and 
probably  others  do  the  same ;  while  Harrow,  Magdalen, 
and  Dulwich,  all  valuable  witnesses,  make  no  return. 
Taking  the  answers  as  they  stand,  eleven  of  the  nineteen 
schools  give  from  two  to  four  hours  only  as  a  maximum 
per  week,  inclusive  of  practical  work ;  and  in  some  cases, 
at  least,  this  is  probably  correct,  representing  also  many 
more  schools  than  are  included  in  the  list.  Such  schools 
have  made  a  good  beginning,  are  feeling  their  way  to 
more  extended  teaching,  and  will  hail  the  information 
given  in  these  pages.  But  their  maximum  would  be 
thought  ludicrous  in  the  case  of  literature  or  mathematics ; 
it  gives  no  real  chance  to  science  either  as  a  storehouse 
of  useful  knowledge,  or  as  a  weapon  of  intellectual  train- 
ing; and  accordingly  the  evidence  valuable  to  school- 
masters is  contained  mainly  in  the  answers  sent  by  the 
remaining  schools. 

These  may  be  tobulated  as  follows  :— 

*  Appendix  to  Repcr'  of  Head-Masteri*  Cominiitee,  1877.    Antircrs  to 
Questioiu  OB  NAturai  S       -t. 


School. 


Vol.  xvn,- 


"i 


Bradford        

Clifton^ 

Giggleswick 

King's  College 

Manchester    

Newcastle-under-   ) 

Lyme ( 

Taunton 

Wellington     


Hours  per  weekghfca 

to  science  in  diflf&ent 

pautsofschooL 

Percentage  of  boys 
leaminc  sdence. 

10,  4.  3i  2 

8.  6,  5,  2 
7.  5.  5, 

7,  4,2 

10,8  4.  3 
6,  3i.  i 

No  return. 

t 

No  return. 
No  return. 

90 

87 
73 

As  regards  the  age  at  which  the  study  should  com- 
mence, Clifton,  Taunton,  and  Wellington  think  that  it 
cannot  begin  too  early ;  the  rest  give  years  ranging  from 
ten  to  thirteen.  All  the  schools  agree  in  teaching 
chemistry  and  physics ;  three  teach  botany,  three  geology. 
All  test  progress  by  periodical  frequent  examinations 
within  the  school,  Clifton  and  Taunton  specifying  the 
period  as  once  in  three  weeks.  All  but  one  speak  highly 
of  the  use  of  note-books;  five  object  strongly  to 
examinations  from  without,  two  find  them  useful.  Brad- 
ford, Clifton,  Taunton,  Wellington  celebrate  the  good 
effects  of  science  as  a  school  subject,  from  its  stimulating 
power,  its  bringing  apparently  dull  boys  to  the  front,  its 
mculcating  a  comprehension  of  physical  law.  Six 
schools  make  practical  laboratory  work  compulsory ;  one, 
Clifton,  has  regard  to  special  aptitude  shown  by  boys ; 
one  alone,  Bradford,  would  not  enforce  it  at  alL 

The  evidence  as  to  cost  is  complicated ;  the  questions 
were  well  arranged,  but  many  of  the  answers  give  aggre- 
gate sums,  without  saying  how  many  boys  the  outlay  was 
calculated  to  supply.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the 
costly  appUances  of  Clifton,  including  chemical  and 
physical  laboratories  and  lecture-rooms  with  fittings  of 
every  kind,  cost  about  5/.  per  head  of  pupils  intended  to 
be  taught ;  those  of  Newcastle  about  4/.  per  head ;  of 
Giggleswick  3/. ;  of  Taunton  less  than  2/.  :  that  is  to  say, 
chemistry  and  physics  may  be  taught  for  ever  to  one 
hundred  boys  with  an  original  expenditure  of  200/.,  and 
cannot  where  money  is  plentiful  cost  more  than  500/. 
For  the  further  consolation  of  beginners  and  of  poorer 
schools  we  learn  that  a  Clifton  master's  apparatus  for 
three  chemical  and  three  physical  lectures  a  week  cost  8/. 
once  for  all,  exclusive  of  air-pump  and  balance,  and  that 
in  lecturing  for  five  years  he  has  not  spent  3/.  a  year ; 
while  the  Taunton  master  announces  that  a  man  with 
leisure  and  dexterity  to  make  his  own  apparatus  can 
begin  with  table,  gas,  water,  a  few  shelves,  and  5/. ;  and 
adds  that  his  own  lectures  cost  only  6</.  each. 

Valuable  opinions  are  reported  as  to  the  influence  exer- 
cised by  the  universities  on  school  teaching.  All  head- 
masters know  that  the  mischief  inflicted  on  education  by 
the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  system  is  incalculable,  and 
the  opinion  finds  expression  in  these  answers.  To  gain 
a  science  scholarship  a  boy  must  abandon  during  the  last 
two  or  three  years  of  his  school  course  all  subjects  except 
science,  with  such  a  minimum  of  classics  and  mathe- 
matics as  may  secure  him  against  a  pluck  in  the  Little- 
go  ;  and,  mutato  nomine^  the  same  is  true  of  candi- 
dates for  either  classical  or  mathematical  scholarships. 

I  This  is  from  private  informati<»i.    Th«  returns  given  in  rhe  Report  are 
not  so  high. 


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NATURE 


[Feb.  21,  1878 


Those  who  think  that  school  education  should  be 
general ;  that  literature,  mathematics,  and  science  should 
share  it  in  fair  proportions ;  and  that  entrance  scholar- 
ships at  the  university  should  be  awarded  to  general 
excellence,  will  understand  how  the  present  system  dis- 
heartens every  thoughtful  educator,  who  groans  over  the 
intellectual  development  of  his  best  boys  distorted  in 
obedience  to  this  tyranny  of  special  prizes,  which  he 
nevertheless  must  win,  or  forfeit  his  reputation  as  a 
teacher. 

An  exhaustive  list  of  text-books  is  given  by  the  various 
schools.  Some  of  them  are  valuable  to  the  teacher  only ; 
others  indispensable  to  the  pupils.  With  very  few  excep- 
tions their  price  is  exceedingly  moderate,  though  expen- 
sive books  such  as  Watts*  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry," 
and  Weinhold's  "  Practical  Physics,"  should  have  their 
place  in  the  school  library  as  books  of  reference. 

It  is  clear  that  the  publication  of  this  Report  marks  a 
step  in  advance  along  the  path  of  scientific  education. 
It  contains  not  opinions,  but  facts  ;  not  theories  of  what 
the  teaching  should  be,  but  records  of  what  it  is ;  and 
this  not  scattered  through  the  discursive  pages  of  a  Blue- 
book,  but  condensed  into  a  pamphlet  of  [thirty  pages. 
Not  less  instructive  is  the  comparative  unanunity  with 
which  different  schools,  swayed  by  independent  traditions, 
advancing  on  different  lines,  and  ignorant  of  each  other's 
movements,  have  worked  out  the  same  practical  results 
and  are  teaching  the  same  subjects  by  the  same  methods. 
The  problem  is  virtually  solved ;  the  difficulties  inherent 
in  the  recasting  of  an  ancient  system  have  disappeared 
so  soon  as  they  were  honestly  faced  ;  and  the  head- 
masters, who  perhaps  looked  shyly  on  advice  from  with- 
out, will  listen  to  it,  let  us  hope,  when  recommended  by 
their  colleagues.  To  this  end  the  contents  of  the  Report 
should  be  summarised,  and  circulated  amongst  the  schools. 
It  would  lie  easy  for  the  head-masters  and  science-masters 
of  the  schools  which  have  answered  questions  to  constitute 
an  informal  committee.  A  small  working  sub-committee 
would  soon  formulate  a  scheme  of  science  teaching, 
based  on  the  conclusions  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire's 
Commission,  giving  accurate  particulars  as  to  methods, 
books,  tests,  and  cost  of  teaching  chemistry  and  physics, 
with  further  information  on  the  subject  of  museums, 
workshops,  botanical  gardens,  and  observatories;  and 
this  paper,  drawn  up  in  the  simplest  and  most  practical 
shape,  might  be  sent  at  once  to  all  first-class  schools  with 
the  imprimatur  of  the  entire  committee.  It  would 
hardly  fail  to  gain  converts  amongst  present  schools ; 
each  new  head-master,  appointed,  as  they  are  appointed 
now,  with  an  understanding  that  they  shall  find  room 
for  science  in  their  curriculum,  would  hail  it  as  of  the 
highest  value ;  and  when  compulsory  legislation  comes, 
as  come  it  must,  the  necessary  details  will  all  be  ready  to 
its  hand.  W.  Tuckwell 

FRANKLAND'S  RESEARCHES  IN 
CHEMISTRY^ 
Experimental  Researches  in  Pure^  Applied^  and  Physical 
Chemistry.    By  E.  Frankland,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
&c.    (London  :  Van  Voorst.) 

THE  section  (II.)  that  Dr.  Frankland  devotes  to  his 
researches  in  Applied  Chemistry  is  not  the  least 
interesting  of  the  work,  though  the  chief  topics  are  Gas 

<  Condnued  from  p.  219. 


and  Water.  The  author's  investigation  of  White's  process 
for  manufacturing  hydrocarbon  gas  by  passing  steam 
over  red-hot  coke,  and  carbonising  the  gas  in  the  retort, 
led  to  the  clear  distinction  of  the  Illuminating  from  the 
non-illuminating  constituents  of  the  hydrocarbon  gas  and 
of  ordinary  coal-gas.  It  was  shown  that  marsh  gas  is 
valueless  as  a  light  producer  during  combustion,  and  that 
the  luminosity  of  a  gas  fiame  is  due  to  the  heavier  hydro- 
carbons present,  whose  illuminatmg  value  can  be  deduced 
from  analysis  and  expressed  in  terms  of  olefiant  gas. 
Such  an  indirect  method  of  estimating  the  illuminating 
value  of  a  sample  of  gas  is  certainly  interesting,  but^  it  is 
clearly  unsafe ;  for  it  involves  the  assumption  that  the 
illuminating  value  b  directly  proportional  to  the  per- 
centage of  a  hydrocarbon  mixture  of  unknown  constitu- 
tion, calculated  somewhat  empirically  into  equivalents  of 
the  well-defined  ethylene.  Moreover,  some  recent  expe- 
riments by  Dittmar  seem  to  show  that  ethylene  does  not 
contribute  nearly  so  much  to  the  luminosity  of  a  hydrogen 
gas  flame  as  benzole  vapour.  Hydrogen  containing  as 
much  as  lo  per  cent,  of  ethylene  gave  a  very  feebly 
luminous  flame,  while  hydrogen  charged  with  only  3  per 
cent,  of  benzole  vapour  afforded  a  brilliant  light  when 
the  gas  was  burned.  Fortunately  Dr.  Frankland  does 
not  wholly  rely  upon  the  method  in  comparing— ^s  he 
does  in  his  introductory  remarks  on  the  gas  investiga- 
tions—the London  supply  of  185 1  with  that  of  1876 ;  for 
he  has  partially  employed  the  photometer  as  a  check.  In 
1 85 1  the  London  gas  supply  contained  7*01  per  cent,  of 
olefiant  gas,  or  its  equivalent  of  other  illuminating  hydro- 
carbon, while  in  1876  the  percentage  was  7*02.  From 
these  data  it  was  concluded  that  there  was  no  difiference 
in  illuminatmg  power  although  the  1876  gas  should  be, 
according  to  the  Act  of  Parliament,  four  candles  better 
than  that  of  185 1.     Dr.  Frankland  says : — 

*'  The  improvement  of  the  coal  gas  sold  in  London  has 
been  only  imaginary,  for  no  real  alteration  has  been 
eflected.  It  has  been  made  to  appear  better,  by  testing 
it  with  improved  burners;  but,  as  consumed  by  the 
burners  almost  universally  employed,  it  gives  no  more 
light  in  1876  than  it  did  in  1851 — a  conclusion  which  is 
confirmed  by  the  results  of  simultaneous  comparative 
trials  made  by  Mr.  Humpidge  with  two  burners,  one  of 
them  similar  to  those  by  which  London  coal  gas  was 
tested  in  1 85 1,  and  the  other,  the  so-called  'gas  referee's 
burner,'  at  present  employed  in  testing  London  coal  gas. 
At  4  P.M.  on  June  6,  1876,  the  gas  supplied  by  the 
Chartered  Company  to  South  Kensington  Museum  gave, 
when  consumed  at  the  rate  of  ^s^  cubic  feet  per  hour  from 
the  1851  test-burner,  a  light  ec^ual  to  ii*i  standard  candles, 
and  on  June  28,  at  3  p.m.,  a  light  equal  to  10*5  standard 
candles ;  but  when  the  same  gas  was  tested  at  the  same 
hours  by  the  present  referee's  burner,  it  gave,  when  con- 
sumed at  the  same  rate,  a  light  equal  to  14*3  candles  on 
June  6,  and  a  light  equal  to  14*5  candles  on  June  28." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  photometric  determinations 
in  the  above  cases  substantially  agreed  with  the  analytical 
results,  which  latter  may,  in  consequence,  be  accepted  so 
far.  The  general  result,  however,  is  eminently  unsatis- 
factory to  all  persons  interested,  save  the  gas  company. 

The  second  inquiry  undertaken  in  coimection  with  gas 
was  that  on  the  igniting  point  of  coal-gas.  The  chief 
facts  elicited  possess  so  much  general  interest  that  we 
may  mention  them  here.  They  were  : — i.  That  cosd-gas 
ignites  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  nuirsh-gas,  but 
at  a  higher  temperature  than  hydrogen^or  carbonic  oxide. 


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2.  That  the  admixture  of  the  vapour  of  carbon  bisulphide 
does  not  sensibly  lower  the  igniting  point  of  coal-gas, 
although  alone,  or  mixed  with  hydrogen  or  carbonic 
oxide,  this  vapour  inflames  at  400°  F.  3.  The  Davy 
lamp,  which  is  a  protection  in  explosive  mixtures  of  air 
and  firedamp,  is  not  safe  in  similar  mixtures  of  air  and 
coal-gas. 

The  third  paper  in  the  section  discusses  the  possibility 
of  making  metallic  magnesium  available  as  a  source  of 
artificial  light :  and  the  last  paper,  relating  to  the  use  of 
illuminating  materials,  describes  the  construction  of  a 
gas-burner,  in  which  the  waste  heat  of  the  flame  is  made 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  both  air  and  gas  to  500°  or 
600''  F.  before  combustion,  and  thus  to  increase  the 
luminosity  of  the  flame. 

The  author's  group  of  papers  on  water  examination 
and  purification,  and  on  the  treatment  of  sewage  and 
other  refuse,  occupies  nearly  300  pages  of  the  volume 
before  us.  The  value  of  Dr.  Frankland's  investigations 
in  sanitary  chemistry  has  been  variously  estimated,  and 
a  glance  over  the  pages  before  us  recalls  the  wordy  war- 
fare that  has  been  waged  between  the  upholders  of  Dr. 
Frankland's  system  of  water  analysis  and  of  the  conclu- 
sions founded  upon  the  data  afforded  by  it,  and  those  that 
put  their  trust  in  the  method  devised  by  Messrs.  Wank- 
lyn.  Chapman,  and  Smith.  We  anticipate  that  the  re- 
publication of  Dr.  Frankland's  papers  will  impart  fresh 
vitality  to  a  controversy  that  seemed,  happily,  to  be  on 
the  wane.  If,  however,  a  renewal  of  the  controversy  is 
likely  to  lead  to  re-investigation  and  substantial  improve- 
ment in  the  existing  methods  of  water  analysis,  we  shall 
not  regret  the  re-opening  of  the  subject 

The  chief  aim  of  all  modem  methods  of  water  analysis 
is  the  detection  and  estimation  of  organic  (especially 
sewage)  contamination.  Dr.  Frankland  seeks  to  attain 
the  end  in  view  by  direct  estimation  of  the  "  organic " 
carbon  and  nitrogen  in  the  water,  while  Messrs.  Wanklyn, 
Chapman,  and  Smith  attempt  to  estimate  the  nitrogenous 
organic  matter  in  water  by  breaking  up  the  organic  bodies 
and  separating  their  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia— 
'^  albumenoid  ammonia.''  A  rather  extended  experience  in 
the  use  of  both  methods  has  led  us  to  conclude  that  Dr. 
Frankland's  plan,  though  nearly  perfect  in  point  of 
theory,  is  not  as  satisfactory  in  practice ;  while  the  rival 
method  rests  on  a  bad  foundation,  but  is  not  likely  to 
lead  to  error  in  excess.  We  may  state  this  much  without 
trenching  too  far  upon  technical  ground,  but  we  do  so  in 
order  to  justify  the  desire  above  expressed  for  a  re-inves- 
tigation of  the  subject,  conducted  with  a  view  to  render  the 
theory  and  practice  off  water  analysis  equally  satisfactory. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  mention  that  we  find  in  this 
section  Df .  Frankland's  valuable  papers  on  the  develop- 
ment of  fimgi  in  potable  water  ;  on  the  deterioration  of 
potable  water  during  its  passage  through  cast  iron  mains 
and  leaden  service  pipes ;  on  the  methods  of  softening 
"  hard "  water,  and  on  the  comparative  purity  of  water 
from  various  geological  strata,  and  from  different  sources 
such  as  moimtain  streams  and  lakes,  rivers,  shallow  wells, 
artesian  wells,  and  springs.  In  addition,  experimental 
data  are  given  showing  the  extent  to  which  polluted  water 
can  be  purified  by  various  means  and  rendered  fit  for 
domestic  purposes.  These  papers,  together  with  those  on 
sewage  treatment,  are  of  especial  value  to  sanitary  engi- 


neers, and  will  no  doubt  be  more  freely  consulted  in  their 
present  well-connected  form  than  when  scattered  through 
other  publications. 

In  Section  III.  Dr.  Frankland  returns  to  gases  and 
vapours — evidently  favourite  subjects  of  study  with  him 
since  the  date  of  his  discovery  of  the  alcohol  radicles— 
but  now  from  the  physical  side.  The  first  investigations 
detailed  in  the  section  are  those  upon  the  effect  of  pres- 
sure on  combustion,  which  led  him  to  conclude  that 
the  luminosity  of  ordinary  flames]  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
presence  of  incandescent  vapours  or  gases  of  high 
density,  rather  than  to  solid  particles.  The  author's 
experiments  on  the  combustion  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
oxide  under  great  pressure  proved  that  incandescent  gases 
and  vapours  emit  light  in  proportion  to  their  density, 
and  that  a  continuous  spectrum  can  be  afforded  by 
dense  gas  as  well  as  by .  solid  or  liquid  matter. 
These  observations  led  to  the  suspicion  that  the  sun's 
photosphere  consists  of  gases  or  vapours  only,  and  ulti- 
mately to  the  commencement  of  a  new  line  of  research 
in  conjunction  with  Mr.  J.  Norman  Lockyer,  who  was 
then  engaged  on  his  researches  on  the  physical  constitu- 
tion of  the  stm.  Dr.  Frankland  was  soon  obliged  to 
relinquish  the  investigation,  owing  to  pressure  of  other 
work ;  but  in  Mr.  Lockyer's  hands  it  has  since  afforded 
results  of  the  highest  interest  and  value. 

Excluding  a  chapter  on  climate,  and  some  miscellaneous 
observations,  the  last  research  detailed  in  the  volume 
before  us  is  a  highly  important  one  on  the  source  of  mus- 
cular power.  This  inquiry  is  really  complementary  to  the 
well-lmown  investigation  of  Profs.  Fick  and  Wislicenus 
on  the  same  subject,  for  Dr.  Frankland  ascertained  by 
direct  calorimetrical  determinations  the  potential  energy 
locked  up  in  muscle  and  in  its  chief  products  of  oxidation 
— urea,  uric  acid,  and  hippuric  acid — and  proved  that  the 
store  available  was  much  less  than  would  suffice  to 
account  for  the  work  done  by  Fick  and  Wislicenus  in 
the  ascent  of  the  Faulhom.  Frankland's  experiments 
conclusively  proved  that  the  muscular  force  expended  by 
the  two  professors  in  the  ascent  of  the  mountain  must 
have  been  chiefly  derived  from  the  oxidation  of  non- 
nitrogenous  matters,  since  it  could  not  have  been  pro- 
duced by  the  oxidation  of  muscle  or  other  nitrogenous 
constituents  of  their  bodies.  This  investigation  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  in  the  section,  and  will  be  re-read 
with  special  interest  in  connection  with  the  Rev.  Prof. 
Haughton's  latest  researches. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  short  sketch  of  Dr.  Frankland's 
admirable  researches  without  giving  expression  to  the 
hope  we  entertain  that  the  well-arranged  volume  before  us 
may  prove  to  be  but  an  instalment  of  the  life-work  of  its 
distinguished  author.  J.  Emerson  Reynolds 

FLORA  OF  TROPICAL  AFRICA 
Flora  of  Tropical  Africa.  By  Daniel  Oliver,  F.R.S., 
F.L.S.,  Keeper  of  the  Herbarium  and  Library  in  the 
Royal  Gardens,  Kew.  and  Professor  of  Botany  in  Uni- 
versity College,  London.  Assisted  by  other  botanists. 
Vol  iii.  UmWliferse  to  Ebenacea:.  Published  under  the 
Authority  of  the  First  Commissioner  of  Her  Majesty's 
Works.    (London  :  L.  Reeve  and  Co.,  1877.) 

THE  third  volume  of  Oliver's  "Flora  of  Tropical 
Africa"  includes  fourteen  natural  orders,  mostly 
belonging  to  the  sub-class  Gamopetalae  of  the  Dicotyle- 


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[Feb.  21,  1878 


dons.  The  two  orders,  Umbellifene  and  Araliaceae,  both 
by  Mr.  W.  P.  Hiem,  and  occupying  the  first  thirty-two 
pages,  were  printed  in  1871  along  with  vol  ii.,  the  rest 
being  all  new.  The  district  included  in  the  present 
volume  is  of  course  the  same  as  that  mentioned  in  the 
previous  ones,  extending  on  each  side  of  the  equator  for 
somewhere  about  fifteen  degrees.  It  is  divided  into  six 
regions,  two  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent,  distin- 
guished as  Upper  and  Lower  Guinea,  two  on  the  east 
side ;  Nile  Land  and  Mozambique  and  the  intervening 
region  divided  into  the  north  and  south-central.  The 
district  is  therefore  one  of  vast  extent,  and  will  probably 
yield  many  new  forms  when  further  exploration  renders 
our  knowledge  of  the  country  and  of  its  productions  more 
complete  than  it  is  at  present. 

The  Umbelliferae  are  represented  in  the  flora  by  twenty- 
one  genera  and  about  forty-four  species.  The  number  of 
genera  is  small  when  contrasted  with  the  thirty-four 
found  in  Britain.  Several  familiar  British  forms  are 
found  in  this  flora,  of  which  it  will  only  be  necessary  to 
mention  Sanicula  europaa^  Conium  tnaculaium^  Aftthris- 
cus  sylvestris^  Daucus  carota^  and  Caucalis  infesia.  Five 
genera  are,  however,  endemic  in  Africa.  The  genus 
Peucedanum  is  interesting  as  including  two  species,  P, 
araliaccum  and  P,  fraxinifolium^  both  small  glabrous 
trees.  The  Araliaceae  are  tmimportant,  and  represented 
by  only  three  genera  and  fourteen  species. 

By  far  the  most  important  monograph  in  the  'present 
volume  is  that  on  the  Rubiaceae,  by  Mr.  W.  P.  Hiem.  It 
occupies  over  200  pages,  or  nearly  as  many  as  the  mono- 
graph of  the  Composita;,  the  joint  production  of  Messrs 
Oliver  and  Hiem.  The  Rubiaceae  form  a  very  extensive 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  order,  most  richly  represented  in 
America.  Tropical  Africa,  however,  possesses  seventy- 
eight  genera,  about  thirty  of  which  are  endemic,  and  three 
of  these  are  now  described  for  the  first  time  by  Mr.  Hiem. 
The  genus  Coffea  is  fully  treated  of  by  Mr.  Hiem. 
The  C  arabica  occurs  in  four  of  the  districts  of  the 
flora,  but  not  in  the  two  Central  regions.  The  new 
coflee,  C  iibericay  Hiem,  which  promises  to  be  of  so 
much  value,  is  here  noticed.  It  is  the  source  of  the 
Liberian  coflee,  and  probably  of  the  Cape  Coast  coflee. 
The  berries  are  said  to  be  larger,  the  flavour  finer,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  plant  is  more  robust  and  productive 
than  the  ordinary  C,  arabica.  The  C.  arabica  has  the 
flowers  pentamerous,  while  in  C.  liberica  they  are  7-  or 
6-merous  ;  or,  according  to  the  key  to  the  species,  6  to 
8-merous.  The  genus  Sarcocephalus  is  an  interesting 
one,  the  fruits  cohering  to  form  a  pseudocarp  known  as 
the  peach,  or  country  fig,  of  Sierra  Leone.  The  shape 
and  colour  of  the  pseudocarp  is  that  of  a  strawberry,  but 
in  flavour  it  resembles  an  apple.  Unfortunately  if  eaten 
to  excess  it  acts  as  an  emetic.  Two  familiar  species  of 
Galium  are  also  included  in  the  flora,  namely^  G,  aparine 
and  G,  moUugo. 

The  Valerianaceae  are  represented  by  the  European 
Vaieriafulla  dentata  only.  The  Dipsaceae  by  three  genera, 
Scabiosa  yielding  two  familiar  species.  Both  these  small 
orders  are  by  Mr.  Hiem. 

The  Natural  Family  Compositas,  the  joint  production 
of  Profl  Oliver  and  Mr.  Hiero,  occupies  the  chief  place 
in  the  volume,  as  would  be  expected  of  the  largest  order 
of  flowering  plants.    The  number  in  the  tropical  region 


of  Africa,  468  species,  is  small  compared  with  the  1,300 
species  occurring  in  the  Cape  flora.  In  tropical  Africa 
there  are  117  genera,  seventeen  being  endemic,  and  all  of 
these  latter  either  small  or  monotypic.  Many  of  the 
forms  are  of  great  interest,  and  some  of  the  genera  very 
extensive.  It  is  curious  to  meet  with  Erigeron  alpinus 
in  Abyssinia,  along  with  Senecio  vul^aris^  and  others, 
some  of  them  familiar  weeds.  The  genus  Tarchonanthus 
forms  a  small  tree,  and  it  was  upon  a  species  of  this 
genus  that  Dr.  Welwitsch  found  the  only  species  of 
Viscum  he  met  with  in  Angola. 

The  Campanulaceae  are  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Hcmsley,  who 
reduces  the  peculiar  Abyssinian  plants  known  as  Tupa 
to  the  genus  Lobelia^  and  describes  two  species,  L.  rhyn- 
chopetalum  and  L.  giberroa.  One  species  of  LigktfooHcL^ 
from  Lower  Guinea,  is  of  interest.  In  it  {L.  welwitschii) 
the  ovary  is  almost  wholly  superior,  while  in  all  oth^s 
the  ovary  is  inferior,  the  plant  thus  looking  very  imlike 
the  other  members  of  the  Campanulaceae.  Four  genera 
of  Ericaceae  occur,  but  only  one  species  of  Erica,  viz^ 
E.  arborea,  thus  contrasting  with  the  Cape  flora  where 
the  species  are  most  numerous.  The  Ericaceae,  Plumba- 
gineae,  and  Primulaceae  are  by  Prof.  Oliver,  but  are  small 
and  unimportant  The  Myrsineae  and  Sapotaceae  are  by 
Mr.  J.  G.  Baker,.and  the  Ebenaceae  by  Mr.  Hiem,  who 
has  already  published  a  monograph  of  this  group. 

The  greater  part  of  the  volume  is  by  Mr.  Hiem,  who 
contributes  about  270  pages,  while,  along  with  Prof.  Oliver, 
he  contributes  207  pages  more.  About  twenty  pages  each 
are  contributed  by  Messrs.  Baker  and  Hemsley,  while 
eight  only  are  from'  the  pen  of  Prof.  Oliver  alone.  This 
handsome  volume  of  about  550  pages  adds  another  to 
the  long  series  of  "  Floras  ^  now  so  well  known  and  so 
highly  appreciated  that  have  from  time  to  time  issued 
from  Kcw.  W.  R.  McNab 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  hmself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents,  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  ntanuscripts., 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  eommumcations, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  at 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  ts  so  great  that  tt 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com^ 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts,] 

Marine  Fossils  in  the  Qannlster  Beds  of 
Northumberland 

I  TAKB  the  earliest  opportunity  to  announce,  through  your 
columns  (if  you  will  allow  me  to  do  so),  that  on  the  9th  of  this 
month  (Febmary),  while  conducting  the  usual  weekly  field- woric 
in  connection  with  this  college,  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  find 
marine  fossils  in  the  lower  coal  measuret,  or  gannister  beds  of 
Northumberland.  The  locality  is  about  half-way  between  the 
Stodcsfield  Station,  on  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle  Railway,  and 
the  village  of  Whittonstall.  As  I  have  more  than  once  insisted 
on  the  fact  that  hitherto  no  marine  forms  had  been  ibond  in  this 
series  in  this  country,  I  wish  to  be  the  first  to  destroy  the  effect 
which  that  negative  evidence  may  have  produced.  Tlie  import- 
ance which  the  study  of  the  gannister  fauna  has  assumed  since 
the  publication  of  Prof.  Hull's  recent  paper  on  the  Classification 
of  the  Carboniferous  Rocks  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geo* 
logical  Society^  need  not  be  dwelt  on. 

Full  details  of  the  find  will  be  published  elsewhere. 

G.  A.  Lebour 

College  of  Physical  Science,  Newcastle-on-Tjne,  February  ra 

Liquids  having  a  Specific  Heat  Higher  than  Water 
In  Nature,  vol.  avii.    p.    252,    it  is  stated:   "Hitherto 
water  has  been  regarded  as  possrssing  a  greater  specific  heat 


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than  any  other  body  excepting  hydrogen.  E.  Leckerhas  shown 
to  the  Vienna  Academy  that  mixtures  of  methylic  'alcohol  and 
water  have  a  specific  heat  higher  than  that  of  water,  and  accord- 
ingly take  the  second  place, '°&c.  Can  jou  spare  me  a  comer 
to  point  out  that  in  iSiSg  the  specific  heats  of  some  mixtures  of 
ethylic  alcohol  and  water  were  proved  by  Dr.  A.  Dupr^  and 
myself  to  be  considerably  higher  than  that  of  water,  e.g,  a  mix- 
ture containing  20  per  cent  alcohol,  has  a  specific  heat  of  104  3, 
water  «  100  \PhU,  Trans,,  1869,  591 ;  Watts's  Diet,  2nd  Sup- 
plement, 475).  Moreover,  we  especially  mentioned  "that  our 
experiments  Aimished  the  first  example  of  a  liquid  having  a 
specific  heat  higher  than  that  of  water."  Since  iS6g  Dr.  Dupr^ 
has  estimated  {/yoc,  Roy*  Soc,,  xx.  336)  the  specific  heats  of 
mixtures  of  methylic  alcohol  and  water  without  finding  any  such 
mixture  to  possess  a  specific  heat  above  that  of  water. 

Univenify  College,  London  F.  J.  M.  Page 


Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evolution 

I  HAVK  read  Mr.  Plummer's  letter  along  with  his  article  in 
the  Popular  Science  Review,  and  am  surprisied  at  his  objections 
to  my  paper  on  the  "  Age  of  the  Sun's  Heat" 

It  matters  not  whether  the  sun's  heat  was  derived  from  the 
contraction  of  his  mass  or  firom  the  £Uling  in  of  meteorites,  or  of 
comets,  as  advocated  by  Mr.  Plummer  in  the  article  referred  to, 
we  coidd  only  have  had  a  supply  of  heat  sufficient  for  twenty  or 
thirty  million  years,  at  the  present  rate  of  radiation.  Probably 
not  much  more  than  half  of  this  would  be  available  for  the  for- 
mation of  the  stxmtified  rocks,  and  the  development  of  life  on  the 
globe  ;  a  length  of  time  irreconcilable  alike  with  geology  and 
evolution.  We  are  therefore  compelled  to  look  for  some  other 
source  than  gravity  as  the  origin  of  the  sun's  heat.  It  will  not 
do  to  lengthen  this  period  by  assuming  that  the  rate  of  radiation 
was  less  during  past  ages  than  at  present,  because  we  should  have 
to  assume  that  tne  temperature  in  the  past  was  also  less,  a  conclu- 
sion at  variance  with  the  known  facts  of  geology  and  of  palaeon- 
tology. I  never  supposed  that  the  rate  of  radiation  in  the  past 
may  not  have  been  greater  than  now.  Nor  did  I  ever  sup- 
pose that  there  is  any  antecedent  improbability  whatever  m 
the  collision  of  stellar  masses.  What  I  maintained  {Quart. 
Joum,  of  Science  for  July,  1877)  was  that  the  formation  of 
a  sun  is  an  event  which,  on  an  average,  can  only  be  witnessed 
once  in  about  15,000  years,  or  the  number  of  visible  stars 
would  be  greater  than  it  actually  is.  And  this,  I  think,  is  a 
sufiident  reason  why  we  should  not  expect  any  historical  record 
of  such  an  event  Further,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that 
the  two  bodies  coming  into  collision  should  possess  equal  mass 
or  vdocity  in  order  to  have  their  motion  of  translation  converted 
into  heat  If  it  be  true  that  the  stars  derived  their  heat  from 
loss  of  motion  then  this  may  quite  well  explain  why  their  motions 
are  so  smalL  In  a  word,  the  energy  which  the  sun  has  been 
dissipating  into  space  through  past  ages,  always  existed  in  the 
form  of  motion.  Collision  onlv  changed  it  from  one  form  to 
another,  vis.,  from  the  motion  of  translation  to  molecular  motion. 

James  Croll 

The  "  Phantom  "  Force  ^ 

It  might  be  supposed  that  permanent  and  entirely  local  or 
'*  internal"  force-pairs  of  this  kmd  acting  on  innumerable  material 
couplets  in  a  system  would  so  disturb  Uie  individual  energies  of 
their  motions  that  no  general  conclusion  as  to  the  total  change 
of  energy  during  the  progress  of  such  a  system's  motion 
could  be  drawn ;  out  the  simple  law  that  impulsies  act  indepen- 
dently of  each  other  and  of  existing  motions  soon  shews  that  the 
whole  gain  of  energy  in  the  svstem  is  the  sum  of  the  separate 
gains  in  the  s^eral  mass-couplets  due  to  their  absolute  or  several 
actions  and  reactions  at  evory  instant  of  the  motion,  and  that 
when  these  abstract  force-pairs  are  all  permanent,  the  above 
constancy  of  the  sum  of  their  actual  and  potential  energies  is 
possessed  by  the  whole  system  as  perfectly  as  would  be  the  case 
by  one  only  of  its  couplets,  or  component  pairs.  That  this  is 
not  merely  an  abrid^;ed  expression  for  the  resulting  actual  energy 
in  all  the  possible  different  phases  that  such  a  system  may  go 
through,  briefiy  stated  for  any  initial  and  final  configurations  and 
initial  motion  of  the  system  by  means  of  the  negative  scale  or 
potential  function  of  aU  the  several  component  force-pairs  sup- 
posed known ;  not  merely,  that  is  to  say,  a  logical  consequence 
of  arbitrary  and  £uiciful  definitions,  but  a  conclusion  full  of 
importance  and  of  real  natural  signification  depends,  firstly,  upon 

>  Continued  from  p.  303. 


the  fact  that  the  thing  defined  as  "  impulse^"  or  the  gradient  of 
the  scale,  which  is  here  independent  of  the  time  and  depends 
only  on  the  mutual  configuration,  is  not  permanent  \fj  a  very  rare 
occurrence,  but  that  it  is  often  so,  and  under  very  various  circum- 
stances ;  and  again  that  this  impulse,  or  flux  of  momentum,  or 
gradient  of  energy,  occurs  in  many  other  motions  with  conditions 
of  equal  simplicity  ;  and  lastly,  and  above  all,  on  the  fact  pointed 
out  at  the  beginning  of  these  reflections,  that  while  we  are  able 
to  use,  and  of  our  free  will  to  call  into  existence  force  in  innu- 
merable ways,  we  learn  from  our  experience  that  this  impulse  ii 
invariably  caused  or  dictated  by  a  certain  special  efficacy  or  com- 
pulsion, which  our  power  of  exercising  it  as  we  please  so  as 
either  to  annul,  to  modify,  or  to  increase  it  at  will  with  the 
consequence  of  obtaining  with  it  any  effective  impulses  that  we 
desire,  shows  us  to  be  a  different  kind  of  quantity  from  the 
Impulses  that  we  either  thus  obtain/  or  that  we  see  it  produdng 
in  surrounding  nature.  Newton's  second  law  of  motion  in  fact 
recognises  this  specific  difference  between  the  magnitudes  of  a 
force  and  of  its  effect,  when  it  asserts  that  forces  produce  their 
whole  effects  (that  is  to  say,  remain  unaffected  in  their  efficacies) 
whatever  may  be  the  state  of  rest  or  of  motion  of  the  bodies  upon 
which  they  act  As  It  Is  found  that  forces  or  compulsions 
(measured  as  they  are  in  statics  by  additions,  subtractions,  and 
oppositions  to  a  standard  force)  are  always  proportional  to  the 
free  impulse,  or  undbturbed  acceleration  of  a  mass-unit  whidi 
they  can  produce,  so  that  by  taking  the  impulsive  effect  and 
the  active  compulsion  of  anv  one  standard  force  as  the  units 
for  measuring  these  quantities  respectively,  they  are  then  said 
to  be  numencally  equal  to  «!ach  other  in  every  force ;  it  yet 
follows  from  their  specific  independence  that  they  are  not  iden- 
tical in  kind  as  they  are  in  measure.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
products  obtained  by  multiplying  them  separately  by  any  small 
space  through  which  a  force  acts ;  and  it  would  be  an  obvious 
misstatement  to  assert  that  the  sum  of  the  works  of  a  compul- 
sion, and  of  the  free  impulse  which  It  produces  taken  negatively, 
is  constant  when  a  force  acts  freely ;  because  this  would  be 
confusing  in  one  sum  two  different  quantities ;  a  result  which 
it  seems  must  arise  from  the  simple  fact  that  our  part  in 
mechanical  "compulsions"  distinguishes  and  removes  them 
from  the  category  of  impulses  to  which  they  would  otherwise 
belong,  and  leads  us  to  regard  them  as  the  causes  of  the  im- 
pulses which  we  observe.  The  language  adopted  by  Newton 
(and  used  also  by  D'Alembert)  in  the  proposition  quoted  at  the 
begiimlng  of  this  letter  is  that  in  a  proper  mechanical  system, 
compulsions  equal  to  the  observed  impulses  reversed,  will  (as  is 
obvious)  arrest  in  their  origin  all  changes  of  motion  in  the 
system,  and  will  (with  the  immutable  force  conditions  proper 
to  the  ^tem)  hold  in  balance,  or  give  a  complete  account  of 
all  the  forces  (other  than  those  immutable  ones)  acting  upon  it 
Using  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities  in  this  case  of  eouillbrium 
of  balancing  forces,  Newton  expresses  the  rule  for  exploring  all 
the  mechanical  efficacies  (superadded  to  the  immutable  ones) 
acting  in  the  system  by  concluding  that  the  sum  of  all  the  similar 
'*  works  oi compulsion,**  or  of  all  the  •* actions  "  in  a  short  time 
corresponding  lo  a  small  motion  of  the  system,  when  the  reversed 
ones  have  been  introduced,  will  be  a  constant  quantity.  Thus 
both  Newton  and  D'Alembert  agree  in  this,  that  they  recognise 
in  forces  causes  which  differ  from  the  effects  which  they  produce. 
By  what  similar  laws  of  work  found  to  hold  true  in  a  proper 
conservative  system  the  modem  science  of  energy  (which  deals 
with  the  phenomena  of  causation  in  a  wider  and  more  diversified 
form)  seeks  to  extend  the  method  of  cancelling  the  counteracting 
causes,  or  the  principle  of  energy  conservation  here  laid  down  by 
Newton  for  a  mechanical  one,  to  the  far  larger,  but  less  thoroughly 
explored  and  exhausted  field  of  all  the  onward  flowing  streams 
of  physical  agencies  which  we  perceive  following  their  natural 
bents  or  inclinations  around  us,  I  will  presentlpr  endeavour  to 
explain.  It  should  be  noticed  in  connection  with  thb  general 
extension  of  the  principle,  that  the  "  work  "  of  a  force  in  a  short 
time,  however  fixed  its  efficacy,  or  its  rate  of  doing  work  in  a 
short  space  (or  of  producbg  momentum  in  the  short  time)  may  be, 
is  inddental,  and  not  a  fixed  quality  of  the  agent  force  like  its 
facultv  of  tension,  since  a  force  as  often  diminishes  as  increases 
actual  energy  by  a  momentary  action,  and  thus  no  fixed  rule  is 
drawn  from  the  natural  tendency  of  force  to  impart  momentum, 
that  potential  energy  necessarily  becomes,  or  even  necessarily  tends 
to  become,  actual  energy  in  every  mechanical  energy-transforma- 
tion. The  mechanical  stress  of  friction  is  an  example  of  the 
opposite  tendency ;  and  it  also  furnishes  us  with  an  example  of 
a  force  whose  working  power  only,  and  not  its  motive  tendency, 
is  a  mechanical  **  a^ent "  which  we  can  summon  up  at  will ;  but 


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of  which  we  still  regard  the  motive  tendency  as  similar  to  that 
of  o^er  mechanical  forces,  because  it  can  maintain  equilibrium 
with  them. 

If  the  natural  office  of  force  as  a  bond  between  space  and 
matter  is  to  ward  off  contact  between  material  points,  and  to 
endow  them  with  impenetrability  (for  this  marked  feature  as  fiur 
as  it  has  been  explored  appears  to  be  inherent  in  all  matter)  by 
absorbing  at  the  proper  places  the  energy  of  motion,  and  by  curbing 
and  acc£ratkig  it  usewhere  according  to  these  dictates,  it  must  b« 
implanted  in  material  points  in  such  permanent  pairs  as  have 
just  now  been  described ;  for  the  third  law  in  Newton's  master* 
summary  is  often  held  (with  how  much  correctness,  perhaps, 
may  be  questioned),  to  assert  that  all  the  forces  of  nature  consist 
of  an  action  and  a  reaction  in  equal  and  opposite  pairs,  and  be 
omnipresent  with  a  particle  to  protect  it,  its  permanent  impulse, 
or  rate  of  doing  work,  being  at  the  same  time  referrible  to  the 
space  or  distance  between  the  mutually  impinging,  or  colliding 
pair  of  atoms.    A  mechanical  system  so  constituted,  as  we  have 
seen,  if  not  disturbed  by  the  forces  of  foreign  bodies  outside  of  it 
will  have  the  sum  of  its  actual  and  potenuiEd  energies  constant 
If  we  include  those  fordgn  bodies  (endowing  ^dr  forces  at  the 
same  time  with  persistency),  and  if  we  find  that  the  whole 
material  universe  as  far  as  we  can  explore  it  admits  of  being 
comprdiended  in  one  sjstem  of  this  kind,  a  mechanical  explana- 
tion of  all  known  physical  agencies  might  thus,  apparently, 
be  arrived  at.    In  every  parti^lar  of  the  motion  of  any  group 
of  bodies  in  it,  however,  except   the  single  one  of  its  total 
energy,  we  would  be  obliged  to  abandon  (as  Newton  does) 
the  local  centres  of  reckoning  of  the  several  force  pairs,  and 
betake  ourselves    to   the   mass-centre   of  the   group   as   our 
origin  of  reference  for  noting  all  the  forces,  and  tracing  all 
the  motions  of  a  body  completely  in  its  wanderings  through  the 
system.    If  this  obligation,  and  the  end  to  which  it  leads  us  of 
referring  force  at  last  to  perfectly  abstract  realms  of  space  and 
matter  terrifies  and  aifronts  the  scientific  sense,  it  is  sufficient 
consolation  to  observe  that  if  force  were  not  ultimately  so  referred, 
and  if  its  impuke  was  exerted  in  those  local  spaces  only  in  which 
we  find  it  acting  apparently  as  a  simple  action  and  reaction, 
there  would  be  as  many  distmct  kinds  of  energy  of  motion  and 
of  configuration  (which  we  would  still  retain  as  expressing  the 
local  laws  of  force)  as  ^ere  are  local  spaces,  with  countless  com- 
plex  rules  for  mutual  equivalence  of  these  several  energies  con- 
nected  with  the  common  path  of  the  body  in  several  of  them 
together,  which  would  efiectuaUy  defy  even  a  modem  physicist 
to  disentangle  and  employ !    We  may  rest  thankfully  contented 
with  the  laws  that  Newton  has  traced  out.     But  does  the  simple 
mechaniod  system  which  we  have  just  imagined  really  represent 
that  of  nature?    Are  nature's  force  pairs  really  all  permanent? 
(We  will  suppose  that  they  are  all  dual  and  reciprocal  for,  as  vrill 
presently  be  noticed,  a  ^)ecial  and  peculiar  explanation  only  can 
be  given  of  forces  which  ?re  absolutelv  external  or  solitary 
without  any  phyncal  qualification) ;   and  is  the  sum  of  their 
mechanical  eneigies  a  constant  quantity,  as  we  know  that  it 
becomes  when  all  the  other  kinds  of  energy  in  material  nature 
are  added  to  it  ?    The  answer  is  very  obvious,  but  it  betrays  at 
the  same  time  a  complete  ignorance  of  the  extent  and  depth 
of  the  question  that  we  put.    The  readily-preferred  response  is 
'<  No ;  the  sum  of  the  mechanical  energies,  as  far  as  they  can  be 
recounted,  is  not  constant,  for  numberless  forces,  and  mechanical 
energies  proceeding  from  them  are  beinc  constantly  produced  by 
heat,  radiation,  chemical  action,  and  other  physical  agencies,  or 
are  being  employed  to  renovate  those  agents  with  ener^  in 
equivalent  stores,  but  whose  special  kinds  are  not  mechanical." 
At  the  same  time  the  progress  of  physical  inquiry  reveals  to  us 
in  the  operations  of  these  agents  xnicroscopiau,  or  rather  hyper- 
microscopical,  actions  of  force,  and  invisible  charges  of  actual 
energy,  with  which  our  earlier  knowledge  of  these  agencies  was 
•nUmy  unacquainted,  and  a  little  step  of  inductive  generalisation 
only  is  needed  (I  believe  that  this  view  was  unfolded  by  Helm* 
holts  many  years  ago,  but  I  have  not  been  able  to  rediscover  his 
remarks  and  demonstrations^)  to  suppose  that  all  physicaOjr- 
generated  forces  form  but  visible  and  changing  resultant-links  m 
an  invisible  chain  of  persistent  forces,  of  which  we  hoki  some  of 
the  most  prominent  loops  in  our  hands,  and  thooghtfiilly  wonder 
what  they  axe. 

In  his  Glasgow  lecture  on  "  Force"  (in  Naturs,  vol  xiv.  p. 
463),  an  important  hint  was  offered  by  Prof.  Tait  renrding  an 
apparent  duuracter  of  potential  energy,  founded  on  the  mathe- 
miUical  condition  that  quantities  whose  units  of  measurement  are 

s  They  art.  I  find,  cootaiocd  in  a  paper  of  some  length  in  vol  vL  of 
'*  Taylor's  ScMBtific  MemoifB,**  1853,  pp.  iM^itfa. 


of  the  same  dimensions  in  space,  mass,  and  tim^  are  of  the  svne 
khid.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  potential  energy  of  a  forces 
01  the  energy  received  from  and  transferred  to  it  is  of  die  same 
kind  as  actual  energy  of  material  motion,  because  they  are  both 
measured  by  the  same  combination  of  the  units  of  space,  time, 
and  mass. 

Let  us  first  observe  that  it  cannot  be  matter  in  motion  which 
constitutes  the  potential  energy,  unless  this  matter  can  traverse 
itself  and  other  matter  fireely  (because,  itself  the  cause  of  forc^  it 
cannot  itself  experience  any),  and  therefore  that  it  is  something 
not  matter,  but  both  resident  in  and  proportional  to  matter,  and 
also  free ;  and  that  its  eneigy  of  motion  as  an  occupant  of  matter 
is  actual,  and  in  a  state  of  freedom  is  potential  energy.  Imagine 
a  perfect  reflection  of  the  material  universe  to  be  formed  by  a 
plane  in  space ;  then  the  changes  of  energy  of  motion  of  the 
reflected  image  of  any  mass  pamde  taken  negativdy  are  equal 
and  opposite  to  the  similar  changes  of  energy  of  Uie  particle 
itself,  and  would  measure  in  a  kinetic  form  the  amount  of  the 
work  of  force  upon  it ;  but  the  tendency  of  energy  of  this  fcntn  and 
of  the  actual  form  to  pass  into  each  other  would  not  be  accounted 
for.  In  our  present  knowledge  of  its  transformations  it  scarcdy 
seems  possible  that  a  simpler  picture  of  i>otential  energy  as  a 
form  of  energy  of  motion  than  this  downright  imitation  of  the 
actually-existmg  motions  could  be  reasonably  off<»ed.  The  pro- 
position that  force  must  be  a  process  of  transformation  of  a  new 
energy  of  motion,  so  astonishlnglv  complex,  I  confess  staggered  me, 
and  even  led  me  to  doubt  if  the  sunple  laws  of  force  and  motion  laid 
down  in  the  '*  Prindpia"  could  be  really  so  perfect  and  complete 
as  they  appear,  amid  the  pdl-mell  of  motions  which  the  thought 
suggests  1  I  began  this  letter  shortly  before  going  to  Plymouth, 
intending  to  recommend  much  more  careful  experiments  than 
even  Mr.  Crookes  has  carried  out  with  the  radiometer,  and  with 
his  recent,  most  effective  form  of  the  instrument,  the  otheoscope, 
in  order  to  test  and  examine  the  question  of  the  laws  <^  force 
(espedally  with  the  idea  of  possibly  isolating  a  single  forte) 
seriously ;  and  though  much  induced  to  do  so  by  die  vrarm  and 
timdy  words  of  commendation  passed  on  Mr.  Crookes'  labours 
in  his  opening  address  to  Section  A  at  Plymouth  (Nature, 
voL  xvi.  p.  314)  by  Prof.  G.  C  Foster,  I  have  been  unable 
from  other  occupations  to  finish  it  until  now.  But  I  have 
entirdy  abandoned  my  original  intention,  in  great  part,  by  reason 
of  a  new  light  on  the  exceedinglv  abstruse  and  puzding  question 
which  the  able  remarks  by  "  X  in  Nature  (voL  xvi.  pp.  458, 
457)  have  afforded  me  about  the  real  characters  of  force  and  of 
potential  energy. 

Newcastle-on-Tyne  A.  S.  IIerscuel 

(To  be  continued,) 


Cumulative  Temperatures 

Under  the  above  heading,  among  the  "Meteorological 
Notes "  in  your  issue  of  last  week,  I  notice  the  announcement 
that  "To  simplify  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  sums  of  tempenu 
ture  .  .  .  M.  von  Steraeck  has  recently  proposed  to  obtain  these 
indirectly  by  observation  of  the  sums  of  actions  produced  by  the 
temperature."  And  that  M.  von  Stemeck's  proposal  is  to 
employ  for  this  purpose  a  pendulum  dock  in  which  tne  variadon 
of  rate  due  to  the  raising  or  lowering  of  the  centre  of  gravity  <d 
the  pendulum  under  variations  of  temperature  is,  through  its 
influence  upon  the  daily  error  of  time  shown  fon  the  dial,  ens- 
ployed  for  determining  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  dtroo^h. 
out  the  twenty-four  hours.  And  the  notice  condudes  hi  saying 
that  M.  von  Stemeck  has  also  proposed  to  apply  the  same 
prindple  to  determine  the  variations  in  atmospheric  pressure 
and  in  the  intensity  of  magnetism. 

In  reference  to  this  subject  it  is  only  right  to  point  out  to  the 
readers  of  Nature  (a  term  synonymous  with  the  general  body 
of  lovers  of  science  all  over  the  world)  that  the  merit  of  these 
suggestions  is,  by  priority,  due  to  one  of  our  own  countrymen, 
Mr.  W.  F.  Stanley,  who^  at  the  j^ih^  given  by  the  President  of 
the  Royal  Society  as  hx  back  as  April,  1S76,  exhibited  two 
instruments  in  which  the  dmmometriod  method  of  determining 
thermometric  and  barometric  averages  was  carried  out  with  very 
marked  success. 

One  of  these  .to  which  the  name  chrono-thermometer  was 
applied,  conmsted  of  a  dock,  the  pendulum  of  which  was  a 
mercurial  thermometer,  its  centre  of  gravity  being  raised  or 
lowered  by  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  a  colunm  of  mercury 
under  variations  of  temperature.  In  the  other  instrument,  or 
chrono-barometer,  the  pendulum  consisted  of  a  glass  tube  con* 


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taining  a  column  of  mercury,  the  risiDg  and  falling  of  which 
under  influences  of  barometric  prenure  raised  or  lowered  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  pendulum  and  varied  the  rate  of  the 
dock  accordingly.  The  aock-train  in  both  instruments  was  so 
arranged  that  Uie  dial-readings  could,  by  an  exceedingly  simple 
calculation,  be  interpreted  in  terms  of  mean  daU^  thermo- 
metrical  or  barometncal|  variations.  As  the  alteration  in  the 
lengths  of  the  pendulums  takes  place  second  by  second  through- 
out the  day,  it  follows  that  the  daily  error  of  time  shown  on  the 
dial  must  be  proportional  to  the  mean  of  the  variations  of  the 
thermometer  or  barometer  durine  the  same  period. 

The  methodo^estimating,  by  observation  of  the  rate  of  an  uncom- 
pensated time-keeper,  the  mean  amount  of  heat  received  during 
any  given  period,  without  the  necessity  of  recording  the  actuiu 
temperature  at  any  particular  time,  is  not  by  any  means  new,  for 
the  chronometrical  thermometer,  an  instrument  which  has  for 
many  years  been  employed  at  the  Royal  Observatory  for  testing 
tiie  rates  of  chronometers  under  variations  of  temperature,  is 
founded  upon  the  same  principle.  This  instrument  consbts  of  a 
chronometer  in  which  the  usual  compensation  for  temperature  is 
reversed ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  balance  the  positions  of  the  brass 
and  the  steel  are  interdianged,  the  latter  being  outside,  so  that 
variations  of  temperature  produce  an  exaggerated  effect  upon 
the  rate  of  the  instrument 

M.  von  Stemeck  is  probablv  the  first  to  suggat  the  employ- 
ment of  the  chronometrical  method  to  the  determination  of  mean 
variations  in  the  vertical  intensity  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  but 
he  has,  I  think,  been  anticipated  in  its  application  to  the  com- 
puting of  thermometric  and  barometric  averages. 

SclentiBc  Club,  February  18  Conrad  W.  Cooke 

BACTERIA  IN  WATER 

IT  is  well  known  that  water—whether  tap  or  ordi- 
nary distilled — ^possesses  the  property  of  contami- 
nating, with  a  erowth  of  bacteria,  any  ''cultivation" 
liquid  inoculated  with  it,  but  the  morphological  con- 
dition in  which  these  organisms  occur  in  it  is  open  to 
question ;  it  may  be  supposed  on  the  one  hand,  that  they 
exist  as  devdopied  bacteria,  and  are  not  apparent  under 
the  microscope  merely  in  consequence  of  their  scarcity,  as 
shown  by  Mr.  Lister  in  the  account  of  his  recent  admir- 
able investigation  of  the  lactic  fermentation,  to  be  the 
case  with  some  specific  ferments,  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  they  are  present  as  "germs"  of  the  bacteria,  bodies 
yet  far  more  minute  than  the  mature  forms,  and  on  that 
account  invisible — ultra-microscopic.  Which  of  these 
alternatives  is  true  I  have  endeavoured  to  determine  bv 
experiment,  the  details  of  which  will  shortly  be  published, 
and  the  general  result  is  here  briefly  communicated. 

M.  Pasteur  has  recently  stated  in  the  Comptes  Rendus. 
that  if  a  cylinder  of  water  be  allowed  to  stand  for  several 
weeks  at  a  constant  temperature,  the  oi|;anisms  in  it  sink 
to  the  bottom,  leaving  the  upper  portion  tree,  and  incapable 
of  contaminating.  Followmg  tnis  method  and  placmg  a 
vessel  of  ordinary  distilled  water  in  an  apparatus  con- 
structed for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  an  invariably 
temperature,  after  seven  or  eight  days  a  specimen  of  the 
water  was  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  by 
a  pipette  closed  with  the  finger  and  dipped  into 
it.  The  water  so  taken  was  in  appearance  perfectly 
bright  and  pdlucid,  but  under  the  microscope  it  was 
found  to  contain  amorphous  particles,  some  spores  of  fila- 
mentous fungi,  micrococci  in  great  numbers,  bacteria  of 
the  common  form  {B.  Termo)  and  bacilli  (long  and 
extremdy  slender  filaments).  All  of  these  forms  were 
motionless,  or  exhibited  only  Brownian  movement  No 
such  forms  could  be  detected  in  the  upper  layers  of  the 
water,  nor  in  a  specimen  taken  from  the  bulk  of  that 
from  which  the  experiments  were  made.  As  regards 
limpidity,  Aere  was  no  difierence  between  the  top  and 
bottom  portions. 

I  have  made  four  experiments  with  specimens  of  water 
obtained  from  two  dinerent  sources,  and  in  all  I  have 
been  able  by  this  method  of  subsidence  to  prove  the 
presence  of  organisms  in  great  numbers  in  the  sediment 
|(  may  be  mentioned  that  they  staip  with  facility  by 


Hacmatoxylon,  and  are  thereby  rendered  more  readily 
apparent 

These  observations  show  that  bacteria  occur  in  water 
under  their  usual  forms,  and  that  they  are  not  generally 
distinguished  on  account  of  their  sinall  number,  in  any 
one  portion  of  the  water,  wben  disseminated  through  its 
mass.  The  observed  contaminating  property  of  distilled 
water  is  thus  accounted  for  without  necessitating  the 
assumption  of  "  germs  "  of  any  sort,  an  hypothesis  which 
is  unsupported  by  observation. 

The  examinauon,  bjr  cultivation,  of  the  difference  in 
conlaminatine  properties  of  the  upper  and  lower  layers, 
stated  by  M.  Pasteur  to  exist,  has  as  yet  been  inconclusive. 

G.  F.  DOWDESWELL 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 
The  Uranian  Satellites,  Ariel  and  Umbriel.— 
The  following  positions  of  the  two  interior  satellites  of 
Uranus  for  the  ensuine  fortnight  are  derived  from  the 
data  furnished  by  Mr.  Marth  in  the  January  number  of 
the  Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  So- 
ciety, and  are  for  iih.  G.M.T.,  or  about  the  time  of  the 
planet's  meridian  transit  There  must  be  many  telescopes 
m  this  country  which  will  coounand  the  two  exterior 
satellites,  Titania  and  Oberon,  but,  so  far  as  we  know, 
neither  Ariel  nor  Umbriel  have  yet  been  certainly  ob- 
served here  with  any  but  Mr.  Lassell's  reflectors.  Prof. 
Newcomb  states  that  Ariel  is  intrinsically  brighter  than 
Umbriel ;  he  thinks  that  Arid  at  least  belongs  to  that 
class  of  satellites  of  which  the  brilliancy  is  variable,  and 
dependent  on  its  position  in  its  orbit,  and  he  adds  that 
the  evidence  of  variabilit>*  of  some  kind  seems  indisput- 
able, since  he  has  repeatedlv  failed  to  see  it  with  the 
Washington  refractor  when  the  circumstances— distance 
from  the  primary  not  excepted— were  favourable,  and 
when  the  next  satellite.  Umbriel,  though  less  favourably 
situated,  was  visible.  "^  On  the  other  band,"  he  remarks, 
^  there  were  two  occasions,  1874,  January  28,  and  1875, 
March  25,  when  it  was  surprisingly  conspicuous,"  and  at 
these  times  the  angle  of  position  was  about  350^  Prof. 
Newcomb  further  expresses  the  opinion  that  where  any 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  seeing  the  outer  satellites,  he 
would  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  it  impossible  to  see  the 
inner  ones. 

Nevertheless,  the  success  which  has  attended  the  search 
for  one,  at  least,  of  the  satellites  of  Mars  by  English 
observers  who  are  provided  with  large  instruments,  may 
perhaps  induce  them  to  look  for  the  close  satellites  of 
Uranus  at  the  present  opposition, 

Aribu  Umbiiil. 

Dist      i4'6 

i7'4 

'»        131 
186 

>•        "5 
„        lo-o 

20'3 

8-6 

20-8 

7-S 

M  211 

f.  6-9 

„  212 

PiGOTT's  Observations  of  Variable  Stars.— Some 
years  since  it  was  suggested,  we  bdieve,  by  Prof. 
Argelander,  that  the  Royal  Society  mi^ht  have  in  its 
possession  manuscripts  of  Edward  Pigott  of  Yorli^ 
amongst  which  might  be  found  observations  of  variable 
start  that  might  prove  of  importance  in  Uie  history  of 
their  fluctuations.  It  would  au>pear,  however,  that  none 
of  Pigotf  s  papers  are  preserved  in  the  Society's  Archives, 
an  ineffectual  search  having  been  latcljr  made  for  them. 


Feb.  22 

Pes. 

179 

Dist 

13-6 

Pos. 

• 
29 

»    23 

II 

»t 

151 

ff 

355 

*f    24 

207 

ft 

11-2 

ff 

178 
40 

:;a 

77 

If 

i? 

ff 
ff 

..      27 

181 

f> 

142 

ft 

0 

M        28 

13 

If 

148 

ff 

228 

March  i 

211 

ff 

10*2 

ff 

183 

t»      2 

9S 

ff 

4*9 

ff 

59 

»»      3 

344 

If 

9*8 

ff 

S 

>»      4 

i53 

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14-6 

ff 

187 

sil 

ft 

144 

ft 

ff 

9*2 

f* 

91 

>»      7 

112 

If 

51 

ff 

9 

Digitized  by 


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324 


NATURE 


\Feb.  21,  1878 


The  Temple  Observatory,  Rugby.— Mr.  G.  M. 
Seabroke,  as  Curator  of  the  Temple  Observatory,  has 
issued  a  Report  upon  proceedings  during  the  year  1877. 
The  whole  ot  the  measures  of  double-stars,  398  in  number, 
during  the  last  three  years  up  to  the  time  of  dismantling 
the  old  Observatory,  have  appeared  in  voL  xliiL  of  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society.  More 
recently  investigations  into  the  motions  of  stars  in  the 
line  of  sight  by  the  spectroscopic  method  have  occupied 
Mr.  Seab^oke's  attention,  but  the  chief  work  in  the  year 
has  been  the  rebuilding  of  the  Observatory.  The  Report 
contains  an  outline  of  its  history  and  a  description  of  the 
instruments  to  which  reference  may  be  made  in  future 
years.  The  equatorial  of  84  inches  aperture,  by  Alvan 
Oarlre,  was  formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  Rev.  W.  R, 
Dawes,  and  an  interesting  letter  from  him  upon  its  capa^ 
bilities  is  appended  to  the  Report.  Not  the  least  notable 
of  its  performances  is  its  having  shown  the  close  satellite 
of  Saturn,  Mimas,  on  many  occasions,  and  we  know  that 
its  former  possessor  was  not  likely  to  have  mistaken  faint 
stars  for  the  satellite. 

The  observatory  is  open  to  the  members  of  the  school 
at  certain  hours  on  fine  evenings  when  opportunities  for 
observing  with  the  equatorial  and  transit  are  afforded 
them.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  in  addition  to  the 
Alvan' Gark  refractor  the  observatory  possesses  a  twelve- 
inch  With-reflector  which  is  chiefly  used  with  the  spec- 
troscope. 

The  cost  of  the  new  observatory  and  house  for  the 
curator,  upwards  of  i>23o/.,  has  been  defrayed  by  sub- 
scriptions from  the  masters,  old  Rugbeians,  and  others 
in  the  school,  upon  the  occasion  of  its  tercentenary. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 
African  Exploration.— The  two  African  Societies 
of  Berlin,  which  are  now  comlnned,  have  resolved  to  torn 
their  attention  to  practical  (/>.,  commercial)  objects  as 
well  as  scientific  ones  with  regard  to  the  great  continent 
in  which  the  travels  of  Cameron  and  Stanley  have  revealed 
vast  stores  of  the  most  varied  products.  The  twin  societies 
therefore  invite  all  German  merchants,  manufacturers, 
&c.,  to  participate  in  their  efforts  to  open  up  a  great 
African  commerce,  and  announce  that  the  Gennan 
Government  is  ready  to  grant  a  preliminary  sum  of 
loo^ooo  marks  ($,000/.)  to  farther  the  object  in  question. 
The  Germans  seem  determined  that  no  single  nation, 
more  especially  England  or  PortugaL  shall  have  the 
supremacy  on  the  Congo.  In  Switzerland  a  new  geo- 
graphical society  has  been  formed  for  the  same  object  as 
Uie  above. — ^An  official  telegram  from  Zanzibar  to  Brussels 
announces  the  death  at  Zanzibar  of  Dr.  Maes  and  Capt 
Crespel,  who  were  sent  out  by  the  International  African 
Association  as  leaders  of  an  exploring  colony  in  Central 
Africa.  With  them  were  M.  Cambier  and  Ernest  Mamo, 
and  they  were  to  establish  a  station  somewhere  in  the 
Tanganyika  r^on,  which  would  form  a  centre  of  further 
exploration.  Tlie  death  is  also  announced  of  Capt  Elton, 
who,  witii  Mr.  Cotterill,  was  surveying  the  route  between 
the  north  end  of  Lake  Nyassa  and  the  east  coast 

Arctic  Exploration.— The  Committee  on  Naval 
Affairs  of  the  U.S.  Congress  have  adopted  a  report  from 
Mr.  Benjamin  A.  Willis  recommending  the  eqmpment  of 
an  Arctic  expedition  as  proposed  by  Capt  Howgate.  At 
a  public  meeting  held  by  the  New  York  Ge<^[raphical 
Society  to  discuss  the  subject  of  polar  exploration  a  paper 
by  Capt.  Howgate  was  read  on  his  mtended  colony. 
Lord  Dufferin,  governor-general  of  Canada,  was  elected 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Society,  and  returned  thanks 
in  his  usual  style.  He  referred  to  himself  as ''  a  poten- 
tate whose  sceptre  touches  the  pole,  and  who  reigns  over 
a  larger  area  of  snow  than  any  monarch  of  the  earth." 

The  Pamir.— We  learn  fix>m  the  Turkestanskiya 
Vtdomosi,  that  two  members  of  the  Pamir  expedition, 
MM.  Skassi  and  Schwarz,  have  returned  to  Tashkend, 


M.  Severtsoff  remaining  for  some  time  at  Osh.  The 
expedition,  which  started  in  September  last,  has  met  with 
great  difficulties  from  deep  snow  and  the  cold  weather, 
me  thermometer  falling  as  low  as  31^  Celsius  bdow  zero. 
Owing  to  the  absolute  want  of  forests,  wood  was  brought 
by  yaks.  No  inhabitants  were  found  in  the  Pamir,nor  even 
in  Uie  valley  of  Alay,  the  Kir^iz  having  already  lefr  the 
valley  for  warmer  regions.  The  rarity  of  air  on  Uiose 
great  heights,  which  exceed  1^,000  fee^  occasioned  mudi 
suffering  to  the  members  of  ue  expedition.  The  Valley 
of  Alay  was  reached  from  that  of  Fergana,  by  way  of  the 
Shart  Pass,  and  from  the  Alay  the  expedition  followed  the 

§ath  which  was  followed  by  uen.  Skobeleff  in  1876.  M. 
evertsoff  reached  as  far  as  the  Lok-sai  River,  which  die 
natives  said  flows  into  the  Lob-nor,  under  the  name  ol 
the  Tarim-goL  Thence  he  was  compdled  by  the  deep  snow 
to  return,  without  reaching  the  problematic  mendional 
ridge  which  was  the  aim  of  the  expedition.  Prof. 
Schwarz  has  determined  the  latitude  and  longitudes  of 
six  places,  and  has  made  numerous  magnetical  observa- 
tions ;  a  complete  survey  of  the  route  was  made  bv  the 
topographers,  the  heights  of  a  hundred  points  were  deter- 
mm^,  partly  barometrically  and  jpautly  geodetically. 
M.  Severtsoff  has  brought  in  a  large  ornithological 
collection. 

Educational  Travel.— We  learn  that  a  society  is  in 
course  of  formation  at  St.  Petersburg  for  the  organisaticm 
of  travels  for  children  and  for  young  men.  llie  travels 
of  the  children  are  intended  for  the  general  development 
of  the  intellectual  faculties  and  of  the  power  of  observar 
tion^  and  those  of  the  young  men  will  be  arranged  so  as 
to  give  them  a  practical  Imowledge  of  some  branch  of 
science,  together  with  an  acquaintance  with  their  own 
country.  The  travdlers  will  be  divided  into  several 
groups — natural  sciences,  history,  ethnography,  &c.,  and 
each  section  will  be  placed  under  the  leadership  of  some 
wdl-known  specialist  The  success  of  the  botanical  and 
geological  excursions,  which  were  organised  during  several 
summers  by  the  members  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow 
Societies  of  Natural  Sciences,  lead  us  to  e3q>ect  that  the 
new  enterprise  will  be  successful 

Prshevalskv  and  Maclay.— The  Russian  Geogra^r 
phical  Society  has  received  telegrams  from  CoL  Prshc^- 
sky,  dated  Fort  Alexandrovs^,  announcing  that  the 
traveller  is  now  recovering  from  an  illness,  and  will 
continue  his  journey  to  Tibet ;  and  from  Dr.  Mikluho- 
Maday,  announcing  his  return  from  New  Giunea  to 
Smgapore. 

Sea  Trade  with  Siberia.-— We  learn  that  several 
Bremen  and  Moscow  merchants  have  formed  a  company 
for  sea  trade  with  Siberia.  A  large  steamer,  with  two 
barges  and  a  small  river  steamer  on  board,  will  start  from 
Bremen  in  July  next  for  the  mouth  of  the  Ob  or  of  the 
Yenisei.  Leaving  the  river  steamer  and  the  barges  for 
river  communication,  the  large  steamer  will  retmn  wiA 
Siberian  wares. 

Geographical  Bibliography.— In  the  last  part  to 
1877  of  the  Zeitschrift  of  the  Berlin  Geographical  Society 
vdll  be  found  a  copious  list,  covering  100  pages,  of  Uie 
principal  geographical  works  published  between  Novem- 
ber, 1876,  and  November,  1877. 

Russian  Geographical  SoaETV.— The  Great  Con- 
stantine  gold  medal  of  the  Russian  Royal  Geographical 
Societv  was  awarded  this  year  to  M.  Zakharoff  for  his 
remarkable  Manchurian  dictionary,  the  result  of  many 
years'  study  of  the  language  and  life  of  the  Manchurians. 
durinc;  his  residence  as  Consul  at  Kuldja.  The  gold 
medal  of  Count  Liitke  was  awarded  to  Capt  Ryka^eff, 
of  the  Physical  Observatory  of  St  Petersburg,  for  bis 
researches  into  the  distribution  of  atmosphericalpressure 
throughout  Russia,  Small  gold  medals  were  awarded  to 
M.  Marx  for  ten  years'  meteorological  observations  at 
Yeniseisk,  and  to  Col.  Tillo  for  his  levelling  between  the 
Aral  and  Caspian. 


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Feb.  21,  1878] 


NATURE 


325 


A  NEW  UNDERGROUND  MONSTER 

A  RECENT  communication  from  Fritz  Miiller,  of 
Itajahy,  in  Southern  Brazil,  to  the  Zoologische 
Garten  contains  a  wonderful  account  of  the  supposed 
existence  of  a  gigantic  earthworm  in  the  highlands  of  the 
southern  provinces  of  Brazil,  where  it  is  known  as  the 
"  Minhocao/  The  stories  told  of  this  supposed  animal, 
says  Fritz  Miiller,  sound  for  the  most  part  so  incredible, 
that  one  is  tempted  to  consider  them  as  fabulous.  Who 
could  repress  a  smile  at  hearing  men  speak  of  a  worm 
some  fifty  yards  in  length,  and  five  in  breadth,  covered 
with  bones  as  with  a  coat  of  armour,  uprooting  mighty 
pine  trees  as  if  they  were  blades  of  grass,  diverting  the 
courses  of  streams  into  fresh  channels,  and  turning  dry 
land  into  a  bottomless  morass  ?  And  yet  after  carefully 
considering  the  different  accounts  given  of  the  "  Minhocao," 
one  can  hardly  refuse  to  beUeve  that  some  such  animal 
does  really  exist,  although  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
country  folk  would  have  us  to  believe. 

About  eight  years  ago  a  '*  Minhocao''  appeared  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lages.  Francisco  de  Amaral  Varclla, 
when  about  ten  kilometres  distant  from  that  town,  saw 
lying  on  the  bank  of  the  Rio  das  Caveiras  a  strange 
animal  of  gigantic  size,  nearly  one  metre  in  thickness,  not 
very  long,  and  with  a  snout  like  a  pig,  but  whether  it  had 
legs  or  not  he  could  not  telL  He  did  not  dare  to  seize  it 
alone,  and  whilst  calling  his  neighbours  to  his  assistance, 
it  vanished,  not  without  leaving  palpable  marks  behind  it 
in  the  shape  of  a  trench  as  it  disappeared  under  the  earth. 
A  week  later  a  similar  trench,  perhaps  constructed  by  the 
same  animal,  was  seen  on  the  opposite  side  of  Lages, 
about  six  kilometres  distant  from  the  former,  and  the 
traces  were  followed,  which  led  ultimately  under  the 
roots  of  a  large  pine  tree,  and  were  lost  in  the  marshy 
land.  Herr  F.  Kelling,  from  whom  this  information  was 
obtained,  was  at  that  time  living  as  a  merchant  in  Lages, 
and  saw  himself  the  trenches  made  by  the  ''  Minhocao." 
Herr  E.  Odebrecht,  while  surveying  a  line  of  road  from  Ita- 
jahy  into  the  highlands  of  the  province  of  Santa  Caterina, 
several  years  ago,  crossed  a  broad  marshy  plain  traversed 
by  an  arm  of  the  river  Marombas.  His  progress  here 
was  much  impeded  by  devious  winding  trenches  which 
followed  the  course  of  the  stream,  and  occasionally  lost 
themselves  in  it.  At  the  time .  Herr  Odebrecht  could  not 
understand  the  origin  of  these  peculiar  trenches,  but  is 
now  inclined  to  believe  that  they  were  the  work  of  the 
"  Minhocao." 

About  fourteen  years  ago,  in  the  month  of  January, 
Antonio  Jos^  Branco,  having  been  absent' with  his  whole 
family  eight  days  from  his  house,  which  was  situated  on 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Rio  dos  Cachorros,  ten  kilo- 
metres from  Curitibanos,  on  returning  home  found  the 
road  undermined,  heaps  of  earth  being  thrown  up,  and 
large  trenches  made.  These  trenches  commenced  at  the 
source  of  a  brook,  and  followed  its  windings ;  terminating 
ultimately  in  a  morass  after  a  course  of  from  700  to  1,000 
metres.  The  breadth  of  the  trenches  was  said  to  be  about 
three  metres.  Since  that  period  the  brook  has  flowed  in 
the  trench  made  by  the  "  Minhocao."  The  path  of  the 
animal  lay  /generally  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth 
under  the  bed  of  the  stream  ;  several  pine  trees  had  been 
rooted  up  by  its  passage.  One  of  the  trees  from  which 
the  Minhocao  in  passing  had  torn  off  the  bark  and  part 
of  the  wood,  was  said  to  be  still  standing  and  visible  last 
year.  Hundreds  of  people  from  Curitibanos  and  other 
places  had  come  to  see  the  devastation  caused  by  the 
Minhocao,  and  supposed  the  animal  to  be  still  living  in 
the  marshy  pool,  the  waters  of  which  appeared  at  certain 
times  to  be  suddenly  and  strangely  troubled.  Indeed  on 
still  nights  a  rumbling  sound  like  distant  thunder  and  a 
slight  movement  of  the  earth  was  sensible  in  the  neigh- 
bouring dwellings.  This  story  was  told  to  Herr  M iiller  by 
two  eye-witnesses,  Josd,  son  of  old  Branco,  and  a  step- 


son, who  formerly  lived  in  the  same  house.  Herr  MuUer 
remarks  that  the  appearance  of  the  Minhocao  is  alwa>s 
supposed  to  presage  a  period  of  rainy  weather. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Rio  dos  Papagaios, 
in  the  province  of  Parank,  one  evening  in  1849  s^^cr 
a  long  course  of  rainy  weather,  a  sound  was  heard  in 
the  house  of  a  certain  Joao  de  Deos,  as  if  rain  were 
again  falling  in  a  wood  hard  by,  but  on  looking  out, 
the  heavens  were  seen  to  be  bright  with  stars.  On  the 
following  morning  it  was  discovered  that  a  large  piece  of 
land  on  the  further  side  of  a  small  hill  had  been  entirely 
undermined,  and  was  traversed  by  deep  trenches  which 
led  towards  a  bare  open  plateau  covered  with  stones,  or 
what  is  called  in  this  district  a  "  legeado."  At  this  spot 
large  heaps  of  clay  turned  up  out  of  the  earth  marked  the 
onward  course  of  the  animal  from  the  legeado  into  the 
bed  of  a  stream  running  into  the  Papagaios.  Three  years 
after  this  place  was  visited  by  Senbor  Lebino  Josd  dos 
Santos,  a  wealthy  proprietor,  now  resident  near  Curiti- 
banos. He  saw  the  ground  still  upturned,  the  mounds  of 
clay  on  the  rocky  plateau,  and  the  remains  of  the  moved 
earth  in  the  rocky  bed  of  the  brook  quite  plainly,  and 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  must  have  been  the  work 
of  two  animals,  the  size  of  whichnmst  have  been  from  two 
to  three  metres  in  breadth. 

In  the  same  neighbourhood,  according  to  Senhor 
Lebino,  a  Minhocao  had  been  seen  several  times  before. 
A  black  woman  going  to  draw  water  from  a  pool  near  a 
house  one  morning,  according  to  her  usual  practice,  found 
the  whole  pool  destroyed,  and  saw  a  short  distance  off  an 
animal  which  she  described  as  being  as  big  as  a  house 
moving  off  along  the  ground.  The  people  whom  she 
summoned  to  see  the  monster  were  too  late,  and  found 
only  traces  of  the  animal,  which  had  apparently  plunged 
over  a  neighbouring  cliff  into  deep  water.  In  the  same 
district  a  young  man  saw  a  huge  pine  suddenly  over- 
turned, .when  there  was  no  wind  and  no  one  to  cut  it. 
On^hastening  up  to  discover  the  cause,  he  found  the 
surrounding  earth  in  movement,  and  an  enormous  worm- 
like black  animal  in  the  middle  of  it,  about  twenty-five 
metres  long,  and  with  two  horns  on  its  head. 

In  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo,  as  Senhor  Lebino  also 
states,  not  far  from  Ypanema,  is  a  spot  that  is  still 
called  Charquinho,  that  is,  Little  Marsh,  as  it  formerly 
was,  but  some  years  ago  a  Minhocao  made  a  trench 
through  the  marsh  into  the  Ypanema  River,  and  so  con- 
verted it  into  the  bed  of  a  stream. 

In  the  year  1849,  Senhor  Lebino  was  on  a  journey  near 
Arapehy,  in  the  State  of  Uruguay.  There  he  was  told 
that  there  was  a  dead  Minhocao  to  be  seen  a  few  miles 
off,  which  had  got  wedged  into  a  narrow  cleft  of  a  rock, 
and  so  perished.  Its  skin  was  said  to  be  as  thick  as  ttie 
bark  of  a  pine-tree,  and  formed  of  hard  scales  like  those 
of  an  armadillo. 

From  all  these  stories  it  would  appear  conclusive 
that  in  the  high  district  where  the  Uruguay  and  the 
Parang  have  their  sources,  excavations,  and  long  trenches 
are  met  with,  which  are  undoubtedly  the  work  of  some 
living  animal.  Generally,  if  not  always,  they  appear  after 
continued  rainy  weather,  and  seem  to  start  from  marshes 
or  river-beds,  and  to  enter  them  again.  The  accounts 
as  to  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  creature  are  very 
uncertain.  It  might  be  suspected  to  be  a  gigantic  fish 
allied  to  Lepidosiren  and  Ccratodus ;  the  "swine's  snout," 
would  show  some  resemblance  to  Ceratodus^  while  the 
horns  on  the  body  rather  point  to  the  front  limbs  of  Lepi- 
dosireuy  if  these  particulars  can  be  at  all  depended  upon. 
In  any  case,  concludes  Herr  Miiller,  it  would  be  worth 
while  to  make  further  investigations  about  the  Minhocao, 
and,  if  possible,  to  capture  it  for  a  zoological  garden  ! 

To  conclude  this  remarkable  story,  we  may  venture  to 
suggest  whether,  if  any  such  animal  really  exist,  which, 
upon  the  testimony  produced  by  Fritz  Miiller,  appears 
very  probable,  it  may  not  rather  be  a  relic  of  the  rxi^  of 


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[Feb.  2  1.  1878 


gigantic  armadilloes  which  in  past  geological  epochs  were 
so  abundant  in  Southern  Brazil.  The  little  Chlamydo- 
phcrus  truncatus  is,  we  believe,  mainly,  if  not  entirely, 
subterranean  in  its  habits.  May  there  not  still  exist  a 
larger  representative  of  the  same  or  nearly  allied  genus, 
or,  if  the  suggestion  be  not  too  bold,  even  a  last  descendant 
of  the  Glyptodonls  ? 

SUN-SPOTS   AND    DECLINATION  RANGES 

THE  excellent  article  by  Mr.  Broun  in  a  recent  number 
of  Nature  puts  before  us  in  a  very  clear  manner 
the  strong  grounds  that  we  have  for  believing  in  a  true 
connection  between  sun-spots  and  terrestrial  magnetism. 
If  the  argument  were  not  already  sufficiently  poweifal  it 
might  be  yet  further  strengthened  by  bearing  in  mind 
that  not  merely  do  the  most  prominent  inequalities  march 
together  in  these  two  phenomena  but  the  correspondence 
extends  likewise  to  those  waves  of  shorter  period  that  ride 
as  it  were  on  the  back  of  the  longer  ones.  In  a  paper 
which  is  now  before  the  Royal  Society  I  have  shown  this 
intimacy  of  correspondence  by  comparing  together  the 
sun-spot  aiid  declination  range  records  for  the  cycle 
extending  from  the  minimum  of  1855  to  that  of  1867.  All 
the  prominent  sun-spot  waves  are  reproduced  by  magnetic 
declination  waves,  the  latter,  however,  invariably  lagging 
behind  the  former. 

Then  with  regard  to  the  long  period  cycle  under  discus- 
sion I  make  it  to  begin  for  sun-spots  with  September  1 5, 
1855,  which  was  a  minimum  point,  and  to  end  witn 
March  15,  1867,  which  was  another  minimum  point  On 
the  other  hand  the  corresponding  cycle  for  declination 
range  begins  with  February  15,  1856,  and  ends  with 
August  15,  1867.  Thus  the  length  of  period  is  the  same 
in  both ;  the  magnetic  cycle  lag^g,  however,  five  months 
behind  that  for  sun-spots. 

I  may  also  mention  that  I  am  at  present  comparing 
together  the  Prague  declination  ranges  with  the  sun-|pot 
curve  determined  from  Hofrath  Schwabe*s  observations, 
and  although  the  comparison  is  not  finished,  I  believe 
that  this  lagging  behind  will  form  a  prominent  feature  of 
the  resu*lt5.  Further  back  than  Schwabe  we  cannot  go, 
as  the  sun-spot  records  are  not  sufficiently  accurate  for 
this  kind  of  work. 

I  am  not  sure,  however,  that  I  quite  agree  with  Mr. 
Broun  when  he  says  '*no  doubt  the  admission  of  the 
existence  of  a  causal  connection  between  the  two  phe- 
nomena is.  opposed  to  the  hypothesis,  which  many  other 
facts  render  wholly  untenable,  that  the  magnetic  variations 
are  due  to  the  heating  action  of  the  sun." 

As  far  as  sun-spots  and  declination  ranges  are  concerned, 
what  are  the  facts  regarding  the  connection  between  them  ? 
These  arc  two  in  number.  In  the  first  place,  all  the 
considerable  oscillations  of  the  sun-spots  are  reproduced 
in  the  declination-ranges.  Secondly,  the  reproductions  in 
the  declinaiion-ranges  lag,  it  appears,  behind  the  cor- 
responding sun-spot  waves.  This  latter  fact  strikes  me  as 
being  rather  in  favour  of  the  view  which  regards  declina- 
tion-ranges to  be  (like  temperature-ranges)  in  some  way  the 
result  of  an  influence  from  the  sun  which  is  of  the  nature  of 
an  emanation  or  radiation.  But  I  will  not  press  the 
point  except  to  remark  that  this  and  a  host  of  other 
questions,  some  of  them  of  great  importance,  must  wait 
for  their  solution  until  we  shall  have  obtained  a  sufficiently 
complete  and  continuous  record  of  solar  activity,  and 
along  with  it  an  equally  complete  and  continuous  record 
of  the  radiant  power  of  the  sun. 

From  the  observatories  already  established,  we  have  a 
reasonable  prospect  of  receiving  good  magnetical  infor- 
mation, and  there  is  abundance  of  meteorological  activity, 
but  it  is  nearly,  if  not  absolutely,  impossible,  from  the 
observations  already  made,  to  tell  whether  the  sun  be 
hotter  or  colder  as  a  whole,  when  there  are  most  spots 
on  his  surface.  The  sooner  we  get  to  know  this  the  better 
for  our  problem.  Balfour  Stewart 


THE    ISLANDS    OF    ST.     PAUL    AND 
AMSTERDAM 

AS  is  now  well  known,  a  French  expedition  visited 
these  islands  towards  the  close  of  1874  for  the  pur- 
pose of  watching  the  transit  of  Venus  across  the  sun  on 
December  9  of  that  year.  M.  G.  de  Tlsle  accompanied 
the  expedition  as  l>otanist ;  Dr.  Rochcfort,  with  M.  V^lain 
to  assist  him,  were  to  look  after  the  zoological  and  geo- 
logical departments.  M.  Vdlain,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Prof. 
Lacaze-Duthiers  has  just  published,  in  the  Archives  de 
Zoologie  Expirimentale  et  Gknirale  (tome  6, 1877),  a  most 
interesting  account  of  these  islands  and  their  fauna,  with, 
in  addition,  a  very  detailed  account  of  f  he  collections  of 
shells  made.  We  are  indebted  to  the  extreme  kindness 
ot  M.  Vdlain  for  the  excellent  illustrations  which  accom- 


B'iG.  I. — Ninepin  Rock. 

pany  this  notice,  which  are  taken  from  the  original 
memoir. 

If  the  reader  wishes  to  fix  the  exact  position  of  these 
curious  islands  he  has  only  to  trace  along  the  line  of 
lat.  40°  S.,  and  about  mid-way  in  the  Southern  Ocean 
between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Melbourne,  near 
long.  80°  E.,  he  will  find  them. 

llieir  discovery  has  been  claimed  by  the  Dutch  and  the 
Portuguese.  Placed  just  in  the  grand  ocean  route  fot  all 
vessels  leaving  the  Cape  for  Australia  or  China,  they  were 
doubtless,  despite  their  isolation,  long  known.  The  history 
of  our  knowledge  of  them  from  1522  to  the  present  day  is 
well,  though  briefly,  written  by  M.  Vdlain. 

The  Novara  called  at  St.  Paul  in  1857,  and  stayed  for 
fourteen  days,  and  we  are  indebted  to  Hochstetter  for  an 
excellent  account  of  the  geology  of  the  island,  though 


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i^7 


the  weather  was  so  bad  at  the  time  that  the  collections 
made  were  not  numerous. 

In  June,  1871,  the  English  frigate  Megctra  was  wrecked 
on  this  island  and  most  of  the  400  souls  that  were  aboard 
her  had  to  reside  on  it  for  over  three 
months. 

On  September  30,  1874,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Transit  of  Venus  expedi- 
tion landed  on  St  Paul  and  spent 
thereon  over  three  months. 

Both  the  islands  are  essentially 
volcanic.  In  1696  when  van  Vlaming 
visited  St.  Paul,  the  vast  crater  occu- 
pied its  central  part,  and  was  above 
and  quite  isolated  from  the  sea,  and 
it  seems  to  have  been  even  thus  in 
1754,  but  at  present  the  sea  flows 
freely  into  it,  and  at  the  place  of  com- 
munication there  is  a  depth  of  upwards 
of  six  feet  It  attains  a  height  of 
about  250  metres  and  its  contour  line 
is  not  much  more  than  (ive  nautical 
miles.  A  little  to  the  north  of  the 
entrance  to  the  crater  where  the  sea 
has  broken  in  there  is  a  wonderful 
pinnacle  of  basaltic  lava,  which  re- 
ceives the  name  of  the  Ninepin  rock 
(Fig.  i).  The  rocks  composing  it  are 
trachitic,  of  a  compact  texture,  but 
more  or  less  zoned.  These  rocks, 
full  of  silex,  and  poured  forth  in  great 
measure  under  the  sea,  exhibit  still 
the  traces  of  the  energetic  alterations 
which  they  underwent,  not  only  at 
the  moment  of  their  emission,  but  also 
after  their  complete  solidification^  for  they  have  been 
travelled  since  their  formation  in  every  way ;  not  only 
numerous  fissures  forced  up  by  the  impetuous  escape  of 
gaseous  emanations  but  by  the  force  of  geysers,  which 
latter  considerably  increased  the  amount  of  silex  on  the 
rock,  and  this  so  much  so  that  the 
walls  of  such  fissures  through  the 
trachytic  rock  are  formed  of  a  very 
able  solid  enamel  of  silex  which  is 
rarely  hoUow,  and  all  the  alkalies  have 
totally  disappeared.  A  microscopical 
examination  shows,  amid  a  highly 
developed  amorphous  paste,  crystals 
of  felspath,  and  pyroxene,  with  notable 
quantities  of  silex,  amorohous  (opal) 
or  crystalline  (tridymite) ;  but  the 
lavas  of  different  periods  of  eruption 
seem  to  differ  in  their  compositions. 

A  wonderful  core  of  basadt  columns 
is  to  be  seen  at  the  little  North  Island 
(Fig.  2)  which  consists  of  little  else 
than  columns,  though  many  of  them 
are  now  thrown  down.  Some  of  the 
more  compact  of  the  lavas  present  a 
more  or  less  picturesque  outline,  as 
can  be  seen  at  Hutchinson  Point 
(Fig.  3),  towards  the  south-east  of  the 
island.  Their  endurable  and  adhesive 
glissades  could  alone  furnish  such 
needle-shaped  projections  as  would 
be  capable  of  resisting  the  extreme 
and  never-ceasing  violence  of  the  seas  '*^%.  ^  ^* 

that  beat  on  them.    Along  with  the 
basaltic  lavas,  there  will  be  found 
here  and  there  on  their  upper  sur- 
faces little  cones  of  scoriae  thrown  up  from  little  supple- 
mentary volcanoes  ;  sometimes  these  will  be  found  here 
and  there  quite  isolated,  at  other  times  they  will  be 
found  forming  a  ring  as  it  were  around  the  principal 


crater.  They  form  a  record  of  the  fact  that  lorg  after 
the  great  original .  outburst  that  formed  this  island  there 
were  numerous  smaller  eruptions,  and  that  the  source 
of  volcanic  power  endured   for    a    considerable   time. 


Fk;    2.— North  Island. 

Although  at  the  period  of  Lord  Macartney's  visit  (1793), 
Dr.  Gillian  remarks  that  there  were  spots  on  the  island  too 
warm  to  walk  on,  yet  there  is  not  a  trace  of  recent  volcanic 
action  to  be  now  felt  or  seen,  except  in  the  interior  of  the 
crater.     M.  V^lain  informs  us  that  the  botanical  collec- 


FiG.  3. — Lava  Cliffs — Hutchinsoa  Point. 

tions  made  will  be  fully  described  by  Dr.  de  I'lsle  (from 
fifty  to  fifty-five  species,  not  counting  algae,  were  found), 
and  that  the  rich  and  large  collections  of  marine  animals, 
including  fish,  Crustacea,  Echinoderms,  Ascidians,  Hydro- 


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\Feb.  21,  1878 


zoa,  and  Alcyonaria,  will  be  described  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Prof.  Lacaze  Duthiers. 

In  this  present  memoir  M.  Vdiain  himself  gtres  some 
most  graphic  descriptions  of  the  birds  that  were  met  with. 
The  little  swift  seen  by  Dr.  Scherzer,  of  the  Novara^  did 
not  turn  up,  nor  were  any  land  birds  met  with,  but  the 


aquatic  birds  abounded  in  immense  numbers.  Among: 
these  were  the  following  : — DionucUa  exulans^  D,  fuliffi- 
nosa,  D,  melanophrys^  D,  chlororhytuha^  Ossifra^a 
gis^antea^  Procellaria  capensis^  P,  cinerea^  P,  hcesttata^ 
Puffinus  aquinoctxalis^  SUrcorarius  antarcticus^  Prion 
viiiatus^  Sterna  nulanopiera,  and  last,  but  by  no  means 


r-  -  ^^\-r^^' 


Fig.  4. — Penguins  and  Young. 


the  less  important,  Eudvptes  chrysolopha.  The  history 
of  these  last  birds,  though  often  told,  is  ever  strange,  and 
seems  always  new.  In  the  month  of  September  these 
penguins  began  to  lay  ;  there  were  two  colonies  of  them, 
the  larger  of  which  contained  millions  of  the  birds  ;  the 


ground  seemed  alive  with  them.  But  it  would  be 
sible,  in  a  few  words,  to  tell  the  reader  all  that  M.  V^Iain 
has  here  written  about  their  village  life  and  theur  infant- 
schools  ;  about  their  wonderful  powers  of  diving ;  nor  do 
we  wonder  that  he  looks  back  witn  no  regret  to  the  pleanat 


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hours  he  spent  in  their  midst,  and  we  quite  agree  with 
him  that  such  intelligent  birds  can't  merit  that  nasty 
English  word  "stupid? 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  4)  will  give  some 
slight  notion  of  a  nesting  station  of  these  interesting  birds. 
At  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  expedition  (October) 
the  birds  were  preparing  to  hatch ;  each  pair  kept  entirely 
to  themselves ;  each  nest  had  two  eggs,  large,  nearly 
round,  of  a  dirty  white  colour,  but  marked  here  and  there 
with  a  few  russet  spots.  Both  birds  partook  of  the  cares 
attendant  on  Uie  incubation,  and  took  turn  about  on  the 
nest  The  bird  off  duty  would  at  once  make  for  the  sea, 
faithfully  returning  at  the  appointed  time,  and  never 
failing  to  waddle  du-ect  to  its  own  nest,  though  no  human 
being  could  see  a  difference  between  the  thousands  that 
were  strewn  about.  Sometimes  the  whole  camp  of  birds 
would  have  to  be  traversed  ere  the  nest  sought  for  would 
be  gained,  and  a  bird  trying  to  make  a  short  cut  would  be 
sure  to  be  attacked  by  those  whom  it  disturbed,  for  they 
are  not  at  all  tolerant  of  one  another,  and  in  this  they  also 
prove  that  they  are  not  stupid,  for  surely  neither  stupid 
people  nor  stupid  birds  ever  quarrel.  On  M.  V^iain  arrivmg 
m  tneir  midst,  they  would  one  and  all  set  up  an  immense, 
and  beyond  measure  stunning  cry,  but  soon  they  would 
calm  down,  and  seem  not  to  mind  his  presence.  The 
incubation  lasted  for  five  weeks.  The  little  ones  made 
their  appearance  covered  all  over  with  a  fine  close  down, 
and  looked  like  balls  of  fine  grey-coloured  wool.  They  soon 
got  tired  of  the  comforts  of  their  nests,  and  began  to 
assemble  together  with  their  little  brothers  and  sisters  of 
the  same  colony  in  large  infant  schools,  which  are 
presided  over  by  some  of  the  sedate  old  birds.  Many 
times  a  day,  at  stated  intervals,  they  are  fed,  the  other 
portions  they  spend  in  sleeping  and  talking,  and  a  little 
fighting.  Space  will  not  permit  us  to  refer  to  many  ctuious 
detfidls  about  their  swimming  lessons. 

M.  Vdlain's  description  of  the  molluscs  of  Saint  Paul  is 
an  important  contrimition  to  science  ;  the  new  species 
are  wdl  illustrated  on  four  plates.  As  was  to  be  expected, 
there  are  forty  species  of^  Gasteropods  to  but  nine  of 
Acephala,  and  there  is  but  a  single  Brachiopod ;  no  land- 
shells  seem  to  have  been  found  The  cuttle-fish  taken  are 
not  enumerated,  but  one  gigantic  ten-armed  species  was 
often  alluded  to  by  the  fishermen,  and  at  last,  as  if  to  prove 
their  assertions  true,  one  morning,  after  a  great  storm, 
a  specimen  thereof  was  thrown  ashore,  and  fortunately 
was  at  once  photographed ;  unfortunatehr  only  its 
head,  arms,  and!  pen  could  be  preserved.  The  generic 
name  of  Mouchezis  (after  the  commander  of  the  expe- 
dition) has  been  proposed  for  it  Probably  it  comes  near 
to  Steenstrup's  Architeuthis,  which  it  resembles  in  size, 
by  its  having  circular-shaped  suckers,  which  were  orna- 
mented by  a  row  of  fine  homy  denticulations  and  by  their 
arrangement  on  the  arms,  but  from  which  it  differ^  by  the 
singuUurly  shortened  form  of  the  short  arms,  which  pre- 
sented quite  the  appearance  of  having  been  abruptly  trun- 
cated instead  of  running  out  to  a  more  or  less  tapering 
point  as  in  most  cephalopods ;  and  then  the  inferior 
termination  of  the  dorsal  ossicle  is  quite  unlike  that 
described  by  Steenstrap  in  his  genus.  Mouchesia  SancH- 
Pauli  measured  from  the  tip  of  its  longest  arms  to  the 
end  of  Uie  body,  upwards  of^  twenty-two  feet  A  species 
of  Ommastrephes  swarmed  in  the  adjacent  sea  and  seemed 
to  be  the  (^ef  food  of  the  penguins. 

E.  Perceval  Wright 


NOTES 

Systematic  botany  has  lost  one  of  its  greatest  living  names 
in  the  death  of  Elias  Magnus  Fries,  Emeritus  Professor  of 
Botany  in  the  University  of  Upsak.  He  was  bom  August  15, 
1794,  and  died  on  February  8  inst.  His  very  numerous  works, 
especially  on  fungi  and  lichens,  give  him  a  position  as  regards 


those  groups  of  plants  only  comparable  to  that  of  Linnaeus.  His 
services  to  science  were  recognised  by  the  Royal  Society  in  his 
election  as  a  foreign  member  in  1875. 

The  funeral  service  of  M.  Claude  Bernard  took  place  at  Paris, 
at  the  public  expense,  on  Saturday,  February  16,  at  St  Sulpice, 
in  presence  of  an  immense  assembly.  The  interment  took  place 
at  P^re-la-Chaise.  The  chief  mourners  were  MM.  Bardoux, 
the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  Dumas  and  Bertrand,  Per- 
petual Secretaries  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Fizeau,  Presi- 
dent, Mezi^res,  Chancellor  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  M. 
Paul  Bert,  who  is  filling  the  chair  of  Claude  Bernard  at  the 
Jardin  des  Pkintes,  and  Laboulaye.  These  gentlemen  delivered 
addresses  at  the  grave,  which  will  be  published  in  the  CompUi 
Rendus  and  official  papers. 

Froit  the  last  report  of  Dr.  Dohm,  the  director,  we  notice 
that  the  zoological  station  at  Naples  has  developed  a  most  re- 
markable degree  of  activity,  and  is  becoming  a  valuable  centre 
of  biological  research.  By  the  generosity  of  the  Prussian 
Government  it  has  been  provided  with  a  small  steamer,  and  the 
nninterrupted  expeditions  in  this  vessel  have  secured  to  the 
laboratories  an  enormous  and  most  varied  stock  of  material 
for  research.  Dr.  Dohm  has  carefully  organised  a  plan 
for  the  systematic  examination  of  the  entire  founa  of  this 
part  of  the  sea,  to  be  accompanied  by  exhaustive  desaip- 
tion.  The  literary  portion  of  the  work  wUl  consist  of  elaborate 
monographs  on  all  the  lamHies  and  species  represented  in  the 
Gulf  of  Naples.  They  will  not  be  prepared  by  the  members  of 
the  station  only,  but  it  is  hoped  to  procure  the  assistance  of  all 
familiar  with  this  special  department,  and  the  contributions  can 
be  in  English,  French,  German,  or  Italian.  Two  monographs 
on  the  Elenophorse  and  Balanoglossi  will  appear  during  the 
present  year,  and  arrangements  have  been  made  for  the  speedy 
preparation  of  eleven  others.  These  will  all  be  based,  in  regard 
to  nomenclature  and  classification,  on  a  work  shortly  to  appear 
under  the  title,  '*  Prodromus  Faunae]  Meditenaneae,"  whidi  will 
contain  a  complete  abstract  of  the  literature  on  this  subject  up 
to  the  present  time.  The  details  of  anatomical  and  embryo- 
logical  mvestsgation  will  form  the  leading  feature  of  the  whole 
work. 

The  Radicals  in  the  French  Chamber  cannot  be  accused  of 
opposition  to  the  claims  of  science.  We  nodce  that  in  a  late 
session  a  member  of  the  extreme  left  proposed  an  amendment  to 
the  budget  of  instruction,  which  provided  for  the  appropriation 
of  30,000  francs  for  an  expedition  to  California  to  obsorve  the 
next  transit  of  Mercury,  40,000  for  the  continuation  of  the  ex- 
plorations in  Northern  Africa,  where  it  has  been  proposed  to 
admit  water  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  100,000  to  enable  the 
Abb^  Deb^s  to  make  a  journey  across  Africa  from  Zanzibar  to 
the  Congo.  As  the  appropriation  was  granted,  we  may  hope 
soon  to  see  the  latter  portion  of  it  cause  the  appearance  of  a 
new  rival  of  Stanley,  for  the  Abb^  has  had,  like  Livingstone, 
invaluable  experiences  as  a  missionary,  which  will  enable  him  to 
enter  upon  the  undertaking  with  great  promises  of  success. 

The  Astronomical  Section  of  the  French  Academy  has  been 
summoned  by  the  Minister  of  Instruction  to  nominate  two  can- 
didates for  the  vacant  position  of  the  late  M.  Leverrier. 

In  Parisian  scientific  circles  Prof.  Charles  Friedel  is  mentioned 
as  the  probable  successor  to  the  place  in  the  Chemical  Section 
of  the  Academy  rendered  vacant  by  the  death  of  Victor 
Regnault. 

A  NEW  Archaeological  Institution  at  St.  Petersbuig  was 
opened  on  January  27  last  The  director  and  founder  of  the 
Institution,  M.  N.  W.  Katcholoff,  delivered  the  inaugural 
address,  in  which  he  pointed  out  the  importance  of  the  archaeo- 
logical investigation  of  the  great  Russian  empire,  and  the  great 


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{Feb.  21,  1878 


support  the  Institation  will  offer  to  students  of  Russian  arcbseo- 
logj.  He  also  announced  that  the  Russian  Government  had 
permitted  the  publication  of  a  special  oi^an  of  the  Institution 
the  firrt  part  of  which  would  shortly  appear,  and  would  contain 
valuable  details  dating  from  the  time  of  Aleicander  I. 

A  NEW  Society  of  Ethnography,  Archaeology,  and  Hbtory 
is  to  be  founded  at  the  University  of  Kazan. 

The  Annual  Archaeological  G>ngress  of  France  will  take 
place  this  year  at  Mans  and  Laval,  beginning  at  the  former  place 
on  May  20  and  closing  at  the  latter  on  May  28. 

An  interesting  course  of  lectures  has  been  inaugurated  in  con- 
nection with  the  new  museum  of  ethnography  at  Paris,  which 
IS  well  adapted  to  heighten  the  value  of  these  extensive  collec- 
tions. Nearly  every  afternoon  is  appropriated  to  a  discourse  by 
some  well-known  savan  on  topics  illustrated  in  the  museum. 
Among  the  subjects  for  the  remainder  of  the  month  we  notice 
"The  Industrial  Products  of  Central  Asia,"  by  M.  de  Ujfalvy ; 
•'The  Ancient  Mexicans,"  by  Dr.  Hamy ;  **  The  LAmbaquis  of 
Brazil,"  by  M.  Wiener;  ''Feathers,  and  their  Employment 
among  Savage  Tribe?,"  by  M.  MUne-£d wards ;  "  Peruvian 
Ceramic,"  by  M.  Wiener;  "Exploration  of  the  Sahara,"  by 
Commander  Rondaire ;  "The  Useful  Plants  of  Equatorial 
America,"  by  M.  Andr^,  &c.  Like  most  of  the  lectures  in 
Paris,  these  are  free  to  the  public 

The  works  for  establishing  the  monster  captive  balloon  at  the 
Tuileries  have  begun  in  the  court  of  the  old  palace.  The 
Municipal  Council  of  Paris  voted  the  demolition  of  the  ruins  at 
its  last  sitting.  It  is  proposed  by  the  Corporation  that  the 
demolition  be  completed  for  the  opening  of  the  Paris 
Exhibition. 

News  from  Berlin  states  that  Signor  Martioelli  has  started 
from  Athens  for  Olympia  in  order  to  take  the  casts  of  the  sculp- 
tures recently  excavated,  particularly  of  the  Apollo  of  the  western 
front  of  the  building  and  of  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles.  The 
exhibition  of  the  Olympian  casts  at  Berlin  will  be  deferred  until 
Signor  Martinelli  has  finished  his  work.  All  the  other  casts  are 
now  complete  at  the  Campo  Santo,  near  the  Berlin  Dome.  The 
second  volume  of  the  "  Ausgrabungen  von  Olympia,"  with 
thirty-five  photographic  plates,  is  in  course  of  publication. 

Sir  John  Lubbock's  Ancient  Monuments'  Bill  passed  the 
second  reading  on  Tuesday.  We  hope  that  it  will  Uiis  session 
pass  successfully  through  the  final  stage. 

Mr.  W.  Ackroyd  writes  to  us  with  reference  to  the  mechanbm 
of  the  ear  and  the  bearing  it  may  have  on  the  structure  and  use 
of  the  telephone.  In  man  the  drum  is  inclined  to  the  axis  of 
the  extenud  ear  passage  at  about  an  angle  of  46°,  and  may  be 
less  or  more  in  other  animals.  Mr.  Ackroyd  thinks  that  here  we 
are  taught  that  the  best  disposition  of  a  membrane  designed  to 
receive  aerial  impulses  is  that  of  a  less  or  greater  angle  to  the 
resonating  cavity  in  which  it  is  placed,^  the  value  of  this  angle 
probably  depending  upon  the  depth  and  form,  &c,  of  such 
cavity,  points  only  to  be  ascertained  by  experiment  In  com- 
municating these  ideas  the  other  day  to  Mr.  Wilson,  of  the 
Physical  Laboratory,  South  Kensington,  he  stated  that  Mr. 
Newth,  of  the  Chemical  Laboratory,  had  found  that  his  tele- 
phone worked  best  when  he  spoke  into  it  in  a  slanting  direction. 
Mr.  Ackroyd  thinks  that  telephonists  will  receive  many  valuable 
ideas  from  the  study  of  the  comparative  morphology  of  the 
external  auditory  apparatus  as  Bell  did  by  studying  the  action 
of  the  human  tsrmpanic  membrane. 

Wb  learn  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Russian  Hydro- 
graphical  Department,  just  appeared,  that  during  the  year  1876 
the  officers  of  the  department  took  sotmdings  in  the  Baltic  Sea 
and  along  the  Finnish  shores  for  i,  100  miles,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  for  2,130  miles,  in  Lake  Onega  for  870  miles,  and  in 
the  Black  Sea  for  2, 170  miles. 


The  Central  Phyncal  Observatory  at  St  Petersburg  has  issued 
its  report  for  1876,  containing  meteorological  observations  made 
during  that  year  at  ninety-eight  stations,  accordmg  to  the  inter- 
national regulations.  An  appendU  gives  the  results  of  the  hourly 
observations  made  at  Moscow  during  the  last  fourteen  years. 

Ws  are  glad  to  announce  the  opening  at  St  Petersburg  of  a 
new  hygienic  society.  It  is  divided  into  five  sections  :  Biology ; 
Statistics  and  Epidemiology  ;  Hygiene  of  towns,  manufactures, 
and  public  buildings;  Hygiene  of  schools;  and  Hygiene  of 
food.  Prof.  Zdekauer  is  president  of  the  Society,  and  among 
the  members  are  some  of  the  most  prominent  names  in  the  St 
Petersburg  University  and  Academy  of  Sciences. 

SiNCB  January  5  a  new  Allgemeitu  TechnikeneUung  has  been 
appearing  at  Leipzig  (Schafer)  every  week.  It  is  a  well-written 
serial  and  contains  frequent  reports  of  the  latest  progress  of  the 
natural  sciences  from  a  practical  point  of  view. 

The  German  Emperor  has  presented  a  most  valuable  col- 
lection of  arms  and  weapons  to  the  Ethnographical  Department 
of  the  Royal  Museum  of  Berlin.  The  collection  was  made  by 
Herr  Erdmann,  the  German  Consul  at  Samarang  (Java),  and 
consists  of  weapons  from  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes, 
Flores,  Amboina,  and  other  islands  of  the  great  Archipelago. 

Earthquakes  are  reported  from  the  Lower  Danube  on 
January  31  at  4.30  a.  m.  It  is  also  announced  that  the  cities  of 
Lima  and  Guayaquil,  in  South  America,  have  sufiered  terribly 
from  recent  shocks. 

For  the  first  time  since  1840  Lisbon  has  been  visited  by  snow. 
Besides  1840  the  years  1837  and  1839  were  characterised  by  this 
phenomenon. 

In  studying  the  vibrations  of  solid  bodies,  M.  Dubois  has 
recently  got  some  interesttog  effects  by  use  of  water  mixed  with 
vermilion.  If  this  be  put  on  the  brandies  of  a  tuning-fork 
which  is  vibrated,  striae  are  produced,  the  vermilion  settling  in 
the  grooves  of  the  liquid,  and  giving  a  figure.  Operating  first 
with  tuning-forks,  then  with  sounding-tubes  and  vibrating- 
plates,  M.  Dubois  arrived  at  these  two  laws  :— i.  Two  sounds 
produced  by  difierent  instruments  give  the  same  separation  of 
striae,  if  these  sounds  are  of  the  same  pitch.  2.  Two  sounds  of 
different  pitch  give  striae  inversely  proportional  to  the  numbers  of 
vibrations  of  the  sounds.  In  the  case  of  the  pipes  (which  were 
open),  a  small  band  of  paper  carrying  the  liquid  charged  with 
vermilion  was  fixed  with  wax  at  the  open  part  The  vibration 
of  the  air  immediately  produced  striae.  The  blast  being  adapted 
to  give  a  grave  fundamental  sound,  a  certain  set  of  equidistant 
divisions  was  produced  ;  then  on  blowing  to  sound  the  octave, 
these  divisions  remained,  but  a  second  set  of  intermediate  lines 
appeared. 

At  p.  113,  vol.  xvi.  of  Nature  we  drew  attention  to  the 
gratuitous  distribution  of  a  little  pamphlet  entitled  "Notes  for 
Observations  of  Injurious  Insects."  This  was  issued  under  the 
auspices  of  a  few  well-known  entomologists  with  a  view  of 
obtaining  any  information,  however  varied,  on  the  habits  of  tte 
insects  and  the  conditions  of  the  crops  most  conducive  to  their 
increase.  It  will  be  remembered  that  the  late  Mr.  Andrew 
Murray  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  question  of  the  destruction 
of  the  crops  by  insect  pests,  and  read  a  paper  on  the  subject 
before  the  Society  of  Arts,  so  that  the  returns  which  have  been 
received  in  answer  to  the  above-mentioned  pamphlet  and  which 
are  now  embodied  in  the  form  of  a  report  will  be  specially  inter- 
esting to  entomologists  and  valuable  to  cultivators.  It  is  satis- 
factory to  find  that  some  well-known  pests  were  not  so  abundant 
in  some  districts  last  year  as  they  were  in  the  preceding  year ; 
thus  we  are  told  that  near  Isleworth  but  little  injury  was  noticed 
amongst  the  onions  from  the  fly,  Anthomyia  ceparum^  though  in 
1876  it  was  very  deftructive,  which  indeed  was  the  cas^  generally 


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in  the  western  suburbs  of  London,  and  perhaps  also  in  other 
parts.  Two  remedies  are  recommended  for  warding  off  the 
insects ;  one  by  scattering  amongst  the  plants  some  polverised 
gas-lime,  and  the  other  by  watering  with  the  liquid  from  pig« 
sties.  The  clouded  yellow  butterfly  [Colias  tdusa)  was,  it  seems, 
"the  great  appearance  of  the  year,"  and  was  first  seen  near 
Dumfries  early  in  June,  and  across  the  south  of  England  it  was 
generally  observable  from  June  till  October.  The  frequent  death 
of  the  larvae  when  feeding  on  various  clovers  and  trefoils  is  men- 
tioned  as  a  point  of  interest  relatively  to  its  permanent  settlement, 
as  also  the  great  difference  in  the  quantity  of  the  sexes  noticed 
at  various  stations  which  may  be  followed  ^by  coincident  variety 
of  appearance  next  year.  The  report  is  published  by  Mr.  T.  P. 
Newman,  Botolph  Lane,  Eastcheap,  firom  whom  we  believe 
copies  may  be  obtained.  Every  information  on  the  subject  will 
also  be  supplied  on  application  to  the  Rev.  T.  A.  Preston,  The 
Green,  Marlborough,  Wilts,  E.  A.  Fitdi,  Esq.,  Maldon,  Essex, 
or  Miss  E.  A.  Ormerod,  Dunster  Lodge,  Spring  Grove,  Isle- 
worth. 

The  St.  Petersburg  University  has  addressed  a  note  to  the 
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  requesting  that  the  necessary  steps 
be  taken  for  the  preservation  of  any  valuable  manuscripts  which 
may  be  found  in  the  Turkish  towns  occupied  by  Russian  troops. 
Valuable  manuscripts  were  preserved  in  this  way  from  destruction 
in  the  War  of  1829,  and  important  manuscripts  have  already 
been  discovered  in  the  mosques  of  Timova. 

A  SMALL  Japanese  "  blue  "  book  comes  to  us  in  the  shape  of 
a  report  by  the  department  of  Pablic  Hygiene  on  some  of  the 
mineral  waters  of  Uie  country  and  the  uses  to  which  they  may  be 
put.    Japan  seems  to  contain  a  great  variety  of  such  waters. 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Musical  Association  on  February  4  a 
paper  was  read  by  Mr.  D.  J.  Blalkley,  "respecting  a  Point  in 
the  Theory  of  Brass  Instruments.*'  The  necessary  difference  in 
^  form  between  such  instruments  and  conical  tubes  was  pointed 
out,  and  a  new  experimental  method  for  determining  the  posi- 
tions of  the  nodal  points  in  tubes,  especially  applicable  to  such 
as  are  of  varying  section,  was  shown.  As  an  instance  may  be 
given  a  ooniod  tube  open  at  both  ends  and  of  the  pitch  C  512 
vib.  The  node  is  nearer  the  small  than  the  large  end  of  the 
tube,  and  by  sinking  one  end  in  water  and  holding  a  fork  of  the 
pitch  of  the  tube  over  the  other,  the  exact  position  of  the  node  is 
shown  by  the  level  of  the  water  when  the  tube  is  giving  its  maxi- 
mum resonance. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  two  Macaque  Monkeys  (Afacacm  cynomolgus) 
from  India,  presented  by  Lieut-Col  Fielden ;  a  Grivet  Monkey 
(Cercojnihecus griseo-wridis)  firom  North- east] Africa,  presented  by 
Mr.  E.  H.  Lockley;  a  Garden's  Night  Heron  {NycHcorax 
gardem)  from  South  America,  presented  by  Mr.  Henry  Bottrell ; 
three  Chimpanzees  [{Troglodytes  niger)  firom  West  Africa, 
deposited ;  a  Black-faced  Spider  Monkey  (^/fZfj  ater)  firom  East 
Peru,  a  Collared  Peccary  (DkotyUs  iajafu)  from  SouUi  America, 
a  Globose  Cnrassow  {Crax  globicera)  from  Central  America,  a 
Black-footed  Penguin  {S/heniscus  demersus)  from  West  Africa, 
^     a  Hey's  Partridge  {Caccalns  heyi)  firom  Arabia,  purchased. 


ON  COMPASS  ADJUSTMENT  IN  IRON  SHIPS  » 

L — New  Form  of  Marine  Azimuth  and  Steering  Compass  with 
Adjuncts  for  the  complete  ApplicoHon  of  the  Astronomer^RoyoTs 
Principles  of  Correction  for  Iron  Ships, 

T^HIRTY-EIGHT  years  ago  the  Astronomer-Royal  showed 

-^     how  the  errors  of  the  compan,  depending  on  the  influence 

experienced  firom  the  iron  of  the  ship,  may  be  perfectly  corrected 

*  Report  of  paper  read  to  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution,  February 
4,  by  Sir  Wm.  Thomson,  LL.D..  F.RS.,  P.RS.E.,  Professor  of  Natural 
Fhiiosophy  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  Fellow  of  St.  Peter^s  College, 
Cambridge.  Revised  by  the  Author.  [The  Council  of  the  U.  S.I.  have  kindly 
permitted  us  to  publish  Sir  W.  Thomson's  paper  in  advance,  and  have  granted 
us  the  use  of  the  illustrations,— Ed.] 


by  magnets  and  soft  iron  placed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Inn- 
nacle.  Partial  applications  of  his  method  came  into  immediate  use 
in  merchant  steamers,  and  within  the  last  ten  years  have  become 
universal  not  only  in  the  merchant  service,  but  in  the  navies  of 
this  and  other  countries.  The  compass  and  the  binnacles  before 
you  are  designed  to  thoroughly  carry  out  in  practical  navigation 
the  Astronomer-Royal's  principles.  The  general  drawback  to 
the  complete  and  accurate  realisation  of  puins  for  carrying  out 
these  prmciples  heretofore,  has  been  the  great  size  of  the  needles 
in  the  ordinary  compass  which  renders  one  important  part  of  the 
correction,  the  correction  of  the  quadrantal  error  for  all  latitudes 
by  masses  of  soft  iron  placed  on  the  two  sides  of  the  binnacle, 
practically  unattainable  ;  and  which  limits,  and  sometimes  par- 
tially vitiates,  the  other  chief  part  of  the  correction,  or  that 
which  is  performed  by  means  of  magnets  placed  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  compass.  Five  years  ago  my  attention  was 
forced  to  this  subject  through  my  having  been  called  upon  by 
the  Royal  Society  to  write  a  biographical  sketch  of  the  late 
Archibald  Smith,  with  an  account  of  his  scientific  work  on  the 
mariner's  compass  and  ships'  magnetism,  and  I  therefore  com- 
menced to  make  trial  compasses  witih  much  smaller  needles 
than  any  previously  in  use ;  but  it  was  only  after  three  yean  of 
very  varied  trials,  in  the  laboratory  and  workshop,  and  at  sea, 
that  I  succeeded  in  producing  a  mariner's  compass  with  the 
qualities  necessary  for  thoroughly  satisfactory  working  in  all 
weathers  and  all  seas,  and  in  every  class  of  ship,  and  ^3ret 
with  small  enough  needles  for  the  perfect  application  of 
the  Astronomer-Royal's  method  of  correction  for  iron  ships. 
One  result  at  which  I  arrived,  partly  by  lengthened  trials  at 
sea  in  my  own  yacht,  and  partly  by  dynamiodueory  analogous 
to  that  of  Froude  with  reference  to  the  rolling  of  ships,  was  that 
steadiness  of  the  compass  at  sea  veas  to  be  obtained  not  by 
heaviness  of  needles  or  of  compass-card,  or  of  added  weights,  but 
by  loDgness  of  vibrational  period '  of  the  compass,  however  this 
longness  is  obtained.  Thus,  if  the  addition  of  weight  to  the 
compass-card  improves  it  in  respect  to  steadiness  at  sea,  it  is  not 
because  of  the  additional  friction  on  the  bearing-point  that  this 
improvement  is  obtained;  on  the  contrary,  dulness  of  the 
bearing-point,  or  too  much  weight  upon  it,  renders  the  compass 
less  stoidy  at  sea,  and,  at  the  same  time,  less  decided  in  showing 
changes  of  the  ship's  bead,  than  it  would  be  were  the  point 
perfectlv  fine  and  frictionless,  supposing  for  the  moment  this  to 
be  possible.  It  is  by  increasing  the  vibrational  period  that  the 
addition  of  weight  gives  steadiness  to  the  compass ;  whUe,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  increase  of  friction  on  the  bearing-point  is  both 
injurious  in  respect  to  steadiness,  and  detrimental  in  blunting  it 
or  breaking  it  down,  and  boring  into  the  cap,  and  so  producing 
sluggishness,  after  a  short  time  of  use^  at  sea.  If  weight  were 
to  be  added  to  produce  steadiness,  the  place  to  add  it  would  be 
at  the  very  circumference  of  the  card.  My  conclusion  was  that 
no  weight  is  in  any  case  to  be  added,  beyond  that  which  is 
necessary  for  supporting  the  card ;  and  that,  with  small  enough 
needles  to  admit  of  the  complete  application  of  the  Astronomer- 
Royal's  principles  of  correction,  the  length  of  period  required  Tor 
steadiness  at  sea  is  to  be  obtained,  wiUiout  sacrificing  fireedom 
firom  firictional  error,  by  giving  a  large  diameter  to  the  compass- 
card,  and  by  throwing  to  its  outer  edge  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
whole  mass  of  rigid  material  which  it  must  have  to  support  it 

In  the  compass  before  you  (Fig.  1),  these  qualities  are  given  by 
supporting  the  outer  edge  of  a  card  on  a  thin  rim  of  aluminium, 
and  its  inner  parts  on  thirty-two  silk  threads  or  fine  copper  wires 
stretched  from  the^  rim  to  a  small  central  boss  of  aluminium, 
thirty-two  spokes,  as  it  were,  of  the  wheel.  The  card  itself  is  of 
thin  strong  paper,  and  all  the  central  parts  of  it  are  cut  away, 
leaving  only  enough  of  it  to  show  convdiiently  the  points  and 
d^ee-divisions  of  the  compass.  The  central  boss  consists  of  a 
thm  disc  of  aluminium,  wiUi  a  hole  in  its  centre,  which  rests  on 
the  projecting  lip  of  a  small  aluminium  inverted  cup  mounted 
with  a  sapphire  cap,  which  rests  on  a  fixed  iridium  point 
(Figs.  2  and  3). 

Eight  small  needles  firom  3I  inches  to  2  inches  long,  made  of 
thin  steel  wire,  and  weighing  in  all  fifty-four  grains,  are  fixed 
like  the  steps  of  a  rope  ladder  on  two  parallel  silk  threads, 
and  slung  from  the  aluminium  rim  by  four  silk  threads  or  fine 
copper  wires  through  eyes  in  the  four  ends  of  the  outer  pair  of 
needles. 

The  weight  of  the  central  boss,  aluminium  cup,  and  sapphire 

'  The  vibrational  pmod,  or  the  period  (as  it  may  be  called  for  brevity)  of  a 
compass,  is  the  time  it  takes  to  perform  a  complete  vibration,  to  and  fro^ 
when  deflected  horizontally  through  any  angle  not  exceeding  30°  or  40°,  and 
left  to  iucif  to  vibrate  freely. 


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[Feb.  21,  1878 


cap,  unounU  in  all  to  about  five  grains.  It  need  not  be  more  for 
a  24-incli  than  for  a  lo-incfa  compass.  For  the  lo-inch  compass 
the  whole  weight  on  the  iridimn  point,  indnding  rim,  card,  silk 
threads,  centnu  boss,  and  needles,  is  about  i£)  grains.  The 
limit  to  the  diameter  of  the  card  depends  upon  the  quintitf  of 
soft  iron  that  can  be  introduced  without  inconvenient  cumbrous- 
Bess  on  the  two  sides  of  the  binnacle   to  correct  the  quad- 


rantal  error.  If,  as  sometimes  may  be  advisable  in  the  case 
of  a  pole  or  masthead  compass,  it  be  determined  to  leave  the 
quadrantal  error  nncorrected,  the  diameter  of  the  compass-card 
may  be  anything  from  12  to  24  inches,  according  to  circumstances. 
A  24-inch  card  on  the  new  plan  will  undoubtedly  have  less  fric- 
tional  error  or  *•  sluggishness  "  for  the  same  degree  of  steadiness 


r^A 


n 


/ 


yWj/^;.^.,;- jj>/  .'A-.--.,  .J.-  -   '.  -/-• 


1 


FlC.  a. 


than  anv  smaller  size ;  but  a  12-inch  card  works  well  even  in 
very  umavourable  circumstances,  and  it  will  rarely,  if  ever,  be 
necessary  to  choose  a  larger  size  unless  for  convenience  to  the 
steersman  for  seeing  the  divisions,  whether  points  or  degrees. 
Yon  see  hanging  over  the  table,  from  the  roof,  one  of  my  1 2-inch 
polercpnipaFSfs.     Specimens  of  f5-inch  and  24-inch  pole-com- 


passes have  also  been  made.  The  last-mentioned  may  be  looked 
at  with  some  curiosity,  as  being  probably  the  largest  compass  in 
the  world.  It  will  no  doubt  be  properly  condemned  as  too 
cumbrous  for  use  at  sea,  even  in  the  largest  ship,  but  there  caa 
be  no  doubt  it  would  work  well  in  a  position  in  which  a  smaller 
compass  would  be  caused  to  oscillate  very  wildly  by  the  motion 
of  the  ship.  The  period  of  the  new  10  inch  compass  is  in  this 
part  of  the  world  about  forty  seconds 
which  is  more  than  double  the  period  of 
the  A  card  of  the  Admiralty  standard 
compass,  and  is  considerably  longer  than 
that  of  the  ordinary  lo-inch  compass,  so 
much  in  use  in  merchant  steamers.  The 
new  compass  ought,  therefore,  according  to 
theory,  to  be  considerably  steadier  in  a 
heavy  sea  than  either  the  Admiralty  com- 
pass or  the  ordinary  lo-inch  compass,  and 
actual  experience  at  sea  has  thoroughly 
fulfilled  this  promise.  It  has  also  proved 
very  satisfactorv  in  respect  to  frictional 
error;  so  much  so  that  variations  of  a 
steamer's  course  of  less  than  half  a  d^ree 
are  shown  instantly  and  surely,  even  if  the 
engine  be  stopped,  and  the  water  perfectly 
smooth. 

With  the  small  needles  of  the  new  com- 
pass, the  complete  practical  application  of 
the  Astronomer-Royal's  prinaples  of  cor- 
rection is  easy  and  sure :  that  is  to  say, 
correctors  can  be  applied  so  that  the  com- 
pass shall  point  correctly  on  all  points,  and 
these  correctors  can  be  easily  and  surely 
adjusted  at  sea,  from  time  to  time,  so  as 
to  correct  the  smallest  discoverable  error 
growing  up,  whether  through  change  of  the 
ship's  mi^etism,  or  of  the  magnetism 
induced  l^  the  earth,  according  to  the 
changing  position  of  the  ship.  To  correct 
the  quadrantal  error  I  use  a  pair  of  solid 
or  hollow  iron  elobes  placed  on  proper 
supports,  attached  to  the  binnacle  on  two 
sides  of  the  compass.  This  mode  is  pre- 
ferable to  the  usuu  chain  boxes,  because  a 
continuous  globe  or  spherical  shell  of  iron 
is  more  r^dar  in  its  effect  than  a  heap  of 
chain,  and  because  a  considerably  less  bulk 
of  the  continuous  iron  suffices  to  correct 
the  same  error.  When  in  a  first  adjustment  in  a  new  ship,  or 
in  a  new  position  of  a  compass  in  an  old  ship^  the  quadr*ntil 


/• 


'^ 


Fig.  3. 


Fig  4. 


error  has  been  found  from  observation,  by  the  ordinary  practical 
methods,  it  is  to  be  corrected  by  placing  a  pair  of  globes  p 
proper  positions  according  t>  the  following  table  ; — 


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NATURE 


333 


TabUfor  Correction  of  Quadrantal  Error, 

H 

Distances  of  the  Nearest  Points  of  Globes  from  Centre  of  Compass. 

Q-inch 

Sfinch 

8-bch 

7i-'nch 

7-inch 

6iinch 
globes. 

6-inch 

si-inch 

5- inch 

4l-inch 

w<3 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

globes. 

0 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

I 

20-52 

19-38 

18*24 

17*10 

15*96 

14-82 

13*68 

12*54 

11*40 

10*26 

li 

17*36 

1639 

15-42 

14-46 

13*50 

12*54 

11*57 

10 -6 1 

965       • 

8*68 

2 

15-36 

14-51 

1366 

12-81 

11-95 

11*10 

1024 

9*39 

8*53 

7*68 

2j 

13-94 

I316 

12*39 

II  61 

10*84 

1007 

9*29 

8*52 

7  74 

6-97 

3^ 

12-84 

I213 

11-42 

10*70 

9*99 

-  9*28 

8-57 

7*85 

7*14 

5*42 

34 

11-98 

1152 

10-63 

1065 

999 

932 

8*65 

7  99 

l^ 

6*66 

5*99 

4^ 

11-26 

lOOI 

9'39 

8*76 

8*13 

7*51 

6*26 

563 

4i 

IO-66 

10-07 

9*47 

8*88 

829 

770 

7*io 

6*51 

5*92 

5*33 

5^ 

1013 

957 

9-01 

8*45 

7*88 

7*32 

6-75 

6*19 

5-63 

507 

1* 

967 

913 

8-59 

806 

752 

6*99 

6*45 

5*91 

5*38 

4*84 

6 

927 

8-75 

8*24 

772 

7*21 

6*70 

6*18 

5*66 

5*'5 

4*53 

64 

!'9i 

841 

7*92 

7*42 

693 

6*44 

5*94 

5*44 

4*95 

4-46 

7. 

S'5! 

810 

7-63 

7'iS 

667 

6 '20 

5*72 

5*24 

477 

4*29 

2* 

8-28 

7-82 

736 

690 

6*44 

598 

5*52 

506 

460 

4*14 

8 

8-01 

7*57 

712 

6*68 

623 

5*79 

5*34 

490 

•4*45 

^'11 

8i 

776 

7-33 

6*90 

6*47 

604 

560 

5*17 

4*74 

4-3' 

388 

9. 

7*53 

711 

6-69 

627 

5*86 

5*4* 

5*02 

4-6o 

4*18 

376 

94 

7-32 

691 

6-50 

6*09 

5*69 

5*28 

4*87 

4*47 

4-06 

3*66 

10 

711 

672 

^'3? 

5  93 

5*53 

5*14 

4*74 

4*35 

3  95 
3*85 

3*55 

loi 

6-93 

6-54 

6-16 

577 

5*39 

5*00 

4-62 

4*23 

346 

II 

11 

6-37 

6*00 

5*62 

5*25 

4*87 

450 

4*12 

3*75 

3*37 

114 

6-22 

5*85 

5*49 

512 

476 

4*39 

4-02 

3*66 

3*29 

12 

6*43 

607 

571 

5-36 

500 

464 

4*29 

3*93 

3  57 

3*22 

When  the  qaadrantal  error  has  been  thus  once  accurately  cor- 
rected, the  correction  is  perfect  to  whatever  part  of  the  world 
the  ship  may  ^  and  requites  no  adjustment  at  any  subsequent 
time,  except  m  the  case  of  some  change  in  the  ship  s  iron,  or  of 
iron  cargo  or  ballast  sufficiently  near  the  compass  to  introduce  a 
sensible  change  in  the  quadrantal  error.  The  vast  simplification 
of  the  deviations  of  the  compass  effected  by  a  perfect  correction 
of  this  part  of  the  whole  error  has  not,  as  yet,  been  practically 
appreciated,  because,  in  point  of  fact,  this  correction  had  rarely, 
it  ever,  in  practice^  been  successfully  made  for  all  latitudes. 
The  pair  of  large  needles  of  the  compass  ordinarily  used  in 
merchant  ships  does  not,  as  has  bran  i^own  by  Capt  Evans  and 
Archibald  Smith,  admit  of  the  correction  of  the  quadrantal  error 
in  the  usual  manner,  without  the  intxoduction  of  a  still  more 
pernicious  error,  depending  on  the  nearness  of  the  ends  of  the 
needles  to  the  masses  of  chain,  or  of  soft  iron  of  whatever  kind. 
Implied  on  the  two  sides  of  the  compass  to  produce  the  correc- 
tion. The  Admiralty  standard  compass,  with  its  four  needles 
proportioned  and  placed  according  to  Archibald  Smith's  rule,  is 
comparatively  free  from  this  fauU :  but  even  with  it,  and  still 
more  with  the  stronger  magnets  of  the  larger  compasses  of 
merchant  ships,  there  is  another  serious  cause  01  failure  copending 
on  the  magnetism  induced  in  the  iron  correctors  by  the  compass 
needles,  in  consequence  of  which,  if  the  quadrantal  error  is 
accurately  corrected  in  one  latitude,  it  will  be  found  over-cor- 
rected  in  high  magnetic  latitudes,  and  under-corrected  in  the 
neighbonrhooMl  of  the  magnetic  equator.  The  new  compass  was 
specially  designed  to  avoid  both  these  causes  of  failure  in  the 
correction  of  the  qnadrantal  error ;  and  experiment  has  shown 
that  with  it  the  correction  by  such  moderate  masses  of  iron  as 
those  indicated  in  the  preceding  table^  is  practically  perfect  not 
only  in  the  place  of  adiustment,  but  in  all  uititudes. 

When  once  (he  <)uadrantal  error  has  been  accurately  corrected, 
the  complete  application  of  the  Astronomer-Rcnral's  principles 
becomes  easy  and  sure,  if  the  binnacle  is  provided  with  proper 
i^>plianoes  for  readjusting  the  mi^netic  correctors  from  time  to 
time,  whether  at  sea  or  in  port.  But  the  system  of  naiUng  mag- 
nets to  the  deck,  in  almost  universal  use  in  the  merchant  service, 
is  not  satis&ctory,  and  is  often  even  dangerous  It  always  renders 
needlessly  tedious  and  cumbrous  the  process  of  readjustment  by  the 
adjuster  m  port^  and  it  leaves  the  captain  of  the  ship  practically 
no  other  method  of  readjustment  at  sea  than  removing  the  mag- 
nets altogether,  or  taking  than  out  of  their  cases  and  replacing 
them  in  inverted  positions.  The  Astronomer-Royal  nimsS 
pointed  oct  that  his  correcting  magnets  should  be  mounted  in 
such  a  mimner  thut  their  distances  from  the  compass  can  be 


gradually  changed,  so  as  always  to  balance  the  ship's  magnetic 
force  as  it  alters,  whether  by  gradual  loss  of  her  original  mag- 
netism through  lapse  of  time,  or  by  the  inductive  influence  of 
the  earth's  vertical  magnetic  force  coming  to  zero,  and  then 
becoming  reversed  in  direction  when  a  ship  makes  a  voyage 
from  the  northern  to  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  not  carrying 
out  of  this  essential  part  of  his  plan,  whether  through  no  method 
or  no  sufficiently  convenient  method  of  adjustment  having  been 
hitherto  provided,  has  undoubtedly  taken  away  much  of  the 
credit  among  many  practical  men  to  which  the  Astronomer- 
Royal's  method  is  justly  entitled.  I  have,  therefore,  induced 
into  the  binnacles  provided  for  my  compass,  when  it  is  to  be 
used  in  iron  ships,  a  complete  system  of  adjustable  correctors  for 
perfectly  correcting  the  error  of  the  compass  for  every  position 
of  the  ship's  head  when  she  is  on  even  keel,  and  a  vertical 
adjustable  magnet  below  the  compass,  for  correcting  the  heeling 
error  (more  properly  speaking,  a  magnet,  which  is  vertical  when 
the  ship  b  on  even  keel,  and  which  shares  the  inclination  of  the 
ship  when  she  heels  over  to  either  side). 

An  objection  which  has  often  been  made  to  the  use  of  correctors 
at  all,  and  particularly  to  the  use  of  correctors  for  a  standard 
compass,  is  that  they  conceal  the  actual  state  of  the  ship's 
magnetism,  and  that  readjustment  of  the  correctors  at  sea  leaves 
the  navigator  without  means  of  judging,  when  he  returns  from  a 
foreign  voyage,  how  much  of  the  cfauin^^  error  found  on  read- 
justment in  port  depends  on  changes  which  have  been  made  in 
the  correcting  magnets,  and  how  much  on  changes  of  the  ship's 
own  magnetism.  This  objection  I  meet  by  providing  that  at 
any  moment  my  correctors  can  be  removed  or  set  to  any  degrees 
of  power  to  which  they  may  have  been  set  at  any  time  in  the 
course  of  the  voyage,  and  again  reset  to  their  last  position  with 
perfect  accuracy.  The  appliances  for  changing  the  adjustment 
are  under  lock  and  key,  so  that  they  can  never  be  altered,  except 
by  the  captain  or  some  properly  authorised  officer.  Farther,  to 
facilitate  the  use  of  the  correctors,  I  graduate  the  scales  accu- 
rately to  correspond  to  definite  variations  of  the  force  which  they 
produce  on  Uie  compass.  Thus,  as  soon  as  the  error  has  been 
determined  by  the  known  method  of  observation  at  sea,  the 
corrector  may  at  once  be  altered  to  the  proper  degree  to  correct 
it  Of  course  the  officer  performing  the  adjustment  will  satufy 
himself  of  iU  correctness  fa^  a  second  observation.  The  objection 
of  "delicacy  of  manipulation,"  and  the  difficulty  of  carrying  it 
out,  except  by  a  professional  adjuster,  of  which  so  much  has  been 
said,  is  entirely  done  away  with  when  adjustable  correctors,  with 
scales  thus  accurately  graduated,  are  provided  with  the  binnacle. 

The  binnacles  before  you  are  of  two  kmds  adapted  to  the  two 


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{Feb.  21,  1878 


difierent  methods  given  by  the  Astronomer-Rojal  for  correcting 
the  semi-drcnlar  part  of  the  error;  one,  the  square  one^  for 
correcting,  by  two  sets  of  magnets,  fore-and-aft  and  thwart-ship 
respectively ;  the  other,  the  round  one,  for  correcting  by  a  single 
magnet,  or  group  of  bars  equivalent  to  a  single  magnet,  placed 
under  the  centre  of  the  compass  with  its  magnetic  axis  m  the 
proper  direction  to  balance  the  whole  disturbing  force  on  the 
compass  due  to  that  part  of  the  ship's  magnetism  which  is  un- 
changed when  she  is  put  on  different  courses  in  ihe  same 
magnetic  latitude.  The  two  sets  of  instructions,  in  the  two 
printed  pamphlets  before  you,  explain  sufficiently,  for  the  two 
binnades,  the  arrangements  of  the  magnetic  correctors  in  the  two 
cases,  and  how  to  use  them  in  practice. 

The  principle  in  each  case  is  easihr  understood.  In  the 
system  employed  in  the  square  binnacle  tne  whole  constant  force, 
due  to  the  ptart  of  the  ship's  magnetism  which  remains  constant 
when  the  ship  is  put  on  different  courses,  is  regarded  as  being 
replaced  by  uree  constant  *'  component "  forces  in  the  direction 
of  three  lines,  at  right  angles  to  one  another— one  fore-and-aft, 
one  thwart-slup,  and  the  third  perpendicular  to  the  deck.  The 
fore-and-aft  component  is  balanced  bv  the  fore-and-aft  correcting 
magnets,  the  thwart-ship  component  by  the  thwart-ship  magnets, 
and  the  component  perpendicular  to  the  deck  by  the  heeling  cor- 
rector, which  is  a  bar-magnet,  adjustable  to  the  proper  height, 
in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  deck,  through  the  centre  of  the 
compass  and  of  the  binnacle. 

In  the  round  binnacle  the  component  perpendicular  to  the 
deck  is  balanced  by  a  heeling  corrector,  just  as  in  the  square 
one ;  but,  instead  of  considering  separately  two  components 
parallel  to  the  deck,  their  resultant  or  the  single  component 
parallel  to  the  dedc,  which,  with  the  component  perpendicular 
to  the  deck,  constitutes  the  whole  force,  is  balanced  by  a  single 
magnetic  force  parallel  to  the  deck.  This  force  is  obtained  oy 
turning  the  revolving  corrector  round  the  central  axis  of  the  bin- 
nacle, and  raising  it  or  lowering  it  until  the  proper  direction^and 
proper  magnitude  of  force  are  produced. 

One  novel  feature  in  the  last  binnacle  is  the  way  in  which,  by 
aid  of  the  guide-ring  graduated  to  logarithmic  cosecants,  and 
the  vertical  scale  graduated  to  equal  proportionate  differences  of 
force,  the  adjustment  to  correct  the  compass  on  one  course  may 
be  performed  without  disturbing  its  accuracy  on  another  course 
on  which  it  has  been  previously  adjusted.  The  principle  of 
this  arrangement  is  most  easily  explained  by  aid  of  the  mathe- 
matical notation  of  trigonometiy,  in  connection  with  the  annexed 
diagram  (Fig.  4),  in  which  O  represents  the  compass-card,  A,  a 
point  of  the  diip  which  was  in  the  direction  of  the  correct  magnetic 
north,  N,  at  the  time  of  the  first  supposed  adjustment,  mj,  the 
position  of  the  axis  of  the  revolving  corrector  set  to  correct  the 
compass  on  that  course,  H  the  ship's  head.  We  have  (accoiding 
to  the  notation  of  the  instructions) — 
HOA  =  II, 
«0H  =  C ; 
therefore,    «OA  =  H  -f  C. 

Now  the  correction  on  the  first  supposed  course,  if  it  did  not 
annul  the  force  due  to  the  magnetism  of  the  ship  and  cor- 
rectors, reduced  it  to  a  force  in  the  line  OA.  Hence  the  com- 
ponent perpendicular  to  OA  due  to  the  corrector  must  be  kept 
unchanged  in  subsequent  correction,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the 
adjustment  for  that  brst  course.  Let  F  be  the  magnitude  of  the 
force  due  to  the  revolving  corrector.  Its  direction  bdng  Oif, 
its  component  perpendicular  to  OA  is  e^ual  to  F  sin  mOA. 
Hence,  if  F  be  increased  by  raising,  or  diminished  by  lowering, 
the  corrector,  the  angle  #fO  A  must  be  altered  so  that  sin  n  O  A 
diall  vary  inversely  as  F,  orcosec  nOK  directly  as  F.    In  other 


words. 


must  be  kept  constant,  and,  therefore,  the 


cosec  nOti, 

difference  between  log  F  and  log  cosec  mOA  must  be  kept  con- 
stant When  the  guide-ring  is  placed  according  to  Rule  2,  Sec- 
tion 4,  of  the  Instructions,  the  reading  upon  it  is  the  value  of 
log-coiec  (H+C).  The  reading  on  the  vertical  scale  is  always 
proportional  to  the  logarithm  of  F.  Hence  Rule  3  secures  that 
the  change  of  magnitude  and  direction  of  the  correcting  force 
does  not  vitiate  the  correction  on  the  course  H. 
[To  he  conHnued,) 

UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELUGENCE 
Oxford.— An  examination'for  the  Buidett-Coutts  Scholarship 
will  be  held  in  the  University  Museum,  on  Monday,  Mardi  1 1, 


and  three  following  days,  at  10  a.m.,  for  the  purpose  of  electing 
a  scholar  on  that  foundation.  Candidates  are  requested  to  caU 
on  the  Professor  of  Geology  at  34,  Broad  Street,  with  certifi- 
cates of  their  standing,  and  the  consent  of  the  head  or  vice- 
regent  of  their  College  or  Hall,  on  Friday,  March  8,  between  4 
and  5  P.M. 

Cambridge.— The  exhibition  offered  by  the  Clothworken' 
Company,  to  non-collegiate  students  of  the  University,  for 
proficiency  in  physical  science,  has  been  awarded  to  J.  G. 
M'Cubbin,  who  was  educated  at  the  Manchester  Grammar 
School  The  exhibition  is  of  the  annual  value  of  50/.,  and  is 
tenable  for  three  years.  The  next  examination  for  a  similar 
exhibition  open  to  non-coll^^te  students  who  have  not  resided 
more  than  one  term,  or  who  have  not  commenced  residence,  will 
be  held  on  July  15  and  17,  in  connection  with  the  examination 
conducted  by  ue  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Schools  Examination 
Board.  Intending  candidates  can  obtain  full  information' on  "^ 
application  to  the  Rev.  R.  B.  Somerset,  censor  of  non-collegiate 
students,  Cambridge. 

Gilchrist  Educational  Trust. — A  course  of  six  Gilchrist 
Science  Lectures  for  the  People,  wiU  be  dc^vered  in  the  Bristol 
Athenoeum,  by  members  of  the  Cotmcil  and  Staff  of  University 
College,  Bristol,  at  follows  :— February  22,  The  Action  of  Heat, 
by  S.  P.  Thompson,  B.Sc,  B.A.  ;  March  5,  Heat  and  the 
Steam  Engine,  by  J.  F.  Main,  B.A.  Camb.,  D.Sc  Lond ; 
March  12,  The  Ocean  a  Carrier  of  Heat,  by  W.  L.  Carpenter, 
B.  A.,  B.Sc. ;  March  19,  Heat  within  the  Safety  Lamp,  by  S.  P. 
Thompson,  B.Sc,  B.A. ;  March  26,  the  Sun's  Heat,  by  J.  F. 
Main,  B.A.  Camb.,  D.Sc.  Lond.  ;  April  2,  the  Chemistry  ot 
Burning,  by  W.  W.  J.  Nicol,  M.  A.  The  same  course  is  to  be 
given  at  Bath,  Bridgwater,  Trowbridge^  and  Newport  (Mon- 
mouthshire). 

TheBirkbeck  Institution.— The  Lord  Mayor  has  pro- 
mised to  preside  at  a  meeting,  to  be  held  at  the  Mansion  House 
on  Wednesday  afternoon,  the  27th  inst,  at  three  o'clock,  for  the 
purpose  of  inaugurating  a  fund  to  provide  the  Birkbeck  Institu- 
tion with  a  building  suitable  to  its  large  and  important  opera- 
tions, umI  to  enable  it  to  take  advantage  of  the  many  oppor- 
tunities for  further  usefulness  which  are  from  time  to  tmie 
presented.  As  the  Institution  is  doing  such  an  important  v, 
educational  work  amongst  the  young  men  and  women  of  the 
metropolis,  it  is  hoped  £at  the  friends  of  education  will  liberally 
assist  the  movement  to  accomplish  so  desirable  an  object  The 
number  of  students  has  been  steadily  increasing  for  some  vears 
past,  and,  notwithstanding  alterations  and  extensions  of  the 
bidlding,  it  is  impossible  any  longer  to  accommodate  those 
attending  the  Institution.  Some  indication  of  the  work  will  be 
gained  msm  the  fact  that  3,304  persons  joined  the  Institution 
during  the  past  term. 

St.  Petersburg.— The  professors  of  the  High  School  of 
Medicine  for  Ladies  at  St.  Petersburg,  among  whom  are  many 
names  well  known  in  science,  have  addressed  a  petition  to  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  in  which  they  claim  for  ladies 
who  have  completed  their  studies  at  the  high  schools,  the  same 
degrees  as  for  men.  They  support  their  request  by  pointing  out 
that  the  five  gears'  theoretical  and  practical  study  at  the  ladies' 
school  are  quite  as  extensive  as  those  pursued  by  male  students, 
and  rather  more  extensive  in  the  department  of  female  diseases ; 
that  the  monthly  and  yearly  examinations  have  always  proved 
that  the  ladies  possess  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of  their 
subjects,  and  finally,  that  during  their  service  with  Uie  army  in 
Roumania  and  Bulgaria,  the  ladies  have  given  numerous  and 
sufficient  proofs  of  their  high  capacity  for  acting  as  surgeons. 

Freiburg.— The  university  is  attended  at  present  by  334 
students,  including  41  in  the  theological  faculty,  70  in  the  *  ^ 
philosophical,  76  in  the  legal,  and  147  in  the  medicaL  It  pos-  '' 
sesses  a  library  of  300^000  volumes,  and  well-equipped  scientific 
laboratories  and  collections,  but  fails  of  late  years  to  rank  among 
the  influential  German  universities,  partly  on  account  of  the 
rivalry  of  its  neighbours,  Tiibingen,  Heidelberg^  and  Strasbnrg. 

Wurzburg. — The  corps  of  instructors  numbers  at  present  40 
ordinary  professors,  5  extraordinary  professors,  and  17  privat 
docenten.  The  number  of  stud^ts,  947,  shows  a  decrease  of 
about  50  on  the  past  half  year.  On  January  a  the  296th  anni- 
versary of  the  foundation  of  the  university  was  celebrated,  and 
an  address  delivered  by  the  rector.  Prof.  Risch,  on  the  national 
importance  of  the  German  univerrities  and  their  relations  to  the 
empire.  In  the  course  of  the  address  the  Imperial  Government 
was  sharply  criticised  for  having,  with  the  exception  of  the 


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Feb.  2t,  1878] 


NATURE 


335 


ample  provisions  for  Strasburg,  utterly  neglected  the  university 
system  of  the  country,  and  faued  to  introduce  the  umfonnity  of 
management  and  many  other  reforms,  the  need  of  which  is  pain- 
fully felt  ^ce  the  formation  of  a  united  Germany.  Prof.  Sachs, 
the  well-known  botanis^  has  been  raised  into  the  nobility,  pos- 
sibly in  recognition  of  his  refusal  of  a  flattering  call  to  Berlin. 

Hanover  and  Aix-la-Chapelle.— The  two  large  poly- 
technics in  these  cities  show  a  striking  diminution  in  point  of 
attendance  during  the  past  year,  a  fact  which  would  seem  to 
show  that  the  various  technical  branches  in  Germany  are  being 
overcrowded.  Hanover  is  attended  at  present  by  725  students 
and  the  instructors  number  46.  Aix-la-Chapelle  has  suffered  a 
reduction  of  200  students  in  comparison  with  1876. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  January  17. — "New  Determination  of  the 
Mechanical  Eouivalent  of  Heat,"  by  J.  P.  Joule,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

An  account  is  given  by  the  author,  of  the  experiments  he  has 
recently  made,  with  a  view  to  increase  the  accuracy  of  the  results 
given  in  his  former  paper,  published  in  the  Philosophical  TVansaC" 
tions  for  185a  The  result  he  has  now  arrived  at,  from  the 
thermal  effects  of  the  friction  of  water,  is,  that  taking  the  unit 
of  heat  as  that  which  can  raise  a  pound  of  water,  weighed  in 
vacuo,  from  6cP  to  61°  of  the  mercurial  thermometer ;  its  mecha- 
nical equivalent,  reduced  to  the  sea-level  at  the  latitude  of 
Greenwich,  is  772*55  foot-pounds. 

February  7. — **  On  the  Comparison  of  the  Standard  Baro- 
meters of  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  and  the  Kew 
Observatory,"  by  G.  M.  Whipple^  B.Sc,  F.R.A.S.,  Supcrin- 
tendent  of  the  Kew  Observatory. 

Owing  to  certain  statements  having  been  circulated  as  to  a 
large  diSerence  existing  between  the  standard  barometers  of  the 
at>ove  two  chief  meteorological  establishments  In  this  country, 
the  Kew  Committee  decided  to  institute  a  direct  comparison 
between  them,  by  the  conveyance  of  a  number  of  instruments  to 
and  fro,  several  times  between  the  two  observatories. 

The  author  accordingly  did  this,  having  made  three  extended 
experiments  of  this  nature^  details  of  which  are  given  in  the 
paper,  the  results  being  as  follows : — 

Mean  difference  from~ 

xst  series  of  128  comparisons^Greenmch-Kew  ^  +  0*0016  inch. 
3fld    „  144  „  „  ,,     =+0-0007    ,, 

3"!    „  72  M  ».  M     =  +  00014    „ 

Final  mean  of  344  t*  **  n      =  +  o'ooia    „ 

Certain  experiments  were  also  made  to^determine  the  necessary 
corrections  to  be  applied  to  the  Greenwich  barometer  on  account 
of  inequality  of  distribution  of  temperature  around  it.  When 
these  corrections  are  applied  the  diflerence  between  the  two 
standards  is  reduced  to  O'oooi  inch,  that  is  to  say,  the  two 
instruments  virtually  agree. 

In  conclusion  the  author  tenders  his  thanks  to  the  Astronomer- 
Royal,  for  the  facilities  he  afforded  for  the  prosecution  of  the 
experiments,  and  to  Messrs.  Ellis  and  Nash  for  assistance  they 
rendered. 

Geological  Society,  January  23.— Prof.  P.  Martin  Duncan, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— J.  Eunson,  C.E.,  R.  C.  Forster, 
Walter  Mawer,  Richard  H.  Solly,  and  the  Rev.  Arthur  Watts, 
were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Society.  The  following  communi- 
cation was  read  :— On  the  secondary  rocks  of  Scotland.— Part 
HI.  The  strata  of  the  Western  Coast  and  Islands,  by  John  W. 
Judd,  F.R.Sy,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of  Geology  in  the  Royal  School 
of  Mines.  'The  existence  of  scattered  patches  of  fossiliferous 
strata,  lying  between  the  old  gneissic  rocks  and  the  masses  of 
tertiary  lava  in  the  Hebrides,  has  been  known  to  geologists  for 
more  than  a  century.  By  Dr.  MacuUodi,  who  did  so  mudi  for 
the  elucidation  of  the  interesting  district  in  which  Uiey  occur, 
these  strata  were  referred  to  the  lias ;  but  Sir  Roderick  Mur- 
chison  showed  that  several  members  of  the  oolitic  series  were 
also  represented  among  them.  Later  researches  have  added 
much  to  our  knowledge  of  the  mote  accessible  of  these  isolated 
patches  of  Jurassic  r<^ks  in  the  Western  HighUmds.  During  the 
seven  years  in  which  he  has  been  engaged  in  the  study  of  these 
interesting  deposits,  the  author  of  the  present  memoir  has  been 
able  to  prove  that  not  only  is  the  Jurassic  system^very  completely 
represented  in  the  Western  Highlands,  but  that  associated  with 
it  are  other  deposits  representing  the  carboniferous,  poikUitic 
(permian  and  trias),  and  cretaceous  deposits,  the  existence  of 


which  in  this  area  had  not  hitherto  been  suspected ;  and  by 
piecine  together  all  the  fragments  of  evidence^  he  is  enabled  to 
show  tnat  they  belong  to  a  great  series  of  formations  of  which 
the  total  maximum  thickness  could  have  been  little,  it  anything, 
short  of  a  mile.  The  relations  of  the  scattered  patches  of  mesozoic 
strata  to  the  older  and  newer  formations  respectivdy,  are  of  the 
most  interesting  and  often  startling  character.  Sometimes  the 
secondary  roclu  are  found  to  have  been  let  down  by  fbults, 
which  have  placed  them  thousands  of  feet  below  their  original 
situations  in  the  midst  of  more  ancient  masses  of  much  harder 
character.  More  usually  they  are  found  to  be  buried  under 
miny  hundreds,  or  even  thousands,  of  feet  of  tertiary  lavas,  or 
are  seen  to  have  been  caught  up  and  inclosed  between  great 
intrusive  rock-masses  belonging  to  the  same  period  as  the  super- 
incumbent volcanic  rocks.  Occasionally  the  only  evidence  which 
can  be  obtained  concermng  them  is  derived  from  fragments 
originally  torn  from  the  sides  of  tertiary  volcanic  vents,  and  now 
found  buried  ia  the  ruined  cinder-cones  which  mark  the  sites  of 
those  vents.  In  some  cases  the  mineral  characters  of  the  strata 
have  been  greatly  altered,  while  their  fossib  have  been  occasion- 
ally wholly  obliterated  ^  the  action  of  these  same  igneous  forces 
during  tertiary  times.  In  every  case  the  survival  to  the  present 
day  of  the  patches  of  secondary  rocks  can  be  shown  to  be  due 
to  a  combination  of  most  remarkable  accidents ;  and  a  study  of 
the  distribution  of  the  fra&;ments  shows  that  the  formations  to 
which  they  belong  originalTy  covered  an  area  having  a  length  of 
120  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 'a  breadth  of  fifty  miles  from 
east  to  west.  But  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  the  former  continuity 
of  these  secondary  deposits  of  the  Hebrides  with  those  of  Suther- 
land to  the  north-east,  with  those  of  Antrim  to  the  south,  and 
with  diose  of  England  to  the  south-east  From  the  present 
positions  of  the  isolated  fragments  of  the  mesozoic  rocks,  and 
after  a  careful  study  of  the  causes  to  which  they  have  owed  their 
escape  from  total  removal  by  denudation,  the  author  concludes 
that  Uie  greater  portion  of  the  British  Islands  must  have  once 
been  covered  with  thousands  of  feet  of  secondary  deposits. 
Hence  it  appears  that  an  enormous  amount  of  denudation  has 
gone  on  in  Uie  Highlands  during  tertiary  times,  and  that  the 
present  features  of  tl^  area  must  have  been,  speaking  geologically, 
of  comparatively  recent  production— most  of  Uiem,  indeed,  appear- 
ing to  be  referable  to  the  pliocene  epoch.  The  alternation  of 
estuarine  with  marine  conditions,  which  had,  on  a  former  occa- 
sion, been  proved  to  constitute  so  marked  a  feature  in  the  Jurassic 
deposits  of  the  Eastern  Highlands  is  now  shown  to  be  almost 
equally  striking  in  the  Western  area  ;  and  it  is  moreover  pointed 
out  that  the  same  evidence  of  the  proximity  of  an  old  shore-line 
is  exhibited  by  the  series  of  cretaceous  strata  in  the  west  The 
succession  and  relations  to  one  another  of  the  series  of  deposits, 
now  described  as  occurring  in  the  Western  Highlands,  is  given 
in  the  following  table  : — 

Miocene  Volcanic  and  Intervolcanic  Rocks, 
Unconformity. 


i) 


Maximum 
thicknesses, 
feet. 
20 -h 


1.  Estuarine  c^ays  and  sands  with  coal       ...     ... 

2.  White  chalk  with  flints  (zone  of  Bclemnildla 

^.  mucrona/a)     10  + 

*§  I    3.  Estuarine  sandstones  with  coal       100 


Upper  greensand  beds 


60 


Unconfohmitv. 


5.  Oxford  clay        

6.  Great  estuarine  series 

7.  Lower  oolite      

8.  Upper  lias 

9.  Middle  lias 

10.  Xx)wer  lias 

11.  Infralias      

12.  Poikilitic    


? 
1000 

400 

100 

500 

400 

200 
1000 -h 


Umconpormity  f 


Carboniferous  strata  (coal-measures). 


Umcomfoemity. 


Olil  Gneiss  Scries  and  Torridon  Sandstones, 


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NATURE 


{Feb.  21,  1878 


Although  no  traces  of  the  upper  ooUte  or  the  neooonuAn  forma- 
tions have  as  yet  beoi  detectea  in  the  Western  Highlands,  yet  it 
is  argued  that  when  we  consider  how  enormous  has  been  the 
amount  of  denudation,  and  how  singular  the  accidents  to  which 
all  the  existing  relics  of  the  secon£ury  period  have  owed  their 
escape  from  total  destruction,  we  cannot  but  regard  it  as  a  most 
rash  and  unwarrantable  inference  to  conclude  that  no  deposits 
belonging  to  those  periods  were  ever  accumulated  within  the 
district  under  consideration.     The  carboniferous  strata  of  the 
Western  Highlands  have  been  detected  at  but  a  single  locality ; 
and  even  there,  being  exposed  in  a  series  of  shore  reefs  that  are 
only  occasionally  well  displayed,  can  only  be  studied  under 
favourable  conditions  of  tide  and  wind.    They  consist  of  sand- 
stones and  shales  with  thin  coaly  seams,  and  their  age  is  placed 
beyond  question  by  the  discovery  in  them  of  many  well-known 
plants  of  the  coal-measures,  including  species  of  Lepidodendron^ 
CalanUies^  Sigillaria,  and  SHgntaria,    The  poikilitic  strata  con- 
sist of  conglomerates  and  breccias  at  the  base,  graduating  upwards 
into  red  marls  and  variegated  sandstone^  which  contain  concre- 
tionary limestones  and  occasional  bands  of  gypsum.   These  strata 
have  not  as  yet,  like  their  equivalents  in  the  Eastern  Highlands 
(the  reptiliferous  sandstone  of  Elgin  and  the   Stotfiela  rock) 
yielded  any  vertebrate  remains.     They  were  evidently  deposited 
under  similar  conditions  with  the  beds  of  the  same  age  in 
England,  and  are  not  improbably  of  lacustrine  origin.     The 
Jurassic  series  presents  many  features  of  very  great  interest   The 
infralias  is  better  developed  than  is  perhaps  the  case  in  any  part 
of  the  British  Islands ;  and  in  the  district  of  Applecross  a  series 
of  estuarine  beds,  containing  thin  coal-seams,  is  found  to  be  in- 
tercalated with  the  manne  strata.   The  lower  lias,  in  its  southern 
exposures,  i>resents  the  most  striking  agreement  with  the  eauiva- 
lent  strata  in  England,  but  when  traced  northwards  euilbits 
evidence  of  having  been  deposited  under  more  littoral  conditions ; 
the  lower  division  (lias  a,  Quenstedt)  is  represented  by  a  great 
thickness  of  strata ;  while  the  upper  (lias  p)  is  absent  or  rudi- 
mentary.   The  middle  lias  is  grandly  developed,  and  consists  of 
a  lower  argillaceous  member  and  an  upper  arenaceous  one,  the 
united  thickness  of  which  is  not  less  than  500  feet    The  upper 
lias  singularly  resembles  in  the  succession  of  Its  beds,  ana  its 
pakeontological  characters,  the  same  formation  in  England.  The 
inf<:rior  ooute  is  formed  by  series  of  strata  varying  greatly  in 
character  within  short  distances,  and  betraying  sufficient  signs  of 
havmg  been  accumulated  under  shallow-water  conditions.  Above 
the  inferior  oolite  we  find  a  grand  seiies  of  estuarine  strata,  partly 
arenaceous  and  partly  calcareo-aigillaceous ;  and  this  is  in  turn 
covered  conformably  by  an  unknown  thickness  of  blue  days  with 
marine  fossils  of  middle  Oxfordian  age.      At  the  very  lowest 
estimate,  the  Jurassic  series  of  the  Western  Highlands  could  not 
have  had  a  thickness  of  less  than  3,000  feet  1    The  cretaceous 
strata  of  the  Western  Highlands,  though  of  no  great  thickness, 
are  of  surpassing  interest    They  consist  of  two  marine  series 
alternating  with  two  others  of  estuarine  origin.     At  the  base 
we  find  marine  deposits  of  upper  greensand  age,  strikingly 
similar  to  those  of  Antrim,  but  in  pla^  passing  into  conglome- 
rates along  old  shore  lines.    Above  the  upper  greensand  beds 
occur  unfossiliferous  sandstones,  In  which  tmn  coal-seams  have 
been  detected,  and  these  are  in  turn  covered  by  strata  of  chalk, 
converted  into  a  siliceous  rock,  but  still  retaining  in  its  casts  of 
fossils  (BdcmtfUdla^  Inoceramus^  Spondylus^  &c.),  and  in  its 
beautifully  preserved  microscopic  organisms  {Foramimfera^  Xan- 
tkidia^  &c)  unmistakable  proofs  of  its  age  and  the  conditions  of 
its  deposition.    Above  this  representative  of  the  highest  member 
of  the  English  chidk  there  occur  argillaceous  strata  with  coal- 
seams  and  plant-remains  which  are  perhaps  the  equivalent  of 
younger  members  of  the  cretaceous  series,  not  elsewhere  found 
in  our  islands,  or,  it  may  be,  they  must  be  regarded  as  belonging 
to  periods  intermediate  between   the  cretaceous   and  tertiary 
epochs.    It   is  greatly  to  be   regretted  that  these  cretaceous 
deposits  of  the  Western  Highlands  are  so  unfavourably  displayed 
for  our  study  as  to  present  scarcely  any  £Bu:ilities  for  the  collection 
of  their  fossils;  for  these,  if  found,  might  be  expected  to  throw 
a  flood  of  light  on  some  of  the  most  obscure  pakeontological 
problems  of  the  present  day.    Although  the  comparison  and 
correlation  of  the  secondary  strata  of  the  Highlands  with  those 
of  other  areas,  and  the  discussion  of  the  questions  of  ancient 
physical  geography  thereby  suggested,  are  reserved  for  the  fourth 
and  concluding  part  of  his  memoir,  the  author  takes  the  oppor- 
tunity of  making  reference,  in  bringing  the  present  section  of  his 
work  to  a  dose,  to  several  probleins  on  wnich  the  phenomera 
now  described  appear  to  tnrow  important  light    In  opposition 
to  a  recent  speculation  which  would  bring  into  actual  continuity 


the  present  bed  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  old  chalk  strata  of  our 
island,  he  points  to  the  estnaiine  stratk  of  the  Hebrides  as 
demonstrating  the  fnesence  of  land  in  that  area  duing  the  oe- 
taoeons  epodu  He  also  remarks  on  the  singular  agreement  of 
the  conditions  of  deposition  of  both  the  sthtrian  and  cretaceous 
straU  of  the  Scottish  Hi^^ilands  and  those  of  the  North 
American  continent  But  he  more  eroecially  insists  on  the 
proofr,  which  we  now  have,  that  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  sis 
well  as  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  of  the  British  Tslnndi, 
were  once  covered  by  groit  deposits  of  secondary  strata,  and 
that  the  area  has  been  subjected  to  enormous  and  oft-repented 
denudation.  He  dwells  on  the  evidence  of  the  vast  quantities 
of  material  which  have  been  removed  subsequently  to  the 
mesozoic  and  even  to  the  miocene  period,  and  he  maiitfaint  the 
condusion  that  manv,  if  not  all,  of^the  i^taH  suriace-featnres  of 
the  highlands  must  have  been  produced  during  the  veiy  latest 
division  of  the  tertiary  epoch,  namely  the  pliocene. 

Mathematical  Society,  February  14.— Lord  Raylei^ 
F.R.S.,  president,  andsubse(|uentlyMr.  C.  W.  Merrifidd,  F.rIS. 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — ^Tne  following  communications 
were  made  :-~0n  a  general  method  of  solving  partial  differential 
equations,  Prof.  Lloyd  Tanner. — On  the  conditions  for  steady 
motion  of  a  fluid.  Prof.  Lamb  (Adelaide),  (particular  cases  of 
the  conditions  were  given  by  Stokes  in  the  Cambridge  PhiL 
TVans.  for  1S42).— C)n  a  property  of  a  four-piece  linCa|{e  and 
on  a  curious  locus  in  linkages,  Mr.  A.  B.  Kempe.— On  Robert 
Flower's  new  mode  of  computing.logarithnu  (1771),  Mr.  S.  M. 
Drach. — On  the  Pluckerian  c£uracteristics  of  the  modnlar 
equations,  Prot  H.  J.  S.  Smith,  vice-president,  F.R.S. — ^Mr. 
Drach  also  exhibited  drawings  oif  tridrdoids  made  some  thirty 
years  since  for  Mr.  Perigal. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  Febmary  6.— Annivenary. — 
H.  C  Sorby,  president,  in  the  chair.— The  report  of  the  Treasurer 
was  submitted  to  the  meeting. — The  report  of  the  Coundl  stated 
that  the  library  and  instruments  of  the  Society  were  in  a  satisfactory 
condition,  andobitnarynotices  of  deceased  Fellows,  Dr.  Bowerbank 
and  Dr.  Henry  Lawson,  were  read  by  the  Secretary.  Messrs. 
Glaisher  and  Qirties  having  been  appointed  scrutineers,  a  ballot 
for  officera  and  council  for  the  ensuing  year  took  place  with  the 
following  result :— President,  H.  J.  SUck  ;  Vice-presidents,  Dr. 
L.  S.  Beale,  Dr.  C.  T.  Hudson,  Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart.,  and 
Mr.  H.  C.  Sorby ;  Treasurer,  Mr.  J.  W.  Stephenson  ;  Secre- 
taries, Mr.  Chas.  Stewart  and  Mr.  Frank  Crisp  ;  Council,  Mr. 
John  Badcock,  Mr.  W.  A.  Bevington,  Dr.  R.  Braithwaite,  Mr. 
Chas.  Brooke^  Mr.  C.  J.  Fox,  Dr.  W.  J.  Gray,  Mr.  E.  W. 
Tones,  Dr.  Matthews,  Mr.  S.  J.  Mclntire^  Dr.  John  Millar,  Mr. 
Thos.  Palmer,  and  Mr.  ;F.  H.  Ward ;  Assistant-secretary,  Mr. 
Walter  W.  Reeves.  The  retiring  president  then  delivered  his 
annual  address,  which  chiefly  treiued  of  the  resulu  of  his  investi- 
gations into  a  method  of  obtaining  the  refractive  indices  of 
minerals. 


CONTBNT8  Pagb 

Thb  Hbad-Mastbrs  on  Scibncb  Tbachihg.    By  W.  Tuckwbix     .  317 
Framklano's  Rbsbarchbs  in  Chbmistrv.    By  Prof.  J.  Embrson 

Rbynolos,  F.R  S 318 

Flora  or  Tropical  Africa.    By  Prof.  W.  R,  McNar 319 

Lbttbbs  to  thb  Editob  i— 

Marine  Fossils  in  the  Gann'ster  Beds  of  Northumberland. — Pro'. 

G.  A.  Lbbour 3S0 

Liquids  having  a  Specific  Heat  higher  than  Water. — F.  J.  M. 

Face       . 3*0 

Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evolution. — Dr.  Jambs  Croll  .    .  3ar 

The  "Phantom"  Force.— Prof.  A.  S.  Hbrschbl 311 

Cumulative  Temperatures  — Conrad  W.  Cookb     ......  3*3 

Bacteria  in  Water.    By  G.  F.  Dowdrswbll 313 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Uranian  Satellites,  Ariel  and  Umbriel 393 

Pigott's  Observations  of  Variable  Stars 393 

The  Tempk  Observatory,  Rugby 394 

Gbographical  Notes  :^ 

African  Exploration 394 

Arctic  Exploratioa 394 

The  Pamir ^n 

Educational  Triivel 334 

Prshevalsky  and  Maclay 314 

Sea  Trade  with  Siberia 3*4 

Geographical  Bibliography 334 

Russian  Geographical  Society 394 

A  New  Undbrcround  Monstrr 395 

Sun-spots  and  Declination  Ranges.  By  Prof.  Balfour  Stbwart  396 
The  Islands  or  St.  Paul  and  Amsterdam.  By  Ph>C  E  Pbrcbval 

Wright  {mu  JUusiraticfu) 396 

Notes  .......................  39a 

Oh  Compass  Adtustmbmt  in  Iron  Ships.    By  Sir  Wm.  Thomson. 

LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (f#^fM///M«/m/ftMM)     ^ 331 

UnxvbbsitvamdKducatiomal  Intblugbmcb 334 

SOCIBTIBS  AMD  ACADBMIBS 33 


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THURSDAY,  FEBRUARY   28,  1878 


SNAKE  POISON 

• 

EVERY  now  and  again  tbe  British  public  is  horrified 
by  accounts  of  the  famines  which    periodically 
carry  o^  myriads  of  our  fellow-subjects  in  India,  but 
comparatively  few  have  the  least  idea  of  the  enormous 
^destruction  of  human  life  which  occurs  there  from  the 
^     ravages  of  wild  animals  and  venomous  snakes.     In  a 
most  interesting  lecture  recently  delivered  at  a  meeting  of 
the  Society  of  Arts  by  Sir  Joseph  Fayrer,  the  lecturer 
estimated  the  loss  of  life  at  no  less  than  20,000  human 
beings  and  50,000  head  of  cattle  annually.    Wild  animals 
destroy  most  of  the  cattle,  but  venomous  snakes  kill  more 
human  beings  than  all  the  wild  animals  put  together. 
The  bites  of  these  reptiles  caused  the  death  of  17,000 
persons,  and  over  3,000  cattle  in  the  year  1875,  and  these 
figtires  very  probably  understate  the  facts,  as  the  returns 
upon  which  they  are  based  are  incomplete.    The  desira- 
bility of  obtaining  an  antidote  to  snake  poison  is  thus 
evident,  and  many  attempts  have  been  already  made  to 
discover  one.    Another  has  been  added  to  the  already 
numerous  investigations  on  this  subject  by  Mr.  Pedler, 
who  has  lately  published  the  results  of  his  research  in 
a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society.    Before  proceeding 
to  seek  for  the  antidote,  he  endeavoured  to  analyse  the 
poison    chemically,   and  thus   discovered   several   facts 
^  i  great   interest      The  venom   of  snakes    seems  to 
contain  very  much  the  same  proportion  of  solids  at  all 
times,  even  under  such  different  climatic  conditions  as 
during  the  wet  and  dry  seasons.    It  may  be  kept  for  two 
or  three  months  without  alteration,  but  if  preserved  for  a 
year  or  eighteen  months,  it  becomes  insoluble,  and,  to  a 
great  extent,  loses  its  poisonous  qualities.    Its  composi- 
tion is  very  like  that  of  albumen,  and,  indeed,  the  dried 
poison,  which  looks  very  like  gum  arable,  contains  about 
sixty  per  cent,  of  albumen,  and  only  forty  per  cent,  at 
most  of  the  poisonous  principle.    By  the  use  of  solvents, 
Mr.  Pedler  endeavoured  to  separate  a  crystalline  principle, 
such  as  Lucien  Bonaparte  affirmed  to  be  present  in  the 
poison  of  the  rattlesnake.    His  attempts  were  unsuccess- 
ful, and  he  therefore  tried  to  obtain  it  by  dialysing  the 
poison  through  parchment  paper.    Part  of  the   poison 
dialysed,  and  part  did  not    On  evaporating  the  fluid 
inside  the  dialyser,  the  residue  formed  a  gummy  mass, 
with  a  poisonous  action.    The  water  outside  the  dialyser 
also  gave  a  similar  result,  but  in  it  a  few  crystals  could 
be  detected.    It  was,  if  anything,  rather  more  poisonous 
than  the  ordinary  virus.    He  did  not  succeed,  however, 
in  obtaining   any    very  definite  crystalline    substance. 
Ammonia,  which  has  lately  been  highly  recommended  as 
an  antidote  in  snake  poisoning,  he  found,  as  did  Fontana 
two  hundred  years  ago,  to  be  useless,  and  indeed  its  addi- 
tion to  the  poison  before  injection  seemed  really  to  hasten 
death. 

Some  organic  poisons  may  have  their  physiological 
action  greatly  altered  by  changing  their  chemical  consti- 
tution. Thus  strychnia  has  its  action  completely  altered 
by  combination  with  iodide  of  methyl,  so  that  instead  of 
producmg  convulsions,  it  causes  complete  paralysis,  like 
Vol.  XVII.— No.  435 


curat  a.  At  the  same  time  its  deadly  power  is  greatly 
diminished,  and  it  occurred  to  Mr.  Pedler  that  the  poi- 
sonous properties  of  cobra  virus  might  be  diminished  in 
a  similar  way.  On  testing  this  supposition,  he  found  it  to 
be  correct,  as  the  poison,  after  digesting  with  ethylic 
iodide,  took  five  times  as  long  to  kill  an  animal  as  fresh 
cobra  poison  would  have  done.  Hydrochloric  acid  also 
diminished  the  activity  of  the  virus,  and  platinum  chloride 
had  a  still  more  powerful  action.  This  salt  seems  to 
combine  with  the  poisonous  principle  of  cobra  virus,  form- 
ing with  it  a  yellow  amorphous  precipitate,  which  is  very 
insoluble  in  water,  and  which  has  little  or  no  poisonous 
action.  This  result  of  the  action  of  platinum  chloride  on 
cobra  virus  out  of  the  body  is  most  satisfactory  ;  but  this 
apparent  antidote  has  not  the  same  power  when  the 
poison  has  once  entered  the  system.  When  the  poison  is 
injected  under  the  skin  and  the  platinum  chloride  i:t 
injected  shortly  afterwards  into  the  same  spot,  death 
appears  to  occur  even  more  quickly  than  when  no  anti- 
dote whatever  is  used,  the  second  injection  seeming  to 
drive  the  poison  before  it  and  to  cause  it  to  act  more 
rapidly.  When  the  platinum  chloride,  however,  is  injected 
at  the  same  point,  but  somewhat  more  deeply  tham  the 
virus,  so  that  in  passing  inwards  the  poison  might  come 
in  contact  with  the  platinum,  life  is  considerably  pro- 
longed. If  a  short  time  elapses  between  the  injection 
of  the  poison  and  that  of  the  platinum,  death  ensues, 
even  though  the  interval  be  only  one  or  two  minutes.  It 
would  thus  seem  that  when  the  platinum  chloride  is 
brought  directly  into  contact  with  the  poisonous  principle 
of  the  cobra  venom  it  renders  it  insoluble  and  prevents 
its  poisonous  action,  but  that  it  is  not  a  physiological  anti- 
dote, and  will  not  counteract  the  deadly  action  of  the 
virus  after  it  has  once  entered  the  circulation.  It  may  be 
useful  as  a  local  application,  but  cannot  be  regarded  as 
an  antidote.  Every  means  hitherto  tried  of  counteracting 
the  effects  of  cobra  venom  has  thus  proved  ineffectual. 
Artificial  respiration,  proposed  by  Sir  Joseph  Fayrer  and 
Dr.  Lauder  Brunton,  gave  fair  promise  of  success, 
and  by  its  use  the  heart  may  be  kept  beating  for 
many  hours.  Indeed  in  one  case  an  animal  appa- 
rently dead  for  many  hours  has  been  partially  revived 
by  it,  yet  on  no  occasion  has  a  fatal  issue  ever  been  averted  by 
its  use.  The  experiment  just  mentioned  was  performed 
by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  Indian  Government, 
at  Sir  J.  Fayrer's  suggestion,  to  examine  into  the  modes 
of  preventing  death  from  snake  bite.  A  dog  was  bitten 
one  afternoon  by  a  water  snake,  and  apparently  died 
about  three  o'clock.  Artificial  respiration  was  at  once 
commenced,  and  the  heart  continued  to  beat,  but  the 
animal  seemed  to  be  perfectly  dead,  and  the  limbs  no 
longer  responded  to  electrical  stimuli.  Early  next  morn- 
ing, however,  an  alteration  took  place.  The  limbs  again 
answered  to  electricity,  voluntary  movements  occurred, 
and  the  eyelids  closed  not  only  when  the  eye  was  touched 
with  the  finger,  but  when  the  hand  was  simply  brought 
near  it.  This  showed  that  the  animal  could  see  the 
approaching  hand,  and  closed  its  eyes  in  order  to  protect 
them  from  the  expected  touch.  The  dog  seemed  to  be  in 
a  fair  way  to  recovery,  but  about  noon  it  began  to  get 
worse,  and  finally  died  at  three  o'clock  on  the  second 
day,  twenty-four  hours  after  its  first  apparent  death. 
Whether  a    combination  of   artificial    respiration  with 


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NATURE 


{Feb.  28,  1878 


other  appliances  may  yet  enable  us  to  prevent  death 
altogether,  is  a  question  which  can  only  be  determined 
by  a  continuance  of  those  experiments  which  led  to  the 
use  of  artificial  respiration  alone.    But  however  valuable 
such  a  method  as  this  may  occasionally  be  in  saving  the 
lives  of  English  officers,  government  officials,  or  persons 
living  within  reach  of  skilled  assistance,  and  who  might 
otherwise  be  doomed  to  certam  death  from  the  bite  of  a 
cobra,  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  too  complicated  to  be  of 
much  service  to  the  numerous  natives  who  are  bitten  in 
localities  where  no  other  assistance  can  be  had  than  that 
of  their  comrades,  equally  ignorant  with  themselves.    If 
any  great  diminution  is  to  be  effected  in  the  frightful 
mortality  annually  resulting  from  the  bites  of  venomous 
snakes  in  India,  the  remedies  must  either  be  so  simple 
and  easy  of  application  that  they  can  be  used,  by  the 
most  ignorant,  or  the  snakes  must  be  destroyed.    The 
best  instructions  yet  given  for  the  treatment  of  persons 
bitten  by  poisonous  snakes  are  contained  in  Sir  Joseph 
Fayrer's  magnificent  work  on  "The  Thanatophidia  of 
India.*'    He  recommends  that  a  tight  ligature  be  applied 
to  the  limb  above  the  bite,  that  the   bitten    part  be 
cut  out  as  quickly  as  possible,  and   that  the  wound 
thus  left  be  cauterised  with  a  hot  coal  or  hot  iron,  or 
touched  with  nitric  or  carbolic  acid,  while  brandy  or 
ammonia  should  be  administered  internally.    Even  this 
treatment,  simple  though  it  be,  requires  knowledge,  as 
well  as  instruments  and  skill,  which  the  majority  of 
the  natives  do  not  possess.    Sir  Joseph  Fayrer  therefore 
recommends  that   in  every  police   station    and  public 
place  plain  directions  should  be  printed  and  hung  up, 
and  that  at  all  such  places   a  supply  of  whipcord,  a 
small  knife,  a  cautery  iron,  and  a  bottle  of  carbolic  or 
nitric  acid  should  be  kept,  as  well  as  a  supply  of  liquor 
anmionia  for  internal  administration.     But,  as  Sir  Joseph 
Fayrer  says,  although  comparatively  little  is  to  be  ex- 
pected even  from  this  rational  mode  of  treatment,  much 
may  be  anticipated  from  prevention,  and  it  is  to  be 
effected  by  making  known  the  nature  and  appearance  of 
the  venomous  as  distinct  from  the  innocent  snakes,  and 
by  offering  rewards  (to  be  judiciously  distributed)  for  the 
destruction  of  the  former.    The  differences  between  many 
of  the  non-venomous  and  the  venomous  snakes  are  not 
known  to  the  natives,  and  it  is  important  that  a  know- 
ledge of  such  distinctions  should  be  widely  disseminated, 
not  only  that  the  venomous  ones  may  be  more  easily 
recognised,  and  thus  avoided  or  destroyed,  but  in  order 
to  prevent  death  or  serious  illness  from  sheer  fright,  which 
may  frequently  result  from  the  bite  of  a  non-venomous 
species.    For  this  purpose  it  would  be  well  if  the  pictures 
of  the  chief  venomous  snakes  contained  in  Sir  Joseph 
Fayrer'swork,or  cheaper  but  accurate  lithographic  copies 
of  them,  were  displayed  in  every  police  station  and  public 
place  throughout    India.     Rewards  should  be  paid  for 
the  destruction  of  venomous  snakes  only,  and  if  these 
pictiures  were  exhibited  in  the  way  suggested  there  would 
be  little  or  no  excuse  for  any  mistake,  either  on  the  part 
of  the  natives  who  killed  the  snakes,  or  the  officers  whose 
duty  it  would  be  to  pay  the  reward.    As  to  the  amount  of 
reward,  and  its  mode  of  distribution,  there  should,  he 
suggests,  be  a  department,  or  branch  of  a  department, 
with  a  responsible  chief  and  subordinate  agents,  for  whom 
certain  rules  should  be  laid  downi  to  be  observed  steadily 


and  without  hindrance  throughout  the  country,  leaving 
much,  as  to  detail,  to  the  discretion  of  local  authorities. 
If  the  destruction  of  venomous  snakes  and  wild  ftnirp^iig 
in  India  were  intrusted  to  an  officer  such  as  controls 
the  Thuggie  and  Dacoitee  department,  he  considers  that 
the  result  would  in  a  few  years  be  as  good  in  the  case  of 
noxious  animals  as  it  has  been  in  that  of  noxious  men. 
Thugs  and  Dacoits. 

THE  BEETLES  OF  ST.  HELENA 

Coleoptera  Sancta-HeUna,     By  T.  Vernon  WoUastoa,  -. 
M.A.,  F.L.S.    8vo,  pp.  i.-xxv.,  1-256,  coloured  plate.     - 
(London  :  Van  Voorst,  1877.) 
T^HIS,  the  last  of  its  lamented  author's  valuable  de- 
■*•      scriptive  works  on  the  geographical  distribution  of 
beetles  (in  personally  collecting  the  material  for  which,  it 
is  to  be  feared  that  his  physical  exertions  during  a  w^ik 
state  of  health  induced  the  attack  that  ended  recently  in 
his  death),  must  have  been  the  most  satisfactory  to  him, 
on  account  of  the  complete  isolation  of  its  subject,  and 
his  discovery  of  its  most  striking  endemic  fauna.    The 
investigation  of  the  Coleoptera  of  the  Madeiras,  Salvages, 
Canaries,  and  Cape-de-Verdes,  with  which  his  name  will 
always  be  associated,  had  akeady  resulted  in   a  firm 
opinion  that  their  peculiar  beetle-types  could  not   be 
satisfactorily  referred  to  any  geographical  area  now  exist- 
ing, but  rather  to  some  submerged  Atlantic  region,  of 
which  these  groups  are  the  modem  representatives  ;  and 
the  results  of  his  exhaustive  work  at  St.  Helena  cannot 
have  failed  to  materially  strengthen  this  idea.    Curiously      ^ 
enough,  also,  the  most  dominant  type  in  this  island  is       • 
one  to  which  WoUaston  was  always  specially  devoted,  viz., 
the  Cossonida,  a  little  known  family  of  weevils,  whereof  the 
inordinately  numerous  species  here  found,  consisting  of 
variations  of  some  half-dozen  forms  occasionally  deve- 
loped to  so  marvellous  an  extent  as  to  be  almost  ludicrous, 
amply  justified    his    expression  {in  litt,)  that  he  had 
''tumbled  on  his  legs  in  this  little  oceanic  preserve  of 
the  southern  Atlantic." 

To  any  one  interested  in  the  fatmae  of  islands,  no  better 
conditions  could  be  afforded  than  those  found  in  St. 
Helena.  Its  vast  distance  from  the  nearest  continents 
(nearly  1,200  miles  from  Africa,  and  1,800  from  South 
America)  and,  indeed,  from  the  nearest  island  (Ascension, 
700  miles),  added  to  its  complete  severance  by  a  fathom- 
less depth  at  a  mile  and  a  half  from  its  present  coast-line, 
are  premises  of  themselves  suggesting  the  probability  of 
abnormal  resident  forms ;  and  the  peculiar  and  very 
dense  original  vegetation  of  ebony,  redwood,  boxwood, 
Psiadia^  asters,  gumwood,  cabbage-palms,  tree-ferns, 
&c.,  would  reasonably  be  expected  to  foster  a  deve-  ' 
lopment  of  special  wood-feeding  types,  to  the  partial 
or  entire  exclusion  of  other  groups.  This  development, 
anticipated  by  WoUaston  from  the  eccentric  species 
received  in  former  years,  is  wonderfully  illustrated  by 
an  analysis  of  the  present  work.  In  it,  203  species  are 
recorded,  and  may  probably  be  taken  as  very  nearly  ex- 
hausting the  fauna,  since  the  author  captured,  mounted^ 
and  examined  (with  a  delicacy,  precision,  and  care 
peculiar  to  himself)  no  less  than  10,000  specimens.  Of  the 
difficulty  attending  the  collection  of  such  a  mass  in  six 
months,  the  author  affords  an  indication  by  his  remark 


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{Entomolofrist^  Monthly  Magaxine^  xii,  p.  252)  that  the 
net  may  be  used  over  miles  of  grassy  mountain-slopes 
without  finding  a  single  flower-frequenter,  or  anything 
approaching  to  it.  Under  these  conditions,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  Mr.  Melliss's  account  of  the  island,  not 
long  ago  reviewed  in  Nature,  should,  as  not  representing 
the  work  of  an  expert,  have  failed  adequately  to  represent 
its  peculiar  coleopterous  features.  Of  the  203  species  above 
mentioned,  fifty- seven  have  undoubtedly  been  conveyed 
to  the  island  through  various  external  media,  and  have 
/"since  established  themselves — many  of  them,  indeed* 
"^  being  the  reg^ar  followers  of  civilisation.  Seventeen  of 
the  remainder  possess  doubtful  claims  to  be  considered 
indigenous,  or  even  to  have  been  taken  in  St  Helena  at 
alL  Of  the  129  species  left,  and  which  may  be  safely 
deemed  endemic,  the  distribution  is  highly  eccentric. 
Whole  groups,  hitherto  regarded  as  well-nigh  cosmopolitan, 
are  either  entirely  absent  or  barely  represented ;  and  one 
section,  the  weevils,  is  most  unduly  exaggerated,  especially 
in  one  of  its  families.  The  missing  divisions  are  water- 
beetles  (both  Hydradephaga  zxi^Philhydrida — the  aquatic 
Caniivora  and  Herbivord)^  and  Longicomia ;  and  their 
absence  is  the  more  noteworthy,  as  proper  natural  con- 
ditions exist  for  both  of  them  ;  and,  as  to  the  latter^ 
other  wood-feeders  have  inordinately  increased  and 
multiplied.  The  Necrophaga  (a  wide  term,  covering 
many  families  of  universal  distribution,  including  bone-, 
skin-,  and  fungus-feeders,  acting  as  natural  scavengers, 
and  whereof  we  have,  even  in  Great  Britain  alone,  over 
450  species)  tod  Trichopterygia  have  each  but  a 
single  representative.  The  Pseudotrimera  (CoccmellidcB, 
&c.)  and  Lamellicomia  can  each  only  supply  two.  As 
to  the  former  of  these  groups.  Prof.  Westwood  has  well 
observed  that  the  inference  is  a  want  of  Aphides  and 
other  plant-lice,  on  which  lady-birds  are  the  natural 
parasites  ;  and  on  this  point  it  would  be  interesting  to 
know  if  the  usual  Homopterous  vegetable-feeders  are 
really  wanting.  If  not  indigenous  they  might  be  readily 
introduced ;  and,  enumerating  even  the  avowedly  intro- 
duced Pseudotrimera  in  Mr.  Wollaston's  list,  we  find 
only  four  species  to  keep  them  down,  since  the  Corylo- 
phidcB  and  Erotylidce  included  in  the  group  by  the 
author  cannot  be  reckoned.  As  to  the  Lamellicoms,  the 
want  of  indigenous  mammals  would  readily  account  for 
the  absence  of  such  of  them  as  feed  on  the  excreta  of 
those  animals  (Jwo  only,  both  introduced,  can  be  found ; 
here  Baron  von  Harold  would  assuredly  perish  of  ina- 
nition !) ;  but  the  mighty  tropical  clan,  revelling  in  rotten 
wood,  should  surely  in  such  a  latitude,  with  the  decaying 
forests  of  centuries  for  pabulum,  have  reared  more  than 
/  the  miserable  tale  of  four,  whereof  but  two  are  autoch- 
thones 1  Next  in  number  come  the  Priocerata  and  Phy- 
tophagOy  respectively  counting  but  three.  The  Elateridce 
and  AnobiidcPj  essentially  wood-feeders,  are  the  only 
families  of  the  first  of  these  that  provide  indigenous 
species  :  how  they  have  failed  to  produce  more  is  incom- 
prehensible. The  fact  of  plant-feeding  beetles  being  of 
the  greatest  scarcity  has  been  already  quoted  from  the 
author  himself,  and  is  equally  unintdligible.  The  Sta- 
phylinida  and  Heteromera  each  supply  six  indigenous 
forms,  the  paucity  of  the  latter  being  perhaps  accounted 
for  by  the  lack  of  those  sandy  wastes  peculiarly  affected 
by  so  many  of  its  members.    Next  in  importance  come 


the  GeodephagCy  or  land  carnivorous  beetles,  whereof  as 
many  as  fourteen  (m  fact  all  but  one,  and  of  them  no  less 
than  eleven  here  described  as  new)  are  recorded.  Here, 
again,  the  peculiarity  of  the  island  is  emphasised,  as  the 
eleven  new  species,  all  of  the  genus  Bembidium^  depart 
widely  from  the  shingle-,  mud-,  and  marsh-frequenting 
habits  of  that  vast  and  widely  distributed  genus,  occurring 
as  they  do  in  the  high  central  mountain  ridges,  and  living 
inside  the  fibrous  stems  of  rotten  tree-ferns,  an  unexpected 
habitat  as  strange  as  that  recorded  in  the  Horatian 
lines : — 

'*  Piscium  et  summa  genus  hesit  ulmo, 
Nota  quae  sedes  fuerat  columbis.'* 

These  arboreal  Bembids  have  necessitated  the  creation 
of  three  new  sub-genera,  distinguished  by  abnormally 
minute  eyes,  want  of  wings,  rounded  outline,  fossorisd 
legs,  and  moniliform  antennae;  and  would  alone  have 
been  sufficient  to  have  stamped  the  fauna  as  sui  generis. 

Last,  and  most  important,  come  the  Rhynchophora  or 
weevils,  with  no  less  than  ninety-one  representatives, 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number.  These  again 
are  represented  in  unusual  proportions,  the  Cossonidce 
numbering  fifty-four,  two-fifths  of  the  entire  fauna  (we 
have  in  England  but  nine,  out  of  3,000  species),  and  the 
Anthribidce  twenty-six.  The  conclusion  derived  by  the 
author  is,  that,  as  these  weevils  unquestionably  represent 
the  dominant  autochthonous  family,  and  all  (but  one)  are 
of  lignivorous  habits,  St  Helena  may  be  pictured  in  the 
remote  past  as  a  densely-wooded  island,  in  which  they 
performed  their  natural  functions  of  tree-destroyers  among 
tree-ferns  and  CompositcB  on  a  gigantic  scale,  unaided  by 
the  usual  timber-eaters.  The  well-nigh  complete  destruc- 
tion of  indigenous  trees  in  modem  times  has  no  doubt 
been  accompanied  by  the  loss  of  many  a  link  in  the 
aboriginal  chain  of  these  peculiar  forms.  Those  that 
still  survive  are  of  such  eccentric  structure  and  facies  that 
the  creation  of  eleven  new  genera  and  forty  new  species 
has  been  necessitated  for  their  reception  in  the  present 
work,  which,  had  it  been  the  sole  production  of  its  author, 
would  have  effectually  prevented  his  name  from  passing 
into  oblivion.  E.  C.  Rye 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  EdUor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  wUh  the  writers  of  refected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  a  r 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts,"] 

Oxygen  in  the  Stm 

Attintion  having  recendy  been  directed  by  Dr.  Schuster 
and  Mr.  Meldola,  in  coimection  with  my  discovery  of  oxygen  in 
the  sun,  to  the  location  of  the  oxygen,  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
allude  to  some  experiments  to  determine  the  question  by  direct 
observation  of  the  image  of  the  sun  spectroscopiodly.  For  this 
purpose  I  used  a  spectroscope  furaished  with  a  very  fine  grating 
on  silvered  glass  given  to  me  by  Mr.  Rutherfurd.  This  grating 
of  17,280  Imes  to  the  inch  can  be  arranged  to  give  a  dispersion 
equal  to  twenty  heavy  flint  glass  prisms.  The  spectroscope  was 
attached  to  my  12-inch  Clark  refractor,  and  I  employed  the 
full  aperture  of  this  telescope  to  produce  an  image  of  the  sun  on 
the  slit  It  did  not  seem  practicable  to  use  the  spectroscope  on 
the  28-inch  Cassegrain  reflector  in  this  research,  becanse  the 
tremolonsness  of  the  air  was  usually  too  great,  the  image  of  the 


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{Feb.  28,  1878 


son  being  magnified  to  five  inches  in  diameter.  Even  with  the 
i2-inch  refractor  the  occasions  suitable  for  a  critical  examination 
are  rare.  .     ,.  ,  , 

In  front  of  the  slit  I  also  brought  the  tennmals  of  the  second- 
ary drcuit  of  an  induction  coU,  which  were  connected  with  a 
Leyden  battery.  The  current  through  the  primary  wire  of  the 
Kuhmkorff  was  famished  by  a  Gramme  machine.  This  arrange- 
ment permitted  the  production  of  a  strong  oxygen  spectrum  near 
the  spectrum  of  the  sun's  limb. 

The  most  obvious  point  to  determine  was  whether  the  oxygen 
lines  visible  in  the  spectrum  of  the  solar  disc  projected  beyond 
the  apparent  limb  of  the  sun  as  seen  in  the  spectroscope ;  in 
other  words,  whether  oxygen  could  be  detected  in  the  lower 
parts  of  the  chromosphere.  For  this  purpose  I  looked  particu- 
Iwly  at  the  bases  of  &e  prominences.  I  saw  a  large  number  of 
reversed  lines,  including  some  of  the  more  delicate  lines  of 
Young's  preliminary  catsdogue,  but  on  no  occasion  could  I  be 
sure  that  the  oxygen  lines  were  seen  outside  of  the  limb.  Of 
course,  unless  such  an  observation  could  be  made  in  a  perfectly 
tranquil  atmosphere,  certainty  could  not  be  attained.  The  ex- 
periments were  terminated  temporarily  on  account  of  getting  my 
right  arm  caught  in  the  engine,  but  they  will  probably  be 
resumed  next  summer. 

On  examining  Prof.  Young's  catalogue  of  chromosphere  lines 
made  at  Sherman  Sution,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  appears 
that  he  does  not  note  the  great  oxygen  group  near  G,  and  as  his 
observations  were  made  with  remarkable  accuracy  and  care,  this 
would  tend  to  corroborate  the  view  that  the  bright-line  spectrum 
of  oxygen  as  seen  on  the  sun's  disc  must  have  its  upper  limit 
close  to  the  apparent  spectroscopic  limb  of  the  sun. 

Henry  Draper 

Observatory,  Hastings-on- Hudson,  New  York,  January  28 


Brain  of  a  Fossil  Mammal 

In  Nature  (vol.  xvii.  p.  222)  is  an  account  of  some  remark- 
able characters  of  the  brain  of  Coryfhodon^  as  determined  by 
Prof.  Cope,  and  recently  published  m  the  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  voL  xvi  It  may  interest  some 
of  the  readers  of  Nature  to  know  that  the  subject  had  been 
previously  investigated  by  the  writer,  who  published  a  description 
and  figures  of  the  brain  cast  of  Coryphodon  in  the  American 
JcmmcU  ofScimce,  vol.  xi.  p.  427,  May,  1876,  more  than  a  year 
before  the  article  above  quoted  appeared.  Prof.  Cope  made  no 
reference  to  my  paper,  although  perfectly  familiar  with  it.  His 
figures  moreover  do  not  represent,  even  approximately,  the  brain 
<A  Coryphodon^  owing  to  serious  errors  in  his  observations,  which 
were  based  upon  an  imperfect  specimen,  as  I  have  shown  else- 
where {American  JourtuU  of  Science^  voL  xiv.  p.  %i\  One  of  the 
most  glaring  of  these  errors  is  seen  in  the  supposed  olfactory 
lobes  which,  as  figured,  include  no  small  part  of  the  nasal  cavities, 
and  naturally  add  a  very  remarkable  feature  to  this  brain  cast. 
The  specimens  from  which  my  figures  and  description  were  taken 
are  in  excellent  preservation,  and  are  in  the  Yale  College 
Museum,  where  they  have  been  examined  by  Prof.  Huxley  and 
many  other  anatomists. 

Tne  attention  called  by  Nature  to  this  paper  of  Prof.  Cope's 
makes  the  present  correction  seem  necessary  for  English  readers, 
especially  as  the  paper  quoted  is  a  typical  one,  illustrating  the 
methods  and  work  of  its  author.  O.  C.  Marsh 

Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  February  7 


Origin  of  Trachese  in  Arthropoda 

In  Nature  (vol.  xvil  p.  284)  is  a  notice  of  a  work  by  Dr. 
Palmen,  of  Helsingfors,  on  ihe  morphology  of  the  tracheal 
systeuL  From  the  wording  of  the  notice  it  appears  as  if  the 
views  of  Dr.  Palmen  as  to  the  origin  of  tracheae  from  skin- 
glands,  and  as  to  the  importance  of  Peripatus  as  an  ancestral 
form  of  the  Tracheal.!,  were  new  to  science.  1  was,  to  the  best 
of  my  belief,  the  first  to  discover  that  Peripatus  was  provided 
with  trachea: ;  and  in  a  paper  on  the  structure  and  development 
of  Peripatus  capemis^  published  in  the  Phil.  Trans,  for  1874,  I 
discussed  the  question  of  the  origin  of  trachea?,  and  put  forward 
exactly  similar  views  to  those  cited  in  your  notice.  These  views 
have  been  adopted  by  Prof.  Gegenbaur  in  his  new  edition  of  his 
''Grundriss  der  Vergleichenden  Anatomic  "  (1878),  in  so  far  at 
least  as  that  Peripatus  is  placed  in  a  separate  division  of  the 
Arthropoda,  "the  ProtracheaU."  Haeckel,  followmg  Gegenbaur, 
supposed  his  Protracheata  to  have  been  provided  with  tracheal 


gills,  but  the  diffuse  anangement  of  the  tracheae  in  Peripatus  led 
me  to  conclude  that  the  ancestral  tracheata  were  terrestrial,  and 
not  aquatic,  in  habit,  and  that  tracheal  gills  were  comparatively 
late  developments. 

I  am  veiy  glad  to  find  that  Dr.  Palmen  has  arrived  at  nmilar 
results.  Unfortunately,  the  place  of  publication  of  his  treatise 
is  omitted  from  your  notice.  It  would  be  of  value  if  you  saw 
fit  to  append  the  reference  as  a  note  to  the  pressnt  letter. 

Exeter  College,  Oxford  H.  N.  Moseley 

[Dr.  Palmen's  paper  was  published  in  Helsingfors.— Ed.] 

The  "  Phantom  "  Force » 

IIL  ^- 

While  very  clearly  establishing  that  it  is  to  the  force  urging  a 
body  that  the  potential  energy  wtuch  the  body  has  not,  but  can 
have,  must  properly  be  assigned,  and  calling  it  very  appropriately 
the  "energy  of  tension,"  •  a  very  apposite  remark  (which  I  do  doc 
remember  to  have  met  with  before)  is  added  by  **X"  in  his 
concluding  paragraphs.  The  body  could  not  command  this 
"force- work"  in  any  position  unless  it  had  deen  pui  into  the 
proper  position  to  command  it ;  and  the  actual  energy  spent  in 
putting  it  there  is  the  **  energy  of  tension  "  which,  although  for* 
feited  to  the  force,  il  can  reclaim.  In  this  view  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  potential  energy  should  have  the  same  terms  for  its 
measurement  as  actual  ener^,  since  it  is  nothing  but  the  actual 
energy  which  the  body,  or  some  agent  operatmg  upon  it,  has 
really  lost ;  and  if  we  pa  s  from  permanent  forces  to  those 
ephemeral  ones  which  physical  aeents  can  produce  on  an  already^ 
existing  arrangement  of  bodies,  Uien,  according  to  the  existing* 
configuration  of  the  bodies  when  the  force  is  generated,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  *'  potential,''  or  to  the  available  statical  energy 
developed,  so  is  the  work  of  the  agent  used  to  l>estow  this  energy. 
In  these  cases  of  temporary  *'  potentials  '*  the  actions  are  not 
actions  at  a  distance,  but  through  an  intermediate  medium,  it  may 
be  strung  with  motion,  and  with  permanent  forces,  which  have 
absorbed  the  work  applied  to  put  the  intervening  medium,  as  1 
it  were,  on  the  stretcn,  and  to  develop  the  ephemeral  energy  of  % 
tension.  But  we  recognise  this  very  clearly  (as  for  instance  in 
charging  well-insulated  electrical  conductors)  only  in  the  rare 
cases  of  reversible  arrangements,  llie  fatigue  and  exhaustion 
which  we  soon  feel  when  holding  out  at  arm's  length  a  heavy 
weight  (although  we  do  no  work  upon  the  weight)  arises,  for 
example  (like  tnat  of  a  galvanic  battery  exciting  an  electro-magnet 
and  supporting  a  heavy  armature),  from  two  causes,  the  first  of 
which,  the  excitation  of  the  magnet  and  armature,  and  the 
tightening  of  the  muscles,  or  producing  the  requisite  statical 
energy  for  the  occasion,  absorb  but  a  small  portion  of  the  work. 
The  main  expenditure  is  "frittered  away  (a  most  expressive 
description  of  the  process,  which  I  osre  to  Prof.  Tait)  in  aimless 
and  random  paths  as  hear,  by  the  wasteful  process  of  electrical  or 
muscular  currents  afterwards  kept  up  to  maintain  the  excitation. 

I  have  thus  far  sketched  out  a  general  view  of  physics  (one 
which  is  perfectly  adapted  to  satis^  its  general  requirements),  in 
which  seif-balancing  actions  and  reactions,  only  depending  in 
intensity  on  the  dbtance  between  their  centres  are  supposed  to 
be  permanently  implanted  in  pairs  of  material  particles,  a  special 
case,  or  fresh  assumption  regarding  the  general  system  of  forces 
contemplated  in  the  Newtonian  theory  of  mechanics,  which 
either  may,  or  may  not  be  the  complete  theory  of  their  action, 
but  which  assists  the  mind  very  greatly,  by  giving  them  a 
mechanical  explanation,  in  forming  true  and  correct  preliminary 
notions  of  the  two  leading  laws  of  the  great  modem  science  of 
energy.  And  here  I  may  take  the  opportunity  to  mention  that  my\ 
own  views  of  the  relationship  of  modem  physics  in  its  various  mutu- 
ally  dependent  branches  to  that  famous  foundation  of  mechanics 
which  Newton  laid  (or  perhaps  I  should  rather  say,  since  the 
supremacy  of  mechanics  is  by  no  means  yet  conc^ed,  of  the 
Newtonian  basis  of  mechanics  to  modem  physics)  have  been 
mainly  imparted  and  completed  by  a  perusal  of  the  excellent 
little  manual  on   "Matter  and  Motion"  by  Prof.  J.   Clerk 

*  Contuiued  from  p.  33a. 

«  The  term  **  statical  cnerey''  iotroduoed  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  (teo  a  not« 
in  Prof.  Tail's  '*  Sketch  of  Thermodynamics,"  p.  5a),  and  now  i»-oposed 
(Naturb,  vol.  xvi  p.  521)  by  "  W.  P.  O."  to  be  substituted  for  the  above, 
is  of  all  the  phrases  yet  used  to  denote  it,  the  truest  and  simplest  description 
ot  its  real  character.  That  it  appertains  to  the  force  and  not  to  the  body  is 
apparent  both  from  this  name  and  from  the  definition  (which  I  have  endea- 
voured to  illustrate)  that  it  is  the  "woric"  of  the  "  agent,**  a  property  or 
possession  of  (Aat  irtdwiduat,  equal  and  opposite  to,  but  h^/  the  tame  as  its 
•  •  net,"  or  effected  work. 


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Maxwell,  reviewed  by  Prof.  Tait  in  Nature  (vol  xvL  p.  1 19), 
a  very  moderate  acquaintance  with  which  has  sufficed  to  remove 
from  my  mind  all  the  doubts  and  perplexities  which,  without 
such  assistance,  must  beset  every  cultivator  of  physics  and 
mechanics  attempting  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of  these  two 
parallel  sciences  in  their  close  relations  to  each  other.  The 
latter  science  especially,  mutilated  and  deformed,  and  roughly 
scattered  up  and  down  in  fragments,  as  we  commonly  find  it 
represented,  wears  in  general  in  our  crude  brains  and  in  ordinary 
practice  very  much  the  same  dismembered  aspect  which  physics 
in  its  numerous  subordinate  branches  presents  to  those  who 
devote  their  attention  especially  only  to  some  particular  one  of 
its  departments. 

But  the  new  and  comprehensive  science  of  energy  has,  besides, 
its  own  special  debatable  region,  in  much  the  same  way  that 
mechanics  has,  although  of  an  entirely  different  description ; 
and  however  cheerfully  we  might  consent,  by  basing  all  the  pro- 
positions of  mechanics  (a  ptrfectly  possible  proceeding,  as  has 
here  been  indicated)  upon  a  system  of  permanent  and  reciprocal 
force-pairs,  to  include  among  the  vicissitudes  of  force-action, 
besides  its  own  clearly  distinguishable  phenomena,  also  (with 
countless  impenetrably  hidden  fields  of  operation)  all  the  known 
agencies  of  its  more  versatile  and  less  easily  definable  kindred 
science  of  energetics,  yet  it  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  imme- 
diately desirable,  in  the  absence  of  sufficiently  abundant  proof, 
to  malce  this  assumption ;  nor  is  it  perhaps  expedient,  on  the 
new  account  just  mentioned,  to  take  it  too  readily  for  granted  as 
a  sound  and  simple  basis  of  the  leading  laws  of  the  new  science, 
until  the  field  of  phenomena  which  the  latter  are  framed  to  in- 
clude is  itself  so  dearly  defined  and  circumscribed,  as  not  to  offer 
in  its  own  relations  and  conditions  objections  to  the  course  which 
may  seem  to  contain  in  them  anything  which  may  prove  to  be 
insuperable,  or  which  might  very  quickly  lead  to  its  abandonment. 

To  assert  the  principle  of  virtual  velocities  concerning  the 
agent  force,  although  we  can  voluntarily  enlist  the  action  of  this 
agent  in  mechanical  combinations,  does  not  necessarily  compro- 
mise our  free  will  in  any  way,  because  the  marmer  of  enlisting 
this  servant  of  our  will  caimot  be  definitely,  and  in  a  scientific 
point  of  view  completely  specified  as  the  necessary  form  which 
the  exercise  of  volition  must  take  ;  and  accordingly  no  natural 
law  which  completely  binds  and  describes  any  force,  can  possibly 
describe  and  define  also,  as  completely,  the  volition  which  pro- 
duces it  But  even  if  the  volition  concerned  in  producing  a 
force  were,  as  a  cause,  completely  definable,  and  if  we  may 
assume  that  pure  inductive  science  is  capable  immediately  of  so 
describing  it  in  part,  and  of  ultimately  (in  its  indefinitely  achieved 
development)  reaching  no  partial  or  imperfect  view  of  every 
piocess  of  volition,  so  as  to  be  able  with  assigned  actions  of  will 
to  construct  a  perfectly  unerring  plan  of  all  the  operations  of  a 
Providence  subjected  to  these  conditions,  and  to  trace  without  a 
single  fault  or  discontinuity  the  whole  current  of  consequent 
events  belonging  to  them,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  result  would 
lack  an  element  of  g^enuineness,  of  whose  absence  we  should 
immediately  be  conscious  as  rendering  it  an  inadequate  and 
unauthentic  represesentation  of  the  operations  of  that  perfect 
will  and  of  that  Divine  Omnipotence,  to  whose  purposes  we 
owe  the  obedience  and  the  entire  subserviency  of  our  wills  in  all 
our  actions.  This  moral  obligation  of  our  actions  springs  from  a 
side  of  our  natures  truly  unseen,  but  to  which  we  owe  dictates 
of  our  actions  as  quick  and  spontaneous  as  those  which  come 
endorsed  with  reason  to  us  from  our  natural  senses.  On  the 
other  hand,  to  suppose  that  reason  will  ever  bridge  the  gap 
which  divides  inanimate  from  living  agency,  and  will  be  able  to 
register  perfectly  on  her  tablets  (in  the  way  just  now  supposed) 
every  event  of  volition,  is  as  visionary  as  to  suppose  her  capable  of 
apprehending  and  of  taking  a  measurable  account  of  the  purposes 
of  those  actions  which  we  hold  to  be  inspired.  But  in  the  part 
which  reason  plays  as  a  faculty  given  to  us  for  learning  wisdom 
and  for  seeking  after  and  cultivating  virtue  from  our  cradles,  in 
all  tiie  vicissitudes  of  life,  there  appears  to  be  no  break  or  in- 
terruption to  its  ownward  progress,  though  its  goals  may  be 
partly  invbible  and  partly  unattainable  ;  and  **  new  forces"  in 
nature  must  evidently  lie  abundantly  along  its  path.  The 
"forces"  of  living  beings,  in  particular,  are  inscrutable  to  it, 
and  those  of  humanity  at  least  must  especially  be  so,  for  two 
reasons,  a  morale  as  well  as  a  vital  or  organic  one,  both  differ- 
ently descriptive  of  the  uliimate  constitution  of  our  free  will, 
ir,  therefore,  there  appears  no  ground  (ns  I  believe  that  Hirn's, 
and  perhaps  other  experiments,  have  shown)  for  introducing  an 
exception  of  living  agents  in  the  law  of  conservation  of  ener^, 
perhaps  the  progress  of  physiology  and  of  biological  physics 


may  also  show  that  to  make  the  same  exception  in  the  law  of  dis- 
sipation, or  of  the  loss  of  availability  of  energy  in  every  action,  is 
equally  incapable  of  substantiation  could  we  see  those  forms  of 
energy  which  we,  and  other  living  beings,  make  use  of  in  appa- 
rently transgressing  the  generality  of  this  law  by  partially  restor- 
ing their  availability  to  some  very  obvious  forms  of  energy. 

In  this  view  of  infinite  progress  of  investigation,  energy  must 
keep  its  form  of  energy  of  motion,  or  of  such  energy  converted 
into  work  of  "agents;"  and  from  what  has  been  above  de- 
scribed, it  is  not  necessary  that  the  work  of  these  agents  should 
be  the  energy  thus  abandoned  in  a  new  kinetic  form.  All  the 
actions  of  an  agent  can  be  imagined  to  be  consequences  of  special 
kinds  of  motion,  but  of  what  advantage  it  may  be  to  suppose  it, 
when  in  the  midst  of  conceptions  so  distractingly  profound  and 
unapproachable  as  encircle  the  new  science  of  energy,  an  agent 
as  simple  and  intelligible  as  mechanical  force  is  presented  to  our 
understanding  as  an  example  of  what  an  agent  of  will  and  pur- 
pose may  perhaps  be  like,  it  is  very  difficult  to  reflect  upon  and 
comprehend. 

At  the  outset  of  this  long-since-begon,  and  now  quite* 
differently-concluded  letter  from  what  I  contemplated,  I  pro- 
posed, in  connection  with  Mr.  Crookes'  famous  series  of  investi- 
gations (especially  those  last  crowning  points  of  his  discoveries 
in  which  vacua  so  perfect  were  produced  as  fairly  to  eliminate 
the  principal  cause  of  rotation  of  the  arms  of  a  radiometer, 
originally  recognised  in  the  action  of  residual  gas),  to  point  out 
some  means  by  which,  in  vacua  so  complete,  the  mode  of  action 
of  force  might  possibly  be  elucidated  by  experiments.  A  beam 
of  rays,  bent  and  reflected,  for  example,  so  as  to  fall  at  grazing 
incidence  from  the  right  or  left  on  a  flat  end,  instead  of  on  a  vane 
of  one  of  the  arms  of  a  very  perfectly-exhausted  radiometer, 
might  be  found  to  move  it  sensibly,  and  perhaps  more  distinctly, 
as  the  exhaustion  reached  its  limit,  in  opposite  directions  cor- 
responding to  the  directions  from  which  the  beam  grazed  the 
face,  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  attribute  to  molecular  im- 
pacts of  the  residual  gas ;  and  in  the  action  of  such  an  external, 
and  to  all  ordinary  perceptions  quite  uncounterpoised,  furce 
(supposing  radiation  really  to  produce  it),  a  field  of  new  dis- 
coveries relating  to  direct  mechanical  effects  of  the  luminiferous 
ether  would  obviously  present  itself,  which  would  be  of  the 
highest  interest  and  consequence.  But  as  regards  the  interpre- 
tation of  any  effects  which  might  be  observed,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  new  views  of  the  nature  of  potential  energy  which 
they  might  open  out,  I  prefer  now  to  refrain  from  offering  any 
hints  or  suggestions,  knowing  that  any  inquiry  which  offers 
prospects  of  studying  force  under  a  new  aspect,  caimot  be  guided 
and  directed  beforehand,  so  as  either  to  establish  or  confute  any 
of  the  already  well*  proved  laws  of  its  action,  but  that  in  the 
broad  principles  which  the  science  of  energy  presents  for  our 
consideration  and  development  it  could  only  be  prosecuted  as  a 
new  science,  a  new  branch  of  general  physics  contributing  some- 
thing like  its  predecessors  (heat,  radiation,  chemical  action, 
electricity,  &c. ,  but  what  we  shoidd  attempt  in  vain  to  picture  to 
ourselves)  in  the  capacious  science  of  energy,  as  a  new  ascent 
towards  that  lofty  pinande  to  which  in  common  with  several  other 
natural  sciences  energetics  also  proposes  to  raise  itself  in  the  end, 
to  contemplate  the  Divine  works  of  True  Beneficence  and  to 
discern  in  the  stately  Temples  of  the  Universe  the  allotted  place 
of  man. 

These  are  some  of  the  teachings  of  the  radiometer  which  rose 
up  before  me  when  in  an  unguai^ed  moment  I  asked  myself  the 
question  :  What  change  from  the  point  of  view  of  energy  con- 
servation would  it  introduce  into  our  view  of  the  experiment  if, 
supposing  that  a  force  were  found  to  actuate  the  vane  of  a  radio- 
meter, which  was  a  direct  effect  of  radiation,  we  were  to  sacrifice 
the  integrity  of  Newton's  third  law  of  motion  by  assuming  the 
existence  of  a  new  class  of  forces  which  act  alone  unaccompanied 
by  any  equal  and  opposite  reaction  ?  ^  The  answer  here  must  be 
that  if  energy  is  still  to  be  conserved  (that  is  to  say,  if  we  can  point 
out  the  source  and  destination  of  all  the  work  that  is  performed), 
there  must  be  a  law  in  these  outer  forces  connecting  them  with 
known  physical  agents  in  such  a  manner  that  as  much  work  is 
done  upon  them  in  any  assigned  change  of  configuration  as  is 
supplied  by  those  physical  agents  in  the  change,  and  as  the 
internal  forces  and  other  agents  in  the  changing  system  also 
furnbh  by  their  action.  (See  Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell's  definition  of 
a  "conservative  system"  in  **  Matter  and  Motion,"  p.  59,  where 
the  action  of  internal  forces  is  excluded  by  supposing  the  system  to 
«  Reaction  is  not  meant  here,  of  course,  to  imply  Newton's  imaginary 
•'resistance  of  an  acceleration  ;"  but  the  real  active  tendency  of  some  equal 
opposite  force  only,  is  meant  to  te  understood.  ^.^  ^ 

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return  to  its  original  configuration).  In  other  words,  we  cannot 
suppose  energy  to  be  conserved  uxiless  we  connect  the  new  forces 
by  some  fixed  laws  with  known  and  already  determinate  physical 
agents,  and  we  must  be  content  to  regard  the  system  as  non- 
conservative  until  the  necessary  physiod  connection  is  assigned 
and  introduced  which  will  account  for  the  free  forces  that  we 
have  observed,  and  will  allow  us  to  comprdiend  their  action 
under  the  known  laws  of  inanimate  natural  agency.  This  way 
of  dealing  with  the  work  of  "external  forces"  on  a  system 
which  the  new  science  of  energy  has  devised,  and  shown  to  be 
the  only  one  which  in  these  cases  can  be  generally  employed,  has 
perhaps  contributed  (but  only  by  the  unavoidable  abstruseness  and 
abstractness  which  belong  to  the  new  science  itself)  to  invest 
with  something  of  the  appearance  of  a  **  phantom  "  and  with  an 
air  of  mystery,  the  character  of  force,  ana  the  laws  of  its  opera- 
tion as  they  h&ve  been  universally  studied  in  mechanics.  But 
rigfatlv  regarded  according  to  the  simple  principles  of  philoso- 
phical consistency  and  progress,  which  the  new  science  of  energy 
recognises  in  its  probable  extensions,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
it  will  really  tend  to  establish  more  clearly  than  before  the 
familiar  notions  of  mechanics,  and  to  open  out  fields  of  applica- 
tion of  the  time-honoured  laws  of  motion  and  of  force  in  unfore- 
seen directions,  in  which  their  certainty  and  truth  will  continue 
to  be  felt  as  surely  and  to  be  described  as  simply  now  and  here- 
after, as  they  were  in  the  days  of  Galileo  and  of  Newton. 
Ncwcastle-on-Tyne  A.  S.  Herschbl 

Faraday's  '*  Experimental  Researches " 

Mr.  Silvanus  P.  Thompson,  of  Bristol,  has  made,  in 
Nature  (vol.  xvU.  p.  304)  an  inexplicable  attack  upon  my  issue 
of  Faraday**  "  Experimental  Researches  in  Electricity,"  3  vols. 
8vo.  1839-55*  unwarranted  by  logic  or  facts. 

Mr.  Thompson  ordered  my  issue,  which  is  advertised  as  "a 
perfect  copy  of  Faraday's  work,  through  a  Bristol  bookseller, 
to  whom  it  was  charged  at  the  trade  price  of  361.  Mr.  Thompson 
declined  to  ratify  his  purchase,  and  there  the  matter  should  have 
ended,  as  I  would  readily  have  cancelled  the  transaction  with 
his  agent 

Mr.  Thompson  says  that  \  profess  to  supply  a  perfect  copy  of 
Faraday's  "Experimental  Researches,"  implying  that  my  pro- 
fessions are  deceitfiil.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  understand  his  meaning, 
because  the  fact  is  that  I  can  and  do  supply  perfect  copies. 

The  history  of  the  book  is  as  follows : — Faraday's  "  Experi- 
mental Researches,"  3  vols.,  appeared  in  1839-55,  in  3  vols. 
8vo,  with  plates,  and  in  course  ot  time  two  of  the  volumes  fell 
out  of  print,  which  raised  the  market  value  of  occasional  copies 
to  seven  and  eight  guineas.  Availing  myself  of  the  opportunity 
of  buying  from  Mrs.  Faraday  the  copyright  and  existing  stock,  I 
completed,  by  facsimile  reprint,  a  small  number  of  copies,  as  is 
plainly  stated  on  the  title-pages  of  vols  i  and  2.  I  alone  possess 
the  right  to  reprint  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  the  work. 

It  was  at  Mrs.  Faraday's  express  wish  that  only  such  a  reprint 
has  been  executed,  and  I  was  further  advised  to  that  course  by 
eminent  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society.  Mr.  Thompson's  innuendo 
of  wilful  deception  is  an  infamous  slander  unworthy  of  a  man  of 
science. 

I  consider  I  deserve  the  thanks  of  all  purchasers  of  Faraday's 
"  Researches  "  for  having  invested  my  capital  in  the  long  dormant 
copyright  of  this  work,  and  havine  thus  put  it  in  the  power  of 
students  to  obtain  "  perfect  copies"'  at  a  moderate  price. 

Messrs.  Taylor  and  Francis,  the  printers  of  the  former  edition, 
executed  for  me  the  reprint  of  the  first  two  volumes  (the  stock  of 
the  original  third  volume  not  having  been  exhausted.)  The 
original  dates  were  preserved  to  show  that  no  alterations  had 
been  made,  and  to  preclude  the  notion,  which  Mrs.  Faraday 
desired  to  avoid,  that  she  had  sanctioned  a  veritable  new  edition. 
After  this  explanation  I  do  not  doubt  that  Mr.  Thompson  will 
see  he  has  deceived  himself,  and  I  expect  that  he  will  apologise 
for  his  ill-advised  attack  upon  my  genuine  and  authorised  re- 
issue, and  admit  that  it  is  mdeed  a  perfect  copy  of  Faraday's 
great  work.  Bernard  Quaritch 

Singing  in  the  Ears 
This  consists  of  two  or  more  continuous  or  alternating  tones 
originating  within  the  ear,  very  faint  and  sounding  like  a  tea- 
kettle just  beginning  to  boil,  or  a  distant  orchestra  tuning.  It  is 
heard  when  there  is  undue  pressure  of  the  circulation  in  the 
head,  as  after  long  mental  application,  or  upon  hanging  the 
head  downwards.  To  my  ear  these  tones  bear  constant  musical 
relations  to  each  other,  and  as  the  phenomenon  bears  directly  on 


the  theory  of  the  mechanism  of  audition^  its  verificatioii  is  a 
matter  of  importance. 

Will  the  readers  of  Nature  who  can  observe  it  write  mc 
what  are  the  intervals  of  pitch  {ue.  thirds,  fourths,  octaves,  fifUis, 
&C.)  between  the  different  tones  heard  together  or  alternating  ? 

Xenos  Clark 

916,  Washington  Street,  San  Frandsco^  CaL 

Meteor 

About  12.47  a.m.  (Irish  time)  on  Monday  the  18th  inst,  I 
observed  a  brilliant  meteor  when  looking  north  from  the  south 
side  of  Dublin.  It  resembled  a  bluiSi  white  ball  with  An 
apparent  diameter  of  about  one-fifth  that  of  the  moon,  which 
was  shining  brightly  at  the  time,  and  left  behind  it  a  continuons 
yellowish  luminous  train.  When  first  sighted  it  appeared  at  an 
angular  distance  of  about  15**  from  the  polar  star,  and  appeared 
to  be  in  the  constellation  of  the  Dragon,  about  midway  between 
the  brilliant  star  of  the  constellation  of  Lyra  and  the  polar  star, 
somewhat  below  the  line  joining  these  constellations. 

Its  path  was  apparently  a  line  about  5*^  from  the  vertical,  and 
inclined  from  west  towards  east,  and  I  lost  sight  of  it  whoi  at  an 
angle  of  10*^  with  the  horizon  by  intervemng  buildings.  Its 
brilliancy  surpassed  that  of  the  moon,  which  at  the  thne  was 
bright  enough  to  allow  of  distinguishing  printed  characters.  It 
did  not  burst  while  in  sight,. and  I  heard  no  report. 

Royal  College  of  Science,  Dublin  H.  Hatfieu) 


Eucalyptus 

I  have  only  just  observed  Dr.  Calm/s  letter  in  your  impres- 
sion of  the  7th  inst.  (p.  283).  The  febrile  attacks  to  which  I 
alluded  in  Nature  (vol.  xviL  p.  10)  were  sufficiently  serious 
to  incapacitate  shepherds  and  stockmen  for  anything  like  con- 
tinuous work  for  two  or  three  weeks,  and  on  some  days  the  men 
were  quite  prostrated.  The  mosquito  of  which  I  spoke  as  not 
being  banished  by  the  presence  of  Eucalyptus  is  that  species  of 
Culex  whose  larval  state  is  passed  in  water  (the  larvae  may  evoi  « 
be  seen  in  rain-water  collected  in  decayed  parts  of  trees),  and  I  ^ 
cannot  call  to  mind  a  single  place  from  which  these  pests  were 
absent,  trees  being  present.  No  doubt  they  may  be  carried 
many  miles  by  the  wind  from  their  place  of  birth ;  but  the  real 
question  is  whether  any  species  of  gum  so  drains  tiie  land  as  to 
banish  both  mosquito  and  malaria  by  drying  wet  soil.  If  so^ 
how  is  it  that  we  find  in  Australia  swamps  which  have  existed 
for  apparently  an  indefinite  time,  and  do  not  look  in  the  least 
likely  to  dry  up,  though  the  "  blue  "  gum  grows  all  round  them, 
where  the  mosquito  is  rampant  and  malarious  fever  not  by  any 
means  rare  ?  1  entirely  agree  with  Dr.  Calmy  that  the  mosquito 
may  be  a  " real  danger  to  the  rash  traveller.''  One  not  acdmia- 
tised  would  suffer  agonies  among  the  mangrove  swamps  of  More- 
ton  Bay.  I  have  had  my  own  hands  so  paralysed  by  the  poison 
that  I  could  not  dose  them  without  difiiculty ;  and  anew  arrival, 
whom  I  took  there  on  a  duck-shooting  expedition,  was  almost 
blinded,  and  became  seriously  ill  for  some  days,  though  he  was 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  insects  only  a  few  hours.  What- 
ever may  be  the  case  in  Algeria  or  the  Campagoa,  no  one  familiar 
with  Australia  will  give  3ie  gum-trees  there  credit  for  having 
banished  swamps,  malaria,  or  mosquitos.  Is  not  the  Newfound- 
land mosquito  of  the  pine  forests  to  which  Dr.  Calmy  alludes 
bred  in  water  ?  Arthur  Nicols 

February  20  — — 

Telephone  Experiments 

The  followirig  experiments  with  the  ordinary  small  portabIe\ 
telephone  may  interest  your  readers.  ^ 

Experiment  i.  Connect  a  small  strip  of  zinc  by  a  thin  covered 
wire  to  one  of  the  binding  screws  of  the  instrument,  and  connect  in 
the  same  way  to  the  other  binding  screw  a  plate  of  metal  with  a 
rough  edge  ;  a  saw  does  well,  rlace  the  end  of  the  piece  of 
zinc  in  the  mouth,  or  hold  it  between  moist  fingers.  Take  a 
shilling  between  the  fingers  of  the  other  hand  and  pass  it  along 
the  teeth  of  the  saw.  The  sound  is  clearly  heard  in  tne  telephone. 
If  instead  of  a  shilling,  a  sovereign  or  a  penny  be  used, 'the  result 
is  much  the  same,  but  if  a  piece  of  zinc  be  substituted,  the  sound 
in  the  telephone,  if  not  lost,  becomes  very  feeble. 

Experiment  2.  With  the  apparatus  as  before,  let  a  number  of 
persons,  taking  hand  in  hand,  form  a  chain.  At  one  end  of  this 
chain  the  zinc  is  held,  and  at  the  other  the  shilling.  When  the 
saw  is  nibbed  the  soimd  is  heard  In  the  telephone  so  long  as  the 
hands  are  held,  but  on  leaving  go  anywhere  in  the  chain  the 
telephone  becomes  silent  This  experiment  is  successful  with 
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343 


eight  persons,  and  no  doubt  would  be  with  a  larger  number. 
The  hands  should  be  moistened. 

These  experiments  show  in  a  simple  and  striking  way  that  in 
the  telephone  we  have  an  instrument  which  is  sensitive  to  very 
minute  flectric  impulses.  W.  Carpmael 

24,  Southampton  Buildings,  W.C. 


ELIAS  MAGNUS  FRIES 

BY  the  death  of  Fries,  Sweden  ha^  lost  one  more  of  the 
line  of  eminent  botanists  whose  labours  have  thrown 
a  lustre  so  great  upon  Scandinavian  science.  Well 
versed  in  all  domains  of  phanerogamic  botany,  and  espe- 
cially skilled  in  his  native  plants,  it  was  amongst  the 
ciyptogams  he  spent  the  more  active  years  of  his  long 
life.  While  lichenology  owes  to  him  valuable  illustra- 
tions, fungology  received  at  his  hands  a  large  element  of 
its  construction.  In  the  acquisition,  description,  and 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  larger  fungi  he  exhibited  a 
zeal,  a  tact,  and  a  perspicuity  which  seem  to  have  left 
comparatively  little  to  be  done  in  later  times,  either  by 
way  of  addition  or  improvement. 

Elias  Magnus  Fries  was  bom  in  Smaland  on  August  1 5, 
1794.  His  father,  pastor  of  the  church  at  Femsjd,  was 
an  ardent  and  accomplished  botanist  As  there  were  no 
boys  of  his  own  age  whom  the  young  Fries  could  make 
companions,  he  constantly  accompanied  his  father  in  his 
walks,  and  was  in  his  earliest  years  made  intimate  with 
all  the  flowering  plants  of  a  district  diversified  by  forest, 
mountain,  marsh,  and  river.  About  the  age  of  twelve  he 
lighted  upon  an  especially  brilliant  Hydnum,  and  was 
then  first  incited  to  the  study  of  the  Agarics  and  their 
allies,  that  abound  in  his  native  land  more  than  in  any 
other  region  of  Europe.  Before  he  left  his  school  at 
Wexio  he  knew,  and  had  given  temporary  names  to, 
nearly  400  species.  In  181 1  he  entered  the  University  of 
Lund,  where  he  had  Schwartz,  Agardh,  and  Rezius  as  his 
teachers ;  and  in  18 14  was  chosen  Decent  of  Botany.  In  this 
year  he  published  his ''  Novitiae  Florae  Suecicae,"  first  part, 
the  second  part  following  in  1823.  In  181 5  appeared  his 
''  Observationes  Mycologicae,"  the  first  important  result 
of  his  fungological  researches.  In  the  following  year, 
dissatisfied  with  the  method  of  Persoon,  he  began  to  con- 
struct an  entirely  new  system.  As  a  first  fruit  he  wrote  his 
"Specimen  Systematis  Mycologicae,"  a  tract  of  a  few 
pages,  and,  in  outline,  his  great  work  the  "Systema 
Mycologicum,"  the  first  volume  of  which  appeared  in 
1 82 1  and  the  last  in  1829.  In  1825  he  sent  forth  the 
"  Systema  Orbis  Vegetabilisy"  first  part,  a  work  not  further 
completed,  and  in  1828  the  "Elenchus  Fungorum,**  a 
commentary  on  the  Systema.  In  1831  was  published 
*' Lichenographia  Europaea  Reformata,"  and  in  1838  his 
second  great  work,  the  ''Epricisis  Systematis  Myco- 
logici."  About  this  time  he  completed  the  manuscript 
of  a  "Synopsis  Ascomycetum,"  m  which  he  had  in- 
cluded upwards  of  600  new  species.  Owing  to  his 
impatience  of  the  critiques  of  Corda,  Kunze,  and  the 
Gmnan  fungologists  who  had  begun  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  new  aid  of  the  perfected  microscope, 
an  assistance  which  Fries  denied  himself,  he  refrained 
from  publishing  it,  but  one  may  hope  this  valuable  MS. 
may  still  exist.  In  1834  he  was  made  Professor  of  Prac- 
tical Economy  at  Upsala,  from  which  place  he  gave  out 
the  "  Flora  Scanica."  He  ^iras  sent  to  the  Rigsdag  in 
1844  and  1848  as  representative  of  his  university,  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Swedish  Royal  Academy  in  1847 
In  1 85 1  he  succeeded  to  the  chair  of  Botany  at  Upsal, 
vacated  by  Wahlenberg,  which  he  resigned  only  a  few 
years  before  his  death  to  his  son.  In  1846  he  published 
the  "Summa  Vegetabilium  Scandinaviae,*'  and  in  i860, 
"  Sveriges  atliga  och  giftiga  Svampar,"  with  fine  coloured 
plates.  A  project  of  the  Royal  Society  of  HoUn  to  publish 
at  its  expense  drawings  of  all  species  of  Hymenomycetes 
under  Fries's  direction,  induced  him  to  write  a  third  and 


fiiUer  description  of  the  Agarics,  of  which  he  printed  only 
100  copies,  under  the  title  'of  "  Monographia  Hymeno- 
mycetum  Suecicae  "  in  1863.  The  first  fasciculus,  however, 
of  the  corresponding  "Icones,"  appeared  only  in  1867; 
a  second  volume  was  commenced  towards  the  end  of  last 
year.  Fries  lived  at  Upsal  all  the  latter  years  of  his  life, 
m  good  health,  and  in  constant  correspondence  with  the 
botanists  of  this  and  other  countries,  taking,  so  far  as  his 
age  permitted,  all  his  early  interest  in  his  favourite 
Agarics.  Thus  he  published,  in  1874,  a  second  edition  of 
his  **  Epicrisis,"  including  in  it  all  the  later  found  Euro- 
pean  species. 

He  died,  after  a  short  illness,  on  the  8th  inst. 

THE    TELEPHONE,   AN  INSTRUMENT  OF 
PRECISION 

THE  applications  to  which  the  telephone  may  in  future 
l>e  put  cannot  yet  be  all  foreseen.  I  have  to-day 
had  its  value  shown  to  me  in  a  remarkable  way.  i.  I 
used  a  thermo-electric  intermittent  current  by  drawing  a 
hot  end  of  copper  wire  along  a  rasp  completing  the 
circuit  A  telephone  was  put  into  the  circuit,  in  another 
room,  and  every  time  that  the  wire  ivas  drawn  along  the 
rasp  a  hoarse  croaking  was  heard  in  the  telephone.  2.  I 
used  a  thermopile  with  a  Bunsen  burner  shining  on  it 
from  a  distance  of  six  feet  The  current  was  rendered 
intermittent  by  the  file,  and  the  sound  was  most  distinctly 
heard.  A  Thomson's  reflecting  galvanometer  was  intro- 
duced into  the  circuit  which  showed  that  the  currents 
were  extremely  smaU.  3.  The  feeblest  attainable  currents 
were  now  tried.  The  thermopile  was  removed,  and  with- 
out any  artificial  application  of  heat  it  was  shown  by  the 
galvanometer  that  the  natural  differences  in  the  tempera- 
tures of  the  different  junctions  in  the  circuit  were  sufficient 
to  generate  feeble  electric  currents  only  just  perceptible 
with  the  mirror  galvanometer.  These  were  easily  detected 
by  aid  of  the  rasp  and  the  telephone.  Even  when 
contact  was  simply  made  and  broken  with  the  hand,  a 
click  was  heard  in  the  telephone.  4.  Lastly,  these  feeble 
currents  were  rendered  still  more  insignificant  by  passing 
them  through  the  body  of  a  friend  who  held  one  end  of 
the  wire  in  each  hand,  and  still  the  effects  were  faintly 
audible.  Here  the  galvanometer,  which  was  still  in 
circuit,  hardly  gave  any  indication. 

I  have  now  added  the  telephone  to  the  list  of  apparatus 
in  the  laboratory,  considering  it  to  be  perhaps  the  most 
delicate  test  of  an  electric  current  which  we  possess. 

In  these  experiments  only  one  telephone  is  used,  viz., 
at  the  receiving  end.  Employed  in  this  way  with  a  power- 
ful current  sent  from  the  other  end  of  the  line,  we  may 
hope  to  have  messages  sent  through  submarine  cables 
much  more  rapidly  than  at  present  Probably  it  will  be 
best  to  have  the  intermittent  nature  of  the  current  main- 
tained by  an  induction-coil,  or  by  a  spring  rubbing  against 
a  continuously  rotating  cog-wheel,  when  the  current  is 
allowed  to  pass  only  when  required  by  the  depression  of  a 
key  which  communicates  to  the  listener  at  the  receiving 
end  the  long  and  short  dashes  of  the  Morse  alphabet 

I  ought  to  mention  that  I  believe  the  person  who  first 
used  a  thermo-electric  current  with  a  telephone  was  Prof. 
Tait  George  Forbes 

.  Andersonian  College,  Glasgow,  February  13 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Lohrmann's  Lunar  Charts.— At  last  astronomers 
are  put  in  possession  of  the  charts  of  the  moon's  surface, 
commenced  by  W.  G.  Lohrmann,  of  Dresden,  in  1821. 
They  are  now  completed  in  twenty- five  sections ;  but 
previously  only  one  part,  containing  four  topographical 
sections,  had  been  published.  This  was  issued  at  Leipsic 
in  1824;  a  small  general  chart  was  lithographed  at 
Dresden  at  a  later  period.     It   is  through  the  active 


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NATURE 


[Feb.  28,  1878 


interference  of  Prod  Julius  Schmidty  the  Director  of 
the  Observatory  at  AUiens,  whose  elaborate  lunar  work 
is  well  known,  that  the  complete  publication  of  Lohr- 
mann's  charts  has  been  effected.  A  pretty  detailed 
prospectus  has  been  circulated.  The  price  of  the  entire 
work  ynVL  be  2/.  lar. 

The  Periodical  Comet,  1873  11.— The  interesting 
comet  of  short  period  discovered  by  Tempel  on  July  3, 
1873,  was,  it  is  understood,  taken  in  hand  by  one  of  the 
able  astronomers  attached  to  the  Observatory  of  Vienna, 
in  which  case  an  ephemeris  may  soon  be  expected.  The 
last  calculation  of  elements  assigned  a  period  of  revolu- 
tion of  only  1,850  days,  and  it  is  possible  that  observations 
in  November,  1873,  may  have  indicated  a  still  shorter 
period,  so  that  the  comet  may  again  arrive  at  perihelion 
very  early  in  the  summer.  Four  days  after  the  perihelion 
passage  Uiis  comet  makes  a  very  near  approach  to  the 
orbit  of  Mars,  but  the  recent  discovery  of  satellites  to  this 
planet  detracts  from  the  importance  which  would  other- 
wise have  attached  to  a  study  of  the  comet's  motion,  in 
the  hope  of  eventually  improving  our  knowledge  of  the 
planers  mass. 

Minor  Planets.— Of  all  the  members  of  this  group 
the  elements  of  which  have  been  calculated,  No.  153, 
Hilda,  discovered  by  Palisa  at  Pola  on  November  2, 1875, 
makes  by  far  the  nearest  approach  to  the  orbit  of  Jupiter, 
and  on  this  account  it  is  desirable  the  planet  should  be 
kept  under  observation  at  successive  oppositions.  So  far, 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  recognised  during  the 
present  one,  though  an  ephemeris  extending  to  February 
20,  was  given  in  nnmber  84  of  the  Berlin  Circular;  this 
will  have  been  owing,  no  doubt,  to  its  situation  in  a  part 
of  the  sky  for  which  we  have  no  charts  showing  very 
smsdl  stars.  According  to  the  estimation  made  by 
Palisa  on  the  night  of  discovery  when  the  planef  s  distance 
from  the  earth  was  3*22,  and  from  the  sun  4*20,  its  bright- 
ness at  present  will  be  e<}ual  to  that  of  a  star  of  the 
thirteenth  magnitude.  Subjoined  is  a  continuation  of  the 
ephemeris  deduced  from  the  best  orbit  yet  available,  that 
by  Kiihnert,  which  is  founded  on  observations  from 
November  2  to  December  30, 1875  :— 

Hilda  :  at  Greenwich  Midnight. 

R.A.  N.P.D.  Dist  from 

h.  m.    8.  .       /  Earth. 

Feteuary  28    ...    7  57  3^      ..     7«  49'2    ...    3723 
March        2    ...    7  5^  57    -.    7^  445    ••.    376o 
4    ...    7  56  21     ...    78  399    ...    3780 
6    ...    75548    ...     7835-3    ...    3801 
8    ...    7  55  18    ...    78  30-8    ...    3823 
10    ...    75452    ...    7826-5    ...    3-845 
12    ...    7  54  30    ...    78  22-3    ...    3*868 
14    ...    7  54  12    ...    78  181    ...    3-893 
Mr.  W.  Godward,  of  the  Nautical  Almanac  Office, 
availing  himself  of  the  observations  of  Ceres  which  have 
been  made  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich,  at  every 
opposition  between   1857  and  1876,  has  corrected  the 
efemenu  of  this,  the  first  discovered  of  the  small  planets, 
and  has  succeeded  in  representing  its  course  dunng  the 
interval  of  about  twenty  years,  with  a  precision  which  we 
do  not  remember  to  have  seen  attained  in  any  previous 
investigation  of  the  like  nature.    The  residual  errors  in 
R,A.  and  declination  in  no  case  amount  to  five  seconds  of 
ara    Applying  the  corrections  given  by  Mr.  Godward  in 
the  Monthly  Notices  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society 
for  January  last,  there  result  the  following  doubtless  very 
exact  elemenU  of  Piazzi's  planet  for  1878  : — 
Epoch,  1878,  November  l6*o  G.M.T. 


Mean  longitude    

Longitude  of  perihelion     ... 
mr    r  „  ftBoending  node 

Inclination    

Angle  of  eccentricity 

Mean  daily  motion     


47  50  24-5 

149  40  57 -I  )  From  M,  Eq. 
80  47  431  {     of  Epoch. 
10  37  179 
4  30  57*2 
77i"-3ni7     } 


From  the  Berlin  Circular  Na  85,  it  appears  that 
with  the  exception  of  the  small  planet  observed  by  VtoL 
Peters  on  February  6,  which  proves  to  be  Antigone,  the 
planets  lately  observed  are  new.  Their  numbers  and 
discoverers,  with  dates  of  discovery  and  magnitudes, 
arc: — 

No.  180    ...    Penrotin    ...    Jan.  29    ...     12'onu 

No.  181     ...    Cottenot    ...    Feb.   2    ...    lo'om. 

No.  182    ...    Palisa        ...    Feb.    7    ...     io*5m. 

No.  183    ...    Palisa        ...    Feb.    8    ...     I2x>m. 

As  we  anticipated,  No.  180  proves  to  be  distinct  from 
Urda,  which  remains  to  be  recovered. 


BIOLOGICAL  NOTES 

The  Origin  of  the  Carbon  of  Plants.— Mr.  J.  W. 
Moll  has  made  in  Profl  Sach's  laboratory  at  Wiirzburg, 
some  researches  on  this  subject  during  the  summer  of 
1876.  A  detailed  account  of  these,  with  the  conclusions  at 
which  he  has  arrived,  is  promised  in  the  LandwirtA^ 
schaftliche  yahrbiicker  von  Natkusius  und  Thiel,  but  a 
brief  account  will  be  found  in  the  last  number  of  the 
Archives  Nierlandmses,  tome  xiL,  4me  livre:  A  plant 
with  green-coloured  cells  can,  under  the  influence  of  ught, 
take  Uie  carbon  it  requires  from  the  atmosphere,  releasing 
in  the  act  of  doing  so,  so  much  oxygen.  This  is  a  fact,  too 
well  vouched  for  by  the  experiments  of  Boussingault, 
Vogel,  RauwenhofiT,  and  Harting,  to  admit  of  a  doubt,  but 
the  quantity  of  carbon  dioxide  in  our  atmosphere  is  very 
small,  and  the  Quantity  of  carbon  stored  up  during  say  a 
summer's  growth  in  some  large  forest,  is  vety  great 
Moreover,  the  roots  of  such  plants  are  fixed  in  a  soil 
which  is  highljr  charged  with  carbonaceous  products,  so 
the  question  quite  naturally  arises,  may  not  the  roots  takt 
up  some  of  these  atoms  of  carbon  ready  to  their  hand  ?  or 
mav  they  not  at  least  take  up  the  carbon  in  the  form  of 
carl>on  dioxide,  send  this  up  the  green  granules  in  the 
leaves,  and  so  give  them  a  more  abtmdant  supply  than 
they  could  get  from  the  surrounding  air?  Besides,  is  it 
not  a  fiact  that  most  plants-  seem  to  thrive  in  a  fine  rich 
leaf  mould,  and  may  not  its  richness  in  carbon  be 
partly  the  cause  ?  One  of  the  first  questions  Mr.  Moll  set 
himself  to  answer  was — Can  leaves  decompose  carbon 
dioxide  which  is  furnished  to  tiie  root  of  the  stem  from 
which  the  leaves  spring  ?  Now,  starting  with  assent  to 
Prof.  Sach's  discovery  that  the  starch  of  the  chlorophyll 
granule  is  the  first  visible  product  of  the  fixation  of  some 
carbon  atoms,  there  was  here  a  roady  method  of  proving 
whether  this  were  so  or  not  In  the  course  of  sevend 
experiments  it  was  contrived  that  leaves  destitute  of  these 
starch  granules  should  be  in  an  atmosphero  deprived  of 
carbon  dioxide,  while  at  the  same  time  they  were  well 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  light.  The  roots  were  fixed 
in  moist  soil  well  supplied  with  carbon  dioxide,  and  the  re- 
sult was  that  imder  these  circumstances  no  starch  granules 
wero  formed  ;  and  in  a  modification  of  this  experiment, 
whero  one  portion  of  a  leaf  was  allowed  to  be  exposed  to 
ordinary  air,  that  portion  at  once  set  to  forming  its  starch. 
Botanists  no  doubt  will  welcome  the  publication  of  the 
experiments  of  which  we  have  now  only  the  brief  result ; 
doubtless  more  research  will  end  in  moro  discoveries  in 
this  most  interestine  field,  for  how  can  one  account  for 
the  fact  that  some  plants  do,  as  we  might  say,  fatten  by 
feeding  on  carbon  atoms,  although  tiiese  very  plants  can- 
not take  these  atoms'when  in  union  with  oxygen? 

Ferns  and  Mosses.— Hofmeister's  work  on  the 
"  Higher  Flowering  Plants  (Cryptogamia)  **  is  truly  indis- 
pensable to  every  scientific  botanist,  and,  thanks  to  Mr. 
Curry,  the  English  student  has  it  at  his  command.  It 
commences  with  an  account  of  a  not  uncommon  little 
plant  caUed  Anthoceros  lavis^  and  it  finishes  with  an 
account  of  those  cryptogams  very  high  in  rank  and  vast 
in  size,  known  to  us  as  cone-bearers,  fand  of  which  the 
churchyard  yew  or  the  giant  Wellingtonia  may  serve  as 


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345 


^rpes.  Of  these  cryptogams  none  are  better  known  than 
the  ferns  and  the  mosses,  and  as  the  reader  of  Hof- 
meister's  work,  or,  as  we  are  but  too  glad  to  be  able  to 
add,  of  most  of  the  very  recent  handbooks  of  botany,  well 
know,  both  of  these  groups  have  this  in  common—that 
they  pass,  as  it  were,  through  two  existences,  one  of  which 
we  may  odl  the  *^  fruit-bearing  ^  stage  (the  sextial  stage), 
and  the  other  the  ''spore-bearing"  stage  (the  a-sexual 
stage).  The  former  of  these  two  is  the  stage  so  apparent 
to  us  all  in  flowering  plants,  where,  as  a  product  of  the 
fertilisation  of  the  contents  of  the  carpel  by  the  pollen  from 
the  stamens,  we  have  the  fruit  In  the  ferns,  as  a  rule, 
this  first  stage  is  one  in  which  the  plant,  as  it  were,  thinks 
only  of  prc^ucing  its  male  and  female  cells,  and  the 
growth  of  the  plant  is  lost  in  the  care  which  it  takes  to 
continue  the  species.  Shake  a  spore  from  the  frond  of 
some  immense  tree-fern,  let  it  germinate,  and  the  plant 
whidi  will  grow  thereout  will  be  a  little  green  thing  not 
so  big  as  the  top  of  one's  thumb  ;  but  it  will  form  its 
''archegonium"  and  its  '^  antheridium,"  and  the  contents 
of  the  latter  fertilising  the  contents  of  the  former,  the  result 
will  be  a  plant  which  in  time  will  ecjual  the  large  tree- 
fern  in  size,  but  which  at  this,  its  great  vegetative 
stage,  will  never  produce  aught  but  spores.  In  the 
mosses  this  state  of  things  is  different.  The  moss-stems 
which  we  gather  as  objects  of  beauty  or  use,  these  are  the 
fruit-producing  stages  ;  these  concern  themselves  with 
growth  as  w^  as  with  what  is  usually  antagonistic  to 
growth,  reproduction  ;  and  in  the  second  stage,  which  in 
the  ferns  is  the  only  one  popularly  known,  we  have  but  a 
short-lived,  small-sized,  spore-producing  plant,  sometimes 
quite  hid  away  in  the  lovely  foliage  of  the  moss  plant, 
sometimes  starting  up  from  it,  and  then  known  popularly 
as  its  fruit,  but  really  only  its  spore-producing  st^e.  It 
is  only  very  recently  that  Dr.  Karl  Goebel  {Botanische 
Zeitungy  October,  1877)  has  called  attention  to  the  deve- 
lopment of  the  prothaliium  (sexual  stage)  of  a  delicate 
little  fern  called  Gymnogramme  leptophyllay  which  is  to 
be  found  in  Jersey,  along  both  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  probably  in  all  suitable  localities  in  Africa,  Asia, 
Australia,  and  South  America.  It  and  a  few  other  species 
are  annuals,  so  that  at  once  we  see  that  their  a-sexual  stage, 
which  is  also  their  vegetative  one,  is  quite  limited.  More- 
over, their  little  stems  are  often  not  more  than  an  inch  in 
height  and  the  texture  of  the  frond  is  almost  pellucid.  It 
thus  approaches  the  mosses  in  the  feebleness  of  this 
stage ;  but  the  most  interesting  fact  brought  to  light  by 
Dr.  Goebel  is  that  the  sexual  stage,  generally  in  the  ferns 
so  evanescent,  is  here  absolutely  somewhat  long-lived, 
and  more,  that  it  is  even  somewhat  vegeutive,  some- 
thing like  that  of  Anihoceros  Ictvis,  Such  a  form,  which 
makes  a  bridge  to  thus  connect  the  two  groups  (ferns 
and  mosses),  is  of  great  importance,  and  Dr.  Goebel's 
memoir,  which  is  illustrated,  is  not  only  of  great  value 
from  the  accuracy  of  its  details  and  from  his  deductions 
therefrom,  but  also  as  showing  how  much  can  be  done 
even  with  apparently  well-known  forms. 

Prof.  Grimm  on  the  Fauna  of  the  Caspian.— 
We  notice  the  appearance  of  the  second  part  of  Prof. 
O.  A.  Grimm's  (Russian)  work  on  the  Aralo-Caspian 
Expedition.  It  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  Caspian  and 
to  its  fauna,  and  contains  the  description  of  worms, 
sponges,  and  molluscs,  discovered  during  the  expedition, 
together  with  a  general  sketch  of  the  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal distribution  of  Caspian  molluscs.  Prof.  Grimm 
divides  Uiem  into  three  regions,  out  of  which  the  lowest 
one  (deep  sea)  corresponds  to  older  forms  of  fossils,  whilst 
Uie  upper  one  has  its  nearest  relatives  in  youngest  forms 
of  fossils.  In  a  concluding  chapter  Prof.  Grimm  discusses 
the  interesting  question  as  to  the  influence  of  conditions 
of  life  on  morphological  structure,  and  shows  bv  many 
illustrations  Uie  acconmiodation  of  forms  to  varied  condi- 
tions at  diflerent  depths.  The  work  is  illustrated  by  many 
drawings. 


Transformation  of  Cartilage  into  Bone.— The 
last  Bulletin  of  the  Belgian  Academy  of  Sciences  (voL 
xliv.  No.  11)  contains  a  very  valuable  paper  of  Dr. 
Leboucc},  Superintendent  of  Anatomical  Researches  at  the 
University  of  Ghent,  on  the  mode  of  formation  of  Uie 
bone  tissue  in  the  long  bones  of  mammalians,  in  which  the 
author  discusses  and  resolves  by  his  researches,  based  on 
a  new  principle,  the  much-debated  question  whether  the 
embryonal  cartilage  is  substituted  by  a  new  tissue,  or  is 
directly  transformed  into  a  bone.  The  great  difficulty  of 
rendering  the  minute  cartilage  cells  apparent  among 
other  cells,  is  resolved  by  the  author  by  his  employing 
soda,  and  decalcifying  the  sections  with  acidulated 
glycerine ;  the  cells  thus  preserve  their  shape,  and  re- 
ceive a  beautiful  colour,  as  is  seen  from  a  chromolitho- 
graphed  plate  accompanying  the  paper.  By  using  this 
method  the  author  was  enabled  to  prove  that  the  minute 
cartilage  cells  take  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of 
bones,  quite  performing  the  i>art  of  osteoblastes.  The 
researches  were  carried  out  in  the  Ghent  Laboratory, 
under  the  direction  of  Prof,  van  Bambecke,  and  the 
paper  is  accompanied  by  a  very  favourable  comment 
thereon  by  Prof,  van  Beneden. 

Owls. — M.  Alphonse  Milne-Edwards  has  recently 
read  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  two 
ornithological  papers  of  interest  One  on  the  affinities 
of  the  Owl,  Pnolidus  badius^  demonstrates,  from  its 
skeleton,  that  it  belongs,  quite  contrary  to  the  general 
opinion  of  naturalists,  to  Uie  Bubonidae,  near  to  Syrnium 
and  NyctaU^  and  not  to  the  Strigidse.  In  the  species 
the  posterior  margin  of  the  sternum  has  two  pairs  of 
well-developed  notches,  and  the  furcula  is  not  complete 
at  its  symphysial  extremity.  This  being  the  case,  the 
genus  Strix  is  now  the  only  member  of  the  family  of 
the  Strigidae,  and  the  pectination  of  the  inner  edge  of  the 
nail  of  Uie  third  toe  found  in  it  is  no  longer  to  be  taken 
as  of  much  importance  in  the  group.  In; the  second 
paper  a  new  genus  of  Strigine  Owls  is  described,  from 
Madagascar,  and  named  Heliodilus. 

ALGiE  OF  THE  WHITE  Sea.— At  a  recent  meeting  of  the 
St  Petersburg  Society  of  Naturalists,  M.  Chr.  Gobi  read 
an  interesting  paper  on  the  algae  of  the  White  Sea.  The 
number  of  species  he  has  discovered  reaches  seventy,  of 
which  ten  are  green  algae,  six  Fucus,  and  twenty-nine  red 
algae.  The  algae  of  the  White  Sea  are  a  mixture  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  ArcUc  and  of  the  Atlantic  basins,  as  well 
as  of  fresh  water  and  salt  water  forms,  the  mixed  charac- 
ters of  the  flora  being  especially  obvious  with  respect  to 
the  green  algae. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Laplakd, — An  important  exploration  of  Russian 
Lapland  is  being  carried  out  by  the  Swedish  lieutenant 
Sandeberg.  Hitherto  only  the  coast  of  the  region  has 
been  known  with  anything  like  accuracy,  the  interior 
features  being  set  down  solely  from  conjecture.  Lieut 
Sandeberg  commenced  his  work  in  1876,  and  we  learn 
from  the  Geographische  Blatter  (Heft  i,  1878)  of  the 
Bremen  Society,  it  will  be  continued  till  1880.  The 
country  will  be  carefully  explored  and  accurate  obser- 
vations taken,  which  will  enable  Lapland  to  be  at  last 
mapped  satisfactorily.  Lieut  Sandeberg  is  acconi- 
panied  by  several  zoologists  who  are  investigating  mi- 
nutely both  the  mainland,  island,  and  sea  fauna,  and 
have  alreadv  made  considerable  additions  to  our  know- 
ledge in  this  direction.  During  the  last  two  summers 
Sandeberg  has  found  seventy-eight  new  species  of 
birds  in  the  Kola  peninsula,  of  which  one  at  least  is 
stated  to  be  quite  new  to  science.  Large  collections  in 
other  departments  have  also  been  made.  Previous  to 
Sandeberg,  no  educated  European  has  explored  Russian 
Lapland,  which  is  of  such  great  importance  to  the  zoolog  ist, 


T  a 


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[Feb.  28,  1878 


geologist,  botanist,  and  archaeologist  Among  other  finds 
It  may  be  mentioned  that  near  Golotizk,  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  White  Sea,  he  found  a  great  ancient  manufactory 
of  flint  implements  of  the  stone  age,  of  the  purest  and 
highest  Scandinavian  forms,  which  previously  had  been 
seldom  fbund  east  of  t}ie  Baltic,  and  never  on  the  coast  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  or  the  White  Sea.  The  collections  will 
be  divided  between  the  Sute  Museums  of  Russia, 
Sweden,  and  Norway,  all  three  countries  affording 
£eucilities  for  the  conduct  of  the  expedition. 

China. — In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Chefoo 
Convention,  Her  Majesty's  minister  at  Peking,  about  a 
year  ago,  sent  to  Chung-king,  in  the  Chinese  province 
of  Szechuen,  which  lies  at  the  junction  of  the  River 
Ho-tow  with  the  Yang-tsze  Kiang,  Mr.  E.  Colbome 
Baber,  of  her  Majesty's  Consular  Service,  who  was 
one  of  the  interpreters  attached  to  the  Yunnan  mission, 
and  who,  before  proceeding  on  that  bootless  errand, 
was  at  considerable  pains  to  qualify  himself  for  scientific 
exploration.  Mr.  Baber  started  last  July  on  an  expedition 
in  Uie  western  districts  of  the  province.  But  little  was 
heard  of  Mr.  Baber's  doings  until  the  end  of  the  year, 
except  from  a  private  letter  in  which  he  described  himself 
as  floating  down  the  River  Min,  among  low  hills  covered 
with  fir  and  insect  wax  trees,  and  in  sight  of  (though  at  a 
distance  of  sixty  miles  on  the  south-west)  the  holy  moun- 
tain of  Omi,  on  the  borders  of  Thibet  On  December  27 
the  North  China  Herald,  of  Shanghai,  published  a  portion 
of  another  letter  from  Mr.  Baber,  in  which  he  mentions 
that,  from  the  point  just  named,  he  made  north-west  and 
from  Ya-chow  oegan  to  veer  south.  Passing  Ning-yiian- 
foo  he  went  to  Hwa-li-chow ;  then  turned  east  and  crossed 
the  Yang-tsze  into  Yiinnan,  not  far  from  Tung-chwar. 
Thence  Uirough  die  wildest  and  poorest  country  imagin- 
able, the  great  slave-hunting  ground  from  which  the 
Lolos  carry  off  their  Chinese  bondsmen — a  country  of 
shepherds,  potatoes,  poisonous  honey,  lonely  downs,  great 
snowy  mountains,  silver  mines,  and  almost  incessant 
rains,  Mr.  Baber  tracked  the  course  of  the  Upper  Yang-tsze 
to  Ping-shan.  No  European,  he  says,  has  ever  been  in 
that  region  before^  not  even  the  Jesuit  surveyors,  and  the 
course  of  the  Yane-tsze,  there  called  the  Gold  River  (Kin- 
sha  Kiang),  as  laid  down  on  their  maps,  is  a  bold  assump- 
tion and  altogether  incorrect  Mr.  Baber  adds  that  "  a 
line,  diawn  south-west  from  a  mile  or  two  above  Ping- 
shan,  will  indicate  its  general  direction,  but  it  winds 
about  among  those  grand  gorges  with  the  most  haughty 
contempt  for  the  Jesuits'  maps.** 

Mount  Tongariro. — The  celebrated  burning  moun- 
tain of  New  Zealand,  Tongariro,  has  at  last  been  explored 
by  an  Englishman,  Mr.  P.  F.  Connelly.  The  volcano  is 
regarded  as  tafiu,  or  sacred,  by  the  Maoris,  who  have 
hitherto  resisted  all  attempts  to  explore  the  mountain  on 
the  part  of  the  colonists.  The  volcano  is  situated  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  North  Island,  and  though  only  6,500  feet 
high,  is  less  accessible  than  either  Moimt  Edgecumbe 
or  Ruapehu,  both  of  which  exceed  10,000  feet  in  height. 
Mr.  Connelly  overcame  all  resistance,  and  by  the  help  of 
some  chiefs  more  friendly  than  the  rest,  succeeded  in 
thoroughly  exploring  the  crater,  took  a  number  of  sketches 
and  photographs  of  the  locality,  and  determined  the 
positions  of  the  most  important  peaks. 

African  Exploration.— The  King  of  the  Belgians 
has  sent  to  M.  Quatrefages  a  telegram  stating  that  two 
other  Belgian  officers  should  proceed  to  Zanzibar  within 
a  few  days,  to  supply  the  places  of  the  unfortunate  MM. 
Crespel  and  Maes,  whose  death  we  announced  last  week. 
Telegraphic  orders  have  been  sent  to  the  remaining 
members  of  the  expedition  to  continue  their  journey  to 
Tanganyika.  The  Paris  Geo^aphical  Society,  anxious 
to  acknowledge  such  a  determmed  policy,  have  resolved 
to  take  steps  to  accelerate  the  public  subscription  insti- 
tuted on  behalf  of  international  Afirican  exploration.    It 


has  been  resolved  also  to  establish  a  local  committee  oa 
a  very  large  scale ;  not  less  than  a  hundred  persons  of 
distinction  will  be  selected,  with  power  to  add  to  their 
number. 

Paris  Geographical  SoaEXY.— The  distribution  of 
prizes  will  take  place  not  in  April,  as  usual,  but  at  the 
meeting  to  inaugurate  the  Society's  hotel,  now  building. 
It  will  be  ready  in  the  month  of  September  or  October 
next  The  gold  medal  will  be  awarded,  as  already  re- 
ported, to  Mr.  Stanley,  but  another  gold  medal  of  the 
same  value  will  be  given  to  the  veteran  M.  Vivien  dc 
Saint  Martin,  the  celebrated  geographer,  for  the  many 
valuable  works  published  by  him  during  the  last  thirty 
years,  and  principally  "  L'Ann^  Gdographique." 

American  Geographical  Society.— We  have  re- 
ceived two  numbers  of  the  Bulletin  of  this  Society,  con- 
taining the  proceedings  of  the  meetings  for  the  first  half 
of  1877.  One  number  is  devoted  to  the  admirable  sum- 
mary of  geographical  work  for  1876,  which  constituted 
the  address  of  the  President,  Chief  Justice  Daly,  and  to 
which  we  alluded  at  the  time.  In  the  other  number 
(No.  4)  the  principal  p£q>er  is  on  the  volcanoes  of  the 
U.S.  Pacific  coast,  by  Mr.  S.  F.  Emmons. 

Maps  of  i*he  Seat  of  War.— The  Russo-Turlrish 
war  has  called  forth  a  very  large  number  of  maps  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  We  learn  that  a  Russian  gentleman 
has  made  a  collection  of  maps  of  the  seat  of  war,  num- 
bering more  than  150,  and  will  exhibit  the  collection  at 
Paris.  The  largest  number  of  such  maps  has  been  pul>> 
lished  in  Germany,  and  the  most  detailed  maps  appear  to 
be  tbose  published  in  Finland. 

Arctic  Exploration.— Mr.  James  Gordon  Bennett 
has  petitioned  the  U.S.  Congress  to  grant  the  American 
register  to  the  steamer  Pandora  for  an  Arctic  expedition 
under  the  command  of  American  naval  officers. 


SOCIAL  ELECTRICAL  NERVES^ 

THE  efficient  carrying  out  in  a  large  dty  of  any 
extended  system  of  telegraphic  communication  for 
police,  fire,  and  social  purposes  demands  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  existing  systems,  so  as  to  insure  the 
establishment  of  only  the  most  perfect  organisation.  In 
an  ordinary  telegraphic  communication  between  two  or 
more  stations  a  line  wire  connects  the  terminal  station 
with  the  instruments  in  the  circuit,  and  the  distant  end  of 
this  wire  is  in  connection  with  the  earth,  while  the  other 
end,  after  connection  through  the  instrument,  passes  to 
one  pole  of  a  battery,  the  other  pole  of  which  is  also  in 
connection  with  the  earth.  Thus  the  electrical  circuit  is 
completed  partly  by  the  line  wire  and  partly  by  the  earth 
wire.  Sucn  is  an  ordinal^  circuit  At  times  when  tele- 
graphic communication  is  required  only  for  short  dis- 
tances, as  in  houses  and  buildings,  a  second  wire  takes 
the  place  of  the  earth  circuit  In  the  auto-kinetic  system 
for  the  introduction  of  fire,  police,  and  social  tele^aphs 
upon  an  extended  scale  an  essential  feature  is  the 
employment  of  two  parallel  wires,  laid  over  a  city  and 
suburbs,  starting  from  a  central  station  to  the  various 
district  stations,  and  from  thence  ramifying  in  every 
direction  so  as  to  embrace  the  most  important  areas 
for  the  purposes  required.  Each  of  these  two  wires 
has  its  special  duty  to  perform.  One  is  employed  for 
the  purpose  of  starting  the  instrument,  which  may  there- 
fore be  termed  the  "  starting "  wire.  The  other  is  used 
for  the  transmission  of  the  message,  and  may  be  termed 
the  "transmitting"  wire.  It  is  by  this  novel  arrange- 
ment that  the  auto-kinetic  system  enables  any  number  of 
speaking  stations  to  be  placed  upon  a  circuit  without 
possibility  of  interference.     Thus  in  each  district  of  a 

>  Continued  from  p.  306. 


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347 


city— say  Glasgow — the  head  police  and  fire  station  in 
the  central  district  will  be  in  direct  communication  with 
the  sub- stations  in  the  northern,  western,  southern,  eastern, 
and  St  Rollox  districts,  and  each  of  these  again  will  be 
local  centres,  and  conmiand  a  host  of  street,  fire,  and 
police  "call"  stations  placed  at  convenient  distances 
along  the  thoroughfares  in  their  respective  districts. 

Another  distinctive  principle  of  tlie  auto-kinetic  system 
is  that  which  has  already  been  noticed,  namely,  the 
"  starting  **  and  "transmitting"  wire  traversing  the  streets 
together.  If  we  suppose  a  number  of  speaking  stations  to 
be  required  along  tne  route — say  300 — it  is  evident  that 
at  each  point  where  an  instrument  is  placed  the  two  wires 
will  require  to  be  brought  into  the  instrument — the  one 
to  start  the  instrument  when  a  communication  is  to  be 
sent,  and  the  other  to  pick  up  and  automaticcdly  transmit 
that  message  to  the  district  centre.  We  have  before  stated 
that  no  instrument  is  "  in  circuit "  except  when  speaking, 
and  then  only  during  the  time  occupied  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  message.  It  therefore  follows  that  at  each 
station  along  the  line,  while  in  a  state  of  rest,  the  electri- 
cal continuity  of  both  the  "starting"  and  "transmitting" 
wire  must  be  maintained  independent  of  the  apparatus. 

A  general  outline  of  the  manner  of  employing  these 
two  wires  will  explain  the  systenL 

We  will  commence  first  with  the  modus  operandi  of  the 
"starting"  wire,  then  with  that  of  the  "transmitting" 


wire,  and  finally  describe  the  nature  of  the  automatic 
apparatus  by  which  the  novel  and  important  features  of 
the  auto-kinetic  system  are  obtained. 

Assume  for  a  moment  that  the  apparatus  is  inclosed  in 
an  iron  erection  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  a  street 
pillar  letter-bux,  and  that  in  the  inside  of  this  box  one 
portion  of  the  instrument  consists  of  an  ordinary  electro- 
magnetic coil  C,  an  armature  A,  and  detent  E  working  on 
a  centre  e  locking  into  a  small  arrangement  of  wheel-work 
and  barrel  D,  without  any  maintaining  power  ;  and  that 
one  end  of  the  wire  of  this  electro-magnetic  coil  is  con- 
nected permanently  with  the  earth,  the  other  end  being 
attached  to  a  metallic  spring  s  placed  in  position  to  form 
a  contact,  under  certain  conditions,  with  a  second  spring 
s'  in  connection  with  the  "  lead  in  "  from  the  starting  wire 
nearest  to  the  district  sub-station.  In  this  position  as 
regards  the  instrument  it  is  a  broken  circuit,  and  of  course, 
therefore,  the  instrument  is  out  of  connection.  If  now 
we  trace  the  other  "lead  in"  from  the  "starting"  wire 
and  conceive  it  to  be  brought  into  the  piUar-post  and 
carried  up  to  the  second  spring  s',  and  as  from  this  spring 
a  connection  exists  with  the  "  starting  "  wire,  a  continuous 
metallic  circuit  is  established  through  the  pillar-box,  indi- 
cated in  the  illustration  by  the  W  >  as  far  as  the  passing  of 
"starting"  electric  currents  is  concerned  from  any  other 
instrument  alon^  the  circuit  which  may  have  to  travel  the 
wire  without  affecting  the  instrument  under  notice,  which 


.  TW*WSMlTT»lSfO  W2ffg_ 


»TARTLMC_ 


-^/^ 


t^ 


Ifil 


Anrangement  of  Circuits—"  Call  Statfon  "  Instrument. 


remains  electrically  out  of  circuit  by  reason  of  the  break 
in  continuity  at  the  spring  S  attached  to  the  coil  wire.  We 
will  now  advance  a  step  fiirther,  and  assume  that  the 
continuity  of  the  "  lead  in  "  of  the  **  starting  "  wire  furthest 
from  the  district  station  is  only  maintained  so  long  as  a 
weight  w  rests  upon  the  two  ends  a  and  d.  It  will  there- 
fore be  evident  that  were  the  weight  w  raised,  the  through 
continuity  at  a  b  maintained  by  the  weight  would  be 
destroyed,  and  until  so  far  raised  as  to  mechanically  press 
the  springs  s  and  s'  together — the  coil  wire  spring  and 
the  lead  in  "  starting "  wire  spring—the  through  circuit 
on  the  starting  wire  is  broken.  Now  the  weight  w  being 
raised  what  follows?  The  moment  that  the  springs  s 
and  s'  are  brought  into  contact  electrical  continuity  is 
established  between  the  district  station  and  this  instru- 
ment, and  the  battery  current  flows  from  that  station 
along  the  starting  wire,  passing  all  intermediate  instru- 
ments which  are  necessarily  out  of  circuit,  enters  the 
electro-magnetic  coil  c,  and  throws  the  instrument  to 
earth  as  a  terminal  with  the  district  centre,  at  once  cutting 
off  all  interference  that  might  arise  from  other  instruments 
along  the  line  speaking  at  the  same  time. 

Thus,  for  the  moment  that  the  two  springs  S  and  s'  are 
in  contact,  the  current  has  entered  the  coil  C,  the  arma- 
ture A  has  been  attracted,  and  the  detent  e  being  with- 
drawn has  Uberated  the  drum  D  which  commences  to 
revolve,  having  been  wound  up  by  the  elevation  of  the 
weight  w. 


The  liberation  of  the  detent,  therefore,  instantly  causes 
the  weight  w  to  descend,  and  the  act  of  falling  separates 
the  two  springs  S  and  s',  the  starting  wire,  as  far  as  this 
particular  instrument  is  concerned,  being  thrown  off, 
and  the  through  circuit  also  remaining  broken  until  the 
weight  has  descended  and  closed  the  contact  by  pressure 
at  ab. 

Before  we  proceed,  let  us  suppose  that  during  this 
interval  of  time  between  the  raising  of  the  weight  and 
its  falling,  some  other  instrument  or  instruments  along 
the  line  had  been  called  into  requisition,  what  would 
happen?  The  weight  w  at  each  instrument  would  have 
been  raised,  placing  the  springs  s  and  s'  in  metallic 
contact,  and  the  instrument  thrown  into  position  ready 
for  speaking ;  but  as  no  current  could  pass  along  the 
startmg  wire  until  continuity  had  been  restored  at  the  ab 
of  the  first  speaking  instrument,  which  for  the  moment 
had  become  a  terminal  instrument,  no  current  could 
enter  the  coil  C  of  the  second'  instrument ;  and  as 
the  detent  E  could  not  be  released,  the  weight  would 
remain  suspended,  until  the  arrival  of  the  current 
along  the  starting  wire  attracted  the  armature  and 
released  the  drum  ;  in  due  course  the  second  instru- 
ment is  immediately  thrown  off  the  circuit,  and  succeeded 
automatically  by  a  third,  fourth,  or  any  number  along  the 
line  in  succession,  according  to  their  distance  from  the 
district  centre  or  battery  station.  It  will  therefore  be 
seen  that  as  the  battery  current  always  is  in  readiness  to 


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follow  down  the  ''  starting  "  wire  from  the  central  station, 
were  twenty  or  thirty  instruments  set  in  action  simulta* 
neously ;  that  nearest  the  central  station  will  record  first, 
and  as,  in  the  act  of  recording,  it  becomes  a  terminal, 
the  remainder  will  follow  in  the  order  of  their  distance 
along  the  "  starting  **  wire  from  the  central  station.  Thus 
were  twenty  fires  to  occur  in  a  district  at  the  same  time, 
and  twenty  **  call"  instruments  were  to  be  simultaneously 
put  into  requisition,  the  whole  twenty  would  record  their 
several  messages  without  interference  at  the  central 
station,  following  one  another  in  successive  intervals  of 
time,  determined  by  the  automatic  falling  of  the  weight 
on  to  the  circuit  poles  a  and  b.  Now,  as  this  interval  of 
time  for  each  instrument  is  about  three  seconds,  the  whole 
twenty  messages  would  be  automatically  recorded  in 
about  one  minute,  or  less  time  than  it  has  taken  to  read 
the  account  of  what  would  take  place. 

We  have  now  traced  the  action  of  the  "  starting  "  wire, 
which  may  be  stated  to  perform  its  functions  medi^mically 
bv  the  act  of  raising  a  weight  momentarily  placing  it  in 
circuit  with  the  instrument,  which  becomes  immediately 
a  terminal  station  ;  and  again  by  the  falling  of  the  weight 
the  instrument  is  thrown  off,  and  the  through  circuit  along 
the  "  starting  "  wire  restored. 

We  proceed  to  examine  into  the  action  of  the  second 
or  "transmitting''  wire,  and  explain  the  process  by 
which,  on  the  starting  of  the  instrument,  this  picks  up 
automatically  the  message,  and,  after  transmission,  re- 
sumes its  continuity  as  a  through  metallic  circuit  in  rela- 
tion to  the  other  instruments  on  the  line. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  reference  to  the  diagram,  that  until 
the  moment  that  the  instrument  is  thrown  on  to  the  circuit 
of  the  "  starting "  wire  by  the  raising  of  the  weight,  w, 
the  through  continuity  of  the  "transmitting"  wire  is 
maintained  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  ^  >,  and  that 
the  instrument  is  completely  cut  out  of  the  circuit  Now 
the  act  of  starting  the  drum,  D,  by  the  action  of  the 
"  starting "  current,  sets  in  motion,  by  the  force  of  the 
descending  weight,  the  small  train  of  wheels  before  men- 
tioned, the  use  of  which  is  to  give  motion  to  the  disc,  T, 
bearing  the  code  message  upon  its  circumference.  This 
disc  makes  exacdy  one  revolution  in  the  interval  of  time 
occupied  by  the  falling  of  the  weight,  the  distance  between 
the  springs,  ss',  and  the  circuit  contact,  ab^  upon  the 
restoration  of  which,  the  drum,  D,  is  again  locked  by  the 
detent,  £,  and  the  message  disc  has  assumed  its  normal 
position. 

We  will  now  trace  the  action  of  this  message  disc. 
The  through  continuity  of  the  transmitting  wire,  when 
the  disc  is  at  rest,  is  maintained  by  the  pressure  of  the 
lever,  L,  upon  the  two  circuit  springs,  F.  This  pressure 
is  exerted  so  long  as  the  disc  is  in  position  by  means  of 
the  insulated  stud,  f^  upon  which  the  lower  end  of  the 
lever,  L,  rests.  The  moment,  however,  that  the  disc,  T, 
revolves,  the  lever,  L,  falls  back  upon  the  pin,  r,  the  con- 
tact between  the  springs,  ?,  is  broken,  and  the  transmitting 
wire  is  thrown  to  earth,  through  the  disc.  As  the  end  of 
the  lever,  L,  comes  into  metallic  contact  with  the  "  make  " 
and  **  Ji>reak  "  prominences  upon  its  circumference,  currents 
flow  to  the  central  station  along  the  circuit  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  dotted  arrows.  Now  as  these  currents 
are  passed  in  groups  to  represent  letters  and  words,  a 
code  message,  or  any  code  message  out  of  a  given  num- 
ber, may  be  automatically  printed  at  the  receiving  instru- 
ment at  the  central  station.  In  the  example  given,  the 
currents  passed  are  the  Morse  signals,  indicating  the 
position  of  the  calling  station,  namely.  Main  St.,  Gor- 
BALS,  which  would  at  once  inform  the  central  station  of 
the  exact  locality  of  the  fire.  The  weight  once  more  at 
rest,  the  transmitting  wire  is  no  longer  to  earth  at  that 
call  station,  but  is  again  thrown  into  circuit  by  the  contact 
of  the  springs,  F. 

From  the  explanations  given,  several  very  important 
results  have  been  estabhshed.    Every  instrument  while 


transmitting  a  code  message  is  for  the  moment  made  a 
terminal  station,  all  other  instruments  on  the  same  circuit 
being  thrown  off  so  as  to  avoid  all  possibility  of  inter- 
ference. At  no  time  is  any  greater  resistance  thrown  into 
the  circuit  than  that  of  the  smgle  instrument  employed  to 
transmit  the  code  message.  Again,  only  a  very  small 
amount  of  battery  power  at  the  central  station  is  required, 
only  one  instrument  being  in  action  at  the  same  time. 
Whatever  number  of  instruments  on  a  circuit  may  be 
called  into  requisition  at  the  same  time,  they  wUl  all 
automatically  record  their  messages  one  after  the  other  in 
succession,  commencing  with  that  nearest  to  the  battery 
station,  and  be  all  automatically  started  and  brought  to 
rest,  without  any  mechanical  complication  of  parts  or 
delicate  electrical  ^adjustments.  Such  results  have  never 
before  been  obtained  and  at  once  place  the  aut<hkineHc 
system  in  advance  of  every  other. 

A  general  description  of  the  apparatus,  as  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  public  will  now  be  comparatively  easy  to 
understand,  and  the  stability  and  simplicity  of  its  construe* 
tion  at  once  recogpiised. 

A  messenger  presenting  himself  before  any  one  of  the 
street  pillar  "  call  stations  "  will,'on  opening  the  iron  door, 
find  a  dial  plate  on  which  some  eighteen  or  twenty  printed 
sentences  are  enamelled  in  bold  characters  ;  fiist,  the 
name  of  the  street  indicating  the  position  of  the  ^  call 
station,"  as  in  the  example  given — "  Main  street,  Gorbals  " 
— and  following  in  rotation  others,  such  as  "  warehouse 
on  fire,"  "  dwemng-house  on  fire,"  "  mill  on  fire,"  "  theatre 
on  fire,"  "send  more  assistance,"  "fire  got  under,"  "police 
constable  needed,"  &c  Opposite  to  each  message  will 
be  found  a  substantial  knob  or  handle,  something  like  the 
"  draw-stop  "  of  an  organ.  The  pulling  out  of  the  handle 
opposite  the  particular  code  message  required  causes  the 
instrtunent  to  transmit  that  message  to  the  centnd  sta- 
tion, where  it  is  printed  upon  a  self-recording  Morse 
receiver ;  and  intimation  is  given  to  the  inspector  on  duty 
of  the  arrival  of  a  "  call"  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell  during 
the  time  the  message  is  being  print^  The  description 
previously  given  of  the  interior  construction  of  the  instru- 
ment will  readily  explain  that  the  pulling  out  of  the  handle 
simply  raises  the  weight,  and  that  the  final  transmission 
of  the  message  is  incQcated  by  the  return  of  the  handle 
to  its  normal  position  upon  the  descent  of  the  weight 
As  any  number  of  code  message  discs  may  be  mounted 
upon  the  same  shaft,  and  as  each  disc  would  have  its 
special  make  and  break  lever  acting  upon  the  circuit 
springs,  F,  there  is  little  additional  complication  in  the 
internal  arrangement  from  a  plurality  of  code  signals  being 
introduced,  the  working  parts  being  mostly  common  to 
either  one  or  twenty  discs.  The  advantages  above 
described  are  not  the  only  features  of  importance  in  con- 
nection with  the  auto-kinetic  system. 

A  corporation  carrying  out  such  a  system  as  described 
for  street  police,*and  fire  "call  stations,"  may  derive  a 
considerable  annual  revenue  from  introducing  special 
"  private  fire  call "  instruments  into  all  the  large  niills, 
warehouses,  works,  and  more  important  private  dwellings 
at  a  small  annual  charge  to  the  respective  owners.  As 
the  number  of  such  "  private  call "  stations  introduced 
upon  the  circuit  is  practically  without  limit,  irrespective 
of  the  money  return  to  a  corporation  in  a  commercial 
view,  the  gieat  security  to  property  against  any  very 
serious  loss  by  fire  is  a  matter  of  vast  importance.  It  is 
well  known  that  the  annual  losses  by  fire  amount  to 
enormous  sums^  and  often  thousands  of  pounds  may  be 
lost  by  a  few  minutes'  delay  in  giving  early  intimation  of 
the  outbreak  to  the  brigade. 

The  auto-kinetic  system  of  using  the  two  wires  whereby 
only  one  speaking  instrument  can  be  in  circuit  at  a  time, 
renders  them  likewise  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  employ- 
ment of  the  telephone  in  introducing  a  social  system  of 
communication  between  offices  and  works,  or  for  the 
legal  profession  between  the  courts  and  their  various 


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offices,  as  all  mess^^es  of  the  most  private  nature  can  be 
sent  without  publicity,  an  advantage  possessed  by  no 
other  system. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  any  other  of  the  many 
practical  applications  to  which  this  auto-kinetic  system 
may  be  appued.  It  is  a  system  that  must  shortly  extend 
its  social  metallic  nerves  to  aU  the  large  centres  of  com- 
merce and  manufacture  in  this  kingdom,  and  its  various 
applications  will  then  become  more  fully  developed  and 
known. 

THE  RAIN-TREE  OF  MOYOBAMBA 

SOME  little  while  since  a  paragraph  went  the  round  of 
the  papers,  describing,  on  the  authority  of  the  United 
States  Consul  in  the  province  of  Loreto,  a  tree  existing 
in  the  forests  near  Moyobamba,  in  Northern  Peru. 

According  to  the  Madras  Times  and  Overland  Mail  of 
December  15,  1877,  "The  tree  is  stated  to  absorb  and 
condense  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  with  astonish- 
ing energy,  and  it  is  said  that  the  water  may  frequently 
be  seen  to  ooze  from  the  trunk,  and  fall  in  rain  from  its 
branches  in  such  quantity  that  the  ground  beneath  is 
converted  into  a  perfect  swamp.  The  tree  is  said  to 
possess  this  property  in  'the  highest  degree  during  the 
summer  season  principally,  when  the  rivers  are  low  and 
water  is  scarce,  and  the  Consul  therefore  suggests  that 
the  tree  should  be  planted  in  the  arid  regions  of  Peru,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  farmers  there." 

As  always  happens  in  cases  of  this  kind,'  there  have  not 
been  wanting  those  who  have  taken  this  singular  story  quite 
seriously,  and  the  India  Office  has  applied  to  the  Royal 
Gardens,  Kew,  on  behalf  of  the  Agri-Horticultural  Society 
of  Madras  for  information  about  the  tree.  It  may  be 
interesting  to  some  of  the  readers  of  Nature,  and  it  will 
certainly  save  future  correspondence,  if  I  explain  once 
for  all  what  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  fable  and  the  amount  of  truth  which  it  contains. 

Poeppig's  "  Rcise  in  Chile  imd  Peru"  (2  vols.,  1835), 
which  contains  much  useful  botanical  information,  appa- 
rently makes  no  reference  to  the  subject 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Francis  Darwin  for  pointing  out  to 
me  a  very  similar  account  which  appears  in  the  Botanische 
Zeiiungy  January  21, 1876,  pp.  35, 36,  in  which  Prof.  Ernst, 
of  the  University  of  Caracas,  records  his  observations 
upon  a  tree  of  Pithecolobium  (Caliiandra)  Samany  Benth. 

"In  the  month  of  April  the  young  leaves  are  still 
delicate  and  transparent.  During  the  whole  day  a  fine 
spray  of  rain  is  to  be  noticed  under  the  tree,  even  in  the 
driest  air,  so  that  the  strongly-tinted  iron-clay  soil  is 
distinctly  moist  The  phenomenon  diminishes  with  the 
development  of  the  leaves,  and  ceases  when  they  are  fully 
grown." 

I  found  that  the  specimens  of  this  tree  in  the]  Kew 
Herbarium  brought  its  range  close  to  Moyobamba,  as 
they  included  some  gathered  by  the  traveller  Spruce, 
near  the  neighbouring  town  of  Tarapoto.  It  appeared 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  Tamia-caspi — ^the  name  given 
m  one  variant  of  the  story— was  Pithecolobium  Samatty 
though  the  cause  of  the  rain  was  more  mysterious  than 
/  ever.  Being  vouched  for  by  so  competent  an  observer  as 
Prof.  Ernst,  its  occurrence  could  not  well  be  denied, 
while  on  the  other  hand,  the  Pithecolobium  being  a  well- 
known  cultivated  tree  in  the  West  Indian  Islands,  it  was 
quite  clear  that  if  the  "  raining  "  from  its  foliage  were  a 
normal  occurrence,  it  would  long  ago  [have  been  put  on 
record. 

Mr.  Spruc^  has,  however,  obligingly  supplied  me  from 
the  astonishing  stores  of  information  which  he  possesses 
with  the  true  history  of  the  whole  matter,  and  he  has  also 
been  so  good  as  to  allow  me  to  communicate  to  the 
readers  of  Nature  the  substance  of  what  he  has  told  me. 

**  The  Tamia-caspi,  or  rain  tree  of  the  Eastern  Peruvian 
Andes,  is  not  a  myth,  but  a  fact,  although  not  exactly  in 


the  way  popular  rumour  has  lately  presented  it  I  did 
not  know  there  was  any  doubt  as  to  the  true  origin  of  the 
'  rain.'  I  first  witnessed  the  phenomenon  in  September, 
1855,  when  residing  at  Tarapoto  (lat  6^°  S.,  long.  76°  20', 
W.),  a  town  or  large  village  a  few  days  eastward  of 
Moyobamba,  and  little  more  than  1,000  feet  above  the  sea- 
levd.  I  had  gone  one  morning  at  daybreak,  with  two 
assistants,  into  the  adjacent  wooded  hills  to  botanise. 
....  A  little  after  seven  o'clock,  we  came  under  a  lowish 
spreading  tree,  from  which  with  a  perfectly  clear  sky  over- 
head a  smart  rain  was  falling.  A  glance  upwards  showed 
a  multitude  of  cicadas  sucking  the  juices  of  the  tender 
young  branches  and  leaves,  and  squirting  forth  slender 
streams  of  limpid  fluid.  We  had  barely  time  to  note  this 
when  we  were  assailed  by  swarms  of  large  black  ants, 
which  bit  and  stung  fiercely,  and  obliged  us  to  beat  a 
retreat,  my  companions  calling  out  as  they  ran  *  Tamia- 
Caspi  1  Tamia-Caspi ! '  When  we  had  shaken  off  our 
assailants,  I  ventured  to  approach  the  spot  so  near  as  to 
make  out  that  the  ants  were  greedily  licking  up  the  fluid 
as  it  fell.  .  .  . 

"My  two  Peruvians  were  already  familiar  with  the 
phenomenon,  and  they  knew  very  well  that  almost  any 
tree,  when  in  a  state  to  aiford  food  to  the  nearly  omnivo- 
rous cicada,  might  become  {pro  tern,)  a  Tamia-caspi,  or 
rain-tree.  This  particular  tree  was  evidently,  from  its 
foliage,  an  Acaciay  but  as  I  never  saw  it  in  flower  or  fruit, 
I  cannot  say  of  what  species.  I  came  on  cicadas,  simi- 
larly occupied,  a  few  times  afterwards,  and  on  trees  of 
very  different  kinds,  but  never  without  the  pugnacious 
ants  on  the  gpround  beneath.  Among  the  trees  on  which 
I  have  seen  cicadas  feed,  is  one  closely  allied  to  the 
acacias,  the  beautiful  Pithecolobium  Saman,  The  young 
branches  are  very  succulent,  and  they  bear  elegant  bipin- 
nate  leaves.  .  .  .  The  pods  are  greedily  eaten  by  deer 
and  cattle.  Another  leguminous  tree  visited  by  cicadas 
is  Andira  inermiSy  and  there  are  many  more  of  the  same 
and  other  families  which  I  cannot  specify.  Perhaps  they 
avoid  only  such  as  have  poisonous  or  strongly  resinous 
juices ;  and  those  which  are  permanently  tenanted  by 
ferocious  ants  such  as  all  Pofygonea,  the  leguminous 
Platymisciumy  and  a  few  others.  .  .  .  These  ants  rarely 
leave  the  tree  which  affords  them  food  and  shelter,  and 
they  jealously  repel  all  intruders,  the  slightest  scratch  on 
the  smooth  bark  sufficing  to  call  their  sentinels  to  the 
spot  They  are  quite  distinct  from  the  robust  marauding 
ants  that  drink  the  cicadas'  ejectamenta. 

"  I  have  no  doubt  you  have  above  the  true  explanation 
of  the  Tamia-caspi,  or  rain-tree.  As  to  the  dnp  from  a 
tree  causing  a  little  bog  to  form  underneath  and  around 
it,  that  is  a  very  conmion  circumstance  in  various  parts  of 
the  Amazon  Valley,  in  flats  and  hollows,  wherever  there 
is  a  thin  covering  of  humus,  or  a  non-absorbent  sub-soil, 
and  the  crown  of  foliage  is  so  dense  as  to  greatly  impede 
evaporation  beneath  it  On  such  sites  the  Achudl  palm 
{MauritiaJlexuosa)coTamon  enough  between  Moyobamba 
and  Tarapoto,  as  well  as  on  the  savannahs  of  the  Orinoco, 
and  in  subriparial  forests  of  the  Amazons — affords  a 
striking  example  of  this  property,  as  has  already  been 
remarked  by  Gumilla,  Vdasco,  Humboldt,  and  others. 
Finally,  although  I  never  heard  the  name  Tamia-Caspi 
applied  to  any  particular  kind  of  tree,  during  a  residence 
of  two  years  m  the  region  where  it  is  now  said  to  be  a 
speciality,  it  is  quite  possible  that  in  the  space  of  twenty- 
one  years  that  have  elapsed  since  I  left  Eastern  Peru,  that 
name  may  have  been  given  to  some  tree  with  a  greater 
drip  than  ordinary ;  but  I  expect  the' cicada  will  still  be 
found  responsible  for  'the  moisture  pouring  from  the 
leaves  and  branches  in  an  abundant  shower' — the  same 
as  it  was  in  my  time." 

Mr.  Spruce's  notes  are  so  precise  and  careful  that  there 
is  little  difficulty  in  accepting  his  explanation  of  the  rain- 
tree.  It  is,  however,  hard  to  understand  the  omission  of 
all  insect  agency  in  the  equally  careful  account  given  by 


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NATURE 


\Feb.  28,  1878 


Prof.  Ernst,  who  attributes  the  **  rain  "  to  secretion  from 
glands  on  the  footstalk  of  the  leaf  on  which  drops  of 
liquid  are  found,  which  are  rapidly  renewed  on  being 
removed  with  blotting  paper.  It  is  curious  that  precisely 
the  same  question  has  been  the  subject  of  controversy 
in  the  Old  World  with  respect  to  honey-dew«  It  is  gene- 
rally believed  that  this  is  the  result  of  the  aggregate  ejecta 
of  Aphides  feeding  on  the  juices  of  the  lime.  So  competent 
an  observer,  however,  as  Boussingault  was  of  opinion  that 
honey-dew  was  a  spontaneous  exudation,  and  it  seems  not 
impossible  that  the  lime,  as  well  as  the  Pithecolobium 
Saman  may,  under  some  abnormal  ciromistances,  exude 
a  sugary  secretion  which  insects  would  eagerly  feed  on.^ 

W.  T.  Thtselton  Dyer 

NOTES 

We  have  to  record  still  another  great  loss  to  science  in  the 
death  on  Tuesday,  at  Rome,  of  Father  Secchi,  the  eminent 
astronomer,  whose  serious  illness  we  recently  recorded.  We  can 
do  no  more  at  present  but  announce  the  sad  event 

About  355/.  have  been  subscribed  to  the  Darwin  Memorial 
Fund,  the  idea  of  which,  our  readers  may  remember,  originated 
at  Cambridge  on  the  occasion  of  conferring  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
on  Mr.  Darwin.  We  would  again  draw  the  attention  of  our 
readers  to  the  fund  ;  many  of  them,  we  are  sure,  will  be  glad  to 
contribute  to  it,  and  those  who  desire  to  do  so  should  lose  no 
time  in  sending  their  subscriptions  to  the  treasurer  and  secretary, 
Mr.  A.  G.  Dew.  Smith,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

A  Committee  of  members  of  the  several  dasses  of  the 
French  Institute,  together  with  a  number  of  eminent  scientific 
men,  has  been  formed  to  promote  the  erection  of  a  monument 
to  Leverrier  in  the  grounds  of  the  Paris  Observatory.  It  is 
expected  that  foreigners  as  well  as  Frenchmen  will  subscribe. 

Prof.  Flower's  Hunterian  Lectures  at  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  this  year  will  treat  of  the  Comparative  Anatomy  of 
Man,  more  particularly  of  the  Osteological  and  other  Physical 
Peculiarities  of  the  Races  of  Australia  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  first  two  lectures  will  be  devoted  to  an  exposiiion  of  the 
prindpal  methods  of  craniological  research,  exemplified  by  a 
series  of  fifty  Australian  and  as  many  European  skulls.  The 
account  of  the  structure  of  each  race  will  5e  preceded  by  a 
notice  of  the  principal  facts  of  iU  history  and  social  condition. 
The  lectures  commence  on  Monday  next  at  4  o'clock,  and  will 
be  continued  at  the  same  hour  on  Mondays,  Wednesdays,  and 
Fridays,  till  March  28.  Any  one  interested  in  the  subject  is 
admitted. 

The  Philosophic  Faculty^  of  the  University  of  Zurich  has 
just  conferred  the  degree  of  Doctor  Philos.  honoris  causa  on  Mr. 
J.  J.  Wild,  formerly  of  the  sdenttfic  staff  of  H.M.S.  Ckalienger, 
and  author  of  the  recent  work,^''  Thalassa,"  embodying  some  of 
the  results  of  that  expedition. 

The  Photographic  Society  have  awarded  to  Capt.  Abney  a 
silver  Progress  Medal  for  having  made  the  greatest  advance  in 
the  science  of  photography  during  the  past  year. 

The  third  general  meeting  of  Polish  naturalists  and  physicians 
will  take  place  at  Cracow  this  year.  The  two  former  meetings 
were  held  at  Posen  and  Lemberg  respectively. 

The  Committee  of  the  French  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  held  a  meeting  last  Thursday.  The  i6th  of 
August  was  appointed  for  the  opening  of  the  s^on,  which  will 
be  presided  over  by  M.  Fremy.  The  general  and  sectional 
meetings  will.take  place  at  the  H6tel  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  which 
contains  an  inunense  number  of  rooms  tastefully  decorated  with 
fine  pictures.  The  Committee  has  distributed  8,850  francs  among 
a  number  of  inventors  who  are  constructing  machines  or  scientific 

>  I  have  tnnilaf  ed  Bouisinnult't  papen  and  collected  the  evidence  on 
both  sides,  in  the  yaumal  of  ue  Royal  Horticultunl  Society,  new  series, 
vol  iv.  pp-  »-7« 


apparatus  for  exhibition.  A  number  of  other  emottragetnents 
for  similar  purposes  will  be  distributed ;  among  the  scientific 
men  who  will  be  assisted  we  are  in  a  position  to  mention  the 
name  of  M.  Mouchot,  for  establishnig  on  a  large  scale  his 
celebrated  solar  steam*engine. 

The  annual  session  of  the  Deutsche  Anthropologtsche 
Gesellschaft  for  1878  begins  at  Hamburg  on  August  11.  The 
meetings  on  the  12th,  13th  and  14th  take  place  at  Kiel,  and  those 
on  the  15th  and  i6th  at  Lubeck. 

In  the  January  session  of  the  Berlin  anthropologtsche  Gesell- 
schaft.  Prof.  G.  Fritsch  delivered  an  exhaustive  address  on  the  1 
subject  of  Bushman  drawings,  in  which  he  compared  his  own  \ 
observations  in  the  Cape  Colony  with  the  late  discoveries  of  Rev. 
C.  G.  Biittner  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ameib,  in  the  Damara 
region.  These  combined  results  show  the  widely  extended 
presence  of  these  drawings  in  South  Africa  and  |the  existence  of 
a  surprising  familiarity  with  perspective  and  the  principles  of 
grouping.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  Bushmen  are  probably 
the  most  degraded  race  of  mankind  now  existing,  dwelling  as 
they  do  in  caves  and  living  firom  hand  to  mouth,  these  evidences 
of  the  first  principles  of  art  among  them  possess  no  small  degree 
of  value  as  explanatory  of  numerous  attempts  at  illustration 
before  the  stone  and  bronze  ages.  This  is  especially  the  case 
with  the  cave  dwellers  of  the  [so-called  reindeer  epoch,  whose 
remains  have  been  uncovered  recently  in  France  and  Switzerland. 
Anthropologists  have  had  frequent  discussions  during  the  past 
year  with  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  sketches  of  animals  in  the 
cave  of  Thainingen,  supposed  to  date  back  to  this  epoch ;  and  the 
opinion  has  been  stoutly  maintained  that  the  human  race  at  this 
stage  of  development  was  utterly  unable  to  produce  works  of 
this  kind.  This  view  will  scarcely  be  tenable  in  light  of  thtse 
late  discoveries  among  the  Bushmen,  who  are  certainly  not 
advanced  beyond  the  stone-age. 

It  is  expected  that  the  British  Archaeological  Association  will 
hold  its  annual  congress  next  summer  at  Wisbeach,,to  which  it 
has  been  courteously  invited  by  the  Mayor  and  Corporation.  If 
this  arrangement  should  be  definitely  nude  the  Prince  of  Wales 
will  be  asked^  to  allow  his  name  to  be  used  as  the  patron  of  the 
congress. 

The  Russian  division  in  the  Paris  Exposition  will  contain  a 
most  interesting'  anthropological  collection,  the  material  for 
which  is  now  being  gathered  by  a  Commission  in  Moscow. 
Among  the  more  prominent  features  are  an  enormous  cranial 
collection  from  the  various  parts  of  the  empire,  and  a  model  of 
a  Rtissian  barrow.  The  latter  is  being  executed  by  the  sculptor, 
Ssewojugin,  in  natural  size,  and  will  offer  a  perfect  imitation  of 
the  skeletons,  ornaments,  weapons,  &c.,'as  usually  foimd  in  these 
ancient  remains.  The  Russian  educational  system  will  be  like- 
wise very  fully  represented,  as  was  the  case  in  1876. 

The  official  report  of  the  Munich  Session  of  the  German  Scien- 
tific Association,  which  took  place  last  September,  has  just 
appeared.  It  forms  a  volume  of  264  quarto  pages,  and  has  been 
prepared  with  unusual  care.  Reports  of  all  addresses  delivered 
have  been  furnished  by  the  speakers  themselves,  who  numbered  ^ 
considerably  over  a  hundred.  The  number  of  members  and 
participants  in  the  last  session  was  1,800,  of  whom  650  were 
from  Munich  or  its  ricinity.  We  notice  that  the  Society  is  ex- 
ceedingly strictHn  the  observance  of  one  of  its  statutes  stating  that 
it  shall  possess  no  property  with  the  exception  of  its  archives, 
for  the  receipts  exactly  cover  the  expenses. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Major-General  Sir  Andrew  Scott 
Waugh,  F.R.S.,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
eight.  He  entered  the  Bengal  Engineers  in  1827,  and  assisted 
in  the  "^ql^'^g  of  the  great  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India  in 
1832.    He  also  took  a  leading  part  under  Sir  George  Everest 


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Feb.  28,  1878] 


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351 


itt  the  measurement  of  the  great  Indian  arc  for  determining  the 
fignre  and  dimensions  of  the  earth.  In  1843  he  was  appointed 
Surveyor-General  of  India  and  Superintendent  of  the  IVigono* 
metrical  Survey.  He  received  the  honour  of  knighthood  in 
iS6py  and  the  Gold  Medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in 
1857-58. 

MM.  Henry  brothers,  the  celebrated  astronomers,  have  in- 
vented a  telegraphic  warning  apparatus,  which  can  be  used  for 
telephones.  It  is  powerful,  cheap,  and  simple,  and  musical 
sounds  emitted  can  be  heard  at  a  distance  without  placing  the 
ear  at  the  opening  of  the  mouth-piece. 

The  Gardena^s  Ckroniclt  announces  that  M.  Thuret's  fine 
garden  at  Antibes  has  fortunately  become  the  property  of  the 
French  nation,  and  will  be  constituted  a  Mediterranean  branch, 
as  it  were,  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at  Paris.  The  direction 
will  be  in  the  hands  of  M.  Naudin,  now  of  CoUioure,  who  in 
this  new  field  of  action  will  have  greater  scope  than  before  for 
his  experiments  in  naturalisation.  The  object  is  to  maintain  the 
garden  as  a  botanic  and  experimental  garden,  where  all  new 
introductions  may  be  tried  and  distributed  to  other  gardens. 

It  is  stated  that  the  German  poet,  Friedrich  Bodenstedt,  the 
author  of  the  charming  ''  Lieder  des  Mirza  Schafiy,'*  is  now 
engaged  in  translating  the  poems  of  the  Persian  philosoper  Omer 
Cheijan.  The  latter  was  bom  at  Nishaboor,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  was  one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  and  philo- 
sophers of  his  time.  He  recorded  the  results  of  his  studies  in 
verse. 

At  a  village  near  the  well-known  German  watering  place, 
Langenschwalbach  (in  the  Prussian  province  of  Nassau)  some 
interesting  experiments  have  been  recently  made  with  the 
common  nettle  (Urtiea  dioica).  They  consisted  in  working  this 
weed  in  the  same  manner  as  hemp  ;  the  fibres  obtained  were 
fine  as  silk,  while  they  yielded  nothing  to  hemp  fibres  as  regards 
durability.  A  considerable  area  has  now  been  planted  with 
nettles  at  the  locality  named. 

Some  highly  Interesting  antiquities  were  recently  found  near 
Wisby,  on  the  Swedish  island  of  Gottland,  in  the  Baltic. 
Excavations  are  being  made  for  a  new  railway,  and  in  a  gravel 
pit,  about  a  foot  under  the  surface,  a  copper  casket  was  found, 
which  contained  two  sets  of  bronze  weights,  each  set  consisting 
of  five  different  pieces,  and  belonging  to  an  old  Arabic  monetary 
system.  Besides  these  weights  there  was  a  peculiar  magnifying 
glass  in  the  box,  while  on  the  top  of  all  there  were  found  two 
balance  scales,  a  larger  and  a  smaller  balance  beam,  the  former 
with  chains,  the  latter  with  flaxen  strings,  which  were  still 
preserved.  All  the  objects  were  artistically  finished  and  made 
of  bronze. 

Prof.  Leidy  has  been  engaged,  in  connection  with  Dr. 
Hayden's  expedition  during  the  past  season,  in  exploring  the 
region  about  Fort  Bridger,  Uintah  Mountains,  and  the  Salt  Lake 
Basin,  with  special  reference  to  the  occurrence  there  of  rhizo- 
pods.  These  have  been  for  several  years  the  special  object  of  Prof. 
Leid/s  attention,  and  his  extensive  manuscripts,  with  many 
coloured  drawings,  will  probably  be  published  before  long. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Holmes,  the  artist  of  Dr.  Hayden's  party,  has 
been  prosecuting  explorations  among  the  Pueblo  villages,  both 
ancient  and  modem,  in  Northern  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and 
has  collected  data  for  making  models  in  plaster  of  the  pueblos  of 
Taos  and  Acoma,  which  will  probably  be  added  to  the  superb 
series  of  these  archseological  restorations  deposited  by  Prof. 
Hayden  in  the  National  Museunu 

We  understand  that  the  National  Entomological  Exhibition, 
which  will  be  opened  at  the  Royal  Aquarium,  Westminster,  on 
March  9  is  likely  to  be  a  great  success.  Already  several  thousand 
square  feet  of  space  have  been  applied  for. 


It  is  surprising  to  hear  that  M.  Ruhmkorf 's  w(Hrkshop  has 
been  sold  by  auction  at  the  ridiculous  price  of  42/. 

A  novel  ttte  of  the  telegraph  has  ktely  been  adopted  by 
the  Norwegian  Government  As  is  well  known,  the  herring 
fishery  forms  one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  income  for  the 
country,  the  captures  being  made  as  the  great  shoals  come  from 
the  depths  of  the  sea  to  deposit  their  spawn  in  the  Norwegian 
fiords.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  object  of  their  visit  is 
accomplished,  and  they  return  to  the  ocean  before  news  of  their 
arrival  reaches  the  fishers  on  distant  parts  of  the  coast.  This 
difficulty  is  now  obviated  by  the  constraction  of  a  telegraphic 
Ime,  200  kilometres  in  length,  composed  chiefly  of  submarine 
cables,  by  means  of  which  the  fishers  along  the  whole  coast  are 
enabled  to  gather  at  once  on  the  approach  of  a  shoal  to  any  part 
ticular  fiord.  The  abundant  captures  made  in  this  way  show  the 
investment  in  telegraphic  wire  to  have  been  a  most  profitable 
speculation. 

Baron  von  Bibra  states  in  the  yournal  fiir  praktische 
Chemie^  that  he  has  been  enabled  to  restore  the  handwriting  in 
old  manuscripts,  by  washing  them  with  a  solution  of  tannin,  and 
drying  at  75'  C.  He  has  likewise  found  that  nitro-benzene  can 
be  used  for  the  restoration  of  antique  paintings,  whether  painted 
on  wood  or  canvas. 

A  strange  little  work  has  just  been  published  at  Weimar 
(Weissbach) ;  its  title  is  "Das  Buch  der  Katzen,"  its  author 
Hen  Gustav  Michel.  In  six  letters  the  author  gives  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  somewhat  rich  material,  treating  the  same  in 
tum  from  a  scientific,  historic,  domestic,  religious,  and  mytho- 
logical point  of  view. 

In  a  communication  to  the  American  Philosophical  Society  on 
the  1st  inst.,  by  Mr.  A.  Wilcocks,  of  Louisiana,  the  author 
describes  an  interesting  observation  which  he  made  of  a  shadow 
cast  by  Venus,  against  a  white  wall,  in  a  piazza.  "  The  shadow 
of  a  hand,"  he  states,  "  distant  twelve  feet  from  the  wall,  I  found 
perfectly  sharp  and  well  defined.  And  more  striking  still,  the 
shadow  of  the  twigs  of  a  pecan  tree,  distant  fifty  yards,  were 
also'sharp.  These  last  shadows  were  fisint,  from  the  effect  of 
the  diffused  light  of  the  sky  which  illummed  the  wall.'' 

We  take  the  following  interesting  statistical  data  £rom  the 
Jnhresbericht  for  1877  on  the  establishments  of  the  world-known 
firm  of  Krapp  at  Essen,  Rhenish  Prussia.  The  number  of  work- 
men in  the  cast-steel  works  amounts  to  8,50a  There  are  298 
steam-engines  with  separate  boilers  in  the  establishment,  and  the 
total  of  their  horse-power  amounts  to  11,000.  Besides  these 
there  are  77  steam  hammers  at  work  varying  in  weight  from 
2  cwt  to  50  tons.  The  products  in  every  24  hours  amount  to 
about  12  English  miles  ot  rails  with  tyres,  axles,  wheels,  springs 
in  proportion,  as  well  as  if  500  shelb  of  various  sises  and  con* 
stractions.  In  one  month  300  guns  (of  various  bores)  ara 
produced.  Since  1847  no  less  than  15,000  cannon  have 
been  made.  The  daily  consumption  of  coal  and  coke  is 
1,800  tons.  There  are  21,000  gas  flames  on  the  works.  A 
railway  of  60  kilometres  length,  with  [24  locomotive  engines, 
and  700  carriages  exclusively  belongs  to  the  establishment; 
there  are  also  44  different  telegraph  stations,  and  a  fire  brigade 
with  8  engines.  A  new  shooting  ground  of  18  kilometres 
length  is  now  being  adapted  near  Meppen  (Hanover).  In  the 
coal  and  other  mines  belonging  to  the  firm  there  are  5«300  work- 
men. Their  mines  in  northem  Spain  produce  200,000  tons  ot 
iron  ore  annually ;  5  steamers  belonging  to  the  firm  convey  these 
ores  to  their  destination.  The  metallurgical  establishment 
contains  700  workmen.  In  3»277  workmen's  dwelling-houses 
built  by  the  firm  there  live  16,200  men,  women,  and  children. 
They  are  supplied  with  provisions,  &c.,  at  22  stores  at  wholesale 
prices.  The  bakehouse  produces  about  195  tons  of  bread  per 
day.  Lasti  butnot  least,  there  are  4  general  schools  with  ai  dassest 
and  an  industrial  school  for  girls  and  womoH^  the  establishment, 
Jigitized  by  VrrOO 


352 


NATURE 


[Fed.  28,  1878 


Lord  John  Manners  itated  in  the  House  of  Commons  on 
Thursday  last  that  experiments  have  been  made  by  officers  of 
the  Post-Office  with  the  telephone,  the  result  beinj;  that  the 
instrument  is  not  at  present  considered  suitable  for  public 
telegraphy. 

In  Prof.  Lebour's  letter  on  Marine  Fossils  in  the  Gannister 
Beds  of  Northumberland,  in  last  week's  Nature,  the  word 
country  should  have  been  county.  It  is  the  first  time  that 
marine  forms  have  been  found  in  Northumberland. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  two  Black-wbged  Pea-Fowls  {Pmfo  nigri' 
pcnnis)  from  Cochin  China,  presented  by  the  Hon.  A.  S.  G. 
Canning,  F.Z.S. ;  a  Javan  Parrakeet  {Palaorms  javanica)  from 
Muttra,  North- West  India,  presented  by  Mr.  Barthorp;  two 
Red* vented  Bulbuls  (Pycncnctus  hamorrhous)  from  India,  pre- 
sented by  Col.  A.  L.  Annerley,  F.Z.S.  ;  two  Leopards  (Felts 
pardus)  from  Persia,  deposited ;  two  Barbary  Wild  Sheep  {Ovis 
tra^daphus)  from  North  Africa ;  two  Pale-headed  Parrakeets 
{Platycercus  pallidiccps)  from  North-East  Australia ;  four  Tur- 
quoisine  Parrakeets  (Eupkema  pulchtlla)  from  New  South  Wales, 
purchased  ;  two  Tigers  (Fdis  tigris)^  bom  in  the  Gardens. 

ON  COMPASS  ADJUSTMENT  IN  IRON  SHIPS  » 
II. 

A  N  important  objection  was  made  to  me  some  years  ago  by 
"^^  Capt  Evans  against  the  use  of  quadrantal  correctors  in  the 
Navy,  that  they  wcmld  prevent  the  taking  of  bearings  by  the 
prismatic  azimuth  arrangement,  which  forms  part  of  the  Admiralty 
standard  compass.  The  azimuth  mirror  (Fig.  5)  applied  to  the  com- 
pass before  you  vras  designed  to  obviate  &at  objection.  Its  use 
even  for  tidsing  bearings  of  objects  on  the  horizon  is  not  interfered 
with  by  the  globes  constituting  the  quadrantal  correctors,  even 
if  their  highest  points  rise  as  mgh  as  five  inches  above  the  glass 
of  the  oompass-bowL  It  is  founded  on  the  principal  of  the 
camera  ludda.  The  observer  when  taking  a  bearing  turns  the 
instrument  round  its  vertical  axis  until  the  mirror  and  lens 
are  fairly  opposite  to  the  object.  He  then  looks  through 
the  lens  at  the  degree  divisions  of  the  compass-card, 
and  turns  the  mirror  round  its  horizontal  axis  till 
he  brings  the  image  of  the  object  to  fall  on  the  card. 
He  then  reads  directly  on  the  card  the  compass  bearing  of 
the  object.  Besides  nilfilling  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
originally  designed,  to  allow  bearings  to  be  taken  without  im- 
pediment from  the  quadrantal  correctors,  the  azimuth  mirror  has 
a  great  advantage  in  not  requiring  any  adjustment  of  the  instru- 
ment, such  as  that  by  which,  in  the  prism  compass  the  hair  is 
brought  to  exactly  cover  the  object  The  focal  length  of  the 
lens  in  the  azimuth  mirror  is  about  12  per  cent  longer  than  the 
radius  of  the  circle  of  the  compass-card,  and  thus,  by  an  ele- 
mentary optical  principle,  it  follows  that  two  objects  a  d^jee 
asunder  on  the  horizon  will,  by  their  images  seen  in  the  azimuth 
mirror,  cover  a  space  of  i**'i2  of  the  divided  circle  of  the  com- 
pass-card seen  through  the  lens.  Hence,  turning  the  azimuth 
mstrument  round  its  vertical  axis  through  one  degree  will  only 
alter  the  apparent  bearing  of  an  object  on  the  horizon  by  *I2  . 
Thus  it  is  ndt  necessary  to  adjust  it  exactly  to  the  direct  position 
for  the  bearing  of  any  particular  object  If  it  be  designedly  put 
even  as  much  as  4°  awry  on  either  side  of  the  direct  position,  the 
error  on  the  bearing  would  hardly  amount  to  half  a  degree.  If 
the  instrument  were  to  be  used  solely  for  taking  bearings  of 
objects  on  the  horizon,  the  focal  length  of  the  lens  should  be 
made  exactly  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle,  and  dius  even  the 
small  error  of  '12**  in  the  bearing  for  one  degree  of  error  in  the 
setting  would  be  avoided.  But  one  of  the  most  important  uses 
of  the  azimuth  instrument  at  sea  is  to  correct  the  compass  by 
bearings  of  sun  or  stars  at  altitudes  of  firom  0°  to  50^  or  60^ 
above  the  horizon.  The  actual  focal  length  is  chosen  to  suit  an 
altitude  of  27**,  or  thereabouts  (this  htmg  the  angle  whose 
natural  secant  is  1*12).     Thus  if  two  objects  whose  altitudes  are 

>  Report  of  paper  read  to  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution,  Februarv 
4.  by  Sir  Wm.  Thonuon,  LL.D.,  F.RS.,  P.RS.E.,  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  Fellow  of  St.  Peter's  College, 
Cambridge.  Revised  by  the  Author.  [The  Council  of  the  R. U.S.I,  have 
kindly  permitted  us  to  publish  Sir  W.  Thomson's  paper  in  advance,  and  have 
r  uMd  us  the  use  of  the  illustrations.— Ed.]    Continued  from  p.  334. 


27*,  or  thereabouts,  and  difference  of  azimuths  I^  are  tdcen 
simultaneously  in  the  arimuth  mirror,  their  difference  of  bearings 
will  be  shown  as  one  degree  by  the  divided  circle  of  the  com- 
pass-card seen  through  the  lens.  Hence  for  taking  the  azimuth 
of  star  or  sun  at  an  altitude  of  27**,  or  thereabouts,  no  setting  of 
the  arimutJi  mirror  by  turning  round  the  vertical  axis  is  neces- 
sary, except  just  to  bring  the  object  into  the  field  of  view,  when 
its  bearing  wiM  immediately  be  seen  accurately  shown  on  the 
divided  circle  of  the  compass-card.  This  is  a  very  valuable 
quality  for  use  in  rough  weather  at  sea,  or  when  there  are  flying 
clouds  which  just  allow  a  glimpse  of  the  object,  whether  sun  or 
star,  to  be  caught,  without  allowing  time  to  perform  an  adjust- 
ment, sudi  as  that  of  bringing  the  hair,  or  rather  the  estimated 
middle  of  the  space  traversed  by  the  hair  in  the  rolling  of  the 
ship,  to  coincide  with  the  object  The  same  degree  of  error  as 
on  the  horizon,  but  in  the  opposite  direction,  is  produced  by 
imperfect  setting  round  the  vertical  axis  in  taking  the  bearing  of 
an  object  at  an  elevation  of  38*^. 

Thus  for  objects  from  the  horizon  up  to  38®  of  altitude  the 
error  in  the  bearing  is  less  than  12  per  cent  of  the  error  of  the 
setting.  For  objects  at  a  higher  elevation  than  38°  the  error 
rapidly  increases  ;  but  even  at  60*  altitude  the  error  on  the 
bearing  is  a  little  less  than  half  the  error  of  the  setting  ;  and  it  is 
always  easy,  if  desired,  to  make  the  error  of  the  setting  less  than 


/__ 


Fig.  s. 

a  degree  by  turning  the  instrument  so  that  the  red  point,  which 
you  see  below  the  Tens,  shall  point  within  a  degree  of  the  po&i* 
tion  marked  on  the  circle  of  the  compass-card  by  the  image  of 
the  object. 

For  taking  star  azimuths  the  azimuth  mirror  has  the  great 
advantage  over  the  prism  compass,  with  its  then  invisible  hair, 
that  the  image  of  the  object  b  thrown  directly  on  the  illuminated 
scale  of  the  compass-card.  The  degree  of  illumination  may  be 
made  less  or  more,  according  to  faintness  or  brilliance  of  the 
object,  by  holding  a  binnacle  lamp  in  the  hand  at  a  greater  or 
less  distance,  and  letting  its  light  shine  on  the  portion  of  the 
compass-card  circle  seen  through  the  lens.  Indeed,  with  the 
azimuth  mirror  it  is  easier  to  take  the  bearing  of  a  moderately 
bright  star  by  night  than  of  the  sun  by  day  :  the  star  is  seen  as  a 
fine  point  on  the  degree  division,  or  between  two,  and  it  is  easy 
to  read  of  its  posiuon  instantly  by  estimation  to  the  tenth  of  a 
degree.  The  easiest,  as  well  as  the  most  accurate  of  all,  however, 
is  the  sun  when  bright  enough  and  high  enough  above  the 
horizon  to  give  a  good  shadow  on  the  compass-cud.  For  this 
purpose  is  the  stout  silk  thread  which  you  see,  attached  to  the 
framework  of  the  azimuth  mirror  in  such  a  position  that  when 
the  instrument  is  properly  placed  on  the  glass  of  the  compass- 
bowl,  the  thread  is  perpendicular  to  the  glass  and  through  the 
cential  bearing-point  of  the  compass. 

Another  advantage  of  the  azimuth  mirror  particularly  im- 
portant for  taking  bearings  at  sea  when  there  is  much  motion,  is 


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353 


^; 


that  with  it  it  is  not  necessary  to  look  through  a  small  aperture 
in  an  instrument  moving  with  the  compass-bowl,  as  in  the 
ordinaiy  prism  compass,  or  in  the  origmal  nautical  azimuth 
compass  (described  380  years  a^  bj  Gilbert,  Physician  in 
Ordinary  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  hiK  great  Latin  book.  ''  On  the 
Magnet  and  on  the  Earth  a  great  Magnet "),  which  is  very  much 
the  same  as  that  still  in  use  in  many  of  the,b^t  merchant  steamers. 
In  using  the  azimuth  mirror  the  eye  may  be  placed  at  any 
distance,  of  from  an  inch  or  two  to  two  or  three  feet,  from  the 
compass,  according  to  convenience,  and  in  any  position,  and  may 
be  moved  about  freely  through  a  considerable  range  on  either  side 
of  the  line  of  direct  vision  through  the  lens,  without  at  all 
disturbing  the  accuracy  of  the  observation.  This  last  condition 
is  secured  by  the  lens  bemg  fixed  in  such  a  position  of  the 
instrument  that  the  divided  circle  of  the  compass-cjurd  is  in  its 
principal  focus.  Thus  the  virtual  image  of  the  divided  circle  is 
at  an  mfinite  distance,  and  the  images  of  distant  objects  seen  coin- 
cident] v  with  it  by  reflection  in  the  plane  mirror  show  no  shiifting 
on  it,  that  is  to  say,  no  j>arallax,  when  the  eye  is  moved  from  the 
central  line  to  either  side.  From  the  geometrical  and  optical 
principles  explained  previously,  it  follows  also  that  if  the 
azimuth  instrument  be  used  for  taking  the  bearing  of  an  object 
whose  altitude  is  less  than  27%  then  the  effect  of  turning  the  frame 
carrying  the  lens  and  mirror  in  either  direction  wUl  seem  to 
carry  the  object  in  the  same  direction  relatively  to  the  degrees  of 
the  card ;  or  in  the  contrary  direction  if  the  aJtitude  exceeds 
27^  But  if  the  altitude  of  the  object  be  just  27%  then  the 
azimuth  instrument  may  be  turned  through  many  degrees  on 
either  side  of  the  compass-card,  without  sensibljr  altering  the 
apparent  positions  of  the  objects  on  the  degree-divisions. 

II. — An  Adjustable  DeJUcfar  for  compUUfy  dtterminin^  the 
Compass  Error  when  Sights  of  Heavenly  Bodies  or  Compass 
Marks  on  Shore  are  not  available. 

About  thirty  years  ago  Sir  [Edward  Sabine  gave  a  method 
in  which,  by  aid  of  defl^ng  magnets  properly  placed  on  pro- 
jecting arms  attached  to  the  prism  curde  of  the  Admiralty 
standard  compass,  a  partial  determination  of  the  error  of 
the  compass  amid  be  performed  at  any  time,  whether  at  sea 
or  in  harbour,  without  the  aid  of  sights  of  heavenly  bodies 
ri  or    compass    marks   on    shore.    The 

;  adjustable   magnetic   deflector    before 

you  is  design^  for  carrying  out  in 
practice  Sabine's  method  more  rapidly 
and  more  accurately,  and  for  extend- 
ing it,  by  aid  of  Archibald  Smith's 
theory,  to  the  complete  determination 
of  the  compass  error,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  constant  term  *'  A  "  of  the 
Admiralty  notation,  which  in  almost 
every  practical  case  is  zero,  and  can 
only  have  a  sensible  value  in  virtue  of 
some  very  marked  want  of  symmetry 
of  the  iron  work  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  compass.^  When  it  exists 
it  can  easily  be  determined  once  for 


s  I  had  %  curious  case  lately  or  the  effect  of 
UDsymmetncaliroa  on  a  midship  steering  com- 
pass, due  to  a  steam-launch  about  thirty  feet 
long  placed  fore-and-aft  on  the  port  side  of 
the  deck  with  its  bow  forward  and  iu  stem 
Ave  or  nx  feet  before  the  thwart-ship  line 
through  the  position  of  the  compass.  Adjust- 
ment  naving  l>een  performed  by  means  ol  the 
globes  and  magnetic  correctors  to  correct  the 
quadrantal  error  (DX  and  the  semicircular 
error,  it  was  found  (as  was  expected)  that  the 
compass  was  correct  on  the  east  and  west 
points,  but  showed  equal  westerly  errors  of 
about  Uo  on  the  north  and  south  points.  There 
were,  therefore,  approximately  equal  negative 
values  of  "  A "  and  '*  E  "  each  tf °.  The  cap- 
tain  was,  of  course,  warned  of  the  change  be 
would  find  when  he  was  relieved  of  the  steam- 
launch  at  Raneoon,  the  port  of  his  destination. 
The  explanaaon  of  the  westerly  deviation 
when  the  ship's  head  was  notth  or  south,  by 
the  inductive  magnetism  of  the  steam-launch, 
according  to  which  iu  stem  would  be  a  true 
north  pole  when  the  ship  is  on  the  north  course, 
and  a  true  south  pole  when  the  ship  is  on  the 


south  course,  is  obvious  firom  the  annexed  dugram,  in  which  the  letters 
»,  »t  denote  true  north  pole  and  true  south  pole  of  indi 
he  steam-launch  when  vat  ship's  head  is  north  magnetic 


all  and  allowed  fpr  as  if  it  were  an  index  error  of  the  compass 
card,  and  it  will,  therefore,  to   avoid   circtunlocutions  in  the 
statements  which  follow,  be  either  supposed  to  be  zero  or  allowed 
for  as  index  error. 
The  new  method  is  founded  on  the  following  four  principles  :— 

1.  If  the  directive  force  on  the  comi>ass  needles  be  constant 
on  all  courses  of  the  ship,  the  compass  is  correct  on  all  courses. 

2.  If  the  directive  force  be  equal  on  five  different  courses,  it 
will  be  equal  on  all  courses. 

3.  Supposing  the  compass  to  be  so  nearly  correct  or  to  have 
been  so  far  approximately  adjusted,  that  there  is  not  more  than 
eight  or  ten  degrees  of  error  on  any  course,  let  the  directive  forces 
be  measured  on  two  opposite  courses.  If  these  forces  are  equal 
the  compass  is  free  from  semicircular  error  on  the  two  courses  at 
right  angles  to  those  on  which  the  forces  were  measured ;  if  they 
are  unequal  there  is  a  semicircular  error  on  the  courses  at  right 
angles  to  those  on  which  the  forces  were  measured,  amounting 
to  the  same  fraction  of  the  radian  (57*3**)  that  the  difference  ot 
the  measured  forces  is  of  their  sum. 

4.  The  difference  of  the  sums  of  the  directive  forces  on  oppo  ite 
courses  in  two  lines  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  divided  by 
the  sum  of  the  four  forces,  is  equal  to  the  proportion  which  the 
quadrantal  error,  on  the  courses  45°  from  those  on  which  the 
observations  were  made,  bears  to  57'3^ 

The  deflector  may  be  used  either  under  way  or  in  swinging  the 
ship  at  buoys.  The  whole  procef  s  of  oorrectmg  the  compass  by 
it  is  performed  with  the  greatest  ease  and  rapidity  when  under 
way  with  sea  room  enough  to  steer  steadily  on  each  course  for  a 
few  minutei,  and  to  turn  rapidly  from  one  course  to  another. 
For  each  operation  the  ship  must  be  kept  on  one  course  for  three 
or  four  minutes,  if  under  way,  by  steering  by  aid  of  an  auxiliary 
compass,  otherwise  by  hawsers  in  the  usual  manner  if  swinging 
at  buoys,  or  by  means  of  steam-tugs.  A  variation  of  two  or 
three  degrees  in  the  course  during  the  operation  will  not  make  a 
third  of  a  degree  of  error  in  the  result  as  regards  the  final  correc- 
tion of  the  compass.  The  deflector  reading  is  to  be  taken 
according  to  the  aetailed  directions  in  sections  14  and  15  of  the 
printed  "  Instructions."  This  reading  may  be  taken  direct  on 
the  small  straight  scale  in  the  lower  part  of  the  instrument  The 
divided  micrometer  circle  at  the  top  is  scarcely  needed,  as  it  is 
eaiy  to  estimate  the  direct  reading  on  the  straight  scale  to  a  tenth 
of  a  division,  which  is  far  more  than  accurate  enough  for  all 
practical  purposes.  This  reading  with  a  proper  constant  added 
gives,  in  each  case,  the  number  measuring  in  arbitrary  units  the 
magnitude  of  the  direct  force  on  the  compass  for  the  particular 
coune  of  the  ship  on  which  the  observation  is  made. 

The  adjustment  by  aid  of  the  deflector  is  quite  as  accurate  as 
it  can  be  by  aid  of  compass  marks  or  sights  of  sun  or  stars,  though 
on  a  clear  day  at  any  tune  when  the  sun's  altitude  is  less  than  40**, 
or  on  any  clear  night,  the  adjuster  will  of  course  take  advantage 
of  sights  of  sun  or  stars,  whether  he  helps  himself  sdso  with  the 
deflector  or  not 

WL—New  Form  of  Marine  Dipping  Needle  for  facilitating  the 
Correction  of  the  Heeling  Error, 

This  instrument  is  designed  as  a  substitute  for  the  vibrating 
vertical  needle,  hitherto  in  use  for  carrying  out  the  observations 
of  vertical  force,  whether  on  board  ship  or  on  shore,  required  for 
performing  the  operations  described  in  Part  iii.  Section  4,  and 
ths  last  three  pages  of  Part  iv.  of  the  Admiralty  Manual  It 
consists  of  a  light  bar-magnet  or  "needle"  of  hardened  steel 
wire,  supported  by  means  of  a  very  small  aluminium  cradle  on  a 
stretched  platinum  wire,  of  which  the  two  straight  parts  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  needle  are,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  in  a  line  through 
its  centre  of  gravity.  One  flat  end  of  the  needle  is  painted  white, 
with  a  black  line  through  its  middle  parallel  to  the  platinum 
wire.     When  the  instrument  is  properly  placed  for  use  the 

Elatinum  wire  is  horizontal,  and  the  needle  is  brought  into  a 
orizontal  position  by  turning  one  end  of  the  platinum  wire  until 
the  elastic  force  of  the  torsion  bdances  the  turning  motive 
(or  "  couple  ")  due  to  the  vertical  component  of  the  magnetic 
force  of  the  locality.  A  divided  circle  is  used  (as  the  torsion 
head  of  the  original  Coulomb's  Torsion  Balance)  to  measure  the 
degrees  of  torsion  to  which,  according  to  Coulomb's  original 
discovery,  the  turning  motive  is  proportional.  Thus,  the  mag- 
netic moment  of  the  needle  being  constant,  the  vertical  component 
of  the  inagnetic  force  in  the  locality  of  the  observation  is  measured 
simply  in  degrees  or  divisions  of  the  torsion  haul.  A  glass  plate, 
fixed  in  a  vertical  position  parallel  to  the  platinum  wire  and  close  to 
the  painted  end  of  the  needle,  has  a  horizontal  score  across  it  on  the 


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NATURE 


{Feb.  28,  1878 


level  of  the  platinum  wire.  By  aid  of  a  totally  reflcctiiig  prism, 
like  that  of  the  prismatic  azimuth  compass,  with  one  side  con- 
vex, the  user  of  the  instrument  looking  downwards  sees  when 
the  black  line  on  the  end  of  the  needle  is  exactlv  level  with  the 
score  on  the  glass  plate.  This  mode  of  sighting  has  proved  very 
satisfactory  ;  it  is  very  easily  and  quickly  used,  and  it  is  so  sensi- 
tive that  with  the  dimensions  and  magnetic  power  of  tiie  instru- 
ment before  you  it  shows  easily  a  variation  of  vertical  force 
amounting  to  1^7^  o^  ^^«  earth's  vertical  force  in  this  locality. 
The  accompanying  printed  instructions  for  the  adjustment  of  my 
compass  describe  in  sufficient  detail  the  way  of  using  it  for 
correcting  the  heeling  error. 

In  the  instrument  before  you  there  is  a  divided  paper  circle  in 
the  bottom  of  the  box  to  serve  as  a  "  dumb  card,^  to  be  used 
with  the  azimuth  mirror  when  there  may  be  occasion  for  the  use 
of  a  non-magnetic  azimuth  instrument  This  appliance  has 
nothing  to  do  with  the  dipping  needle,  and  is  introduced 
because,  while  adding  little  or  nouiing  to  the  cumbrousness  of 
the  instrument,  it  saves  the  adjuster  the  necessity  for  carrying  a 
separate  azimuth  instrument  with  him. 

{To  he  continued,) 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Oxford,— From  the  University  Calendar  for  1878  we 
learn  that  the  Undergraduates,  who  were  last  year  2,590, 
have  now  risen  to  2,659,  while  the  members  of  Convo- 
cation have  increased  from  4,870  to  5,026.  During  the  year 
320  have  taken  the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts,  and  446  that  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  The  number  of  matriculations,  which  in 
1868  was  579,  and  which  in  1876  was  650,  rose  in  1877  to  770. 
But  this  increase  was  due  to  the  number  of  candidates  for  a 
musical  degree.  The  list  of  members  of  Congregation— that  is, 
of  the  legislative  body  of  resident  members  of  Convocation — 
has  increased,  but  only  slightly.  In  1876  they  numbered  314 ; 
in  1877,  322,  But  the  proportion  between  clergymen  and  lay- 
men  has  considerably  changed  during  the  year.  In  1876  there 
were  180  clergymen  and  134  laymen  ;  in  1877  the  laymen  have 
risen  to  154,  and  the  clergymen  have  fallen  to  168.  Of  the 
whole  body  of  Fellows  (exclusive  of  Christ  Church),  resident 
and  non-resident,  there  are  at  present  192  laymen  and  116 
clergymen. 

Cambridge. — The  Council  of  the  Senate  having  had  under 
consideration  a  letter  from  Prof.  Hughes,  Woodwardian  Pro- 
fessor of  Geology,  representing  the  need  for  additional  assist- 
ance, propose  that  an  assistant  be  appointed,  with  a  stipend  of 
200/.  per  annum,  whose  duties  shall  be  to  assist  the  Professor  in 
the  arrangement  and  care  of  the  geological  collections,  to  give 
such  instruction  and  demonstrations  as  may  be  required,  and  to 
assist  students  making  use  of  the  museum.  It  is  proposed  to 
vest  the  appointment  in  the  Professor,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Vice- Chancellor. 

Edinburgh. — A  site  has  been  secured  in  Chambers  Street, 
close  by  the  University,  for  the  erection  of  a  new  school  of 
medicine  for  extra-academical  teachers,  on  the  spot  formerly 
occupied  by  Minto  House,  so  long  the  scene  of  the  demonstra- 
tions and  prelections  of  eminent  extra-mural  lecturers. 

Taunton  College  School — A  microscopic  cabinet  by 
Smith  and  Beck,  with  other  valuable  apparatus,  has  been  pre- 
sented to  the  Rev.  W.  Tuckwell  by  his  late  assistant-masters  at 
the  Taunton  College  School,  as  an  expression  of  their  personal 
sympathy  and  their  recognition  of  the  services  rendered  by  him  to 
the  nigher  education. 

Prussia. —January  20  was  a  red  letter  day  for  a  number  of 
professors  in  Prussian  universities,  no  less  than  fifteen  receiving 
orders  of  different  ranks  from  the  Emperor  William. 

Dresden.— On  May  i  the  Royal  Polytechnic  Institution  at 
Dresden  will  celebrate  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  its  foundation. 
Originally  confined  to  the  narrowest  limits,  the  Institution  has 
rapidly  developed,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  frequented  poly- 
technic schools  of  Germany. 

Grkifswald. — The  attendance  on  the  university  shows  a 
decrease  as  compared  with  the  past  summer.  The  students 
number  43  in  the  theological  faculty,  73  in  the  legal,  126  in  the 
philosophical,  and  218  in  the  medical.  The  corps  of  professors 
and  privat-docenten  is  at  present   6a      A  library  of  60,000 


volumes,  well  equipped  laboratories  and  collections,  and  ample 
revenues  place  Greifswald  on  a  par  with  most  German  universities, 
but  for  a  number  of  years  it  has  failed  singularly  to  compete  In 
point  of  attendance  with  many  poorer  centres  of  study. 

Tubingen. — ^The  university  shows  at  present  the  highest 
winter  attendance  since  its  foundation.  The  students  are  divided 
as  follows :  Theology  (evangelical),  215,  (catholic),  108 ;  law, 
256  ;  natural  sciences  and  medicine,  222  ;  phUosophy,  145. 

MuNSTER. — Prof.  R.  Sturm,  of  the  Darmstadt  Polytechnic, 
has  been  appointed  to  the  chair  of  mathematics,  rendered  vacant 
by  the  late  death  of  Prof.  Heis.  The  aumtiec  of  students  at 
present  is  312. 

Bbrun. — Pro£  Schwedener,  of  Tiibingen,  has  received  a  call 
to  Berlin  to  fill  the  second  professorship  for  Botany  lately 
created  at  the  University. 

Vienna.— In  the  lately  presented  educational  budget  of 
Austria  the  sura  of  50,000/.  is  appropriated  for  the  erection  of 
new  buildings  for  the  Vienna  University. 

DoRPAT.— The  hitherto  rigorous  rule  of  Russian  universities 
requiring  from  all  instructors  the  possession  of  Russian  diplomas 
of  the  doctorate,  &c.,  has  been  modified  in  the  case  of  Dorpat, 
recognition  being  miade  of  foreign  degrees  and  professorial 
positions. 

Siberia. — ^The  Imperial  Commission  appointed  to  settle  the 
long-debated  question  as  to  the  University  of  Siberia,  has  defi- 
nitively given  the  preference  to  Tomsk,  against  Omsk.  We  are 
glad  to  learn  this  result,  because  of  the  central  position  of 
Tomsk,  its  larger  population,  not  exclusively  administrative,  as 
at  OmsJc,  and  the  larger  number  of  secondary  schools.  Several 
Siberian  merchants  have  endowed  the  future  University  with 
considerable  sums  of  money. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  January  31.— "On  the  Expression  of  the 
Product  of  any  Two  Legendre's  Coefficients  by  means  of  a  Series 
of  Legendre's  Coefficients,"  by  Prof.  J.  C.  Adams,  F.R.S. 

Royal  Society,  February  24.—"  On  the  Use  of  the  Reflec- 
tion Grating  in  Eclipse  Photography,"  by  J.  Norman  Lockyer, 
F.R.S. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  Eclipse  Expedition  to  Siam  have 
led  me  to  think  that,  possibly,  the  method  of  usine  the  coronal 
atmosphere  as  a  circular  sUt,  su^ested  by  ProC  Young  and 
myself,  for  the  Indian  eclipse  of  187 1,  might  be  applied  under 
very  favourable  conditions,  if  the  prism  or  train  of  prisms  hitherto 
employed  were  replaced  by  one  of  those  reflection  gratings  with 
which  the  generosity  of  Mr.  Rutherfiurd  has  endowed  so  many  of 
our  observers. 

To  test  this  notion  I  have  made  some  experiments  with  a 
grating,  which  I  owe  to  Mr.  Rutherfurd's  kindness,  containing 
17,280  lines  to  the  inch.  The  results  of  these  observations  I 
have  now  the  honour  of  laying  before  the  Royal  Society. 

In  front  of  the  lens  of  an  ordinary  electric  lamp,  which  lens 
was  adjusted  to  throw  a  parallel  beam,  I  have  introduced  a 
circular  aperture,  cut  in  cardboard,  forming  an  almost  complete 
ring,  some  two  inches  in  interior  diameter,  the  breadth  of  the 
ring  being  about  ^  inch.     This  was  my  artificial  eclipse. 

At  a  distance  from  the  lamp  of  about  thirteen  yards,  I  mounted 
a  3}  inch  Cooke  telescope,  of  fifty-four  inches  food  length. 
Some  distance  short  of  this  focus  I  placed  Mr.  Rutherfiud's 
grating,  and,  where  the  first  order  spectrum  fell,  I  placed  a 
focussin|^  screen.  To  adjust  for  sharp  focus,  in  the  first  instance, 
the  grating  was  so  inclined  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope  that  the 
image  of  £e  ring  reflected  by  the  silver  surface  adjacent  to  the 
grating  was  thrown  on  to  tne  screen.  This  done,  the  grating 
was  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  and  the  spectrum  of  the 
circular  slit,  illuminated  by  sodium  vapour  and  carbon  vapour, 
photographed  for  the  first,  second,  and  third  orders  on  one  side. 
The  third  order  spectrum,  showing  the  exquisite  rings  due  to  the 
carbon  vapour  flutings  was  produced  in  forty-two  seconds.  The 
first  order  spectrum,  also  submitted  to  the  Society,  was  produced 
in  the  same  period  of  rime,  and  was  very  much  over-exposed  ;  it 
is,  therefore,  I  think  not  expecUng  too  much  that  we  should  be 
able  to  take  a  photograph  of  the  eclipse,  in  the  third  order,  in 
two  minutes ;  but  let  us  make  it  four.  Similarly,  we  may  hope 
for  a  photograph  of  the  eecond  order  in  two  minutes,  and  it  is,  I 


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^ ; 


think,  highly  probable  also  that  a  photograph  of  the  first  order 
may  be  obtained  in  one  minute. 

It  is  clear  then  that,  by  mounting  photographic  plates  on  both 
sides  of  the  axis,  one  soUdly  mounted*  equatorial  of  short  focal 
length  may  enable  ns  to  obtain  a  lar^  number,  with  vary- 
ing lengths  of  exposure,  of  the  next  eclipse.  I  have  in- 
sisted upon  the  solidity  of  the  mounting  because,  if  any  one 
plate  is  to  be  exposed  during  the  whole  of  totality,  the  in- 
strument must  not  be  violently  disturbed  or  shaken  while  the 
eclipse  is  going  on.  I  think,  however,  it  is  quite  possible  to 
obtain  many  photographs,  of  the  lower  order  spectra,  without 
any  such  disturbance.  The  same  plate  may  be  made  to  record 
three,  or  even  four,  exposures  in  the  case  of  the  fint  order,  by 
merely  raising  or  lowering  it  after  a  given  time,  so  that  a  fresh 
portion  of  the  same  plate  may  be  exposed,  bv  means  of  a  rapid 
screw  or  other  equivalent  contrivance.  Similarly,  the  plates  on 
which  the  spectra  of  the  second  order  are  to  be  recorded  may  be 
made  to  perform  double  duty. 

Linnean  Society,  February  7.— Prof.  AUman,  F.R.S., 
president,  in  the  chair. — Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart,  reaid  a  paper, 
"  Observations  on  the  Habits  of  Ants,"  being  his  fifth  contri- 
bution on  this  subject.  In  continuation  of  former  experiments 
he  finds  that  ants  reco^^nise  old  acquaintances  and  attack  strangers. 
Their  intelligence  is  questionable  in  cases  where  a  thin  cirde  of 
glyxxrine  b£^  their  access  to  honey  which  they  have  already 
visited  by  a  paper  bridge,  for  when  the  latter  is  taken  away  they 
do  not  pile  up  a  few  grains  of  earth  and  thus  cross  the  barrier. 
Spite  of  the  many  observers  and  plentifulness  of  ants'  nests,  it  is 
still  doubtful  how  their  nests  commence.  Sir  John's  experi- 
ments show  that  the  workers  of  Lasias  Jlavus  wiU  not  adopt  an 
old  queen  from  another  nest  But  on  the  other  hand,  the  queen 
of  MyrtnUa  ruginodis  has  the  instinct  of  bringing  up  larvae  and 
the  power  of  founding  communities.  As  to  intimatmg  to  each 
other  discovery  of  food,  he  considers  this  does  not  necessarily 
implv  any  power  of  describing  localities  but  rather  by  a 
simple  sign  oo-workers  accompany  each  other  to  the  treasure. 
They  do  not  summon  their  brotherhood  by  sounds  to  a 
repast  found  by  one  or  another.  Thei*  affection  ^for  friends 
is  outbalanced  by  hatred  of  strangers.  A  few  of  each  kept 
prisoners  in  separate  bottles  with  wide  meshed  muslin  over 
the  mouths,  those  free  outside  again  and  again  excitedly 
endeavoured  to  attack  the  latter,  but  used  no  means  to  free 
the  former,  their  own  companions.  Further  experiments  prove 
scent  more  thsm  sight  guides  them  in  following  up  food  which 
has  been  shifted  in  position  after  its  having  l^en  partaken  of, 
and  a  return  to  the  nest  made.  Ants  avoid  li^ht  when  thrown 
into  their  nests,  and  they  then  congregate  mto  the  darkest 
comers.  Taking  advantage  of  this  habit  by  a  series  of 
ingenious  experiments— wherein  strips  of  coloured  glass,  in 
other  instances  shallow  cells  containing  coloured  solutions,  such 
as  fuchsine,  bichromate  of  potash,  chloride  of  copper,  &c.,  were 
used— Sir  John  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  they  are  influenced  by 
the  sensation  of  colour,  though  probably  different  from  the  effiect 
produced  in  man.  A  predominate  preference  is  given  to  red,  green 
follows,  yellow  comes  next,  while  to  blue  and  violet  there  appears 
to  be  a  decided  aversion.  Tlie  longevity  of  ants  would  seem 
greater  than  generally  admitted,  some  specimens  of  Formica 
fusca  being  at  least  five  years  old. — Mr.  Thiselton  Dyer  made  a 
brief  communication  on  the  so-called  '*  rain- tree  "  of  Mogo- 
bamba.  South  America,  an  accoimt  of  which  we  give  elsewhere. 
—Then  followed  a  paper  "  On  the  shell  of  the  Bryozoa,"  by  Mr. 
Arthur  W.  Waters.  The  points  he  more  particularly  drew 
attention  to  were  :-^The  great  difference  of  the  young  and  old 
cells  caused  by  a  constant  growth  of  shell-substance^  so  that  the 
older  zooeda  become  doMd  up.  This  growth  progresses  at 
various  rates.  Passing  through  the  shell  are  tubes  nlled  with 
corpuscles  of  the  chylaqueous  fluid,  which  thus  become  oxidised. 
The  supposed  nervous  filament  of  the  colonial  connection  the 
author  believes  to  be  rather  for  the  supply  of  material  from  one 
part  of  the  zooarium  to  another.  He  further  suggests  that  the 
varying  thickness  of  the  plates  in  the  walls  of  the  colonial  con- 
nection should  be  used  as  a  factor  in  specific  determination, 
and  especially  would  it  be  useful  in  comparing  recent  and  fossil 
forms.  There  is  a  possibiliW  of  the  aviculana  and  adventitious 
tubes  being  homologous,  and  helping  to  maintain  the  vitality  of 
the  colony  when  the  polypides  have  disappeared. — Messrs.  A. 
G.  Agar  and  C.  Berjeau  were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Society. — 
The  President  having  put  the  motion,  it  was  unanimously  re- 
solved to  present  an  address  to  Prof.  C.  T.  Ernst  von  Siebold 
on  his  approaching  jubilee. 


Zoological  Society,  February  5.— Prof.  Mivart,  F,R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Prof.  Mivart  read  a  paper  entitled 
"  Notes  on  the  Fins  of  Elasmobranchs,  with  Considerations  on 
the  Nature  and  Homologies  of  Vertebrate  Limbs,"  wherein  the 
author  detailed  his  dissections  of  the  fins  of  Elasmobranchs, 
which  dissections  had  convinced  him  that  the  paired  and  azygos 
fins  are  of  similar  nature.  He  represented  them  all  to  have  resulted 
from  the  centripetal  growth  and  coalescence  of  a  primitively 
distinct  series  of  cartilaginous  rays  developed  in  longitudinal 
folds,  of  whidi  one  was  £)rsal,  one  ventral,  and  two  were  lateral. 
He  also  advocated  the  view  that  the  limb-girdles  result  from  the 
further  centripetal  growth  of  the  coalescing  limb-cartilages,  which 
growth  seeks  9^  point  d^appuiy  the  pectoral  limb-girdles  in  fishes 
shooting  upwards  and  downwards,  as  well  as  inwards  to  obtain 
a  firm  support,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  avoid  the  visceral  cavity. 
He  contended  that  the  Archipterygium  was  not  to  be  sought  for 
in  Ceratodus^  which  he  by  no  means  regarded  as  a  primitive  type 
of  structure,  but  rather  in  I^aia  and  especially  in  the  ventrals 
of  Polyodofu  He  objected  to  Gegenbauer's  view  that  the 
metapterygium  formed  the  limb  axis  of  the  cheiropterygium, 
advocating  instead  the  propteryginm,  or,  if  not  that,  then  the 
mesopterygium.  He  cited  the  varymg  conditions  described  as 
evidences  of  the  presence  of  an  innate  intra-organic  polar  force 
as  the  main  agent  in  morphological  modifications. — ^A  communi- 
cation was  read  from  Mr.  W.  A.  Forbes,  F.Z.S.,  containing  an 
account  of  the  birds  collected  by  the  Challenger  Expedition  at 
Cape  York  and  <m  the  neighbouring  islands.  The  collection 
consbted  of  sixty-one  skins  rdferable  to  thirty-eight  species,  all, 
or  nearly  all,  of  which  belonged  to  well-known  Australian  forms, 
one  or  two  only  being  uncertain  on  account  of  the  immature 
condition  of  the  specimens. — A  communication  was  read  from 
Mr.  Francis  Nicholson,  F.Z.S.,  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of 
a  small  collection  of  birds  made  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Abeo- 
kuta.  West  Africa.  Amongst  these  was  a  new  species  of  Finch 
whidi  was  proposed  to  be  odled  Amadina  sharpeL-^Tht  Rev. 
S.  J.  Whitmee,  C.M.Z.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  mode  of  the 
modifications  of  anger,  fear,  &c.,  in  fishes,  and  on  the  use  of 
their  spines,  as  observed  by  him  during  his  residence  in  the 
Samoan  Islands. — Messrs.  P.  L.  Sclater  and  O.  Salvin  gave  an 
account  of  the  collection  of  birds  made  by  Prof.  Steere  during 
his  recent  journey  across  South  America,  from  Para  to  Callao. 
The  911  specimens  obtained  were  stated  to  be  referable  to  362 
species,  of  which  five  were  described  as  apparendy  new  to 
science,  and  proposed  to  be  called  Oryzoborus  atrirostris^ 
Myiarckus  semirufus^  Fumarius  pilaUus^  Capito  steerii^  and 
Crypturus  transfasciatus.^VTot  Garrod  read  a  note  on  the 
anatomy  of  the  Bintnrong,  ArticHs  binturong^  and  the  fourth 
portion  of  his  series  of  notes  on  the  anatomy  of  passerine  birds. 
— Mr.  Howard  Saunders,  F.Z.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  sub- 
family of  the  Larina,  or  Gulls,  being  a  monographical  revision 
of  the  gfoup,  which  he  considered  to  consist  of  the  genera 
PagophUa^  Rissa,  Larus,  RhodosUthia,  and  Xima,  containing 
altogether  forty-nine  species.  With  regard  to  Pagophila,  he 
drew  attention  to  a  structural  peculiarity  which  appe^ired  to 
have  been  previously  unnoticed,  t,^.,  the  junction  of^naUux  to 
the  inner  toe  by  a  serrated  membrane.  Mr.  Saunders  also 
remarked  upon  the  occasional  presence  of  a  small  but  well- 
developed  hmd  toe  and  claw  in  individuals  of  the  Kittiwake 
(Rissa  tridactyld)  from  Alaska. — A  communication  was  read 
from  Mr.  Martin  Jacoby,  containing  descriptions  of  some  new 
species  of  phytophagous  coleoptera. — ^Two  communications  were 
readfirom  Lieut -Col.  R.  H.  Beddome,  C.M.Z.S.  The  first 
gave  a  description  of  a  new  form  in  the  family  of  Tree-agames 
from  the  higher  ranges  of  the  Anamallays,  proposed  to  be 
named  Lophosarea  ananuUlayana,  The  second  contained  the 
descriptions  of  some  new  species  of  Uropeltidos,  from  Southern 
India. 

Anthropological  Institute,  Febmary  12. — ^Mr.  John  Evans, 
D.CL.,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  H.  C.  Sorby, 
F.R.S.,  read  a  paper  on  the  various  colouring  matter  met  with 
in  human  hair.  In  this  paper  the  author  d^cribel  the  maimer 
in  which  the  various  coloured  substances  met  with  in  human  hair 
may  be  separated  and  distinguished.  Four  quite  different  and 
well  characterised  pigments  luve  been  obtained,  but  of  these  two 
serve  to  modifjr  the  tints  of  hair  to  only  a  very  limited  extent 
The  general  colour  is  mainlv  due  to  a  black  and  a  brown-red 
pigment,  both  of  which  can  be  easily  obtained  in  a  separate  form, 
and  used  like  water  colours,  as  shown  by  the  numerous  drawings 
which  were  exhibited.  All  the  varying  tints  of  black,  brown, 
dark  and  lighter  red,  and  most  of  the  pale  tints  are  easily  proved 


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to  be  due  to  a  viuriatioii  in  the  total  and  relative  amounts  of  these 
two  substances  as  shown  by  a  series  of  comparative  analyses. 
The  paper  condaded  with  some  remarks  on  the  bearing  of  Uiese 
facts  on  ethnology,  and  with  a  consideration  of  the  probable 
explanation  of  certain  changes  in  the  colonr  of  hair  occasionally 
met  with,  but  not  yet  fdly  understood. — The  Director  then  read 
a  paper  by  the  Hon.  Chas.  C  Jones,  jun.,  on  bird-shaped  mounds 
in  Putnam  County,  Georgia. 

Meteorological  Society,  February  20. — ^Mr.  C  Greaves, 
F.G.S.,  president,  in  the  ciiair. — Dr.  Tripe  read  a  paper  on 
the  winter  climate  of  some  English  sea-side  health  resorts.  The 
places  selected  were  Sdlly,  Torquay,  Penzance,  Guernsey, 
Barnstaple,  Ventnor,  Llandudno,  Ramsgate,  and  Hastings,  and 
the  climatic  features  of  each  were  compared  with  those  of 
London.  The  results  of  this  discussion  may  be  briefly  summed 
up  as  foUo.ws,  viz. :— The  mean  daily  winter  temperature  of  these 
seaside  places,  and  especially  of  those  situated  on  the  coast  of 
Devon  and  Scilly,  is  higher  than  at  London ;  the  mean  daily 
maxima  and  minima  are  also  higher,  and  especially  the  latter ; 
so  that  the  daily  and  monthly  ranges  of  temperature  are  smaller : 
the  mean  humidity  is  less,  the  general  direction  |of  the  wind 
about  the  same,  but  the  number  of  rainy  days  and  the  rainfall 
are  greater  at  the  sea-side.  As  regards  the  wind,  therefore,  the 
chief  point  to  be  especially  noticed  is  the  amount  of  shelter 
afforded  by  high  land,  as  at  Ventnor,  and  especially  of  protec- 
tion against  the  stormy  and  cold  winds  which  ordinarilv  prevail 
at  the  end  of  February  and  in  March.  The  soil  als3  should  be 
considered,  as  heavy  rains  at  gravelly  and  chalky  places  are  not 
so  objectionable  as  on  clayey  gtound. — The  discussion  on  this 
paper  was  adjourned  until  the  next  meeting,  which  will  be  held 
on  March  2a — The  following  were  elected  Fellows  of  the 
Society:— W.  C.  Baker,  W.  Berridge,  W.  M.  Burke,  Rev. 
J.  A.  L.  Campbell,  Prof.  J.  Eliot,  Lieut.  C.  S.  F.  Fagan,  C 
H.  Holden,  Prof.  H.  J.  S.  Smith,  Capt.  W.  Watson,  C. 
WooUett,  and  Miss  £.  A.  Ormerod. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  February  i2.~Mr.  Bate- 
man,  president,  in  the  chair. — The  paper  read  was  on  the  eva- 
porative power  of  locomotive  boilers,  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Longridge, 
M.  Inst  C.E. 

Pakis 

Academy  of  Sciences,  February  18. — M.  Fiz^u  in  the 
chair. — ^The  President  gave  an  account  of  the  funeral  of  M. 
Claude  Bernard  on  the  16th  inst.,  and  the  discourses  pronounced 
by  MM.  Dumas,  Mezi^res,  and  others.  (These  are  published  in 
the  CompUs  J^atdus. )^litjidiaji  observations  of  small  planets  at 
the  Greenwich  and  Paris  Observatories  during  the  fourth  quarter 
of  1877,  by  M.  Villarceau. — On  some  appUcations  of  elliptic 
functions  (continued),  by  M.  Hermite.— Experimental  researdies 
on  the  fractures  traversing  the  earth's  crust,  especially  those 
known  as  joints  and  faults  (continued),  by  M.  Daubr^e.  His 
object  is  to  show  that  torsion  may  account  for  many  of  those 
efllects. — Ttbio-calcanean  resection,  by  M.  Sedillot — Refutation 
of  M.  Pasteur's  criticism  of  his  opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  alco- 
holic yeast  and  lactic  yeast,  by  M.  Trecul.— The  vibrations  of 
matter  and  the  waves  of  the  ether  in  vision,  by  M.  Fav^. 
— Remarks  on  the  satellites  of  Mars,  by  M.  Roche.  He  con- 
siders the  first  satellite  comparable  to  the  inner  ring  of  Saturn 
in  its  origin;  it  owes  its  existence  (as  satellite)  to  being 
a  little  more  separated  from  its  planet— On  the  law  of  reciprocity 
for  invariants  and  covariants  of  bmarv  quantics,  by  Prof.  Sylvester. 
— On  MM.  Clebsch  and  Gordon's  theory  of  associated  forms,  by 
the  same.  ~  Presence  of  magnetic  spherules  similar  to  those  of 
atmospheric  dust,  in  rocks  belonging  to  ancient  geological 
periods,  by  MM.  Meunier  and  Tissandier.  If  the  identity  be 
admitted,  we  must  infer  that  the  layers  of  the  earth's  crust 
contain  materials  of  cosmic  origin  which  fell  in  a  very  distant 
epoch  (such  particles  are  found  in  the  Devonian  series).  It  is 
important  to  determine  where  they  first  appear.— On  the 
vibratory  forms  of  solid  and  liquid  bodies,  d  pro}os  of  a  note  by 
M.  Dubois,  by  M.  Decharme.  A  claim  of  priority. — Separation  of 
the  non-ferruginous  elements  of  rocks,  based  on  their  difference  of 
specific  gravity,  by  M .  Thoulet  The  specific  gravity  of  moat  of  the 
eisentiaf minerals  of  rocks  varying  between  2*2  and  3 :  these  maybe 
separatolfirom  each  other  by  lomiersion  in  solutions  which  are  with- 
out chemical  action  on  them,  but  whose  specific  ^vity  is  comprised 
between  the  same  limits.  Such  are  solutions  of  lodideof  mercury  in 
iodide  of  potassium.  (Details  of  the  method  are  given. )— On  the 
state  of  phylloxerised  vines  in  the  commune  of  Mezel  (Puy-de- 
Du(ne),iby  M.Truchot. — Theoryof  Vesta :  perturbationsdependent 
on  the  tirst  power  of  the  perturbing  masses,  by  M.  Leveau.— On  the 


special  conditions  in  the  contour  of  plates,  by  M.  Bonssinesq.— 
Un  the  conditions  for  a  quadratic  form  of  n  diflerentials  to  be 
transformed  so  that  its  coefficients  lose  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  variables  they  contain,  by  M.  Levy. — On  the  summatory 
formula  of  Madaurin  and  intearpolar  functions,  by  M.  GenocchL 
— On 'I  Bell  telephones  and  stnng  telephones,  l^  M.  Breguet. 
By  attaching  a  string  telephone  (with  parchment  membrane)  to 
any  point  of  a  Bell  telephone,  one  may  hear  through  it  a  person 
using  a  Bell  telephone.  Several  string  telephones  may  thus  be 
connected.  A  mode  of  making  the  string  tdrahone  more  prac- 
ticable is  described. — On  telephony,  by  M.  Salet  A  tdephone 
is  described  in  which  the  movements  of  the  two  memlnanes  are 
absolutely  correspondent,  the  great  electric  resistance  of  liquids 
being  utilised  for  the  purpose. — On  the  ebullition  of  superposed 
Lquids,  by  M.  Gemez. — Extraction  of  gallium,  by  MM.  Lecoq  de 
Boisbaudran  and  Jungfleisch.  The  authors  had  obtained  62 
grammes  of  metallic  gallium  by  treating  4,300  kilogrammes  of 
Bensberg  blende  (the  method  is  described). — Method  of  volumetric 
determination  of  potash,  by  M.  Camot — Dissociation  of  hydrate 
of  chlorine,  byM.  Isambert  With  regard  to  solubiUty  of  duorine 
in  water,  he  says  that  under  90  it  is  onl^  the  hydrate  that  is  formed 
and  dissolved  in  the  water ;  above  this  temperature,  at  ordinary 
pressure,  there  \%  merely  a  solution  of  a  gas  in  the  water.  Air 
passed  through  a  solution  of  chlorine  under  9^  gradually  carries  ofT 
all  the  chlorme,  as  if  there  was  solution  and  not  combination. — 
Action  of  chloride  of  benzo^le  on  leucine,  by  M.  Destrem. — 
On  the  identity  of  muscular  mosite  and  vegetable  sugars  of  the 
same  composition,  by  MM.  Tanrct  and  Villiers.— On  the  pre- 
paration ot  amylene,  by  M.  Etard.— Experimental  reseat  ches  on 
the  maturation  of  the  grape,  by  MM.  Samt  Pierre  and  Magnien. 
—On  some  volatile  products  of  coal-pits  set  on  fire,  by  M. 
Mayen9on.  He  examined  efflorescences  round  the  fumeroles 
(the  pits  were  in  the  Loire  valley).  The  most  abundant  sub- 
stances are  ammoniacal  compounds,  arsenic,  aluminium,  iron, 
chlorine,  and  sulphur. — On  the  condition)  of  development 
of  ligula,  by  M.  Duchamp. — Sensations  of  light  and  colonr 
in  direct  and  indirect  vision,  by  MM.  Landolt  and  Char- 
pentier.— On  the  geological  constitution  of  the  Island  of 
Reunion  (first  part),  by  M.  Velain.  Tne  succession  of  vol- 
canic Jphenomena  seems  to  be  similar  to  that  at  SantorinL — 
Origin  and  distribution  of  limestone  in  maritime  sands,  by  M. 
Conteiean. — Barometric  differences  between  neighbouringstations 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  (continued)  by  M.  Renou. 
—On  the  flash  'of  lightning  which  caused  the  burning  of  the 
belfry  of  Toucy  (Yonn^),  on  January  25,  by  M.  Roch^ 


CONTENTS  PAG8 

Snake  Poison 337 

The  Beetles  of  St.  Helena.    By  E.  C  Rya 33^ 

LBTTXaS  TO  THE  Sditok  :— 

Ox^rgen  ia  the  Sun.— Dr.  Henry  Dkapbx 339 

Brain  of  a  Fossil  MammaL— Prof.  O.  C  Marsh 340 

Origin  of  Trachea  in  Arthropoda— H.  N.  Mosblbv,  P.R.S.    .    .  340 

The  "Phantom"  Force.  III.— Prof.  A.  S.  Herschel     ....  340 

Faiada/s  "  Experimental  Researches."— Bbrnaxd  Qoaeitch     .  341 

Singing  in  the  Ears.— Xenos  Clark 34' 

Meteor.— H.  Hatfield 34a 

Eucalyptus — Arthur  Nicols 34a 

Telephone  Experiments.— W.  Carpmael 34a 

Elias  Magnus  Fries 343 

The  Telephone,  an  Instrument  of  Precision.    By  Prof  CeoxcE 

Forbes 313 

Our  Astronomical  Qoxxun  :— 

Lohrmann'i  Lunar  Charts •  343 

The  Periodical  Comet,  1873 II ,    .    .    .    .  344 

Minor  Planets •    •    •  344 

Biological  Notes  :— 

The  Origin  of  the  Carbon  of  Planrs 344 

Ferns  and  Mosses 34* 

ProC  Grimm  on  the  Fauna  of  the  Caspian 34S 

Transformation  of  CartiUge  into  Bone 34s 

OwU 34S 

Algae  of  the  White  Sea 345 

Geographical  Motes  :— 

Lapland 34S 

China 340 

Mount  Tongariro 34^ 

African  Exploration 34^ 

Paris  Geographical  Society 34^ 

American  Geographical  Sodety 346 

Ma(»  of  the  Seat  of  War 346 

Arctic  Exploration 34^ 

Social  Electrical  Nerves  {IViik  /iimttratim) 346 

The  Rain-Tree  of  Moyobamba.    By  Prof.  W  T.  Thxselton  Dyer  349 

Notes 350 

On  Compass  Adjustment  in  Iron  Ships,  IL  By  Sir  Wm.  Thomson, 

LL.D.,  F.R.S   ilVitk  Ulustrations) 35a 

Univbrsitv  and  Educational  Intellksbncb  ' 354 

Societies  AND  Academies 354 


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THURSDAY,  MARCH   7,  1878 


REPRESENTATION  OF  SCIENCE  AT  THE 
PARIS  EXHIBITION 


w 


r£  are  glad  to  know  that  the  interest  shown  in  the 
Loan  Collection  of  Scientific  Apparatus  at  South 
Kensington  and  the  benefit  to  the  nation  at  large  to  be 
derived  from  such  displays  have  not  been  lost  upon  the 
organisers  of  the  French  part  of  the  forthcoming  Exhi- 
bition. 

Among  the  most  energetic  and  most  enlightened  of 
these  organisers  we  must  count  M.  Bardoux  himself,  the 
new  Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  under  whose  auspices 
for  the  first  time  a  well-developed  scientific  side  will  form 
part  of  an  International  Exhibition.  Culture  will  be 
added  to  industry.  Research  will  have  its  place,  side  by 
side  with  the  applications  of  science. 

The  attempts  to  give  prominence  to  this  side  of  the 
exhibition  on  the  part  of  the  French  are  as  remarkable  as 
the  complete  neglect  of  everything  touching  science  by 
our  own  Commission.  For  them  apparently  science  does 
not  exist,  except  the  science  that  pays,  in  the  shape  of 
large  engines  and  looms,  fine  stuffs,  machine-made  jewel- 
lery, and  the  like.  England  will  have  its  Burlhigton 
Arcade,  but  not  its  Burlington  House.  We  give  the  Com- 
mission credit  for  having  ''worked"  the  commercial 
world  well ;  we  only  complain  that  the  possibility  of  there 
being  anything  worth  exhibiting  from  the  scientific  point 
of  view  never  seems  to  have  occurred  to  them. 

The  antithesis  we  have  drawn  between  the  Burlington 
Arcade  and  Burlington  House  well  represents  the  great 
point  of  the  forthcoming  Exhibition.  There  will  be  a 
gigantic  shop  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  there  will  be  a 
gigantic  temple  devoted  to  the  pure  sciences  and  to 
pure  art  in  the  Trocadero.  The  river  will  separate  the 
source  from  the  application ;  instruction  in  science  and 
art  from  commerce  and  industry. 

Hence  it  is  that  M.  Bardoux,  having  already  organised  on 
a  large  scale  the  representation  of  the  fine  arts  and  public 
instruction,  is  now  organising  what  is  to  be  called  the 
**  scientific  display.''  This  part  of  the  work,  important 
though  it  be,  will  be  rendered  very  simple  to  the  Minister, 
as  the  matter  will  be  left  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  men  of  science  themselves,  including,  of  course,  those 
men  of  science  who  direct  important  branches  of  the 
public  service  as  well  as  individual  investigators. 

Thus  each  Government  department  will  show  the  way  in 
which  its  scientific  work  is  done.  The  three  new  Govern- 
ment observatories  in  Paris  will  exhibit  either  results  or 
methods.  There  will  be  a  complete  collection  illustrating 
the  various  scientific  missions  which  France  has  under- 
taken during  the  present  century,  and  all  the  publications, 
scientific,  historic,  and  artistic,  which  have  been  published 
by  the  state  will  be  there  for  sdl  the  world  to  see. 

Not  only,  therefore,  will  there  be  a  true  Loan  Collection 
of  Scientific  Apparatus,  but  the  example  set  by  the  South 
Kensington  Conferences  wills  also  be  followed.  The  enor- 
mous building  in  the  Trocadero  contains  a  lecture  theatre 
capable  of  holding  upwards  of  4,000  people.  This  will 
be  used  for  lectures  in  scientific  and  kindred  subjects, 
for  which  arrangements  are  now  being  made.  It  is  j 
Vol.  xvii.»NOb  436 


impossible  that  the  Trocadero  buildings  can  be  ready  by 
May  I,  so  there  will  be  ample  time  for  these  arrangements 
and  for  the  others,  to  which  we  may  briefly  allude. 

The  French  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  will  conduct  a  lai^ge  number  of  scientific  experi- 
ments on  a  great  scale,  and  a  large  number  of  exhibitors 
will  take  advantage  of  the  meeting  of  that  association 
to  exhibit  experiments  relating  to  their  special  pursuits. 

Every  facility  will  also  be  given  to  scientific  socie- 
ties for  summoning  to  a  special  congress  those  pro- 
secuting the  same  line  of  research.  The  number  of 
these  useful  assemblies  is  increasing  daily.  It  would 
occupy  too  much  space  to  give  a  list  of  all  the  societies 
which  will  hold  such  meetings,  but  many  circulars  illus- 
trating the  development  of  this  sectional  movement  have 
already  been  printed. 

Lecture-rooms  will  be  furnished  gratis,  lectures  will 
be  advertised  on  a  lai^ge  scale,  and,  as  far  as  possible. 
Government  apparatus  will  be  at  the  disposal  of 
inventors  for  conducting  the  experiments  required  to 
illustrate  their  lectures.  What  has  been  done  at  the 
provisional  Ethnographical  Museum,  to  which  we  have 
already  referred,  may  be  considered  as  a  fair  specimen  of 
what  will  be  done  on  a  larger  scale  at  the  Trocadero 
Palace  and  other  suitable  buildings. 

It  may  be  said  that  nothing  will  be  spared  to  make  the 
Exhibition  useful  to  science  and  intelligible  in  its  scien- 
tific aspects  for  the  largest  number  of  people. 

Surely  England'  might  have  been]  able  to  contribute 
something  of  interest  to  this  most  interesting  side  of  the 
Exhibition  ?  We  surely  must,  after  all,  be  merely  a  nation 
of  shopkepeers  seeing  that  oiur  Royal  Commissioners  have 
doubted  our  capabilities  in  any  oUier  direction  ! 


METROLOGY 

Inductive  Metrology s  or.  The  Recovery  of  Ancient  Mea- 
sures from  the  Monuments,  By  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 
(London :  Saunders,  1877.) 

THIS  work  has  a  somewhat  ambitious  title,  but  it  may 
fairly  claim  to  be  written  upon  a  scientific  basis,  and 
it  bears  evidence  of  much  study  and  laborious  research. 
It  is  an  attempt  to  carry  out  generally  the  method 
originated  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  his  well-known 
Dissertation  on  Cubits,  of  determining  the  length  of  the 
ancient  Egyptian  cubit  from  some  of  the  measured 
dimensions  of  the  great  pyramid.  By  a  similar  process 
the  author  has  endeavoured  to  determine  the  ancient 
standards  of  linear*measure  in  various  countries  firom  the 
measurements  of  remaining  monuments.  No  allusions 
are  made  to  weights  and  volumes,  but  only  to  linear 
quantities,  as  these  alone  are  shown  by  the  architectural 
remains. 

In  accordance  with  Whewell's  definition  of  <*  induc- 
tion,'' Mr.  Petrie  says  that ''  inductive  metrology  ascertains 
the  'general  truths '  of  the  units  of  measure  in  use  from 
the '  particular  facts '  of  those  multiples  of  measures  which 
ancient  remains  preserve  to  us."  He  assumes  that  in  the 
construction  of  all  such  works,  if  a  measure  existed,  it 
would  be  used,  and  that  whole  numbers  would  be  used  in 
preference  to  fractions  and  round  numbers  in  preference  to 
uneven  ones,  merely  for  convenience  in  the^nrork.  We  know 

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\March  7,  1878 


this  to  have  been  the  case  with  regard  to  the  various  dimen- 
sions of  the  tabernacle  constructed  by  Moses,  of  Solomon's 
Temple,  and  the  later  temple  as  described  by  Ezekiel, 
The  length  of  the  Royal  Egyptian  Cubit  was  determined 
by  Sir  Isaac' Newton, from  Greaves'smeasurements  in  the 
great  pyramid,  to  have  been  between  20*62  and  2078 
English  inches.  Amongst  these  measurements  the  so- 
called  King's  Chamber  was  found  to  be  20  of  such  cubits 
in  length,  and  10  in  breadth.  The  passages  were  2  cubits 
broad.  The  principal  gallery  was  4  cubits  broad,  with 
a  middle  way  of  polished  marble  2  cubits  broad, 
and  a  raised  bench  on  each  side  i  cubit  broad  and 
I  cubit  high.  In  Newton's  time,  no  direct  evidence  of 
the  true  length  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  cubit  had  been 
brought  to  light  We  [now  know  from  several  ancient 
standard  cubit  rods  since  discovered,  that  the  mean 
length  of  the  royal  Egyptian  cubit  was  equal  to  20*67 
English  inches.  In  this  essay  Mr.  Petrie  states  that  all 
the  deduced  units  of  measure  were  in  every  instance  found 
in  a  similar  way  independently  of  any  known  standard,  and 
have  not  been  obtained  by  trying  whether  the  measures 
would  fit  any  known  unit  As  to  standards  of  measure, 
they  are  only  employed  by  the  author  to  subject  assump- 
tions to  proof,  where  such  can  be  obtained. 

The  least  number  of  measurements  that  suffice  to  give 
a  unit  with  tolerable  certainty  is  assumed  to  be  three. 
Long  lengths  were  found  of  little  value  in  obtaining  the 
unit,  and  moderately  short  lengths  from  about  2  to  20 
feet  are  stated  to  be  the  best  After  showing  the 
several  modes  of  ascertaining  as  nearly  as  may  be  the 
unit  of  measure  from  a  given  number  of  actual  measure- 
ments, that  is  to  say,  the  ratio  between  them,  the  process 
adopted  has  been  to  group  together  those  units  of  any 
one  country  and  age  that  seemed  to  be  identical,  or 
derived  from  and  related  to  one  another,  and  thence  to 
deduce  the  mean  unit.  In  every  case  the  probable  error 
has  been  computed  and  stated.  This  probable  error  is 
assumed  to  arise  from  original  errors  in  planning  and 
executing  the  work,  and  not  in  the  more  recent  measure- 
ments, as  with  reasonable  caution  such  errors  may  be 
tolerably  avoided. 

The  extent  of  the  work  undertaken  by  the  author  may 
be  judged  of  from  the  statement  that  more  than  600 
buildings  and  other  remains  have  been  examined  and  their 
constructors'  units  deduced  from  the  mean  results  of  over 
4,000  measurements.  A  considerable, number  of  them 
were  made  by  the  author,  many  being  of  objects  in  the 
British  Museum.  To  insure  correctness  the  English 
measure  used  by  him  was  verified  as  to  its  accuracy  at 
the  Standards'  Office. 

The  first  series  of  groups  relate  to  Egyptian  architec- 
tural remains,  generally  from  the  fourth  dynasty  to  the 
Roman  period.  The  deduced  units  of  the  measurements 
of  loi  monuments  are  stated  in  English  inches  and  deci- 
mal parts  of  an  inch,  and  the  number  of  independent 
lengths  from  which  each  such  unit  was  obtained  is  also 
specified.  The  deduced  units  of  one  of  these  groups,  con- 
sisting of  twenty-eight  different  monuments  vary  only 
from  20*42  to  20*84  inches,  the  mean  being  20*64,  thus 
agreeing  very  nearly  with  the  ascertained  length  of  the  royal 
cubit  B  20*67  inches.  From  the  remaining  monuments 
the  author  deduces  other  units  several  of  whidi  are  mul- 
tiples of  the  digit,  the  twenty- eighth  part  of  the  royal 


cubit.  The  common  cubit,  ot  cubit  oi  a  man,  equal  to 
18*24  inches,  has  not  yet  been  found  inductively  from 
remaining  monuments. 

The  next  series  of  monmnents  examined  are  those  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  Persia  and  Syria.  These  countries 
are  classed  together  as  being  intermixed  in  the  style  of  their 
art  and  the  nature  of  their  architectural  remsuns.  The  re- 
sults of  the  measurements  of  102  monuments  are  given, 
with  various  deduced  units  of  measure.  The  Persian 
monuments  are  chiefiy  those  of  Persepolis.  It  may  be 
more  interesting  to  refer  to  the  Syrian  monuments  as  they 
include  those  of  Judxa  and  Palestine,  and  of  Moab.  As 
an  instance,  the  mean  unit  of  25*01  inches  (varying  from 
24*57  to  25*55  inches)  is  found  from  six.monuments^  four 
of  which  are  at  JerusalenL  This  is  taken  to  be  the 
mean  length  of  the  sacred  Jewish  cubit  It  is  to  be 
observed  that  in  his  ''  Dissertation  on  Cubits,"  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  length  of  this 
cubit  was  24*83  inches.  It  is  now  generally  considered  to 
have  been  a  little  more  than  25  inches,  and  it  is  supposed 
to  have  been  the  cubit  measure  taken  from  Chaldasa  by 
the  ancestors  of  the  Jews,  and  to  have  continued  in  use 
by  their  posterity  in  Egypt  and  Palestine. 

The  countries  that  follow  are  Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 
The  first  of  these  affords  eleven  different  units  from 
eighty-four  measured  monuments.  Eight  of  these  units 
are  known  to  have  been  used  by  nations  that  ruled  there, 
and  the  other  three  are  connected  with  the  units  of  adja- 
cent countries.  From  Greece  and  its  colony  Sicily  the 
results  of  the  measurements  of  forty-nine  objects  are 
given,  including  Pelasgic  and  later  monuments. 

Italy,  Africa,  and  Sardinia  are  next  classed  together. 
The  results  of  the  measurements  of  seventy-seven  monu- 
ments are  shown  under  the  head  of  Italy,  indudii^ 
Roman  remains  in  Britain,  Africa,  and  other  countries 
probably  constructed  with  Italian  units  of  measure. 

The  mediaeval  remains  in  Ireland  and  England  con- 
clude the  several  classed  groups  of  monuments.measured. 
The  measurements  of  twenty-nine  round  towers  and 
churches  connected  with  them  in  Ireland  give  two 
deduced  units.  Out  of  eighty-one  measured  old  English 
remains  the  inch  and  foot  were  found  to  be  the  units  in 
sixteen  cases  only,  the  mean  inch  unit  being  equal  to 
0*9998  of  otur  present  standard  inch,  showing  that  on  the 
average  the  inch  measure  has  not  varied  appreciably  for 
centuries.  Several  other  units  of  other  countries  are 
deduced  from  the  remaining  monuments. 

The  last  series  of  measurements  are  those  of  rude  stone 
remains  and  earthworks  in  various  countries.  At  first 
sight  it  does  not  appear  possible  that  such  objects  should 
lead  to  imits  of  measure  being  derived  from  them  ;  but 
the  results  show,  in  the  author's  opinion,  that  the  more 
regularly  constructed  remains  were  made  by  a  measure- 
using  people. 

After  mentioning  the  results  of  measurements  partly  of 
the  dimensions  and  partly  of  the  relative  positions  of 
various  ancient  stone  remains  and  earthworks  in  this 
country  and  in  France,  the  results  of  about  seventy 
measurements  of  the  dimensions  of  ancient  North  Ameri- 
can earthworks  are  stated  to  lead  to  a  unit  varying  from 
12*50  to  1272  inches,  with  a  mean  of  12*6  inches,  divided 
duodedmally.  The  mean  imit  of  twelve  Mexican  measure- 
ments was  10*65  inches. 


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The  author  claims,  as  the  chief  results  of  his  inductive 
examination,  to  have  determined  from  the  monuments 
the  true  values  of  the  Sacred  Hebrew  or  Royal  Persian 
cubit,  the  Royal  Egyptian  cubit,  the  Egyptian  digit,  the 
Assyrian  cubit,  the  ancient  Greek  foot,  the  Olympic  foot, 
the  Drusian  foot,  the  PUnian  foot,  and  the  Pythic  foot, 
together  with  the  probable  errors  of  these  determinations. 

He  claims  also  to  have  found  that  the  principal  standard 
units  of  length  were  in  more  extended  use  than  was 
previously  known,  and  to  have  indicated  the  countries  in 
which  they  were  used.  And  also  that  he  has  brought 
to  light  many  other  units  of  length  of  which  the  knowledge 
had  been  previously  lost 

It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  all  persons  who  have 
given  mature  consideration  to  the  contents  of  the  work 
will  concur  in  the  stated  results  or  be  altogether  satisfied 
with  some  of  the  mean  units  obtained.  In  every  case  a 
unit  deduced  from  the  actual  measurements  is  stated,  and 
not  the  measurements  themselves.  But  a  large  propor- 
tion of  these  deduced  units  are  not  whole  numbers  of  the 
mean  unit  obtained  from  them.  Thus,  taking  one  of  the 
instances  most  favourable  to  the  author's  views,  out  of 
twenty-eight  Egyptian  monuments,  from  which  the  mean 
length  of  the  royal  Egyptian  cubit  is  obtained,  twelve 
only  of  the  deduced  units  are  whole  numbers,  the  others 
being  various  fractions  of  the  mean  unit,  and  many  of 
them,  such  as  \,  i,  \,  ^,  ,V>  *>  l>  lAr*  ifc  are  fractions  not 
marked  upon  any  of  the  extant  standard  cubit  rods, 
which  are  divided  only  into  seven  palms  and  twenty-eight 
digits. 

The  essay  will  be  read  with  much  interest  and  advan- 
tage by  those  persons  who  have  given  their  attention  to 
metrological  science.  It  appears  to  be  a  valuable 
contribution  to  historical  and  ethnological  literature,  and 
to  be  a  ground-work  for  further  researches  on  the  subject. 

WOLF'S  HISTORY  OF  ASTRONOMY 

II. 

Ceschichte     der     Asironomie,        Von     Rudolf    Wolf. 

(Munchen  :  R,  Oldenbourg,  1877.) 

IN  our  former  notice  of  this  valuable  addition  to  astro- 
nomical literature  (Nature,  voL  xvii.  p.  259) 
reference  was  made  to  the  great  amoimt  of  information 
which  the  author  has  compressed  within  a  moderate 
space  in  the  third  and  last  section  of  his  work  which 
treats  of  "  the  newer  astronomy."  We  propose  here  to 
take  a  brief  survey  of  the  principal  contents  of  this  por- 
tion of  the  volume  to  assist  the  reader's  appreciation  of 
the  work. 

The  third  section  is  subdivided  into  four  chapters — 
9—12.  The  first  commences,  as  before  stated,  with  Sir 
Isaac  Newton's  discovery  of  the  principle  of  universal 
gravitation,  the  publication  of  the  "  Principia,"  and  the 
first  application  of  the  new  theory  to  the  orbits  of  comets 
by  Halley,  whose  meritorious  connection  with  the  pub- 
lication of  Newton's  immortal  work  is  well  known.  This 
is  followed  by  some  accoimt  of  the  foimdation  of  the 
Observatories  of  Greenwich  and  Paris,  and  soon  after- 
wards of  those  of  Berlin  and  Copenhagen,  whereby  so 
great  an  impetus  was  given  to  practical  astronomy ;  of 
Richer's  expedition  to  Cayenne  for  the  determination  of 

'  Continued  from  p.  359. 


the  solar  parallax,  from  corresponding  observations  of  the 
planet  Mars,  and  the  first  ideas  as  to  the  applicability  of 
transits  of  Venus  for  the  solution  of  the  same  problem. 
The  labours  of  the  earlier  workers  in  the  Newtonian 
theory— of  Bernoulli,  Euler,  Clairault,  and  others,  are 
particularised  ;  also  Bradley's  great  discoveries  of  the 
aberration  of  light  and  the  nutation  of  the  earth's  axis, 
together  with  his  work  in  the  field  of  observation,  with 
the  similar  work  of  Tobias  Mayer  and  Lacaille. 
Further  on  the  same  chapter  treats  of  the  labours 
of  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Gauss,  and  others  in  theory, 
and  of  Herschel,  Piazzi,  Bessel,  Struve,  and  others,  in  the 
practice  of  astronomy.  We  have  some  account  of  the 
"  Theoria  Motus,"  the  "  Fundamenta  Astronomiae,'' 
amongst  classical  works,  and  of  progress  made  in  the 
solar,  limar,  and  planetary  theories,  and  formation  of 
tables  and  ephemerides.  Amongst  the  remaining  varied 
contents  of  this  chapter  there  are  notices  of  the  discovery 
of  Neptune,  stellar  parallax,  the  connection  between  solar 
spots  and  the  earth's  magnetism,  the  application  of  pho- 
tography to  astronomical  purposes,  and  the  introduction 
of  the  spectroscope. 

Chapter  lo  is  devoted  to  astronomical  instruments  and 
their  uses,  afrer  some  remarks  upon  methods  of  calcula- 
tion introduced  in  modem  practice.  There  are  brief 
notices  of  instruments  in  their  various  forms,  from  the 
complicated  heliometer  to  the  simpler  appliances  in  the 
hands  of  observers,  with  descriptions  of  many  of  the  more 
important  purposes  for  which  they  have  been  brought  into 
use.  The  chapter  concludes  with  a  reference  to  La- 
caille's  memorable  expedition  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  the  expeditions  imdertaken  on  occasion  of  the  transits 
of  Venus  in  1761  and  1769. 

Chapter  11,  on  "The  Structure  of  the  Heavens,"  is 
as  varied  in  its  contents,  amotigst  which  we  may  note  : 
The  periodicity  of  stm- spots,  and  the  new  views  upon  the 
physical  constitution  of  the  sun  ;  the  ring  of  small 
planets  ;  the  zodiacal  light ;  the  meteor-streams  and  their 
connection  with  comets  ;  the  physical  condition  of 
comets ;  the  distribution  oif  the  stars  ;  the  Milky  Way ; 
solar  motion  in  space ;  variable  and  double  stars,  and 
binary  systems ;  stellar  spectra,  star  clusters,  and  nebulae. 

In  Chapter  12  we  have  an  account  of  the  principal 
modem  literature,  periodical  and  otherwise,  bearing  upon 
astronomical  science  in  its  various  branches.  There 
are  notices  of  the  works  of  Weidler,  Lalande,  Bailly, 
Montucla,  Delambre,  Littrow,  Madler,  and  others,  and  of 
such  works  as  the  Acta  Eruditorum,  the  Monatliche 
Correspondenz  and  the  Astronomische  Nachrichtetu 

It  should  be  understood  that  the  one  chief  advantage 
which  the  student  is  likely  to  derive  from  Prof.  Rudolf 
Wolfs  "  History  of  Astronomy  "  will  be  a  knowledge  of 
the  authors,  methods,  &c.,  with  which  it  may  be  neces- 
sary for  him  to  become  acquainted  in  turning  his  atten- 
tisn  to  any  particular  department  of  astronomy,  an  ad- 
vantage that  may  not  be  immediately  apparent  from  the 
title  of  the  work.  Prof.  Wolf  does  not  enter  into  any 
amount  of  detail,  nor  indeed  would  it  have  been  prac- 
ticable within  the  limits  of  this  volume.  But  as  affording 
in  comparatively  brief  space  an  accurate  idea  of  the 
gradual  progress  and  actual  state  of  astronomical  science 
and  a  valuable  guide  to  any  one  entering  upon  its  study,  this 
book  may  be  confidently  recommended.       J.  R.  Hind 


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OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

The  Spectroscope  and  its  Work.    By  Richard  A.  Proctor. 

Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  (London  : 

1877.) 
Ik  a  little  work  of  127  pp.  Mr.  Proctor  has  clearly  and 
logically  explained  the  principles  of  the  science  of 
spectroscopy,  and  has  given  a  sketch  of  the  main  results 
of  spectroscopic  research  into  the  nature  of  the  sun^  stars, 
and  nebulae. 

One  of  the  features  of  this  book  is,  we  think,  the  logical 
manner  in  which  the  principles  of  spectroscopic  analysis 
are  developed  from  the  facts  gained  by  observation  and 
experiment ;  the  steps  of  the  various  reasonings  are 
succinctly  but  clearly  stated ;  this  is  a  point  of  much 
importance.  In  too  many  so-called  scientific  text-books 
there  is  a  loose  and  illogical  method  of  connect- 
ing facts,  and  conclusions  drawn  from  these  facts ;  by 
the  perusal  of  such  books  the  general  reader  is  either 
strengthened  in  his  prejudged  conviction  that  science 
teaching  is  of  little  or  no  value  as  a  mental  exercise,  or 
he  is  taught,  often  almost  unconsciously,  to  believe  Uiat 
the  geneialisations  of  science  and  the  facts  of  science  rest 
upon  exactly  the  same  evidence.  Another  feature  in  Mr. 
Proctor's  little  book  is  the  adoption,  necessarily  to  but  a 
limited  extent,  of  the  method  of  historically  developing 
the  facts  of  the  science  of  which  he  treats.  The  leading 
steps  in  the  history  of  the  most  important  advances  in 
spectroscopy  are  traced,  frequently  by  quotation  from  the 
classical  memoirs  of  the  great  workers  in  the  science. 

The  book  is  divided  into  eight  chapters,  headed  respec- 
tively'' Analysis  of  Light,** '*  Dark  Spaces  in  the  Spec- 
trum," "  Various  Order  of  Spectra,"  "  Interpretation  of 
Solar  Spectrum,"  "  Solar  Prominences,  &c.,"  "  Spectra  of 
Stars,  &C.,"  "Atmospheric  Lines  in  Solar  Spectrum," 
"  Measuring  Motions  of  Recession  and  Approach." 

Whether  as  an  introduction  to  the  fuller  study  of 
spectroscopic  analysis,  or  as  a  work  from  which  the 
general  reader  may  gain  a  clear,  and,  so  far  as  it  goes, 
complete  view  of  the  science,  Mr.  Proctor's  wonc  is 
deserving  of  the  warmest  recommendation. 

M.  M.  Pattison  Muir 

The  Great  Thirst  Land;  a  Ride  through  Natal^  Orange 
Free  State ^  Transvaal^  and  Kalahari  Desert.  By  Parker 
Gillmore.    (London  :  Cassell,  Petter,  and  Galpin.) 

Captain  Gillmore's  work  is  disappointing.  The  title 
suggests  Major  Butler's  "Great  Lone  Land,"  but  the 
result  of  a  comparison  of  the  two  works  would  not  be 
very  favourable  to  Capt.  Gillmore's.  He  has  nothing 
new  to  tell  the  geographer,  and  many  of  the  hunting 
stories  are  comparatively  tame.  The  work  is  unneces- 
sarily large,  and  could  with  advantage  be  compressed  to 
hsdf  its  present  size.  Still  there  are  a  number  of  obser- 
vations on  the  Boers  and  the  natives  which  will  interest 
man V,  and  there  are  a  few  good  lion  stories.  The  book  is 
handsomely  got  up. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return, 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  at 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  ii 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  and  navel  facts. \ 

Strychnia  and  its  Antidote 

The  following  circumstance  I  think  worth  noticing.  Wantiog 
to  banish  some  mice  from  a  pantry,  I  placed  on  the  floor  at  night 
a  slice  of  bread  spread  over  with  butter  in  which  I  had  mixed  a 
threepenny  packet  of  "  Battle's  vermin  killer,"  wb*ch  contains 


about  a  gndn  of  strychnia  along  with  floor  and  pmssian  bine. 
The  following  morning  I  was  roused  by  a  servant  telling  me  that 
a  favourite  skye  terrier  was  lying  dead.  I  found  that  the  mice 
had  dragged  the  slice  of  bread  underneath  the  k>cked  door  and 
that  the  dog  had  thus  got  at  it  and  eaten  part  equal  to  about 
one-sixth  of  a  grain  of  strychnia  ;  it  lay  on  its  side  perfectly  rigid ; 
an  occasional  tetanic  spasm  showed  that  life  was  not  quite 
exdnct.  Having  notes  of  the  experimenU  made  by  direction  of 
the  British  Medical  Association  last  year,  on  the  antagonism  of 
medicines,  and  wherein  it  was  conclusively  proved  that  a  fatal 
dose  of  strychnia  could  be  neutralised  by  a  fatal  dose  of  chloral 
hydrate,  and  that  the  minimum  fatal  dose  of  the  latter  for  a 
rabbit  was  twenty-one  grains,  I  at  once  injected  under  the  dog's 
skin  for^-five  grains  of  the  chloral  in  solution,  my  dog  being 
about  twice  the  weight  of  a  rabbit  In  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
£uicying  the  dog  was  dead,  as  the  spasms  had  ceased  and  it  lay 
apparendy  lifeless,  I  moved  it  with  my  foot,  when  it  at  once 
struggled  to  its  feet  and  shortly  after  staggered  to  its  usual 
comer  b^  the  parlour  fire  ;  it  took  some  ^k,  and  except  for 
being  quieter  than  usual  seemed  nothing  the  worse  for  the  ordeal 
it  had  passed  through. 

That  the  fatal  effects  of  a  poisonous  dose  of  strychnia  was  thus 
counteracted  so  successfully  by  what  I  should  say  was  a  poisonous 
dose  of  chloral,  given  hypodermically,  is  an  interesting  fact  veri- 
fying the  ex^ments  I  alluded  to.  Without  such  experiments  on 
the  lower  animals,  a  medical  man  might  often  be  found  standing 
by  helpless  to  aid  his  fellow-man  under  similar  effects  of  poison. 

Sudbury,  Suffolk,  February  27         J.  Sinclair  Holden 

Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evolution 

I  THINK  I  may  be  permitted  to  point  out  that  Dr.  CroU  has 
missed  what  I  had  intended  to  be  the  main  feature  of  my  crilicism 
of  his  article  on  the  "  Age  of  the  Sun  in  RelaUon  to  Evolution." 
I  should  therefore  wish  to  reiterate  that,  in  his  theory,  he  takes 
no  account  of  the  proper  motions  of  the  stars  in  space.  If 
it  be  true  that  suns  or  stars  have  been  formed  by  the  collision  of 
bodies  possessed  of  great  energy,  proper  motion  can  be  none 
other  than  the  unused  and  unconverted  energy  of  the  original 
components.  Supposing  the  forces,  before  impact,  to  be  equal 
and  opposite  in  direction,  there  can  be  no  misunderstanding 
that  the  result  will  be  the  entire  convertion  of  the  "  motion 
of  translation  to  molecular  motion,"  1.^.,  heat ;  but  this,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  chances,  must  be  of  exceedingly 
rare  occurrence.  Yet,  from  our  knowledge  of  the  motions  of 
the  stars  in  space,  this,  or  something  very  like  this,  has  in- 
variably occurred.  Surely  here  is  a  reductio  ad  absurdum.  In 
conclusion  I  will  merely  state  that  I  have  never  yet  claimed  to 
have  suggested  a  theory  reconciling  the  age  of  the  sun  with 
prevailing  opinions  in  geological  science  or  with  the  hypothesis 
of  evolution.  Having  felt  the  difficulty,  I  have  endeavoured  in 
some  measure  to  stretch  the  interval  wherein  these  may  have  had 
time  to  effect  their  chaises,  but  I  have  not  claimed  to  have  suc- 
ceeded to  the  desired  extent.  I  am  not,  therefore,  interested  in 
replying  to  the  former  part  of  Dr.  CroU's  letter,  and  indeed, 
with  certain  minor  resertations,  have  no  hesitation  in  subscribing 

'®i^     „T.       ^.  John  J.  Plummkr 

Orwell  Dene,  Nacton,  February  aS 

The  Zoological  Station  at  Naples 

Permit  me  to  conrect  some  statements  made  in  Nature, 
vol.  xvil  p.  329.  The  small  steam  launch  was  given  to  the 
Zoological  Station  by  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Science,  in 
exchange  for  a  working  Uble  in  the  laboratory,  which  is  to  be 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Academy  for  ten  years.  The 
Prussian  government  subscribed  300/.  towards  the  expenses  of 
the  launch,  which  was  built  by  Messrs.  J.  Thomycroft,  Church 
Wharf,  Chiswick,  and  has  proved  an  excellent  little  craft. 

As  to  the  pubUcations  of  the  Zoological  station,  the  Prodroinus 
Fauna  Mediterranea  will  be  a  compendium  of  all  the  species 
hitherto  observed  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  recorded  in  scien- 
tific works.  Its  publication  is  mainly  intended  to  facilitate  the 
nomenclature  of  the  chief  woric,  the  "Fauna  and  Flora  of  the 
Gulf  of  Naples  and  the  Neighbouring  Seas,"  which  is  to  appear  in 
monographs.  The  Prodromus  has  been  undertaken  by  ProC  T. 
Victor  Cams,  whose  great  knowledge  both  of  zoological  litera- 
ture and  classification  will  answer  its  exactitude  and  completeness 

The  first  monograph  to  be  published  is  not  on  the  Etanophora, 


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bat  on  the  Ctenophora^  a  family  well  known  to  all  students  of 
pelagic  animals.  Anton  Dohrn 

Naples^  February  28 

Faraday's  '*  Experimental  Researches " 

If  your  readers  will  compare  Mr.  Qnaritch's  letter  in  last 
week's  Naturb  with  his  advertisement  of  the  two  preceding 
weeks,  they  will  see  that  it  bears  its  condemnation  on  its  own 
face.  No  words  of  mine  can  make  it  plainer  than  his  do,  that 
a  reprint  of  an  obsolete  and  valuable  book  was  offered  to  the 
public  as  something  not  stated  to  be  a  reprint  Had  that  adver- 
tisement stated  that  the  work  was  a  "  facsimile  reprint,"  there 
could  have  been  no  ground  either  for  complaint  or  for  an  indig- 
nation for  which  no  apology  is  needed. 

University  College,  Bristol  Silvanus  P.  Thompson 


Mimicry  in  Birds 

On  the  evening  of  the  24th  inst.  my  attention  was  attracted  by 
an  interesting  example  of  mimicry  in  the  case  of  the  starling. 
The  first  thing  which  attracted  my  att<mtion  was  hearing  the  cry 
of  a  blackbird  in  distress,  and  on  lookmg  round,  the  only  bird 
to  be  seen  was  a  solitary  starling,  which,  when  I  first  observed 
it,  was  uttering  its  own  note ;  but  almost  immediately  thereafter 
it  began  to  whistle  loudly  in  imitation  of  the  blackbird.  After 
this,  for  the  space  of  about  half  an  hour,  it  kept  up  a  constant 
succession  of  notes  in  mimicry  of  the  chaffinch  and  sparrow, 
always,  however,  using  its  own  note  for  the  space  of  about  half 
a  minute  between  each  change.  I  may  add  that  it  did  not  seem 
to  have'any  particular  order  in  which  it  repeated  the  various 
notes. 

A  gentleman  in  this  neighbourhood  tells  me  that  last  year  he 
observed  a  similar  occurrence  in  his  garden  ;  but  this,  so  far  as 
I  can  learn,  is  the  only  other  instance  of  similar  mimicry  in  this 
quarter.  Perhaps  some  of  your  readers  may  be  able  to  inform 
me  if  it  it  is  of  common  occurrence  elsewhere. 

Edinburgh,  February  26  J.  Stuart  Thomson 


Great  Waterfalls 

Seeing  Mr.  Guillemard's  inouiry  (voL  xvii.  p.  221),  I  refer 
him  for  accounts  of  the  Falls  of  Tequendama,  which  I  visited  in 
185 1,  to  "  Viajes  Cientificos  a los  Andes  Ecnatoriales,  &c.,"  por 
M.  Boussingavdt,  traducidas  por  J.  Acosta ;  Paris,  1849,  and 
"New  Granada  :  Twenty  Months  in  the  Andes,"  by  Prof. 
Isaac  F.  Hotton.    (New  York :  Harpeifand  Brothers,  1857.) 

New  York,  February  Thos.  Bland 


SEVERAL  NEW  APPLICATIONS  OF  SCIENCE 
INTRODUCED  INTO  WAR 

ON  Satitrday  last,  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  and  a  large  following  of  members^ 
visited  the  Portsmouth  Dockyards,  mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  witnessing  some  torpedo  warfare ;  the  Inflexible  was  also 
inspected.  Near  the  starboard  side  of  the  ship^  one  of  the 
sheds  had  been  converted  into  a  temporary  lecture-room, 
and  provided  with  numerous  diagnuns,  a  model  of  the 
ship,  and  a  full-sized  skeleton  model  of  the  80-ton  gun, 
26  feet  long,  6  feet  broad  at  the  breach,  and  having  a 
calibre  of' 16  inches,  with  four  of  which  it  is  intended  to 
arm  the  turrets  of  the  Inflexible*  The  diagrams  were 
drawn  on  a  scale  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  half  an  inch, 
and  6  inches  (half-size)  to  the  foot,  and  were  designed  with 
the  object  of  enabling  the  visitors  to  draw  a  comparison 
between  the  structures  of  the  Dreadnought  and  the  In- 
Jlexibley  and  the  respective  thicknesses  and  disposition  of 
their  armour.  As  soon  as  the  party  had  assembled 
around  the  drawings,  Mr.  W.  B.  Robinson,  the  Chief 
Constructor  of  the  yard,  stepped  forward  and  delivered  a 
brief  illustrative  lecture  on  Uie  main  points  and  differences 
of  the  two  ships.  He  pointed  out  Uiat  while  the  length 
of  the  Inflexible — 320  feet—was  exactly  the  same  as  the 
Dreadnought f  its  beam — j$  feet— was  11  feet  2  inches 
broader ;  that  its  volume  of  displacement  was  greater,  its 


armour  heavier,  its  turrets  thicker,  and  its  armament 
more  formidable.  While,  however,  the  Dreadnought  was 
armoured  along  the  water-line,  the  citadel  of  the  other 
ship,  which  was  placed  upon  an  armoured  deck  below,  was 
the  only  protected  portion  of  the  Inflexible  above  the 
water.  The  arrangements  of  the  turrets  was  also  different ; 
for  whereas  those  of  the  smaller  ship  were  placed  along 
the  middle  line,  the  turrets  of  the  larger  were  echeloned  to 
starboard  and  port  in  order  that  all  the  four  guns  might 
be  trained  upon  an  enemy  either  direct  ahead  or  direct 
astern.  The  weather  deck  between  the  turrets  had  also 
been  raised,  so  that  the  g^ns  could  be  loaded  from  below 
without  the  necessity  of  depressing  their  muzzles.  She 
was  supplied  with  steam  and  hand  pumps,  and  with 
Friedland's  injectors,  which  would  enable  her  to  discharge 
5, 300  tons  of  water  an  hour.  She  had  1 33  water-tight  com- 
partments, and  water  would  be  admitted  into  the  double 
bottom  to  reduce  the  rolling  of  the  ship.  Her  torpedoes 
would  be  dischai^ed  from  submerged  ports  in  the  bows 
instead  of  from  above  the  water  m  the  side,  as  in  the 
Thunderer.  The  ventilating  arrangements  will  be  of  the 
most  perfect  kind  ;  for,  as  Mr.  Robinson  remarked,  while 
in  the  other  ships  the  A-esh  air  is  pumped  into  all  parts, 
no  means  are  adopted  for  assisting  the  vitiated  atmo- 
sphere out  of  the  ship.  In  the  Inflexible^  however,  the 
ventilation  comprises  both  supply  and  exhaust  arrange- 
ments. The  air  is  brought  down  into  an  air  chamber,  or 
cave  of  iColus,  in  the  central  part  of  the  citadel,  and  is 
driven  thence  by  steam  fans  through  large  pipes,  which 
pass  under  the  armour  deck  and  up  into  the  structures 
above,  and  by  means  of  branch  pipes  fitted  with  cocks 
every  compartment  in  the  ship  can  receive  an  abundant 
supply.  By  these  cocks  an  officer  can  regulate  his  air 
supply  in  much  the  same  way  that  a  householder  on 
shore  can  regulate  his  water  supply.  The  vitiated  air  is 
sucked  up  through  pipes  with  perforated  ends  into  the 
funnels,  and  thence  through  the  citadel  into  the  open  air« 
The  Inflexible  will  be  brig-rigged,  but  her  masts  will  be 
unshipped  before  going  into  action.  Her  eng^es  are  of 
8,000-norse  power,  and  she  is  expected  to  attain  a  speed 
of  14  knots. 

Runs  of  the  16-inch  Whitehead  torpedo  were  next  made. 
One  was  fired  from  a  steam  pinnace  as  in  actual  warfare, 
its  course,  which  was  in  a  straight  line  for  about  200  yards, 
being  distinctly  traceable  by  the  exhaust  air-bubbles 
which  it  threw  up.  The  other  was  discharged  from  the 
surface  of  the  water  for  the  purpose  of  showing  how 
readily  it  sank  automatically  to  the  required  depth.  The 
next  novelty  submitted  was  the  steam  pinnace,  which, 
without  having  a  single  man  on  board,  can  do  everything 
but  stoke  and  keep  its  own  fires  alight.  Its  eng^es  are 
worked  and  its  movements  are  controlled  wholly  by  elec- 
tricity, the  cable  which  supplies  it  with  its  mysterious 
power  beinp^  imwound  from  winches  as  the  pinnace  sails 
on  its  nussion,  "  And  drags  at  each  remove  a  lengthen- 
ing chain."  Its  principal  use  is  to  drop  and  explode 
countermines  in  the  neighbourhood  of  an  enemy's  mines, 
and  by  destroying  them  clear  a  harbour  for  the  approach 
of  the  fleet  It  performed  its  work  to  the  amazement  of 
the  beholders  on  Saturdav.  The  countermines  were  re- 
presented by  a  couple  of  barrels  containing  small  charges 
of  gun-cotton,  and  with  these  slung  over  the  sides  it  took 
its  departure  from  the  boat  containing  the  battery  and 
dropped  the  casks  at  a  distance  of  about  200  yards, 
igniting  at  the  same  time  the  fuses  which  blew  the  barrels 
into  match-wood,  and  returned  obediently,  like  a  "  thing 
of  life,*'  to  the  controlling  hand  after  having  accomplished 
its  duty.  Near  at  hand  in  the  basin  the  torpedo  nettings 
for  protecting  ships  against  the  locomotive  torpedo  were 
exhibited  on  the  sides  of  the  Actaon^  while  l^e  prow  of 
the  Bloodhound,  gunboat,  was  armed  with  the  trawl  with 
which  it  is  proposed  to  pick  up  sunken  mines.  The  notes 
of  the  bugle  were  next  heard  as  a  summons  to  quarters 
and  for  the  Thunderer  to  be  cleared  for  action.    In  an 


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{March  7,  1878 


incredibly  short  space  of  time  the  stanchions  and  guard* 
rails  were  flung  down,  the  water-tight  doors  closed,  and 
the  couple  of  Catling  guns  dismounted  from  their  carriages 
on  the  superstructure  deck  and  hoisted  up  to  the 
tops,  whence  they  could  each  discharge  2co  shots  per 
minute  upon  hostile  boats.  Presently  the  process  of 
loading  the  guns  was  gone  through,  in  the  fore  turret  by 
hydraulic  power,  and  in  the  after  turret  by  hand  gear ;  the 
turrets  were  rotated  and  the  guns  run  out,  and  the 
snapping  of  the  tube  fuses  told  the  spectators  that  a 
furious  action  had  commenced. 

The  party  was  next  conveyed  to  the  Vernon^  torpedo 
school,  where  Capt  Arthur  and  Commander  Wilson  had 
still  more  surprising  wonders  in  the  art  of  warfare  for 
them  to  witness.  First  of  all.  Commander  Wilson  deli- 
vered a  hurried  lecture  on  the  mysteries  of  torpedo  science, 
explaining  the  differences  between  offensive  and  defensive 
torpedo  warfare,  the  nature  of  the  several  explosive  sub- 
stances used,  and  the  methods  of  firing  torpedoes — ^me- 
chanically, by  means  of  glass  tubes  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  explode  on  coming  in  contact  with  chloride  of 
potash,  or  glass  tubes  filled  with  potassium,  which  causes 
explosion  on  mixing  with  the  water,  or,  electrically,  by 
means  of  detonation  produced  by  fulminate  of  mercury. 
Commander  Wilson  also  showed  by  means  of  a  model  in  a 
tank  the  method  of  ascertaining  when  a  ship  is  over  a 
sunken  torpedo  by  means  of  cross-bearings,  and  how  the 
mine  is  fired  as  soon  as  the  telescope  which  is  following 
the  movements  of  the  ship  completes  the  electrical  circuit. 
As  the  model,  however,  did  not  sink  with  great  alacrity  in 
its  mimic  ocean,  Commander  Wilson  explained  that  the 
torpedo  did  not  profess  to  destroy  a  ship  instantly,  but 
only  to  knock  a  hole  in  the  bottom  about  the  size  of  a 
barn  door.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  lecture  the  company 
again  went  on  deck,  and  saw  discs  of  dry  and  damp  gun- 
cotton  harmlessly  consumed,  and  how  a  solid  block  of  wood 
could  be  shivered  by  the  same  material  when  exploded  with 
a  detonator.  Next,  on  looking  over  the  bulwarks,  they 
beheld  a  practical  illustration  of  the  boat's  crew  *^  creep- 
ing "  for  an  enemy's  torpedo,  the  process  consisting  in 
dragging  for  the  mooring  chains,  and,  when  found, 
destroying  them  by  a  discharge  of  gun-cott<m.  They 
were  also  shown  the  manner  of  attack  with  star  tor- 
pedoes, firing  lines  of  counter  mines  by  '* bumping*'  the 
circuit  closer,  and,  lastly,  how  attacking  boats  can  be 
destroyed  by  grenades  fired  by  fuses  held  in  the  hand. 
These  beautiful  experiments  closed  the  day's  programme. 

We  are  glad  that  so  large  a  body  of  our  legislators 
were  present,  and  we  are  sure  they  could  not  fail  to  be  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  science  in  its  bearing  on 
war.  In  fact  it  has  become  clear  that  the  more  war  we 
have,  or  are  likely  to  have,  the  more  is  science  needed  ; 
and  it  would  indeed  be  a  very  short-sighted  policy  for 
Government  to  cut  down  the  very  moderate  supplies 
allowed  to  science  for  the  purpose  of  providing  war 
expenditure.  We  hope  that  after  what  they  saw  on 
Saturdav  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  will 
have  a  higher  opinion  of  the  national  value  of  scientific 
research  than  to  adopt  any  such  course. 


METEOROLOGICAL  NOTES 

Tornado  in  Chester  County,  Penn.,  U.S.— Mr. 
Richard  Darlington,  of  Ercildoun  Seminary,  has  pub- 
lished an  account  of  a  remarkable  tornado  which  swept 
over  this  portion  of  the  United  States  on  Sunday,  July  i, 
1877.  The  tornado  appears  to  have  been  first  felt  a  little 
to  westward  of  the  boundary  line  between  Chester  and 
Lancaster  Counties,  and  to  have  thence  run  a  course  of 
twenty-two  miles,  first  in  a  direction  E.  20°  S..  then  E.  15** 
S.,  and  lastly^  E.  7*'  S.,  moving  bodily  onwards  at  rates  of 
from  five  to  fifteen  miles  an  hour,  the  average  progressive 
movement  being  twelve  miles  an  hour.  The  destruction  of 
trees,  houses,  and  other  property  is  estimated  at  about 


40,000  dols.,  the  destruction  being  most  complete  in  those 
cases  where  the  tornado  moved  across  a  valley.  An 
uninterrupted  roar,  like  that  of  thunder,  accompanied  it 
during  its  whole  course,  which  is  sufficiently  accounted 
for  by  the  inherent  energy  of  the  tempest  itself  and  the 
havoc  it  wrought  throughout  its  course,  such  as  twisting 
thick  oak-trunks  in  two,  tearing  up  tall  trees  by  the  roots, 
and  whirling  them  aloft,  and  blowing  down  buildings  and 
scattering  their  contents  in  all  directions.  The  breadth 
of  the  tornado  varied  from  100  to  300  feet,  the  average 
being  200  feet,  though  the  dibris  was  scattered  to  a  greater 
distance  on  either  side.  It  appears  to  have  originated 
between  a  south-west  and  a  north-west  wind,  where  a  large 
dark  cloud  seemed  to  form  in  the  atmosphere,  suspended 
firom  which  was  a  whitish  funnel-shaped  cloud  whirling 
round  in  a  terrible  manner.  The  air  was  thick  with  the 
objects  which  were  whirled  aloft,  the  movements  of  which 
dosdy  resembled  buzzards  sailing  round.  The  rotary  move- 
ment was  to  the  left,  and  the  cone  appeared  to  be  a  cloud 
of  vapour  nearly  white,  connected  at  the  upper  end  with 
a  smooth  surface  of  cloud  somewhat  darker.  The  upper 
portion  of  the  cone  appeared  to  move  in  a  straight  Ime 
and  at  a  uniform  rate,  while  the  tail  or  lower  end  frequently 
bent  in  different  directions,  as  if  swayed  from  its  true  course 
by  the  hills  and  valleys  it  crossed.  No  rain  fell  in  its 
track,  but  hailstones  of  a  large  size  and  in  great  quantity 
fell  at  intervals  along  its  north  side.  Trees  in  the  northern 
half  of  the  track  were  generally  thrown  down  with  their 
tops  to  the  south,  while  those  on  the  southern  side  were 
thrown  to  the  north ;  but  at  certain  points,  such  as  at 
Ercildoun,  trees  and  other  dkbris  were  thrown  down  in 
what  appeared  to  be  inextricable  confusion.  Some  of  the 
observers  state  that  the  dkbris  ascended  up  the  centre  of 
the  funnel-shaped  cloud  and  fell  back  to  the  ground  outside 
it,  but  the  tornado  was  too  sudden,  brief,  and  appalling  to 
admit  of  careful  observations  being  made  on  this  point, 
which  is  all-important  in  its  bearing  on  the  theory  of 
tornadoes.  No  tornado  is  known  previously  to  have 
traversed  this  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  Law  and  Origin  of  Thunderstorms.— -In  the 
Christmas  issue  of  the  Bulletin  International  of  the  Paris 
Observatory,  there  is  an  interesting  note  on  this  subject 
by  Prof.  Ch.  V.  Zenger,  of  Prague.  He  has  examined 
the  thunderstorms  which  occurred  at  Prague  during  the 
ten  years  ending  1849,  and  those  at  Vienna  during  the 
four  years  ending  1875,  arranging  the  dates  of  their  occur- 
rence according  to  the  semi-solar  days  each  period  of 
observation  embraced,  there  being  twenty-nine  such  semi- 
solar  days  in  each  year.  The  general  result  is  that, 
dividing  the  semi-solar  day  into  three  equal  portions, 
47  per  cent  of  the  whole  thunderstorms  occurred  in  one 
of  these  portions,  32  per  cent,  in  another,  while  only  21 
per  cent,  occurred  in  the  third.  Prof.  Zenger  is  of  opinion 
that  this  result  points  to  a  cosmical  origin  for  the 
thunderstorm,  operating,  no  doubt,  on  pre-existing  ter- 
restrial conditions,  an  opinion  which  receives  some 
countenance  from  the  relation  subsisting  between  thun- 
derstorms and  auroral  and  magnetic  perturbations.  The 
subject  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  call  for  a  wider  and 
more  exhaustive  treatment. 

Monthly  Meteorological  Bulletin  of  the 
MoNTsouRis  Observatory,  No.  69.— This  number 
gives  the  observations  for  August  last,  which  now  include, 
for  the  first  time,  the  hourly  velocities  of  the  wind  in 
addition  to  the  hourly  temperatures  and  rainfall,  which 
were  added  some  months  ago.  The  daily  minimum 
velocity  of  the  wind,  7*2  miles  per  hour,  for  August  occurred 
about  6.  A.M.,  and  the  maximum  velocity,  13*1  miles  per 
hour,  about  2  p.m.,  the  increase  in  the  wind*s  velocity 
being  thus  nearly  doubled  between  these  hours.  These 
hours  are  all  but  coincident  with  the  hours  of  mean 
minimum  and  maximum  temperature.  The  table  of  the 
hourly  amounts  of  the  rainfall  is  a  peculiarly  valuable 
one.    Several  years  must,  however,  elapse  before  its  full 


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363 


valoe  will  be  seen  in  determining  the  carve  of  the  diurnal 
variation  of  the  rainfall.  We  note,  with  much  satis- 
faction, the  continual  prosecution  of  the  important  inquiry 
into  the  chemical  climatology  of  Paris. 

Meteorology  of  Western  Australia.— We  have 
recently  received  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the  meteo- 
rology of  Australia,  which  is  being  so  energetically  worked 
out  by  Messrs.  Todd,  Ellery,  Russell,  and  Macdonnell,  in 
the  form  of  a  first  Report  of  the  Meteorology  of  Western 
Australia,  by  Mr.  Malcolm  Fraser,  Surveyor-General  for 
the  Colony.  The  report  contains  a  good  summary  of  a 
pretty  complete  set  of  observations  made  during  the 
whole  of  1876  at  Perth,  and  the  barometric  means  for  five 
months  at  Point  King  Lighthouse,  on  the  south  coast  The 
chief  results  are,  for  the  summer  months,  mean  monthly 
pressure — 29*915  inches,  temperature  74° 7,  rainfall  0*54 
mch,  and  wind  velocity  in  miles  404 ;  and  for  the  winter 
months — pressure  30*177  inches,  temperature  57''*5,  rainfall 
4*90  inches,  and  wind  velocity  280  miles.  The  lowest  tem- 
perature for  the  year  was  34'7,  and  the  highest  ii2°*o,  on 
February  20,  and  it  may  be  noted  that  the  mean  daily 
maxima  for  this  month  was  as  high  as  93^7.  Speaking 
generally,  the  winds  in  summer  blow  from  the  sea  inland, 
and  in  winter  from  the  land  seawards,  little  rain  falling 
in  the  former  season,  whereas  in  the  latter  season  the  rain- 
fall is  copious  but  not  excessive.  The  smallest  rainfall  of 
any  month  was  0*04  inch  in  February,  falling  on  one  day, 
and  the  largest  8*45  inches  in  J  une,  falling  on  nineteen 
days.  It  is  contemplated  to  establish  stations  at  Nickol 
Bay,  Champion  Bay,  and  York ;  but  a  still  further  exten- 
sion of  the  system  is  required,  not  merely  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  climatology  of  the  colony,  of  which  we  may 
be  said  to  know  next  to  nothing,  but  also  from  the 
important  bearing  of  the  meteorology  of  Western  Australia 
on  that  of  the  whole  continent  of  Australia,  particularly 
on  the  system  of  weather  warnings  for  that  group  of 
colonies. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Uranian  Satellites,  Ariel  and  Umbriel.— 
We  continue  the  ephemeris  of  the  two  interior  sateUites 
of  Uranus,  making  use  of  Prof.  Newcomb's  tables  in  the 
appendix  to  the  Washington  Observations  for  1873.  The 
positions  and  distances  are  for  9h.  Greenwich  mean  time, 
when  the  planet  will  be  near  the  meridian  during  the 
period  over  which  the  ephemeris  extends ;  though  these 
are  given  for  every  evening,  the  presence  of  the  moon  in 
this  quarter  of  the  heavens  may  interfere  with  observation 
on  or  about  March  16. 


Ariel. 

Umbriel. 

8 

Pes. 

358 

Dist. 

12-6 

Pos. 

0 

3'2 

Dis^. 

7'9 

9 

191 

152 

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195 

ft 

20 -6 

10 

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12*4 

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241 

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ft 

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10-6 

13 

0 

13*3 

»» 

201 

ft 

191 

14 

193 

151 

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12*1 

IS 

19 

11-5 

i> 

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256 

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>» 

347 

ft 

136 

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150 

8*4 

f  * 

206 

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16 '9 

18 

3 

'3g 

i» 

171 

ff 

I5-X 

19 

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14-8 

a 

30 

ft 

156 

20 

33 

105 

»> 

355 

%^ 

i6-5 

21 

272 

51 

>i 

214 

ft 

141 

22 

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9*4 

»» 

178 

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177 

23 

5 

144 

ft 

39 

ft 

12-6 

24 

198 

14-4 

ft 

I 

ft 

l8-8 

The  Transit  of  Mercury  on  May  6.— The  Nautical 
Almanac  furnishes  the  usual  elements  of  this  phenomenon 
and  the  times  of  the  contacts  and  of  least  distance  of 
centres  referred  to  the  centre  of  the  earth,  with  the  neces- 
sary formulas  for  reducing  the  moment^  of  contact  tp  ^y 


place  upon  the  earth's  surface.  The  following  figures 
result  for  Greenwich,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin ;  Green- 
wich mean  times  at  the  respective  observatories  : — 

First  External  First  Internal 

Contact.  Contact, 

h.  m.    9*  h.  m.  s. 

Greenwich      3  10  58      3  14  4 

Edinbui^h      3  11    o      3  14  6 

Dablia  3  "    3      3  H  9 

The  least  distance  of  the  centres  (4'  47")  takes  place  at 
6h.  58"5m.  and,  as  the  sun  will  set  at  7h.  29111.,  76.  47m., 
and  7h.  36m.  local  mean  times  at  these  places  respectively, 
rather  more  than  half  the  transit  iwill  be  visible.  The 
final  contacts  may  be  well  observed  in  America. 

The  Radcliffe  Observatory.— The  Radcliffe  Ob- 
server is  again  punctual  in  the  distribution  of  his  volume 
of  Observations,  VoL  xxxv.,  containing  the  work  in  the 
year  1875,  having  been  in  the  hands  of  astronomers 
several  weeks.  The  only  new  feature  is  the  publication  of 
observations  of  the  solar  spots ;  the  distances  from  the  sun's 
limbs  are  fixed  by  transits  and  by  readings  of  the  decli- 
nation circle  of  the  heliometer ;  descriptions  and  sketches 
of  the  forms  of  the  spots  are  included.  Nearly  1,200  stars 
were  meridionally  observed.  At  the  end  of  the  Intro- 
duction, Mr.  Main  has  exhibited  the  apparent  errors  of 
Tabular  R.A.  of  the  moon's  limbs,  as  given  on  the  same 
day  by  the  observers  at  Oxford  and  Greenwich  in  1863 
and  1864,  and  from  1870  to  1874  inclusive.  As  usual  the 
meteorological  observations  taken  at  the  Radcliffe  Obser-  < 
vatory  are  published  in  considerable  detail. 

The  Harvard  College  Observatory,  U.S.— Prof. 
Pickering  has  issued  a  report  of  proceedings'  at  this 
observatory  during  the  year  ended  November  i,  1877, 
with  an  outline  of  the  course  of  observations  intended  to 
be  pursued  in  future  with  the  15-inch  refractor  and  the 
meridian  circle,  the  telescope  of  which  has  an  aperture  of 
eight  inches.  The  newly-discovered  satellites  of  Mars 
have  been' the  objects  to  which  most  attention  has  been 
directed  with  the  refractor^  the  observations  consisting 
not  only  in  a  series  of  measures  of  positions  and  distances 
which  Prof.  Pickering  believes  [to  be  second  only  to  the 
very  complete  series  obtained  by  the  discoverer  with  the 
large  Washington  instrument,  but  in  a  numerous  series  of 
photometric  comparisons  with  the  planet  on  methods 
explained  in  the  Report,  by  which  the  image  of  Mars  was 
brought  to  the  same  degree  of  brightness  as  each  satellite. 
It  was  remarked  under  favourable  opportunities  for  com- 
parison that  the  outer  satellite  did  not  partake  of  the  red 
colour  of  Mars,  which  Prof.  Pickering  observes  is  "a 
curious  result,  and  having  an  important  value  in  any 
theory  of  the  cause  of  the  peculiar  colour  of  Mars.**  The 
observations  were  not  wholly  reduced  at  the  time  the 
Report  was  issued,  but  an  approximate  reduction  gave  the 
diameter  of  the  outer  satellite  about  5*9  miles,  and  that  of 
the  inner  one,  6*5  miles.  "  As  the  darker  colour  of  the 
outer  satellite  somewhat  diminishes  its  light,''  it  was  con- 
sidered safe  to  call  it  about  six  miles  in  diameter,  a:nd  the 
inner  satellite  seven  miles.  These  comparisons  were  made 
between  August  27  and  October  i^  A  large  number  of 
sirnUar  measurements  of  seven  of  the  satellites  of  Saturn, 
including  the  very  faint  object,  Hyperion,  have  also  been 
obtained.  Remarking  that  other  classes  of  observation 
appear  to  be  well  carea  for  at  various  observatories  in  the 
United  States  (Dr.  Peters  being  engaged  in  the  determin- 
ation of  the  small  stars  near  the  ecliptic,  at  Clinton ;  the 
great  telescopes  of  Washington,  Chicago,  and  Cincinnati, 
being  used  almost  exclusively  for  micrometric  measures  ; 
spectroscopy  being  the  intended  line  of  observation  at 
Princeton  College ;  and  the  telescopes  of  Mr.  Rutherford 
and  Dr.  Draper  being  largely  us6d  for  photographic  pur- 
poses),  Prof.  Pickering  intends  to  devote  the  Harvard 
refractor  mainly  to  photometry  as  "a  field  almost  wholly 
unexplored  with  large  telescopes,"  in  America  or  else- 
where.   The  meridian-circle  appears  to  have  been  chiefly 


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employed  in  the  determination  of  stars  to  the  ninth  mag- 
nitude inclusive  in  the  zone  included  between  +  50**  and 
+  55°  of  declination,  undertaken  at  the  instance  of  the 
Astronomische  Gesellschaft,  and  this  work  approaches  a 
conclusion.  Upwards  of  40,000  observations  have  been 
made  with  the  meridian-circle  since  it  was  mounted  at 
the  end  of  1870.  The  personal  establishment  at  Harvard 
College  now  consists  of  Prof.  Edward  C.  Pickering,  as 
director,  assisted  by  Prof.  Rogers,  and  Messrs.  Searle, 
Waldo,  and  Upton.  Vol.  x.  of  the  Annals  of  the  Obser- 
vatory has  been  published  during  the  past  year.  Vol  ix.. 
with  photometric  observations  1872-75,  is  to  follow,  and 
is  nearly  ready  for  issue. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

The  Albert  Nyanza. — In  his  recent  examination  of 
Albert  Nyanza,  to  which  we  have  already  referred,  CoL 
A.  M.  Mason  examined  every  inlet  or  indentation  of  the 
coast-line.  Starting  from  Magungo  in  the  s.s.  Nyanza^ 
CoL  Mason  followed  the  western  shore,  and  found  it  over- 
hung by  lofty  mountains,  notwithstanding  which  there 
seemed  to  be  a  large  population.  On  the  first  day  the 
party  reached  Nurswar,  and  on  the  next  continued  their 
route  to  the  south-west ;  after  a  six  hours'  nm,  they  found 
that  the  coast-line  trended  more  to  the  south,  forming  a 
wide  plain,  which  in  some  places  was  covered  with  very 
heavy,  thick  forests.  On  the  third  day  they  crossed  a 
wide  bav  to  Kavalee.  Soon  after  leavmg  Kavalee,  CoL 
Mason  found  that  the  coast-line  turned  to  the  eastward, 
and  in  two  hours'  time  they  reached  a  mass  of  ambatch 
(like  Signor  Gessi),  and  found  the  south  end  of  the  lake 
very  shallow.  In  the  south-west  comer  CoL  Mason 
noticed  a  second  large  bay,  and  from  a  depression  in  the 
mount^ns  and  a  thick  line  of  forest,  he  fancied  that  there 
might  be  a  river  emptying  into  the  lake  at  that  point,  but 
he  could  find  no  entrance,  and  this  accorded  with  what  he 
had  been  told  at  Kavalee,  that  no  river  joined  the  lake 
near  there.  On  the  morning  of  the  fourth  day,  after 
entering  a  number  of  small,  shallow  bights,  he  finallv 
reached  a  broad  river,  the  waters  of  which  were  reddish 
in  colour,  with  a  slight  northerly  current  The  width  of 
the  stream  is  about  400  yards,  the  banks  high  and  well- 
defined,  and  clothed  with  forests.  CoL  Mason  was  only 
able  to  proceed  up  this  river  for  one  hour,  owing  to  the 
shallowness  of  the  water,  and  there  seemed  to  be  a  mass 
of  vegetation  blocking  the  way  to  the  south ;  to  the  south- 
east he  observed  an  immense  forest  of  date-palms,  and  to 
the  south  and  south-west  an  undulating  country,  covered 
with  large  trees.  After  leaving  this  river  he  found  that  he 
had  crossed  the  lake,  and  that  their  course  turned  to  the 
northward.  On  both  sides  of  the  lake  the  mountains 
were  found  to  diminish  in  altitude,  and  to  the  southward, 
at  the  foot  of  the  lake  and  between  the  two  ranges,  was  a 
large  isolated  moimtain,  which  was  found  to  be  in  N.  lat 
1°  11'.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  Lake  Albert  does  not 
extend,  as  has  been  asserted,  to  the  first  parallel  of  north 
latitude.  In  his  northward  course  CoL  Mason  found  that 
the  mountains  were  not  so  high  as  on  the  western  shore, 
and  that  in  only  one  place  were  the  cliffs  as  loftv  as  the 
highest  on  the  opposite  coast  There  was  a  marked  dif- 
ference, too,  in  the  vegetation  \  on  the  western  shore  the 
mountains  are  well  covered  with  timber  and  verdure,  and 
in  many  parts  the  natives  have  cleared  places  for  cultiva- 
tion, whi^  on  Uie  east  the  mountains  are  barren,  with 
neither  timber  nor  vegetation.  On  the  fifth  day  the  party 
passed  several  large  collages,  one  of  which  was  said  to  be 
the  residence  of  Kava  Gonza,  brother  to  Kaba  Rega,  and, 
soon  after,  the  village  of  Tiaboa  was  reached,  above 
which  the  country  is  nat,  and  the  coast-line  trends  to  the 
norUi.  From  his  observations  CoL  Mason  found  that 
Kavalee,  near  the  south-west  angle  of  Lake  Albert,  was 
in  N.  lat  1°  22'  20",  and  the  south-east  angle  in  N.  lat 


Mr.  Stanley's  Work.— Mr.  Stanley  is  engaged  in 
writing  a  full  account  of  his  most  important  journey  across 
Africa ;  and  at  present  he  is  doing  so  with  characteristic 
energ)r.  Already  a  laree  portion  of  his  manuscript  is  in 
the  printer's  hands,  and  his  work  will  doubtless  be  ready 
for  publication  in  May  next  Mr.  Stanley  carried  with 
him  through  the  whole  of  his  arduous  journey  a  heavy 
photographic  apparatus,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  many 
very  good  negatives  of  views  and  groups  on  the  grreat 
lakes  and  on  the  Congo.  The  interest  of  these  pictures 
can  scarcely  be  over-estimated.  They  will  be  reproduced 
as  full-page  woodcuts  in  the  volumes,  which  will  also 
contain  an  unusuallv  large  number  of  vivid  scenes  and 
incidents  from  excellent  sketches  made  by  Mr.  Stanley 
himself.  Perhaps  the  most  important  feature  of  the 
work  will  be  the  chart  of  the  Congo,  which  has 
been  so  minutely  and  elaborately  mapped,  that  it  will 
require  a  scale  of  an  inch  and  a  half  to  a  degree  to  embody 
in  the  smallest  writing  the  information  conveyed.  Besides 
this  large  route  map,  which  will  be  in  two  parts,  the  work 
will  also  contain  several  maps  of  a  valuable  and  interest- 
ing character.  The  work  will  be  published  simultaneously, 
the  Publisher^  Circular  informs  us,  or  as  nearly  so  as 
can  be  arranged,  by  Messrs.  Sampson  Low  and  Co.  in 
England ;  by  Messrs.  Harper  and  Brothers,  New  York  ; 
in  French  by  Messrs.  Hachette  and  Co.,  Paris;  in 
German  by  M.  Brockhaus,  Leipsic ;  in  Danish  by  M. 
Mailings,  of  Christiania.  Negotiations  are  also  pending 
for  translations  into  the  Swedish,  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
Russian  languages.  The  title  is,  '^  Through  the  Dark 
Continent ;  tne  Sources  of  the  Nile ;  around  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  down  the  Conga''  We  are  pleased  to  see 
that  Uie  Geographical  Magazine  of  this  month  hand- 
somely acknowledges  that  its  previous  hard  judgment  on 
Mr.  Stanley's  con£ict  was  unjustifiable. 

South-West  Africa.— -In  his  monthly  sommarv, 
Dr.  Behm  refers  briefly  to  an  important  journey  made 
by  two  Rhenish  missionaries  last  summer  between  the 
Cunane  river  and  21**  south  lat  They  found  that  the 
coast  mountains,  opposite  Wallfisch  Bay,  extend  far  to  the 
north-west,  with  a  height  of  from  4,000  to  4^500  feet  The 
travellers  have  noted  many  important  details  in  their  map 
which  will  form  an  important  supplement  to  existing 
maps  of  Africa,  as  the  region  traversed  is  almost 
unknown. 

African  Dwarfs.-— Dr.  O.  Lenz  contributes  to  the 
Mittheilungen  of  the  Vienna  Geographical  Society  for 
January  an  important  paper  on  this  subject.  He  describes 
nis  own  observations  on  the  Abongo  of  the  Ogov^,  whose 
average  height  is  133-152  centimetres.  Dr.  Lenz  con- 
cludes that  all  the  dmrfish  African  peoples — the  Abongo 
of  the  Ogov^,  the  Dongo  of  the  SeUe  River,  the  Bakke- 
Bakke  of  the  Loango  Coast—are  only  part  of  an  original 
great  negro  [people,  ^who.  are  also  found  in  the  interior 
under  various  names— as  Kenkob  in  the  Lufum  country, 
Mala-Gilag^  in  the  south  of  Bagirmi ;  and  further  east, 
as  Mka,  Doko,  Berikomo,  &c. ;  and  that  this  great 
people,  who  were  perhaps  the  abori^al  inhabitants,  the 
true  autochthones  of  equatorial  Africa,  have  been  sup- 
planted and  destroyed  by  other  migratory  peoples.  Dr. 
Lenz  places  the  Btmmen  in  a  similar  category. 

The  North-East  Passage.— Prof.  Nordenskj61d  and 
Mr.  Dickson  of  Goteborg,  recentl^r  paid  a  visit  to  Hull 
in  order  to  make  various  preparations  for  their  intended 
Arctic  expedition.  It  is  also  announced  that  Lieut 
Sandeberg  intends  to  organise  a  scientific  expedition  to 
Kolgajeff,  the  Petchora,  Hvide6,  and  the  Siberian  coast 
during  ti^e  approaching  summer  ;  he  has  already  hired  a 
vessel  for  this  purpose,  and  intends  to  be  absent  for  about 
six  months. 

Dr.  Lenz. — The  well-known  Afirican  traveller,  Dr 
Oskar  Lenz,  has  been  presented  with  the  cross  of  the 
Albrecht  Order  by  the  King  of  Saxony. 


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POPULAR  NATURAL  HISTORY "^ 

"lllTE  have  to  congratulate  the  puhh'shers  of  this  fine 
W  volume  on  its  appearance,  for,  on  a  careful  perusal, 
it  strikes  us  as  very  eminently  fitted  to  supply  a  known 
public  want  On  one  or  two  previous  occasions  the  same 
firm  have  7)ttblished  large  and  well-illustrated  works  on 
nataral  historyi  the  descriptive  portions  of  which  were,  to 
say  the  least  possible  of  them,  not  in  any  way  up  to  the 
saence  of  the  day ;  but  we  have  lately  gladly  witnessed 
an  infinitely  more  careful  editing  of  such  works  on  natural 
history  as  have  been  published  by  Cassell  and  Co.,  and 
the  present  work,  so  far  as  its  descriptive  portion  is  con- 
cerned, can  boast  of  being  written  by  men  so  well  known 
as  Duncan,  Dallas,  and  Murie,  while  the  illustrations. 


Fig.  X.— The  Negro  Monkey  {JSemnopithtcus  maurus). 

many  of  which  are  very  beautiful,  and  the  general  style 
of  the  get-up  of  the  volume  may  well  be  left  to  tell  their 
own  tale. 

The  work  aims  at  being  an  encyclopaedia  of  the  Natural 
History  of  the  Animal  Kmgdom,  and  this,  which  forms  its 
first  volume,  contains  an  account  of  the  apes  and  monkeys, 
by  the  Editor  ;  of  the  lemurs,  by  Dr.  Murie,  and  of  the 
bats  and  insect-eating  mammals,  by  Mr.  Dallas.  May  we, 
in  the  interest  of  the  success  of  the  work,  suggest,  that  in 
order  to  complete  the  publication  of  such  a  work,  within  a 

'  "Cassell's  Natural  History."  edited  by  P.  Martin  Duncan,  M.B. 
(Lond.X  F.R.S.  Vol  i.  Illustrated.  (Cassell,  Fetter,  and  Galpin,  Londoa* 
Paris,  and  New  York.) 


reasonable  time,  there  ought  to  be  different  portions  of  it 
simultaneously  published.  Thus  there  would  be  nothing 
to  hinder  the  volumes  on  fishes  being  published  alongside 
of  those  of  the  mammals,  and  it  would  be  decidedly  well 
to  publish  those  volumes  that  wOl  treat  of  the  sponges 
and  corals  long  before  this  portion  of  the  animal  kingdom 
would  in  the  ordinary  course  be  reached  ;  but  we  venture 
this  only  as  a  suggestion. 

The  Editor  teUs  us  that  the  volume  before  us  is  meant 
to  explain  the  many  interesting  facts  of  the  natural 
history  of  animals,  and  that  every  endeavour  has  been 
made  to  unite  zoology  with  comparative  anatomy ;  the 
aim  is  high  and  the  idea  is  a  good  one,  but  the  authors 
sometimes  fail  to  come  up  to  the  standard  they  hold 
before  them.  It  is  perhaps  not  to  be  wondered  at,  for  do 
not  the  very  words  of  our  Enelish  language  seem  to  fight 
against  the  perfect  accomplishment  of  such  aims.  Ver- 
tebra, says  Dr.  Duncan,  is  a  Latin  word,  which  means  *'  a 
turning  joint  in  the  body,"  or^  "a  back  bone."  What 
idea  will  the  English  youth  take  away  of  this  Latin  word  ? 

We  regret  a  little  to  see  the  attempt  to  give  each  animal 
what  we  suppose  we  must  call  an  English  name,  and  we  are 
tempted  to  ask.  Which  is  it  easier  to  say,  Troglodytes  calvus 
or  Nschiegombouve  f  The  former  is  the  scientific  name  of 
a  little-known  ape ;  the  latter  is  the  name  we  are  to  make 
believe,  as  the  young  folk  say,  is  English.  It  would  have 
been  better  if  both  names  had  been  equally  conspicuous, 
then  we  could  have  taken  our  choice,  and  we  can  see  no 
good  reason  for  burying  the  scientific  name  in  a  foot-note. 

As  specimens  of  the  style  and  illustrations,  we  have 
selected  the  following  :— "  Thfe  Negro  Monkey  {Semnopi- 
tJucus  maurus)  (Fig.  i)  is  of  an  intensely  black  colour, 
except  underneath,  and  at  the  root  of  the  tail,  where  there 
is  a  grey  tint.  The  paws  are  long,  delicate,  and  silky, 
and  become  slightly  grey  on  the  head  and  back  with  old 
age.  Like  most  black  things  it  leads  a  troubled  lif&  being 
chased  and  himted,  not,  however^  in  the  Javanese  forests, 
and  sometimes  fifty  or  more  individuals  associate  together. 
The  Negro  Monkeys  make  rude  nests  on  trees,  and  are  ex- 
tremely timid,  making  off  with  great  haste  if  they  are  dis- 
turbed. A  long  series  of  generations  have  been  chased  and 
killed  by  the  natives  of  Java,  and  therefore  the  present 
Negro  Monkeys  are  exceedingly  shy,  and  bolt  from  the  face 
of  man  at  once.  And  yet,  although  thus  timid  and  anxious 
to  get  out  of  the  way,  they  have  the  reputation  of  being 
dangerous,  and  really  unwittingly  they  may  be  so.  On  the 
approach  of  men  they  utter  loud  screams,  and  scamper 
off  amongst  the  trees,  helter-skelter.  Now  in  doing  this 
they  break  dead  branches  off,  and  sometimes  a  large  fiiiit 
or  nut  comes  tumbling  down  some  score  or  two  of  feet. 
These  are  supposed  to  be  thrown  by  the  monkeys,  but 
such  is  not  Uie  case.  Having  this  bad  character,  the 
'  Negroes '  are  cudgelled  with  sticks,  and  killed  in  num- 
bers very  cruelly.  Their  pretty  fur  is  much  prized,  and 
the  chiefs  of  the  country  arrange  the  hunting  parties, 
treating  the  monkeys  really  as  beasts  of  the  fidd.  The 
skin  is  prepared  by  a  simple  process  which  the  natives 
have  learned  from  Europeans,  and  they  conduct  it  with 
great  skill.  It  affords  a  fur  of  a  jet-black  colour,  covered 
with  long  silky  hairs,  which  is  used  by  the  natives  and 
Europeans  there  in  ornamenting  riding  saddlery  and  in 
militaiy  decoration. 

"  When  young  they  are  of  a  brown  or  reddish  tint,  and 
thin  grey  tints  appear  preceding  the  intense  black ;  they 
then  eat  buds  and  shoots  and  tender  leaves,  but  in  adult 
age  they  are  fruit-consumers.  When  in  captivity  they  are 
sullen  and  morose,  and  they  will  remain  sulky  for  many 
months.  This  the  natives  loiow,  and  therefore  they  never 
try  to  tame  them  or  to  have  them  in  their  houses." 

Another  pretty  illustration  taken  from  the  Proceedings 
of  the  London  Zoological  Society,  is  that  of  the  Red- 
bellied  Monkey  {Cercopithecus  erythrogaster\  which  is 
described  as  follows : — 

"  When  living  at  the  Zoological  Gardens  in  the  Regent's 


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Park,  this  pretty  monkey,  with  a  red  chest  and  belly,  and 
slim  tail,  was  very  timid,  but  it  liked  to  be  petted  by  the 
keeper,  being  somewhat  distrustful  of  its  more  romping 
companions.  It  would  take  food  out  of  his  hand,  and 
seemed  pleased,  and  generally  played  with  his  fingers 
without  attempting  to  bite.  The  canine  teeth  were  very 
moderately  grown  (Fig.  2). 

*'  This  monkey  inhabits  Western  Africa,  and  is  at  once 
known  by  the  red  belly  and  chest,  the  white  beard  and 
whiskers,  and  the  black  band  across  the  forehead.  It 
has,  moreover,  a  yellow  crown." 


As  a  last  illustration  we  select  that  of  a  most  remark- 
able animal,  the  West  African  River  Shrew  {PotamogaU 
velox^  Fig.  3). 

^  This  was  originally  described  by  its  discoverer,  M. 
du  Chaillu,  as  a  carnivore,  under  the  name  of  CynogaU 
veloxy  but  as  its  characters  were  very  doubtful,  the  name 
Potamogale  was  suggested  for  it  in  case  of  its  proving  to 
belong  to  a  distinct  genus.  The  late  Dr.  Gray  described 
it  as  a  rodent  under  the  name  of  Mythomis.  Some  years 
later  Prof.  Allman  and  Prof.  Barboza  du  Bocs^e  procured 
!  perfect  specimens,  and  proved  the  animal  to  belong  to  the 


Fig.  2. — Red-bellied  Monkey  {JCercopitkecns  erythrcgaster). 


insectivora,  the  latter  naturalist  describing  it  under  the 
new  name  of  Bayonia  velox.  Thus  within  a  few  years  it 
received  no  less  than  three  different  names. 

When  the  insectivorous  nature  of  Du  Chaillu's  River 
Shrew  was  ascertained,  it  was  found  to  be  most  nearly 
allied  to  the  Centetidse  or  Tanrecs,  with  special  affinities 
to  the  West  Indian  Solenodens.  It  is,  however,  generally 
regarded  as  constituting  a  distinct  family,  characterised, 
among  other  things,  by  the  less  cylindrical  skull,  the 
absence  of  clavicles,  the  union  of  the  two  bones  of  the 
shank  towards  the  extremity,  the  presence  of  anal  glands, 
and  the  compressed  form  ot  the  ta^.  The  teeth,  as  in  the 
true  Tanrecs,  are  forty  in  number,  but  the  molars  differ  con- 
siderably ^in  form,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  figures. 


This  little  beast,  which  has  given  rise  to*  so  much  dis- 
cussion among  zoologists,  and  received  so  many  names, 
is  only  a  little  larger  than  our  conmion  stoat,  measuring 
about  nine  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  powerful  tail, 
which  is  of  about  the  same  length.  In  its  appearance  it 
very  much  reminds  one  of  a  miniature  otter,  m>m  which, 
however,  it  differs  considerably  in  the  form  of  the  head^ 
which  terminates  in  a  broad  flattened  muzzle,  havmg  its 
sides  furnished  with  a  most  luxuriant  crop  of  stiff  bristle- 
like whiskers.  The  hair  of  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
and  limbs  is  brown  and  soft,  although  rather  coarse,  and 
that  of  the  lower  surface  yellowish  ;  and  the  coat  consists 
of  two  kinds  of  hairs,  namely,  an  inner  coat  of  very  fine 
short  silky  hairs,  through  which  longer  hairs  of  a  very 


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peculiar  structure  project  These  long  hairs  are  very 
thhi  at  the  bulb,  and  increase  very  gradually  in  thickness 
for  about  one-third  of  their  lengUi,  when  they  suddenly 
contract  a  little,  and  then  expand  into  a  flat  lance>shaped 
blade,  which  terminates  in  a  verv  fine  point  This 
coarser  part  covers  the  whole  body,  the  thick  root  of  the 
tally  and  the  upper  part  of  the  limbs  ;  the  rest  of  the  tail, 
the  under  side  of  the  muzzle,  and  the  upper  surface  of  the 
feet  are  clothed  with  short,  close  hairs.  The  ears  are  of 
moderate  size,  the  eyes  very  small,  and  the  toes  on  all 
the  feet,  five  in  number,  are  armed  with  small  sharp  claws, 
and  without  webs,  but  the  second  and  third  toes  on  the 
hind  feet  are  united  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  first  phalanx. 


The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  animal  is  its 
tail,  which  presents  a  most  unusual  development  for  an 
insectivorous  mammal  Prof.  Allman  says  :— ''  It  is  so 
thick  at  its  base  that  the  trunk  seems  uninterruptedly 
continued  into  it ;  but  it  soon  becomes  laterally  com- 
pressed, and  then  grows  gradually  thinner  and  narrower 

towards  the  tip Its  lower  edge  is  rounded,  and  its 

upper  is  continued  into  a  membranous  crest  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  height,  and  clothed  with  the  same 
short,  stiff,  appressed  hairs  **  as  the  rest  of  the  tail 

This  great  development  of  the  tail  might  of  itself  con- 
vince us  that  this  organ  is  of  great  service  to  its  owner, 
and  such,  from  the  account  of  the  habifs  of  the  animal 


Fig.  3. — West  African  River  Shrewr  {,PoU\mogaU  veu)x\ 


given  by  its  discoverer,  is  evidently  the  case.  M.  du 
Chaillu  says:— "This  extraordinary  animal  (Fig.  3)  is 
found  in  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  or  in  the  hilly 
country  explored  by  me  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 
It  is  foimd  along  the  water-courses  of  limpid  and  clear 
streams,  where  fish  are  abundant  It  hides  under  rocks 
along  these  streams,  lying  in  wait  for  fish.  It  swims 
through  the  water  with  a  rapidity  which  astonished  me  ; 
before  the  fish  has  time  to  move  it  is  caught  On  account 
of  the  rapidity  of  its  movements  I  have  given  it  the  specific 
name  of  Velox,  The  animal  returns  to  land  with  its  prey 
almost  as  rapidly  as  it  started  from  its  place  of  conceal- 


ment The  great  motive  power  of  the  animal  in  the  water 
seems  to  be  in  its  tail" 

So  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  read  over  this  volume,  we 
have  found  that  great  pains  have  been  taken  to  record  all 
the  novel  facts  known  about  the  animals  here  treated  of. 
We  perceive  an  account  of  the  nest-building  power  of 
that  most  extraordinary  Madagascar  lemur,  the  Aye-Aye 
{Cheiromys  mada^ascarensis)  and  the  strange  instances  of 
mimicry  about  the  bats,  first  noticed  by  Dr.  Dobson,  is 
to  be  found  also  noticed. 

An  index  to  each  volume  would  be  a  very  desirable 
addition. 


NITRIFICATION 

npHE  origin  of  salpetre  is  a  subject  which  has  vexed 
-*•  the  minds  of  several  generations  of  chemists.  Nitrate 
of  potassium,  or  salpetre,  is  found  in  nature  as  a  white 
crust,  appearing  on  certain  rocks,  old  walls,  and  even 
upon  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  from  this  mode  of  occur- 
rence the  name  "salpetre"  is  doubtless  derived.  The 
largest  natural  source  of  salpetre  is  afforded  by  certain 
soils  in  India.  Soil  having  a  white  film  of  salt  on  the 
surface  is  collected  from  the  neighbourhood  of  house- 


drains  and  stables  ;  the  soil  is  washed  with  water,  and 
the  nitre  crystallised  from  the  solution.  With  this  Indian 
salpetre  England  has  been,  till  quite  recently,  almost  ex- 
clusively supplied.  The  countries  of  Continental  Europe, 
not  having  access  to  so  considerable  a  natursd  source  of 
nitre,  have  been  obliged  from  early  times  to  produce  nitre 
for  themselves.  At  first  the  earthen  floors  of  cottages 
and  stables  were  collected,  washed,  and  nitrate  of  potas- 
sium obtained  by  treatment  with  wood-ashes  and  crystal- 
lisation ;  but  the  inconvenience  of  collecting  such  mate- 
rial, and  its  general  poverty  in  nitre,  soon  led  to  attempts 


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at  producing  salpetre  by  artificial  means.  To  Glauber,  a 
cnemist  of  the  seventeenth  century,  apparently  belongs 
the  credit  of  first  preparing  nitre  artificially.  The  process 
as  carried  out  in  the  present  dky  is  in  outline  as  fol- 
lows :— Soil,  containin|^  more  or  less  of  v^etable  mould 
and  carbonate  of  calcium,  is  mixed  with  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  stable  manure  or  other  refuse  animal  matter, 
and  disposed  in  small  heaps,  care  being  taken  that  the 
mass  of  soil  amd  manure  shall  be  sufficiently  porous  to 
ensure  the  free  admission  of  air :  these  heaps  are  pro- 
tected from  rain,  and  are  from  time  to  time  watered  with 
stable  sewagje.  At  the  end  of  two  or  three  years  the 
earth  is  sufficiently  rich  in  nitre  to  be  worth  extracting. 
This  tedious  process  for  manufacturing  nitre  has,  during 
the  last  few  years,  been  superseded  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  the  treatment  of  Peruvian  nitrate  of  sodium 
with  chloride  of  potassium,  by  which  nitrate  of  potassium 
and  chloride  of  sodium  are  produced. 

It  is  evident  that  the  artificial  nitre-beds  just  described, 
merely  perform,  on  an  exaggerated  scale,  an  operation 
which  occurs  naturally  in  all  ordinary  soils.  The  chemical 
analysis  of  drainage  waters  has  taught  us  that  such  waters 
are  diaracteristically  rich  in  nitrates,  and  that  the  amount 
of  nitric  acid  present  stands  generally  in  close  relation  to 
the  quantity  of  nitrogenous  manure  previously  applied  to 
the  soil.  The  published  analyses  of  the  drainage  waters 
from  the  experimental  wheat-field  at  Rothamsted,  show 
that  ammonium  salts  applied  as  manure  are  rapidly  con- 
verted into  nitrates  by  the  soil,  the  quantity  of  nitric  acid 
in  the  drainage  water  being  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
ammonium  salt  applied.  The  recent  application  of  soil 
for  the  purification  of  sewage  is  another  striking  example 
of  the  same  action.  The  sewage,  as  poured  upon  the  soil, 
contains  ammonia,  and  putrescible  organic  matter  rich  in 
nitrogen  ;  the  sewage  which  has  filtered  through  a  few 
feet  of  porous  soil  is  found  to  contain  nitrates,  but  only 
traces  of  organic  nitrogen  or  ammonia. 

What  explanation  can  we  give  of  this  phenomenon  of 
•  nitrification  ?  It  is  clearly  a  process  in  which  nitrogen  is 
oxidised  into  nitric  acid ;  but  how  is  this  oxidation 
brought  about  ?  The  old  chemists  believed  that  a  decaying 
organic  body  evolved  more  or  less  of  its  nitrogen  in  a  free 
state,  and  that  this  nitrogen,  while  nascent,  combined  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  nitric  acid.  This  view  has 
been  held  by  some  down  to  the  present  day.  Hofmann, 
in  his  Exhibition  Report  of  1862,  offers  the  same 
explanation,  only  substituting  for  free  air  the  oxygen  con- 
densed on  the  surface  of  porous  bodies.  This  theory  has 
been  extended  by  some  to  include  the  ordinary  nitrogen 
of  the  atmosphere,  so  that  on  their  view  nitric  acid  may 
be  formed  in  soil  from  the  nitro^^n  and  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere,  without  the  intervention  of  other  nitrogenous 
matter.  According  to  others  the  oxidation  of  gaseous 
nitrogen  is  brought  about  not  by  ordinary  oxygen,  but  by 
ozone.  Other  chemists  have-  inclined  to  the  belief  that 
nitrogen  is  never  oxidised  in  the  soil  except  when  in  the 
form  of  ammonia,  and  that  the  nitrogen  of  organic 
matter  is  always  converted  into  ammonia  as  a  preliminary 
to  nitrification.  According  to  some  experiments,  the 
ferric  oxide,  which  gives  a  red  colour  to  so  many  of  our 
soils,  is  itself  an  oxidising  agent,  and  capable  of  convert- 
ing ammonia  into  nitric  acid. 

We  need  not,  however,  enumerate  all  the  opinions  that 
have  been  held  on  this  confessedly  obscure  subject. 
Many  of  the  experiments  which  were  thought  to  support 
certain  views,  now  appear,  in  the  light  of  recent  evidence, 
of  little  value.  Before,  however,  discussing  the  new 
facts  recently  contributed  to  the  subject,  we  may  just 
indicate  those  points  which  have  been  most  clearly 
established. 

There  is  very  little  evidence  for  supposing  that  gaseous 
nitrogen  is  ever  converted  into  nitric  acid  in  the  soil. 
Nitrous  and  nitric  acid  are  indeed  produced  by  electric 
discharges  through  the  atmosphere,  thus  originating  the 


small  amount  of  nitrates  brought  to  the  soil  by  rain,  bait 
this  appears  to  be  the  only  reaction  capable  of  producing 
nitric  add  from  the  direct  union  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen. 
According  to  Carius  even  ozone  is  quite  incapable  of 
oxidising  gaseous  nitrogen.  Ammonia  is,  on  tne  other 
hand,  oxidised  by  ozone,  nitric  acid  being  formed  ;  but 
that  ozone  is  an  agent  in  soil  transformations  is  certainly 
unproved,  and  appears  very  improbable.  There  remains 
the  action  of  ferric  oxide,  already  referred  ta  This  reac- 
tion deserves  further  study ;  it  cannot,  however,  be  con- 
sidered as  generally  imporcant,  since  nitrification  certainly 
occurs  with  vigour  in  soils  practically  destitute  of  ferric 
oxide. 

The  researches  of  successive  generations  of  chemists 
had  thus  failed  to  give  any  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
important  phenomenon  of  nitrification.  The  subject  has 
qmte  lately  been  attacked  by  Schloesing  and  Miintz  from 
an  entirely  new  point  of  view  ;  their  results,  published  in 
tibe  early  part  of  last  year,  plainly  indicate  that  nitrifica- 
tion, instead  of  being  brought  about  by  purely  chemical 
forces  is,  in  fact,  the  work  of  a  living  organisoL  The 
evidence  adduced  in  support  of  this  new  view  is  very 
simple.  These  chemists  snow  that  nitrification,  however 
active,  is  immediately  stopped  by  the  vapour  of  chloro- 
form, a  substance  which  previous  study  has  shown  to 
suspend  the  action  of  yeast,  and  of  all  organised  ferments. 
They  also  find  that  when  nitrification  has  thus  been  sus- 
pended for  many  weeks,  it  can  be  restarted  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  small  quantity  of  a  nitrifying  body.  In  a  second 
communication  they  further  prove  that  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water  is  sufficient  to  destroy  all  power  of  nitri- 
fication, and  that  soil  which  has  been  once  heated  to  this 
point  produces,  in  air  free  from  germs,  carbonic  acid  and 
ammonia,  but  no  nitrates.  If,  however,  this  soil  is  moist- 
ened with  water  containing  a  little  unheated  soil,  the 
production  of  nitric  acid  again  commences. 

This  new  theory  of  nitrification  has  been  investigated 
at  Rothamsted  with  results  completely  confirmatory  of 
the  views  put  forward  by  these  French  chemists.  It  was 
found  that  the  vapour  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  of 
chloroform,  effectually  prevented  nitrification  in  a  moist 
garden  soil  through  which  air  was  frequently  aspirated, 
while  without  these  vapours  the  soil  produced  nitrates  in 
considerable  quantity.  A  solution  of  chloride  of  ammo- 
nium containing  a  little  tartaric  acid,  phosphate  of  potas- 
sium, and  carbonate  of  calcium,  was  also  completely 
nitrified  in  a  few  weeks  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  soil  taken  from  the  "  fairy-ring "  of  a  meadow. 
This  solution,  when  nitrified,  was  successfully  used  as 
seed  to  produce  nitrification  in  other  similar  solutions, 
which,  without  this  addition,  produced  no  nitric  add.  It 
was  further  shown  that  light  was  prejudicial  to  nitrifica- 
tion ;  solutions  kept  in  a  dark  cupboard  produdng  nitric 
add,  while  similar  solutions  standing  in  daylight  produced 
none. 

The  evidence  has  thus  become  very  strong  that  the 
nitrates  in  soil  owe  their  origin  to  oxidation  brought  about 
by  living  organisms.  That  mycoderms,  in  their  processes 
of  life,  may  exert  a  powerful  oxidising  action  upon  organc 
.matter,  we  have  akeady  learnt  through  the  researches  of 
Pasteur  and  others.  The  most  famUiar  example  is  that 
of  the  acetic  fermentation.  Vinegar  is  produced  by  the 
oxidation  of  alcohol  during  the  growth  of  a  very  simple 
organism,  tie  Mycoderma  aceti,  without  the  growth  of 
such  an  organism  no  vinegar  is  ever  formed.  It  is  by 
similar  low  organisms  that  fermentation  of  all  kinds  is 
brought  about  Putrefaction  has  also  been  shown  to  be 
equally  dependent  on  the  presence  of  microscopic  orga- 
nisms, and  except  under  the  conditions  suitable  for  their 
rapid  development  putrefaction  will  not  take  place. 
With  this  abundant  evidence  before  us  of  the  energetic 
decomposition  of  organic  matter,  brought  about  by  what 
we  may  term  microscopic  fungi,  we  can  hardly  be 
astonished  to  find  that  the  same  agency  is  capaUe  of 


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oxidising  the  nitrogen  of  organic  matter  and  of  ammonia, 
and  thus  producing  nitric  acid. 

The  organisms  which  produce  these  wonderful  changes 
consist  of  colourless  cells  ;  they  are  independent  of  day- 
light, for  they  derive  their  supply  of  carbon  exclusively 
from  organised  matter,  and  from  the  decomposition  of 
such  matter  they  obtain  the  force  necessary  for  life  and 
growth.  In  these  respects  they  differ  entirely  from  green 
vegetation,  in  which  sunlight  is  the  source  of  all  energy, 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  decomposed  by  the  aid  of  light, 
the  material  from  which  carbon  is  derived.  The  colour- 
less and  green  organisms,  however,  equally  require 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  other  ash  constituents  ;  and 
both  appear  to  be  capable  of  assimilating  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  ammonia. 

Not  only  are  these  simple  organisms  independent  of 
the  aid  of  hght,  but  light  is,  in  some  cases  at  least,  actually 
fatal  to  their  existence.  This  fact  has  quite  recently  been 
established  by  Downes  and  Blunt.  They  find  that  the 
bacteria  present  in  an  organic  fluid  may  in  many  cases 
be  entirely  destroyed  by  exposure  of  the  solution  to  day- 
light, and  that  even  when  this  is  not  the  case,  their 
development  is  much  retarded  by  such  treatment.  This 
observation  is  perfectly  in  accordance  mth  the  fact  ob- 
served at  Rothamsted,  that  nitrification  did  not  proceed 
in  solutions  exposed  to  daylight.  In  the  last  communica- 
tion of  Schloesing  and  Miintz,  it  is  stated  that  vegetable 
soil  suspended  in  water  by  passing  a  stream  of  air  through 
the  mixture,  undergoes  nitrification  both  in  light  and 
darkness.  No  details  of  the  experiment  are  given,  but  it 
seems  probable  that  such  a  mixture  would  be  more  or 
less  opaque,  and  the  greater  bulk  of  the  material  conse- 
quent^ at  all  times  in  partial  darkness. 

The  microscopic  organism  producing  nitrification  has 
probably  distinctive  characters,  and  might  be  isolated  by 
cultivation  under  conditions  specially  suitable  to  its 
growth,  but  more  or  less  unfavourable  to  the  life  of  other 
associated  germs.  Pasteur  has  pursued  this  method  with 
success  in  the  case  of  beer  yeast,  and  has  shown  that  with 
the  pure  yeast  thus  obtained  an  unchangeable  beer  may 
be  manufactured,  the  organisms  producing  secondary 
changes  having  been  excluded.  The  subject  of  nitrifica- 
tion  has  clearly  reached  a  stage  ^  which  demands  the  aid 
of  the  vegetable  physiologist.  R.  Warington 

FOSSIL   HUNTING   AT  BOURNEMOUTH 

I  HAVE  recently  deposited  in  the  South  Kensington 
Museum  some  unusually  large  specimens  of  fossil 
plant  remains  from  Bournemouth  and  Studland.  The 
matrix  in  which  these  are  imbedded  is  friable,  and  the  re- 
mains, in  most  cases,  are  extremely  difficult  to  extract, 
so  that  a  brief  account  of  the  process  employed  may  be 
of  use  to  would-be  collectors.  The  largest  specimen, 
part  of  the  frond  of  a  feather-palm,  measures  4  ft.  by 
3  ft,  and  as  this  presented  the  greatest  difficulties,  I  will 
more  particularly  describe  the  work  which  its  preservation 
involved. 

In  digging  last  autumn  at  Bournemouth  in  a  bed  of 
dark  clay  about  60  feet  above  the  sea- level,  and  about  the 
same  distance  from  the  top  of  the  cliff,  we  came  across  a 
well-preserved  fragment  of  this  specimen  consisting  of  a 
portion  of  the  stem  with  the  bases  of  pinnae  attached. 
We  included  a  younfi;er  athletic  brother,  a  coast-guards- 
man  whom  I  have  long  employed,  as  well  as  myself, 
and  occasional  other  assistance.  The  tools  we  used 
were  pick-axes,  crow-bar,  and  spades.  The  place  was 
a  slightly  projecting  ledge,  none  too  solid,  witn  a  steep 
diff  above  and  below.  So  soon  as  the  fragment  men- 
tioned was  brought  to  light  by  a  stroke  of  the  pick  digging 
was  stopped,  and  a  carenil  examination  was  made  by  the 
aid  fA  our  knives  to  see  in  which  direction  the  frond 
trended.  Finding,  fortunately,  that  the  direction  was 
towards  the  ina$s  of  the  cliff,  we  determined  to  use  our 


endeavours  to  extract  it  in  as  perfiect  a  condition  as 
might  be.  We  therefore,  at  about  mid-day,  commenced 
to  dig  away  the  superincumbent  mass  until  a  slab  was 
bared  at  least  twice  the  size  of  that  ultimately  required, 
when  we  proceeded  to  clear  down  and  lay  bare  Uie 
specimen.  Loose  sand  blowing  up  in  clouds,  how- 
ever, settled  upon  it  and  threatened  to  adhere  so 
firmly  to  the  wet  clay  that  it  was  feared  it  might  be 
found  impossible  to  remove  it,  whilst  the  drying  action 
of  the  wind  caused  it  to  crack  and  peel,  notwith- 
standing all  our  efforts  to  keep  it  covered  with  damp 
paper  and  linen.  It  was  then  determined  to  remove  the 
slab  without  exposing  the  leaf,  leaving  that  operation 
until  it  was  safely  housed  at  home,  and  we  therefore  com- 
menced the  laborious  operation  of  undermining  this  great 
slab  and  removing  it  in  such  pieces  as  from  time  to  time 
broke  away  by  £eir  own  weight  from  the  main  mass. 
For  five  hours  these  pieces  kept  breaking  away  in  blocks 
of  about  one  foot  in  thickness,  and  as  much  in  weight  as 
two  or  three  of  us  could  lift.  At  dusk  our  task  was  not 
more  than  two- thirds  completed,  but  as  wet  was  expected, 
it  was  determined  to  extract  the  whole  that  night  if  possible. 
Perhaps  the  most  toilsome  part  of  the  work  was  carrying 
the  pieces  up  the  sixty  feet  of  cliff.  A  hand-barrow  having 
been  improvised,  it  required  our  united  efforts  to  convey 
each  piece  to  the  path  above,  and  this  was  really  hard 
work,  and  in  addition  I  had  great  anxiety  throughout  lest 
the  edges  should  be  rubbed.  Notwithstanding  all  our 
trouble  we  had  the  mortification  of  seeing  our  la^e  lumps 
repeatedly  break  and  subdivide.  The  work  went  on  until 
about  9  P.M.,  when  we  found  it  impossible  to  continue, 
and  therefore  carefully  covered  up  the  remains  of  the 
slab,  the  vicinity  of  a  populous  town  rendering  this  pre- 
caution necessary.  The  next  day  the  whole  of  the 
pieces  were  removed  in  a  cart  from  the  coast-guards 
station  to  an  out-house  in  our  occupation.  When  they 
arrived  there  the  prospect  was  far  from  hopefid.  We 
had  apparently  but  a  truckful  of  lumps  of  black  wet 
clay,  a  foot  or  more  in  thickness,  and  varying  in  dia- 
meter from  a  few  inches  to  two  or  three  feet,  the 
majority  without  trace  of  the  fossil  upon  them,  or  any 
marks  or  indication  of  how  they  were  to  be  fitted  to- 
gether. Experience  among  these  fossils  has  taught  me 
not  easily  to  despair,  and  I  knew,  moreover,  from  the 
care  that  had  been  taken,  that  the  edges  could  not  be  much 
abraded,  nor  could  any  considerable  pieces  be  missing. 
Our  lodging  contained  a  new  and  comparatively  well-lit 
cellar,  to  which  all  was  removed.  A  table  was  next  made, 
six  feet  long  and  four  feet  wide,  and  portions  of  three 
days  occupied  in  ascertaining  how  the  pieces  could  be 
fitted  together. 

Two  days  were  then  lost  in  fastening  the  smaller  pieces 
together  into  larger  slabs,  but  it  was  found  that  these 
larger  pieces  would  not  come  together  properly  in  the 
box,  their  relative  thickness,  &c.,  being  different  They 
were  next  reduced  in  thickness  to  about  three  inches 
and  transferred  to  the  box  in  which  they  now  are,  and 
fitted  together  as  accturately  as  possible  and  fixed  by  glue 
and  plaster  of  Paris,  }  cwt.  of  the  latter  being  used. 

A  great  disappointment  now  awaited  us.  From  stand- 
ing and  kneeling  upon  the  slab  whilst  engaged  in  digging 
it  out,  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  was  kneaded  into 
the  under  surface,  and  would  not  part  for  weeks  after- 
wards, until  quite  dry,  and  then  in  very  small  fragments 
only. 

Another  difficulty  was  that  two  other  fronds  were  found 
at  lower  lev^  traversing  the  one  we  were  endeavouring  to 
save,  and  in  some  places  these  had  been  cleaned  out  before 
the  mistake  was  discovered.  The  base  of  the  frond,  it 
will  be  seen,  has  been  abandoned  altogether,  and  not 
more  than  two-thirds  is  now  preserved.  The  next  thing 
was  to  get  it  to  London  safely,  and  the  railway  officials 
were  cautioned  as  to  the  care  required  and  the  necessity 
of  keeping  it  flat  and  right  side  up,  and  the  case  was 


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insured.  Even  while  I  was  in  the  office  insuring  it  a 
stupid  porter  tilted  it  over  face  downwards  to  my  great 
grief^as  I  had  little  hope  that  the  plaster  would  hold 
with  such  a  weight  if  the  case  were  subjected  to  this 
treatment  on  the  way.  I  was  relieved  in  my  mind  a  few 
days  later  by  its  safe  arrival  at  home.  From  this  time 
patience  alone  was  required,  and  by  Christmas,  with  the 
aid  of  Mr*  De  Wilde,  the  whole  leaf  was  uncovered  and 
varnished  and  all  the  cracks  filled  in  with  modelling  clay. 
The  other  specimens  were  obtained  in  more  or  less  the 
same  way.  The  small  feather  palm  was  extracted  whole 
with  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Henry  Keeping,  of  the  Wood- 
wardian  Museum,  but  fell  to  pieces  on  the  shutter  to 
which  it  was  transferred  for  carriage,  and  great  care  was 
needed  to  put  them  together  as  they  now  are.  The  Stud- 
land  fan-palm  being  rotted  by  exposure  on  the  face  of  the 
cliff  and  feeing  penetrated  everywhere  by  rootlets,  fell  into 
a  hundred  pieces,  and  only  the  centre  of  the  leaf  could  be 
pieced  together  the  rest  being  pulverised  in  its  journey 
from  Studland  to  Wareham. 

J.  S.  Gardner 

FATHER  SECCHI 

SOME  little  time  ago  we  announced  the  serious  illness 
of  Father  Secchi,  the  well-known  astronomer  and 
Director  of  the  Observatory  of  the  Collegio  Romano,  at 
Rome ;  last  week  we  chronicled  his  death,  which  occurred 
on  the  26th  ult.  The  illness  which  has  thus  terminated 
fatadly,  has  cut  him  off,  we  may  say,  in  the  prime  of  his 
life,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  work ;  for,  till  he  was  taken  ill, 
there  were  no  signs  of  any  diminution  of  his  energy,  and 
he  was  only  fifty-nine  years  of  age  when  he  died. 

Secchi  was  bom  at  Reggio,  on  June  2^,  181 8.  Educated 
and  trained  from  early  youth  as  a  Jesuit,  we  hear  of  him 
first  in  connection  with  science  as  Professor  of  Physics 
at  Georgetown  College,  near  Washington,  and  next 
as  holding  the  same  chair  in  the  Roman  College  at  Rome. 
It  was  in  connection  with  the  observatory  attached  to 
this  institution  that  almost  all  Secchi's  work  for  the  last 
thirty  years  has  been  done.  While  the  Roman  College 
was  in  papal  hands  no  funds  were  spared  to  make  the 
observatory  as  complete  as  possible.  Secchi  had  instru- 
ments and  assistants  in  abundance,  and  his  various  series 
of  "  Memoirs  "  testify  to  his  industry  in  many  fields,  while 
his  position  gave  him  great  facilities  for  giving  the 
widest  publicity  to  his  work.  What  he  lacked  in  origin- 
ality he  made  up  in  assiduity,  and  hence,  although  he  has 
left  no  great  life  work  on  any  one  subject  behind  him, 
there  is,  we  think,  hardly  any  question  which  has  turned 
up  touching  observations  in  astronomy,  magnetism  or 
meteorology  on  which  a  multitude  of  papers  have  not 
been  written  by  his  busy  pen.  Many  of  these  papers  are 
very  admirable  and  show  great  penetration  and  power  of 
generalisation  as  well  as  a  wide  grasp  of  many  subjects. 

Secchi's  great  interest  in  solar  physics  was  doubtless 
aroused,  when  in  America,  by  assisting  Prof.  Henry  in 
making  the  first  experiments  on  the  heat  radiated  by 
different  portions  of  the  sun's  disc  by  means  of  the 
thermo-electric  pile.  His  interest  in  spectroscopy  dates 
from  Janssen's  visit  to  Rome,  when  on  his  scientific  mis- 
sion to  Italy  and  Greece.  In  both  these  branches  of 
work  Secchi  has  been  an  ardent  observer  and  voluminous 
writer.  He  photographed  the  eclipse  of  i860  in  Spain, 
and  observea  the  one  of  1870  in  Sicily.  In  1867  he  was 
in  Paris  exhibiting  his  universal  meteorograph  in  the 
exhibition  of  that  year,  and  giving  lectures,  some  of  which 
eventually  formed  the  basis  of  his  book  on  the  Sun,  a 
second  eaition  of  which  appeared  last  year.  Besides  this 
book  on  the  Sun,  he  has  written  others  on  the  Unity  of 
the  Physical  Forces,  and  on  the  Stars,  the  latter  of  which 
has  not  yet  appeared. 

When  the  States  of  the  Church  became  Italian  the 
Roman  College  was  among  the  institutions  which  were 


turned  to  other  uses  by  the  new  government  This  now 
contains  two  most  interesting  museums,  one  of  educational 
apparatus  chiefiy  for  primary  instruction,  and  another  for 
antiquities.  The  new  Government,  however,  were  ex- 
tremely anxious  not  to  interfere  with  Secchi*s  scientific 
labours  and  offered  him  the  Chair  of  Astronomy  in  the 
new  Roman  University,  at  the  same  time  granting 
ample  funds  for  the  prosecution  of  his  inquiries.  This 
Secchi  accepted,  but  soon  found  his  occupation  gon^ 
as  he  was  conmianded  by  the  chief  of  the  Jesuits  to  resign 
it,  which  he  did.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  modus 
Vivendi  would  have  been  found  if  the  king,  whose  foster- 
brother  he  was,  had  not  stepped  in  between  the  Ministry 
and  the  Vatican,  and  suggested  a  compromise  which 
wotdd  have  left  Secchi  to  continue  his  work  under  most 
favourable  conditions,  if  the  Jesuits  had  not  again 
stepped  in. 

One  of  the  most  recent  results  of  Secchi's  energy  has 
been  the  foundation  of  the  Society  degli  Spettroscopisti 
Italian!,  a  society  specially  constituted  for  recording  daily 
spectroscopic  observations  of  the  sun,  chiefly  at  the 
various  observatories  of  Italy. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  death  of  Father  Secchi 
observational  astronomy  has  sustained  a  great  loss.  His 
industry  and  skill  were  largely  rewarded  during  his  life- 
time. In  1867  he  received  the  great  French  prize  of 
100,000  francs.  He  was  a  member  of  most  scientific 
societies,  including  our  own  Royal  Society,  and  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  if  there  may  have  been  traits  of 
Secchi's  character  open  to  criticism,  the  exigencies  of  his 
post,  rather  than  the  inclinations  of  the  man,  may  have 
feeen  to  blame. 


NOTES 
Thb  French  expedition  for  the  observation  of  the  approaching 
transit  of  Mercury  consists  of  M.  C.  Andre  and  M.  Angot,  who 
formed  likewise  part  of  the  expedition  to  New  Caledonia,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  transit  of  Venus.  Ogden,  in  the  State  of  Utah, 
has  been  selected  by  the  French  Institute  as  the  most  favourable 
locality  for  the  observation,  and  the  expedition  is  already  under 
way  to  its  destination.  A  Parisian  millionaire,  well  known  for 
his  generosity  towards  scientific  objects,  has  contributed  30,000 
francs  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  observation. 

We  regret  to  leam  of  the  dangerous  illness  of  the  well-known 
mineralogist,  M.  Delafosse  Gabriel,  professor  at  the  Museum 
d'Histoire  Naturelle  of  Paris.  He  is  now  in  his  eighty- third 
year,  and  has  been  for  twenty  years  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences. 

The  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Berlin  has  elected  the 
well-known  Prof.  Noeldecke,  of  Strassburg,  a  corresponding 
member. 

Arrangements  are  being  made  at  Paris  for  the  erection  of  a 
fitting  monument  to  the  late  Claude  Bernard.  The  initiative  has 
been  made  by  the  Sociiti  de  Bioh^e,  of  which  Bernard  was  one 
of  the  founders,  and  over  the  meetings  of  which  he  has  presided 
during  the  past  eleven  years.  The  committee  appointed  for  the 
purpose  contains  prominent  names  from  all  the  leading  scientific 
institutions  of  Paris. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Mr.  Joseph  Bonomi,  the  distin- 
guished Egyptologist,  which  occurred  at  Wimbledon  Park  on 
Sunday  last,  at  the  age  of  eighty-two.  For  the  last  sixteen  years 
Mr.  Bonomi  has  acted  as  Curator  of  the  Soane  Museum  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.  Mr.  Bonomi  went  out  to  Egypt  as  early  as 
1824,  and  spent  eight  years  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  drawing 
and  studying  the  ancient  temples  and  their  wonderful  sculptures. 
During  Uiis  time  he  had  adopted  the  Arab  costume  and  mode  of 
living,  and  by  this  means  he  was  able  to  go  on  in  the  prosecu* 
tion  of  his  studies  with  his  then  limited  resources.     He  returned 


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to  England,  whefe  he  remained  till  the  visit  of  Lepsios  in  1842, 
when  he  went  out  as  artist  in  that  expedition,  which  resulted 
in  a  laiige  folio  work  of  abont  twenty  vols.,  piiUished  tinder  the 
auspices  of  the  King  of  Prussia.  The  Egyptian  Court  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  was  erected  fix>m  Mr.  Bonomi*s  designs  and 
under  his  superintendencei  He  was  also  employed  in  the 
British  Museum  in  arranging  the  department  of  Egyptian  anti- 
quities. Mr.  Bonomi  lus  rendered  great  service^  not  only  by 
his  illustrations,  but  also  by  his  writings  on  subjects  connected 
with  the  various  countries  in  the  east  which  he  visited.  These 
will  be  found  in  the  TVamaeiwns  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Literature,  Syro-Egyptian  Society,  British  Association,  &c.  Mr. 
Bonomi  leaves  a  great  mass  of  notes  and  sketches  of  hiero« 
glyphics  which  may  yet  be  of  great  value  to  Egyptology. 

At  the  General  Monthly  Meeting  of  the  Royal  Institution  on 
Monday,  the  special  thanks  of  the  members  were  given  to 
Mr.  Warren  De  la  Rue,  D.C.L.,  for  his  donation  of  $0/.  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Chemical  Laboratory. 

Ws  would  remind  our  readers  that  subscriptions  are  still 
being  received  for  the  Simon  Testimonial  Fund.  A  marble 
bust  is  th«e  form  of  testimonial  that  has  been  decided  on,  and  a 
small  copy  of  this  will  be  presented  to  each  subscriber  of  two 
guineas  ai^  upwards.  No  testimonial  was  ever  better  deserved. 
Subscriptions  may  be  sent  to  Robarts,  Lubbock,  and  Ca, 
Lombard  Street,  to  the  Hon.  Secretary,  i,  Adam  Street, 
Adelphi,  or  to  the  Treasurer,  General  Register  Office,  Somerset 
House. 

The  Atlas  of  Colorado,  soon  to  be  issued  by  the  U.S.  Geo. 
logical  Survey  of  the  Territories,  under  Prof.  F,  V.  Hayden, 
embodies  the  results  of  the  geological  and  geographical  work  of 
the  survey  during  the  years  from  1873  to  1876  inclusive.  This 
Atlas  will  contain  the  following  maps  : — i.  A  general  drainage 
map  of  Colorado  on  a  scale  of  twelve  miles  to  the  inch.  2.  An 
economic  map  of  the  same  region,  having  as  its  basis  the  above- 
mentioned  drainage  map.  This  map  will  indicate  the  areas  of  arable, 
pasture,  timber,  coal,  mineral,  and  desert  land  in  as  great  detail 
as  possible  on  the  scale.  3.  A  general  geological  map,  on  which 
the  areas  covered  by  the  principal  formations  will  be  shown.  The 
drainage  map  will  form  the  basis  for  this  also.  4.  A  map 
showing  the  scheme  of  the  primary  triangulation  in  the  state. 
Scale  twelve  miles  to  the  inch.  5.  Six  topographical  sheets 
showing  the  same  area  as  that  covered  by  the  general  drainage 
map,  but  in  much  more  detalL  The  scale  of  these  sheets  is  four 
miles  to  an  inch.  The  relief  of  the  country  is  indicated  by 
contour  lines,  at  vertical  intervals  of  200  feet  The  area  covered 
by  each  of  these  sheets  is  11,500  square  miles.  6.  Sue  geo- 
logical sheets,  of  which  the  bases  are  the  six  topographical  sheets 
just  mentioned.  On  these  the  detailed  geology  is  expressed  by 
colours.  With  the  appearance  of  this  map,  Colorado  will  be 
better  known,  topographically  and  geologically,  than  any  other 
State. 

Onb  of  the  leading  publishing  houses  of  Paris  is  making 
arrangements  for  the  speedy  appearance  of  an  enormous  workf 
"  Etudes  sur  TExposition  de  1878,"  under  the  direction  of  M.  £. 
Lacrouc  This  work  is  intended  to  be  a  complete  record  of  the 
progress  made  in  ?ll  the  arts  up  to  the  prcient  date,  and  its 
thoroughness  and  value  have  been  assured  by  the  promised  co- 
operation of  a  large  ntuiber  of  leading  authorities.  The  French 
Ministers  of  Public  Works,  of  Commerce^  and  of  Agriculture 
have  already  promised  all  necessary  assistance  on  the  part  of  the 
Government,  so  that  the  undertaking  will  start  under  the  most 
favourable  auspices. 

Dr.  Schlismann  intends  to  resume  his  excavations  at 
Hissarlik  as  soon  as  the  country  is  at  all  safe  to  live  in. 

The  Society  of  Arts  prize  of  loL  for  the  best  set  of  bbwpipe 
apparatus  that  couM  be  sold  retail  for  one  guinea,  has  be^ 


awarded  to  Messrs.  Letcher,  of  Camborne  and  St  Day,  Com« 
waU.  A  second  prize,  consisting  of  a  bronze  medal,  has  been 
awarded  to  Herr  Osterland,  of  P'reiberg. 

Thb  establishing  of  a  Brandt  of  the  U.S.  National  Observa- 
toxy,  to  be*placed  at  some  elevated  pc^t  in  the  West,  has  lately 
been  agitated,  and^much  is  expected  as  the  result  of  its  comp 
pletion. 

On  July  16  an  International  Exhibition  of  the  Paper  Trade 
will  be  opened  at  Berlin  and  will  last  until  August  31.  The 
programme  of  the  exhibition  is  already  finally  settled,  and  the 
objects  exhibited  will  be  divided  into  eight  different  groups,  viz. : 
I.  Raw  materials  and  articles  used  for  making  paper,  paste- 
board, &c.  2.  Machines  and  tools  used  for  making  and  working 
paper.  3.  Paper  and  boards  of  all  descriptions.  4.  Paper,  as  far 
as  it  is  employed  forjprinting,  paper-hangings,  &c.  5.  Articles 
made  of  paper  ot  papier-mdckL  6.  P^>er  as  used  lor  technical  or 
building  purposes.  7.  Wnthig  and  drawing  materials.  8.  Objects, 
books,  &c,  relating  to  the  history  and  literature  of  paper.  A 
number  of  prizes  will  be  awarded  for  the  best  contributions. 

The  system  of  agricultural  weather-warnings  in  France, 
carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the  Paris  Observatory,  conthmes 
to  be  rapidly  developed  and  extended  to  all  parts  of  the  country. 
The  warnings  are  now  sent  to  1,432  communes  spread  over  all 
the  departments  of  France  except  that  of  Lozire. 

A  NOVEL  and  valuable  application  of  electricity,  designed  to 
prevent  the  possibility  of  collisions  on  railways,  is  now  the  sub- 
ject of  experiment  in}the]|  Marseilles  station.  It  consbts  of  an 
electric  mirror,  in  which  all  the  movements  on  a  line  100  kilo- 
metres in  length  are  brought  vividly  before  the  eye,  and  enables 
the  station-masters  to  follow  exactly  the  progress  of  every  train. 
By  this  means  it  is  hoped  that  all  accidents  resulting  from  delays 
or  too  rapid  runs  can  be  entirely  avoided,  and  arrangements  are 
being  made  for  the  general  introduction  into  the  stations  of  the 
new  invention. 

A  Vienna  mechanician  has  recently  succeeded,  after  many 
fruitless  trials,  in  constructhig  a  sewing  madiine  which  does  not 
require  the  person  working  at  it  to  submit  to  the  unpleasant  and 
unhealthy  necessity  of  constant  bodily  exertion,  viz.,  setting  the 
machine  in  motion  by  the  foot  Since,  for  pecuniary  reasons, 
the  application  of  electricity,  steam,  or  water  power  was  im- 
possible, the  inventor  of  the  new  machine  was  restricted  to 
gravitation  or  elasticity,  and  he,  preferring  the  latter  force,  has 
contrived  to  make  springs  strong  enough  to  keep  an  ordinary 
sized  machine  in  motion  for  hours.  A  system  of  cog-wheels  is 
arranged  underneath  the  surface  of  the  table  upon  which  the 
machme  is  fixed,  and  by  a  handle  at  the  side  the  spring  is  wound 
up  with  the  greatest  facility.  The  velocity  at  which  the  machine 
works  is  entirely  at  the  option  of  the  person  using  it,  and  can  be 
regulated  ad  libUum,  and  in  the  simplest  manner. 

Opportunity  has  been  taken  recently  by  MM.  Raehlmann 
and  Witkowski  to  obs^ve  the  eye-motions  of  persons  asleep, 
new-bom  children,  blind  persons,  and  also  in  circumstances 
presenting  some  resemblance  to  sleep,  viz.,  drowsiness,  intoxica- 
tion, chloroformic  sleep,  and  epUeptic  attacks,  these  cases 
having  in  common  the  failure  of  the  will  or  the  power  for 
binocular  vision.  In  every  instance  strongly  uncoordinated 
movements  were  observed.  The  result  is  regarded  as  opposed 
to  the  idea  of  a  mechanism  possessed  at  birth  for  producing  r^;u- 
lar  motions  of  the  eyes,  and  as  agreeing  with  Helmholtz's  view  :— 
"  Though  eAch  eye  has  a  quite  independent  muscular  mechanism 
....  we  have  only  learned  to  perform  those  movements  which 
are  necessary  for  seeing  a  real  point  distinctly  and  simply.'' 
Where  this  interest  is  not  yet  present,  as  in  newly-born  infants, 
Qt  where  it  disappears,  as  in  the  case  of  the  blind,  and  in  the 
sleeping,  thw«  OWV  diycrgeiice^  (rpro  the  law  of  adaptation. 


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{March  7,  1878 


Thb  German  Verein  zur  Befordernng  des  Gewerbflebtes  has 
offered  extensiTe  prizes  for  (the  invention  ^of  tubstitates  for 
caoutchouc  and  gutta-percha. 

News  from  South  America  itatei  that  powerful  waterspouts 
were  recently  experienced  at  Callao,  doing  considerable  damsge 
in  the  town  and  its  environs.  On  January  27  Callao  suffered 
again  severely  from  a  repetition  of  the  phenomenon  known  as  the 
' '  tidal  wave, "  from  which  so  much  damage  was  done  in  May  last 
Much  destruction  of  buildings  has  resulted.  On  January  23  a 
strong  earthquake,  lasting  thirty  seconds,  was  felt  at  Iquique  and 
Arica ;  shocks  recurred  on  the  a4th  and  25th.  On  December  31 
a  violent  thunderstorm  visited  lima,  accompanied  by  torrents 
of  rain.  The  latter  phenomenon  is  of  extreme  rarity  in  that 
neighbourhood^  and  during  the  present  century  has  occurred 
there  only  once^  viz.,  in  the  year  1804. 

Thb  MonUmr  VtnUole  announces  the  surprising  fiict  that  the 
wine-jvoductionof  France  has  not  been  diminished  of  late  years, 
in  spite  of  the  devastations  of  the  pernicious  insect,  phylloxera. 
During  the  five  years,  1862  to  1867  (before  the  vast  spreading  of 
the  plague),  the  annual  production  averaged  54,747,405  hecto- 
litres. During  the  five  following  years  (1867  to  1872)  it  rose  to 
56,527,129  hectolitres.  After  1872,  since  when  the  phylloxera 
invasion  b^^  to  reach  its  maximum  height,  the  average  annual 
production  has  not  sunk  below  56,000,000  hectolitres.  The 
total  of  last  year's  produce  amounts  to  56,405,363  hectolitres,  as 
against  41,846,748  in  1876. 

The  statistics  of  the  German  Imperial  Telegraph  Office  for 
1877  have  just  been  published.  When  the  Telei^ph  Office 
was  united  with  the  Post  Office  there  were  1,688  telegraph 
stations  in  Germany.  At  the  end  of  1877  this  number  had  risen 
103.287. 

Those  desirous  of  sending  [objects  of  natural  history  from 
Guatemala  (Central  America)  to  Uie  forthcoming  Paris  Exhibi- 
tion are  requested  to  communicate  with  M.'A.  Boucard,  of  55, 
Great  Russell  Street,  W.C.,  until  the  20th  inst  After  that  date 
all  communications  should  be  sent  to  the  following  address : — 
L^;acion  de  Guatemala,  3,  Rue  de  Copenhague,  Paris. 

The  experiments  on  the  practical  value  of  the  telephone, 
carried  out  by  the  German  postal  department,  show  that  it  is 
not  adapted  to  snperMde  the  telegraph  on  lines  which  are  con- 
stantly in  use.  For  local  purposes  and  lines  less  frequently  used 
it  will,  however,  be  introduced  on  a  large  scale^  a  large  pecuniary 
saving  being  effected  by  the  ease  in  obtaining  officials  who  have 
not  had  to  master  the  difficulties  of  telegraphy.  The  depart- 
ment has  also  introduced  an  apparatus  for  calling  the  official  at 
the  station  to  which  a  message  is  to  be  sent,  so  that  an  electric 
battery  is  now  unnecessary  for  the  purpose  of  summoning 
attention. 

AusTEALiAN  colonists  have  noticed  some  strange  peculiarities 
in  bees  imported  from  Europe,  which,  however  unpleasant  they 
may  be  to  the  agriculturist,  are  yet  of  the  highest  interest  to 
naturalists.  It  appears  that  our  European  bees  retain  their 
industrious  habits  only  for  the  first  one  or  two  years,  when  im. 
ported  into  Australia.  While  during  that  period  they  keep  their 
hives  in  good  order  and  yield  a  fair  quantity  of  honey,  they 
gradually  cease  to  collect  honey  after  that  time,  and  soon  become 
entirely  barren. 

Mr.  Murray  has  published  in  a  neat  little  volume,  Vircfaow's 
address  at  the  (merman  Association  last  autumn,  on  the  Freedom 
of  Science  in  the  Modem  State.  We  are  glad  this  has  been  done^ 
as  the  address  is  one  well  worthy  the  attention  of  men  of  sdenoe. 
It  was  our  sense  of  its  importance  that  induced  us  some  montbg 
ago  to  publish  in  our  columns  a  verbatim  translation  of  the 
address,  as  well  as  translations  of  the  addresses  of  Haeckel  and 
Nagtli,  on  which  Virchow's  address  is  to  a  large  extent  w, 
criticism  and  reply. 


The  master  of  theZ>.  UPS.  Park  (British  barque),  whicharrived 
at  West  Cowes  (L  W.),  March  3,  from  Batavia,  reports  as  fol- 
lows :~-Januaiy  29,  at  7  A.M.,  in  lat  4.20  N.,  long.  21.45  ^'t 
saw  several  submarine  volcanoes  throwing  .large  columns  of 
water  about  100  fleet  into  the  air,  while  the  sea  was  in  great 
commotion,  as  it  is  when  there  is  a  very  strong  under-current, 
the  weather  at  the  time  bemg  very  cloudy,  with  rain,  and  nearly 
calm.    The  sound  was  like  distant  thunder. 

Various  theories  have  been  offered  of  the  sense  of  tempe- 
rature. In  a  recent  one  by  M.  Hering  it  is  represented  that 
when  at  a  given  part  of  the  skin  we  feel  neither  heat  nor  cold, 
the  fieeling  of  temperature  at  that  part  is,  so  to  say,  at  uero.  The 
main  points  of  the  theory  are  these :  The  feeling  of  temperature 
depends  on  the  height,  for  the  time  being,  of  the  temperature 
proper  (eigm  Temperatur)  of  the  nervous  apparatus  of  the  skin, 
not  on  Uie  rise  or  fall  of  this  temperature  (Weber)  nor  on  the 
intensity  and  direction  of  the  heat  current  (Vierordt).  Every 
temperature  of  the  nervous  apparatus  above  the  xero  point  is 
felt  as  heat,  every  one  below  as  cold.  The  distinctness  of  the 
sensation  of  heat  or  cold  increases  with  the  distance  of  the 
temperature  proper  for  the  time  bemg,  from  the  sero  tempe- 
rature. The  KTO  temperature  is  variable  within  certain  limits. 
Every  temperature  of  the  nervous  apparatus,  felt  as  warm, 
causes  a  dtsplaoement  of  the  zero  point  of  the  scale  of  sensation 
upwards,  and  every  temperature  felt  as  cold  causes  a  displace- 
ment downwards.  These  ideas  are  developed  by  M.  Hering,  in 
a  recent  paper  to  the  Vienna  Academy. 

M.  Lekglen,  a  physician  of  Arras,  has  recently  described  a 
remarkable  perpetuation  of  physical  traits.  A  certain  M. 
Gamelon,  in  the  last  century,  was  sex-digital,  having  two  thumbs 
on  each  hand  and  two  great  toes  on  each  foot  The  peculiarity 
was  not  noticeable  in  his  son,  but  in  each  of  the  three  subse- 
quent generations  it  has  been  strongly  marked,  some  of  the 
diildren  at  present  showing  the  malformatiou  as  distinctly  as  their 
great-great-grandfather.  M.  de  Quatrefages  has  noticed,  a  few 
months  since^  a  similar  case  in  the  animal  kingdom.  A  six-toed 
cock  having  transmitted  this  peculiarity  to  his  descendants,  it 
has  spread  to  such  a  degree,  that  in  the  district  where  it  occurred 
the  ordinary  five-toed  variety  is  no  more  to  be  met  with. 

LiiCE,  strontian,  and  baryta  have  recently  been  obtained  in 
the  crystalline  state  by  Dr.  Briigelmann,  of  Diisseldorf  (Ant$,  der 
Pkys.^  No.  1 1),  by  heating  their  nitrate  salts  till  complete  decom- 
position takes  place.  In  this  way  are  obtained  the  three  oxides 
in  (chiefly)  microscopical  crystals  of  the  regular  sjrstem,  and 
exclusively  hexahedra.  While,  however,  in  the  case  of  stronUan 
and  baryta,  this  ^interesting  fiict  and  new  example  of  isomor- 
phism is  recognisable  only  with  aid  of  the  microsa^,  the  lime 
can  be  easily  obtained  in  large  crystals,  observable  with  the 
naked  eye.  Dr.  Briigelmaim  describes  his  method  fuUy,  as  also 
the  form  and  properties  of  the  three  crystalhsed  alkaline  earths. 

It  was  pointed  out  some  time  ago  by  M.  Herwig,  that  when 
strong  induction  shocks  are  sent  through  liquids  they  do  not 
pass  conformably  to  Ohm's  law ;  there  is  at  first  a  retardation  of 
the  electricities  in  the  electrodes,  and  the  equilibration  which  at 
length  occurs  is  somewhat  like  a  discharge^  as  in  the  case  of  a 
large  condenser.  The  phenomenon  has  of  late  been  more  fully 
studied  by  M.  Herwig,  who  describes  various  interesting  experi- 
ments wiUi  reference  to  it  in  the  Annaien  der  Pkysik^  No.  12. 

M.  Gaston  Plant6  describes  at  length  in  the  last  number 
of  the^Mffo^j  de  ChimUd  Physiqui^  his  newly-discovered  method 
for  the  engraving  of  glass,  a  process  which  promises  to  be  of 
widely-extended  application.  His  attention  was  first  directed  to 
this  line  of  investigation  by  the  observation  that  glass  moistened 
with  a  solution  of  ordinary  salt  was  strongly  attacked  by  currents 
from  secondary   piles.     As  perfected,  his  process  consists  in 


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immersiiig  a  plate  of  glass  in  a  shallow  basin  containing  a  coq- 
oentiated  solution  of  potassic  nitnte.  It  is  endrded  by  a 
platinum  wire  also  covered  by  the  liquid,  and  connected  with 
the  pole  of  a  secondary  battery  of  fifty  dements.  The  other 
pole  consisting  likewise  of  platinum  wire  covered  with  an 
insulator  is  hdd  in  the  hand  and  applied  to  those  parts  of  the 
glass  where  it  is  designed  to  engrave.  A  flash  of  light  is 
produced  by  every  contact  with  the  electrode,  and  a  mark 
accompanies  each  luminous  appearance.  The  depth  and  fineness 
of  the  lines  described  depend  directly  on  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  dectrode  is  moved,  and  the  fineness  of  its  point 

Thb  Deutsche  Gesdlschafl  fiir  ofientliche  Gesundheitspflege 
has  appointed  a  commission  to  co-operate  with  the  government 
meteorological  stations,  in  endeavouring  to  obtain  the  daily 
publication  of  the  weather  observations  with  probabilities  for  the 
following  twenty-four  hours,  according  to  the  American  system. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  indude  two  Brown  Coatis  {Nasua  nasica)  from  South 
America,  presented  by  the  Hon.  C.  H.  Wynn ;  a  Palm  Squirrd 
(Sdurus palmarum)  from  India,  presented  by  Miss  Barclay ;  two 
Rock  Sparrows  (Pefronia  shtlta\  South  European,  presented  by 
Mr.  D' Arcy  Thompson ;  an  Ocdot  {Feiis  pardalis\  a  Red  and 
Yellow  Maccaw  i^Ara  chloropUra),  a  Yellow  Snake  {Chiloboth- 
rus  inomatiis)  from  South  America,  two  Black-capped  Bitterns 
(Butorides  atrkapUla)  from  Africa,  a  Four-lined  Snake  [Coluber 
quadrilintahis)  from  Egypt,  deposited  ;  a  Yellow-cheeked  Ama- 
zon {Chrysotis  autumwiiis)  from  Honduras,  purchased ;  a  Red 
Kangaroo  (Macropus  ru/us),  an  Indian  Muntjac,  {Cervuius 
mun/jac),  bom  in  the  Gardens. 

EXTENT  AND    PRINCIPAL  ZONE   OF   THE 
AURORA  BOREAUS 

T  N  the  Wochmschrift  fiir  Astronomie^  Herr  H.  Fritz  has 
^  recently  compared  his  "  Catalogue  of  Polar  Lights,"  which 
contains  notes  of  all  aurone  whi^  have  been  otnorved  since 
1846,  with  a  publication  of  Herr  A.  Moberg,  who  gives  an 
account  of  all  aurorae  observed  in  Finland  during  the  years 
1846  to  1855 — some  1,100  in  number.  The  comparison  yields 
some  interef  ting  results  which  are  not  without  importance  for  the 
theory  of  the  phenomenon. 

It  appears  tnat  out  of  2,035  days  of  the  months  from  August 
to  April,  upon  which  aurorx  were  seen  and  which  are  entered 
in  Herr  Fntz*s  Catalogue,  no  less  than  i,  107  days  were  auroial 
days  in  Finland.  Of  these  i,  107  aurorae  794  were  simultaneously 
visible  both  in  America  and  Europe,  loi  only  in  Europe,  while 
the  remaining  212  were  only  seen  in  Finland.  During  the  same 
period  (1846  to  1855)  928  aurorae  were  seen  in  Europe  or 
America  which  were  not  visible  in  Finland.  All  these  bgures 
of  course  refer  only  to  the  months  from  August  to  April,  since 
during  the  summer  months  no  phenomena  of  this  kind  can  be 
observed  in  Finland  on  account  of  the  brightness  of  the  nights. 
As  Herr  Mobere's  observations  were  collected  from  128  different 
stations  in  Finland,  we  must  condude  that  only  a  very  small 
number  of  aurorae  remained  unnoticed.  We  thus  arrive  at  ^c 
condusion  that  a  great  number  of  aurorae  cannot  have  a  very 
widely  extended  sphere,  or  that  the  causes  of  these  phenomena 
must  often  be  of  a  very  local  character  (this  is  confirmed  by  several 
observations  at  high  Utitudes),  while  with  another  part  of  the 
phenomena  the  extension  of  their  sphere  or  district  of  simultaneous 
visibility  must  be  very  considerable.  The  number  of  aurorae 
which  were  seen  in  Finland  only— at  least  for  whidi  up  to  the 
present  no  data  of  observation  elsewhere  have  been  received — 
IS  vary  small  (212,  or  only  19  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  seen 
in  Finland).  As  the  frequency  of  the  phenomena  increases— at 
the  time  of  the  maximum — the  numbor  of  simultaneous  obser- 
vations in  Finland  and  America  rises,  while  the  numbers  of 
aurorae  seen  in  Finland  and  Europe  only,  or  of  Uiose  exdusivdy 
seen  in  Finland,  decrease.  This  agrees  perfectly  with  the  well- 
known  law  that  with  the  increase  of  fiequencf  of  poliur  lights 
their  intensity  and  sphere  of  visibility  increase  also.  If  we  care- 
fully take  into  account  the  less  prominent  phenomena  the  above 
proportions  would  be  sli^tly  modified,  but  most  probably  they 
would  never  prove  that  on  any  day  when  an  aurora  wu  visible 


only  in  a  small  district  in  Europe^  another  one  was  simultaneously 
seen  in  America.  Thus  the  comparison  made  by  Herr  Fritz 
contradicts  Renou's  view  that  the  phenomena  in  America  and 
Europe  change  periodically. 

Of  2,878  days  on  which  aurorae  were  observed  in  America 
during  1826  to  1855,  there  are  1,065  ^^  which  aurorae  were  also 
seen  m  Europe,  so  that  at  least  every  third  observation  was 
simultaneous  in  both  parts  of  the  world.  For  the  years  during 
which  more  exact  observations  were  made,  viz.,  from  1846  to 
1S55,  and  again  from  1868  to  1872,  we  find  that  during  the 
former  period  out  of  1,691  auroras  657  were  simultaneously 
observed  both  in  America  and  Europe ;  and  during  the  latter 
period  out  of  715  no  less  than  397,  or  far  more  than  half  the 
number.  If  the  catalogues  were  more  perfect  the  number  of 
simdtat\eous  observations  would,  beyond  doubt,  be  found  to  be 
still  greater.  Some  observations  made  in  Scotland  give  similar 
results  to  those  dating  from  Finland,  but  thdr  publication  must 
at  present  be  delayed,  since  the  American  data  for  comparison 
are  still  wanting. 

The  local  occurrence  of  aurorae  does  not  speik  favourably  for 
the  hypothesis  which  places  the  phenomenon  among  the  cosmical 
ones.  Some  ten  years  aeo  Herr  Fritz  published  his  views  with 
regard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  aurorae,  and  constructed 
a  system  of  Imes  which  he  termed  Isochasms — f.^.,  curves  of 
eaual  frequency  of  aurorae.  The  outlines  of  this  system  weie  as 
follow  :— ^The  zone  of  greatest  frequency  and  intensity  of  aurorae 
began  near  Barrow  pomt  (72**  north  latitude)  on  the  northern 
coast  of  America ;  thence  it  passed  across  the  great  Bear  Lake 
towards  Hudson's  Bay,  crossing  the  latter  at  6o»  N.  lat,  passing 
over  Nain,  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  keeping  south  of  Cape 
Farewell ;  its  further  course  was  between  Iceland  and  the  Far  Oer 
to  the  vicinity  of  the  North  Cape  in  Norway,  and  thence  into 
the  Arctic  Sea.  Accordmg  to  the  observations  then  in  posses- 
sion of  Herr  Fritz,  the  line  pa.<»ed  round  Novaya  Zemlya  and 
Cape  Tshdjuskin,  approached  the  north  coast  of  Asia,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Siberia,  in  the  longitude  of  Nischni  Kolymsk,  and 
thence  returned  to  Barrow  Point 

Now  after  ten  years,  in  spite  of  the  vastly  accumulated  material 
of  careful  observations,  there  appears  no  necessity  to  change 
Herr  Fritz's  system  of  curves  in  any  essential  detail ;  indeed 
certain  parts  of  the  same,  which  were  at  first  only  based  on 
probabilihr  and  supposition,  the  part  of  the  principal  zone 
between  the  north  of  Norway  and  Nishni  Kolymsk  as  an  mstance, 
we  now  know  with  perfect  certainty  to  be  correct  Nearly 
identical,  perhaps  entirdy  so,  with  the  line  of  greatest  frequency 
is  the  line  which  marks  Uie  limit  of  visibility  of  aurorae  towards 
the  pole  or  the  equator ;  since  to  the  north  of  the  line  in  ques- 
tion the  auror«  are  only  seen  in  the  direction  of  the  equator. 


PARIS  ACADEMY  PRIZES  FOR  1878 

1.  "pxTRAORDiNARY  PRIZES.— Grand  prizes  in  the  Mathemati- 
-*-'  cal  Science. — i.  The  application  of  the  theory  of  elliptic 

transcendants  or   abdians  to    the    study  of  algebraic  curves. 

2.  It  is  known  that  the  great  axis  of  the  orbit  which  a  planet 
describes  round  the  sun  is  not  affected  by  any  secular  inequality 
of  the  order  of  the  two  first  powers  of  the  disturbing  masses. 
Examine  if  there  exists  in  the  value  of  this  great  axis  secular 
inequalities  of  the  order  of  the  cube  of  the  masses,  and,  in  the 
case  where  these  inequalities  are  not  rigorously  destroyed,  give 
ihe  means  of  calculatmg  their  sum,  at  least  approximately.  The 
prize  is  a  medal  of  the  value  of  3,000  francs.  3.  Study  of  the 
elasticity  of  crystallised  bodie?,  from  the  double  point  of  view  of 
experiment  and  theory.     Prize  the  same  as  No.  2. 

Grand  prizes  in  the  Physical  Sciences. — Study  of  the  mode  of 
distribution  of  marine  animals  on  the  littoral  of  France.  A 
medal  of  3,000  francs  value. 

An  extraordioary  prize  of  6,000  francs  will  be  awarded  as  a 
recompense  for  anv  progress  calculated  to  increase  the  efficacy  of 
the  French  naval  forces. 

II.  Mechanics.— I.  The  Poncdet  prize  of  a  medal  of  2,000 
firancs  ^ue,  and  a  complete  copy  of  Poncdet's  works,  are 
awarded  to  the  work  contributing  most  to  the  progress  of  the 
mathematical  sdences,  pure  or  applied,  published  in  the  course 
of  the  ten  years  preceding  the  judgment  of  the  Academy.  2.  A 
Montyon  prize,  a  medal  of  427  francs  value,  will  be  awarded  to 
any  one  who^  in  the  judgment  of  the  Academy,  is  most  deserv- 
ing, by  inventing  or  improving  instruments  useful  to  the  progress 
of  agriculture^  the  mechanical  arts,  or  the  sdences.  3.  The 
Plumey  prize,  a  medal  of  2,500  francs  value,  awarded  to  the 


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\March  7,  1878 


author  of  an  improvement  of  steam-engines,  or  of  anjr  oUier 
invention  oontribating  most  to  the  progress  of  steam  navigation. 
4.  The  Bordin  jnize^  a  medal  oi  3,000  francs  value,  will  be 
awarded  for  a  satis&ctory  solution  of  the  following  problem : — 
To  find  the  means  of  destroying,  or  at  least  seriously  diminish- 
ing, the  annoyance  and  the  dangers  arising  from  the  products  of 
combustion  issuing  from  the  chimneys  of  locomotive  engines, 
steamslups,  and  manu&ctories  near  towns. 

III.  Astronomy. — i.  The  Lalande  prize,  a  medal  of  542 
francs  value,  will  be  awarded  to  the  person  who  shall  have  made 
the  most  interesting  observation,  or  to  the  memoir  or  the  work 
most  contributing  to  the  progress  of  astronomy.  2.  The 
Damoiseau  prise^  a  medal  of  5,000  francs  valuer  will  be 
awarded  (in  1879)  ^or  a  solution  of  the  following  question : — 
Revise  the  theory  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  ;  disaiss  the  obser- 
vations, and  deduce  from  them  the  constants  they  contain,  and 
particularlv  that  which  furnishes  a  direct  determination  of  the 
rate  of  light ;  finally,  construct  special  tables  for  each  satellite. 
3.  The  Valz  prize,  the  proceeds  of  a  sum  of  10,000  francs,  will 
be  awarded  for  the  most  interesting  astronomical  observation 
made  during  the  year. 

IV.  Physics.— The  Bordin  prize,  a  medal  of  3,000  francs 
value,  will  be  awarded  for  a  solution  to  the  following : — Various 
formnlse  have  been  proposed  to  replace  Ampere's  law  on  the 
action  of  the  elements  of  currents ;  discuss  these  various  formulae 
and  the  reasons  which  may  be  alleged  for  giving  the  preference 
to  one  of  them.  2.  Three  Lacaize  prizes  of  10,000  francs  each 
will  be  awarded  (in  1879)  to  the  works  or  memoirs  which  have 
contributed  most  to  Uie  progress  of  physiology,  physics,  or 
chemistry. 

V.  Chemistry.— The  Jecker  prize  of  10,000  francs  will  be 
awarded  to  the  researches  which  the  Academy  judges  best 
calculated  to  accelerate  the  progress  of  organic  chemistry. 

VI.  Botany. — i.  The  Barbier  prize  of  2,000  francs  will  be 
awarded  to  anyone  who  makes  a  valuable  discovery  in  surgery, 
medicine,  pharmacy,  or  botany,  in  coimection  with  the  art  of 
healing.  2.  The  Alhumbert  prize,  a  medal  of  2,500  francs 
value ;  the  subject  of  this  prize  is  a  study  of  the  mode  of  nutri- 
tion of  fungL  3.  The  D^mazi^res  prize  of  1,600  francs  will  be 
awarded  to  the  best  or  most  useful  writing  on  the  whole  or  part 
of  cryptogamy  published  during  the  year.  4.  The  Shore  prize 
of  200  francs  will  be>warded  to  the  author  of  the  best  memoir 
on  the  cellular  cryptogams  of  Europe,  or  on  the  habits  or 
anatomy  of  a  European  species  of  insect.  5.  The  Bordin  prize 
of  3,000  francs  has  for  its  subject  the  following :— Explain  by 
direct  observations  and  by  experiments  the  influence  which  the 
medium  exercises  on  the  structure  of  plant  oigans  (roots,  stem, 
leaves) ;  stnd^  the  variations  which  terrestrial  plants  undergo 
when  raised  m  water  and  those  which  aouatic  plants  undergo 
when  forced  to  live  in  air.  Explain  b^  direct  experiments  the 
special  forms  of  several  species  of  maritime  flora. 

In  medidne  and  surgery  the  Br^t  prize  of  100,000  francs  for 
a  cure  for  Asiatic  cholera  still  stands. 

One  or  more  Montyon  prizes  are  awarded  to  works  or  disco- 
veries which  show  the  means  of  rendering  an  art  or  occupation 
less  insalubrious. 

The  competition  closes  on  June  i  each  year.  Works  sent  in 
are  not  returned,  and  the  conditions  as  to  the  use  of  mottoes, 
concealment  of  names,  &&,  usual  to  such  competitions  are 
required. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Science  in  Schools.— Sir  John  Lubbock  has  given  notice 
on  an  early  day  to  move  in  the  House  of  Commons  that  it  would 
be  desirable  to  modify  the  Code  of  Education  by  adding  ele- 
mentary natural  science  to  the  subjects  mentioned  in  Artide  19, 
c  I. 

Breslau.— The  number  in  attendance  at  the  University 
during  the  present  winter  is  1,253,  divided  as  follows  among 
the  faculties  : — ^Theological,  101 ;  legal,  432 ;  medical,  168 ; 
philosophical,  552.  The  Universlhr  possesses  one  of  the  most 
valuable  libraries  in  Germany,  numbeting  over  400^000  volumes 
and  several  thousand  valuable  manuscripts. 

Bern  and  Zurich.— The  former  University  is  attended  at 
present  by  410  students^  the  latter  by  318.  Each  University 
indudes  in  its  Ust  nineteen  female  students,  most  of  whom  are 
preparing  for  medical  examinations. 


Librariss  of  German  and  Austrian  UNnrmRsinss. 
—Most  of  the  German  States  place  annually  connderable 
sums  at  the  disposal  of  the  University  libraries.  Bavaria 
gives  her  universities  each  i,ooo^  for  this  purpose ;  Saxonj 
grants  1,200/.  to  Leipzig ;  while  in  Prussia  the  sums  vary  from 
iool.  for  Greifswald  to  2,000/.  for  Gottingen.  In  Austria, 
although  the  existence  of  so  many  diflerent  languages  in  the 
empire  makes  special  demands  on  the  university  libraries,  the 
Government  assistance  has  hitherto  been  exoeedii^ly  limited. 
We  notice,  however,  that  in  a  late  session  of  the  Keichstag  a 
new  policy  has  been  adopted,  and  that  the  annual  grants  have 
been  raisM  to  1,500/.  for  the  Vienna  library,  1,000/.  for  that 
at  Prague,  and  800/.  for  those  in  the  other  universities. 

St.  PETSRSBURa- On  January  i,  1878^  the  University  at 
St  Petersburg  numbered  1,425  students,  thirty-seven  more  than 
last  year.  ^  One-seventh  are  in  the  department  of  History  and 
Philology,  three-sevenths  in  Natural  S deuces  and  Mathematics, 
three*  sevenths  in  Law,  and  one-forty-seventh  in  Asiatic  languages. 
The  number  of  professors  is  ninety-three.  The  students  are 
mostly  very  poor,  and  the  pecuniary  hdp  given  to  them  by  the 
University  amounted  during  the  year  to  tne  sum  of  12,000/.  ; 
besides  which,  a  private  sodety  of  former  students  paid  the  fees 
for  eighty-one  persons. 

KiEFF. — ^The  Univeisi^  odebrated,  during  the  past  month,  the 
fifty-ninth  year  of  its  existence.  Although  so  vonng  it  is  wdl 
equipped  with  all  the  necessary  adjuncts  of  a  umvernty,  and  its 
medicsl  faculty  is  reguded  as  the  first  in  Russia.  The  number 
of  students  at  present  b  773,  an  increase  of  160  on  the  previous 
year.  The  majority  are  in  the  medical  faculty.  As  in  tne  other 
Russian  universities,  the  students  are  recruited  prindpally  from 
the  poorer  classer,  203  being  fireed  from  the  payment  of  lecture* 
fees,  and  123  in  addition  recdving  stipends  amounting  in  the 
total  to  36,000  roubles.  A  high  school  for  ladies  is  at  last  to 
be  opened  at  the  University. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Reale  IsHtuto  Lotnbardo  di\  Scunu  e  LtUtre,  Rendiconti, 
vol.  X.  Fasc.  xU. — Reduction  of  chlorates  to  chlorides  without 
intervention  of  the  so-called  nascent  state  of  hydrogen  (second 
part),  by  M.  TommasL — On  the  cooling  of  pulverulent  metallic 
solids,  by  M.  CantonL — On  temperature  in  relation  to  adtual 
energy  and  the  state  of  aggregatbn,  by  M.  Grassl — Measure- 
ment of  the  resistance  andgraduation  of  any  galvanometer,  hf 
M.  Grassi. — A  school  experiment  and  means  of  evaporating 
rapidly  large  quantities  of  liquid,  by  M.  Brugnatelli. 

Fasa  XX. — Other  experiments  on  the  evaporation  of  a  liquid, 
by  M.  Cantonl — Hypertrophy  and  hyperplasia,  by  M.  SangallL 
—On  the  first  and  most  recent  appearance  in  Lombardy  of  the 
Beccafico  of  Provence. 

Xosmos,  November,  1877.— On  the  relation  of  Greek  nature- 
philosophy  to  modem  naUiral  science,  by  Prof.  F.  Schnltze. 
Part  I,  on  the  Ionic  physiologists  and  the  Pythagoreans. — On  a 
mathematical  law  applicable  to  the  theory  of  mutation,  by  J. 
Ddboeuf. — On  the  vsiiiations  of  size  of  coloured  floral  envdopes, 
and  their  efiect  on  the  natural  sdection  of  flowers,  by  Hermann 
Miiller. — A  turning  point  in  the  early  history  of  the  human  race, 
by  J.  H.  Becker.  Part  i,  on  the  state  of  things  preceding  the 
turning  point  (before  the  discovery  and  use  of  fire). 

December,  1877.— F.  Schultze^  on  the  relation  of  Greek 
natural  philosophy  to  modem  natural  sdenoe^  part  2,  discussing 
Heraklitus  and  the  Eleatic  school.— W.  Ih-qrer,  on  the  nature 
of  life.— Fritz  Miiller,  observations  on  Brazilian  butterflies, 
part  3,  dealing  with  die  evolution  of  the  Mancuja  butter- 
flies, and  the  phenomena  presented  by  their  larvpe,  pupse,  and 
adult  forms. — A.  Maurer,  on  the  origin  of  articulate  sounds. — 
J.  H.  Becker,  on  the  separation  and  reunion  of  noes.- The 
number  also  contains  a  review  of  Mr.  Danvin't  work  on  the 
difierent  forms  of  flowers,  by  Hermann  Miiller. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

London 

Geological  Society,  February  6.— Piof.  P.  M.  Duncan, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— James  Adey  Bird%  Rev.  George 
E.  Comtfford-Casey,  Bf.A.,  Lieut. -CoL  H.  H.  Godwin-Austen, 
Sir  WiUoughby  lones,  Bart,  and  Henry  Richard  Ladell,  M.A., 
were  elected  Fefiuws  of  the  Sodety. — ^I'he  following  communi- 


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NATURE 


375 


cations  were  read : — On  some  foraminifera  from  pleistocene  beds 
in  Ischia,  by  M.  Ernest  Vanden  Broeck.  Preceded  by  some 
geological  remarks  by  A.  W,  Waters,  F.G.S.— On  the  influence 
of  the  advent  of  a  higher  form  of  life  in  modifying  the  structure 
of  an  older  and  lower  form,  by  IJrof.  Owen,  C.B.,  r.R.S.  In 
this  paper  the  author,  afcer  referring  to  the  general  question  of 
the  modification  of  the  structure  of  organic  forms  produced  by 
the  action  of  external  influences,  indicated  that,  in  connection 
with  this,  changes  in  the  nature  of  the  prey  of  carnivorous  animals 
ought  to  be  xSiLctL  into  consideration.  He  inferred  that  cold* 
blm^ded  aquatic  animals  formed  a  much  greater  proportion  of  the 
food  of  mesozoic  than  of  neozoic  crocodiles,  and  pointed  out  as 
connected  tiierewith  the  well-marked  distinction  between  the 
amphicoelian  and  proccelian  type  of  vertebrdc  respectively  charac- 
teristic of  the  two  groups.  The  proccelian  character  of  the  trunk- 
vertebrae  better  adapts  that  part  of  the  body  to  be  sustained  and 
moved  in  air,  and  may  be  connected  with  the  incoming  in  tertiaxy 
times  of  mammalian  prey  inducing  the  crocodiles  to  rush  on 
shore.  The  mesozoic  crocodiles  were  encased  in  a  much  stronger 
and  more  complete  dermal  armour  than  their  successors,  doubt- 
less for  their  protection  from  the  great  ichthyosaurSypUosaurs, 
&c.,  which  co-existed  with  them  ;  but  as  these  passed  away  at 
the  dose  of  the  secondary  epoch,  the  armour  of  the  proccelian 
crocodiles  has  become  more  scanty,  and  the  diminution  of  weight 
and  rigidity  thus  caused  would  favour  progression  in  air,  and 
the  rapidity  of  movement  required  for  capturing  mammalian 
prey  on  land.  The  difference  in  the  position  of  the  palato- 
nares,  and  in  other  related  gular  and  palatal  structures, 
between  the  mesozoic  and  neozoic  crocodiles  b  apparently 
connected  with  the  power  possessed  by  the  latter  of  holding 
submerged  a  powerful  mammal  without  permitting  the  access  of 
water  to  the  posterior  nostrils  and  windpipe  of  the  crocodile ; 
and  hence  the  author  is  inclined  to  ascribe  a  fish-diet  even  to 
those  massive-jawed  crocodiles  from  the  Purbeck  (such  as 
Goniopholis  crasHdens  and  simm),  which  in  some  respects  migbt 
seem  fitted  to  grapple  with  lai^ge  and  active  mammals.  The 
small  size  of  3ie  upper  temporal  apertures  in  tertiary  and 
existing  crocodiles  b  r^arded  by  the  author  as  a  farther  proof  in 
the  same  direction ;  these  apertures  are  reduced  by  the  pro- 
gressivelncrease  of  thelosseous  roof  of  the  tempond  vacuities, 
which  again  b  correlated  with  increase  in  the  bulk^and  power  of 
the  temporal  muscles,  the  main  agents  in  biting  and  holding. 
The  differences  in  the  length  and  strength  of  the  jaw,  as  a  rule, 
testify  in  the  same  dir^on.  Further,  the  fore  limbs  in 
mesozoic  crocodiles  are  shorter  than  in  neozoic  species,  indicating 
that  the  former  were  more  strictly  aquatic  in  their  habits ;  the 
forelimbs  in  all  crocodiles  being  closely  applied  to  the  body 
during  rapid  swimming,  and  smJd  limbs  being  less  obstructive 
than  larger  ones.  On  the  other  hand,  the^  would  be  less 
efficient  as  a  means  of  progression  on  land,  and  hence  it  may  be 
inferred  that  the  advent  in  tertiary  times  of  mammals  frequenting 
the  water-side,  tempting  the  crocodiles  to  make  a  rush  upon  the 
land  to  seize  such  passing  prey,  would  lead  to  such  strenooos 
action  of  Uie  fore-limbs  as  would  account  for  the  increased  size 
and  power  of  those  organs  in  the  neozoic  soecies.  The  author 
concluded  with  some  remarks  upon  the  influence  of  the  above 
considerations  upon  our  views  as  to  the ;  generic  divisions  of 
crocodiles. — Notes  on  a  supposed  crocodilian  jaw  from  the  coral 
rag  of  WcymouUi,  by  E.  TuUy  Newton,  F.G.S.,:of  .H.M.  Geo- 
lo^cal  Survey.  In  thb  paper  the  author  describes  what  be 
believes  to  be  a  fragment  of  a  lower  jaw  of  a  crocodilian,  ob- 
tained from  a  greyish  brown  sandy  grit,  probably  belonging  to 
bed  3  of  Messrs.  Blake  and  Hudleston's  Sandford-Castle  section. 
— Note  on  two  skuUs  from  the  Wealden  and  Purbeck  forma- 
tions indicating  a  new  sub-group  of  crocodilia,  by  J.  W.  Hulke, 
F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  The  author  described  a  crocodilian  skull 
obtained  bv  Mr.  H.  Willett,  F.G.S.,  from  the  Hastings  sands 
near  Cnckneld,  in  Sussex,  and  identified  by  that  gentleman  with 
Goniopholis  crassidens^  Owen ;  and  another  from  the  Purbecks 
near  Siranage,  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum,  which  he 
further  compared  with  a  third  specimen  from  Brook,  in  the  Isle 
of  Wight 

February  15.— Annual  General  MeeUng. — Prof.  P.  M.  Duncan, 
F.KS.,  president,  in  the  diair.— The  Secretaries  read  the 
Reports  of  the  Council  and  of  the  Library  and  Museum  Com- 
mittee for  the  year  1877.  The  Society  was  described  as  in  an 
exceedingly  {Prosperous  condition,  and  the  income  of  the  year  was 
stated  to  have  considerably  exceeded  the  expenditure.  The 
number  of  Fellows  elected  was  fiilly  np  to  tiie  average.  The 
Report  further  announced  the  receipt  of  a  bequest  of  500A  under 


the  will  of  the  late  Mr.  C.  Lambert,  which  sum,  with!i5o/.  of  the 
surplus  of  income,  had  been  invested  in  consols  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Society.— The  WoUaston  Gold  Medal  was  presented  to  Dr. 
Thos.  Wright,  F.R.S.,  for  hb  varied  pabeontological  researches. 
— The  President  then  presented  the  balance  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
WoDaston  Donation  Fund  to  Mr.  W.  J.  Sollas,  M.A.,  F.G.S., 
in  recognition  of  hb  careful  morphological  and  mineralogical 
studies  upon  the  fossil  Spongida. — The  President  next  handea  the 
Murchison  Medal  to  Mr.  Warington  W.  Smyth  for  transmission 
to  Dr.  Hanns  Bruno  Geinitz,  of  Dresden  for  hb  researches  in 
the  geology  and  palaeontology  of  the  palaeozoic  and  cretaceous 
formations  of  Saxony  ;  and  the  balance  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
Murchison  Geological  Fund  to  Mr.  H.  Hicks,  F.G.S,,  for  trans- 
mission to  Mr.  Charles  Lapworth,  F.G.S.,  for  a  most  important 
communication  upon  the  Silurian  rocks  of  the  South  of  Scotland, 
and  the  graptolites  contained  in  them. — ^The  President  next 
handed  to.MT.  J.  W.  Hulke,  F.R.S.,  the  LyeU  Medal  and  part 
of  the  Lyell  Fund  for  transmission  to  Mr.  George  Busk,  F.R.S., 
as  a  token  of  the  Council's  appreciation  of  hb  merits  as  a  palaeon- 
tologist—The  balance  of  the  proceeds  of  the  Lyell  Fund  was 
handed  to  Dr.  Oldham,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  for  transmission  to  Dr. 
W.  Waagen,  of  Vienna,  and  who  was  lately  on  the  Geological 
Survey  of  the  East  Indies.  Dr.  Waagen's  labours  in  India  have 
commended  themselves  to  the  Council  on  account  of  their  great 
merit  and  interest.  —The  President  then  |)roceeded  fto  read  his 
anniversary  address,  in  which  he  dwelt  in  considerable  detail 
upon  the  influence  of  advanced  morphological  and  zoologi- 
cal investigations  upon  our  palseontological  ideas  and  upon 
the  geological  inferences  founded  upon  them. — The  ballot 
for  the  Council  and  Officers  was  taken,  and  the  follow- 
ing were  duly  elected  for  the  ensuing  year  :— President, 
H.  C.  Sorby,  F.R.S.  Vice-Presidents  ;  R.  Etheridg^,  F.R.S., 
John  Evans,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  J.  Prestwich,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  A.  C. 
Ramsay,  F.R.S.  Secretaries:  Prot  T.  G.  Bonney,  M.A., 
Prof.  J.  W.  Jttdd,  F.R.S.  Foreign  Secretary  :  Warington  W. 
Smyth,  F.R.S.  Treasurer  ;  J.  Gwyn  Jeffreys,  F.R.S.  Council : 
H.  Bauerman,  Prof.  T.  G.  Bonney,  M.A.,  Prof.  W.  Boyd 
Dawkins,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  P.  Martin  Duncan,  F.R.S.,  R.  Ethc- 
ridge,  F.R.S.,  John  Evans,  F.R.S.,  Henry  Hicks,  W.  H. 
Hudleston,  M.A.,  Prof.  T.  McKenny  Hughes,  M.A.,  J.  W. 
Hulke,  F.R.S.,  J,  Gwyn  Jeffreys,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  T.  Rupert 
Jones,  F.R.S.,  Prof.  J.  W.  Judd,  F.R.S.,  J.  Morris,  J.  A. 
PhiUips,  Prof:  J.  Prestwich,  F.R.S.,  F.  ,G.  H.  Price,  Prof. 
A.  C.  Ramsay,  F.R.S.,  R.  H.  Scott,  F.R.S.,  Warington 
W.  Smyth,  F.R.S.,  H.  C.  Sorby,  F.R.S.,  Admiral  T.  A.  B. 
Spratt,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  Rev.  T.  WUtshire,  F.L.S. 

Zoological  Society,  February  19.— Pro£  Mivart,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  diair. — The  Secretary  exhibited  the  skin 
of  a  fine  adult  cassowary,  which  had  been  obtained  at  Wandam- 
men,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Gedvink,  New  Guinea, 
and  had  just  been  acquired  bv  the  British  Museum.  The  species 
to  which  it  belonged  was  believed  to  be  undescribed,  and  was 
proposed  to  be  ctdled  C.  altijugus^  firom  its  peculiar  high^pneaked 
nelmet. — Mr.  P.  Geddes  read  a  memoir  on  the  mechanbm  of 
the  odontophore  in  certain  moUusca.  In  thb  paper  the  view  of 
Cuvier— that  the  movements  of  the  radula  depend  upon  those  of 
the  underlying  caitilages~was  substantiaUy  revived,  arguments 
being  adduced  against  the  more  recent  theory  of  Prof.  Huxley, 
that  it  runs  like  a  chain-saw,  the  cartilages  merely  forming  a 
ptdley-block.  The  use  of  bacteria  as  food  by  Lymnaus  was  also 
described  by  the  author  in  thb  paper. — Prof.  A.  H.  Garrod, 
F.R.S.,  read  some  notes  on  the  anatomy  of  Tolypeuies  tricinctus, 
and  gave  remarks  on  other  Dasypodida,  A  new  form  of  Tol^- 
peuUSf  allied  to  T,  conurus,  was  proposed  to  be  called  T,  murui, 
— A  communication  was  read  from  Mr.  J.  H.  Gumej^  F.Z.S., 
containing  notes  on  a  specimen  of  Pofydorus,  lately  living  in  the 
Society's  Gardens. — ^A  communication  was  read  firom  Mr.  D. 
G.  Elliott,  F.Z.S.,  containing  the  results  of  hb  study  of  the 
Fteroclida,  or  fiunily  of  sand  grouse.  Nine  species  of  Pterochs 
and  two  of  Syrrhaites  were  recognbed  as  composing  the  family. 
— Messrs.  F.  Du  (Jane  Godman  and  Osbert  Sidvin  gave  descrip- 
tions of  new  species  of  diurnal  lepidoptera  firom  Centnd 
America. — A  communication  was  read  firom  Mr.  R.  Bowdler 
Sharpe,  giving  an  account  of  a  small  collection  of  birds  from 
the  Ellice  Islimds. — Mr.  Edward  R.  Alston  read  a  note  on  the 
dentition  of  Cuscus. — A  conmiunication  was  read  firom  Mr.  T. 
F.  Cheeseman,  containing  the  description  of  three  new  species 
of  Opirthobranchiate  nmnsca  from  New  Zealand.— Dr.  K  Day 
communicated  some  remarks  on  the  paper  read  by  Mr.  Whitmee 


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MATURE 


[March  7,  1878 


at  the  last  meeting  of  the  Society,  on  the  ibaoifeitations  of  fear 
and  anger  by  fishes. — ^A  communication  was  read  from  the  Mar- 
quis of  Tweeddale,  F.R.S.,  containing  an  account  of  a  collec- 
lection  of  birds  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett,  in  the  Island  of 
Negros,  Philippines. — A  second  communication  from  the  Mar- 
auis  of  Tweeddale  contained  the  description  of  a  new  species  oi 
the  genus  Buceros,  proposed  to  be  called  B,  semigaleatus,  from 
the  Island  of  Leyle,  Philippines. 

Mineralogical  Society,  February  19.— Mr.  H.  C.  Sorby, 
F.R.  S.,  president,  in  the  chair.  — The  president  read  a  valuable  and 
important  paper  on  the  determination  of  the  minerals  in  thin 
sections  of  rocks  by  means  of  their  refractive  indices.  In  this 
paper  he  showed  how  the  refractive  indices  might  be  determined 
with  great  accuracy  in  sections  less  than  ^7  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  cut  for  ordinary  microscopic  purposes. — ^The  Rev. 
T.  G.  Bonney  then  read  a  paper  on  some  specimens  pf  Gabbro 
from  the  Pennine  Alps,  in  which  he  pomted  out  the  great 
changes  which  these  rocks  had  undergone,  and  their  similarity  to 
the  rocks  of  the  Lizard  district  in  Cornwall — Mr.  J.  H.  Collins 
read  a  ps^r  on  the  classification  of  minerals^  in  which  he 
advocated  a  primary  chemical  and  a  secondary  mixed  system  of 
classification.  This  paper  elicited  an  interesting  discussion. 
Specimens  in  illustration  of  their  papers  were  exhibited  b^  the 
president  and  by  the  Rev.  T.  G.  Bonney.— Dr.  Foster  exhibited 
specimens  of  carbonate  of  l>ismuth,  and  other  minerals  from  new 
Cornish  localities. 

Photographic  Society,  February  12.— Annual  Meeting. — 
James  Glaisher,  F,R.S.,  proident,  in  the  chair. — A  sUver 
progress  medal  was  awarded  to  Capt  Abn^,  R.E.,  F.R.S.,  for 
having  made  the  greatest  advance  in  the  science  of  photography 
during  the  past  year. — Capt  Abney  exhibited  a  very  large 
positive  photograph  taken  from  one  of  Janssen's  negatives  of  the 
sun,  which  were  taken  by  a  five-indi  telescopic  objective  of 
about  seven  feet  focal  length,  corrected  for  the  chemical,  but  not 
for  the  visual  rays. — Mr.  Edward  Viles  exhibited  the  micro- 
photographic  apparatus  by  which  the  large  photograph  (recently 
seen  at  the  exhibition)  of  the  probosds  of  me  blow-fly  enlarged 
200  diameters,  was  taken,  the  mechanism  and  use  of  the  heliostat 
being  minutely  described. — Capt  Abney  also  exhibited  and 
described  two  other  forms  of  heliostats  which  he  had  used. 

Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences,  February  25.— M.  Fizeau  in  the 
chair. — ^The  President  announced  the  opening  of  a  subscription 
for  a  statue  to  M.  Leverrier.  The  following  papers  were  read :~ 
On  the  carburation  of  nickel  by  the  process  of  cementation,  by 
M.  Boussingault.  Though  combining  with  carbon,  nickel  does 
not  acquire,  lUce  iron,  the  properties  found  in  steel ;  nor  is  the 
cemented  nickel  rendered  less  oxidable.  (M.  Becquerel  is  exa- 
mining its  magnetic  properties.) — On  a  new  product  of  oxidation 
of  lead,  and  on  some  phenomena  of  dissociation,  by  M.  Debrav. 
Sesquioxide  of  lead  is  transformed,  gradually  at  350°,  and  rapidly 
at  440**  into  minium,  which  is  not  susceptible  of  being  hyi>eroxy- 
genated  in  air,  or  even  in  pure  oxygen.  It  cannot  be  said  that 
any  compound  fonned  directly  will  necessarily  undergo  a  limited 
decomposition  at  a  jg^iven  temperature. — Imitation  of  the  charac- 
teristic cupules  smd  erosions  found  on  the  surface  of  meteorites 
in  an  industrial  operation,  by  action  of  a  rapid  current  of  air  on 
incandescent  stones,  by  M.  Daubr^e.  In  a  new  mode  of  manu- 
facture of  Portland  cement,  the  stones  raised  to  white  heat  are 
subjected  to  a  current  of  cold  air ;  the  spedmea  (famished  by 
M.  Hauen3child)  showed  a  surface  very  like  that  of  meteorites. 
— Note  on  a  new  brochure  oi  M.  Him  on  music  and  acoustics,  by 
M.  Faye. — On  the  recent  communication  of  M.  Broun,  and  a 
note  of  Mr.  Jenkins  rdattng  to  sun-spots  and  terrestrial  mag- 
netism, by  M.  Faye. — On  telephones  with  battery,  by  M.  Du 
Moncel.  The  author  hopefully  calls  attention  to  MM.  Pollard 
and  Gamier's  attempts  to  strengthen  the  sound;  the  sending 
telephone  being  on  Edison's  graphite  system,  while  the  receiver 
is  a  Bell  telepnone  connected  to  the  induced  wire  of  a  Ruhm- 
korfT  coil,  the  battery  currents  being  passed  through  the 
primary  wire.  With  pretty  strong  currents  words  can  b^  heard 
50  or  60  ctm.  from  the  mouth  of  the  telephone,  and  musical  sounds 
several  metres  off.  — ^The  vibrations  of  matter  and  the  waves  of  the 
ether  in  ebullition,  by  M.  Fav^. — Report  on  a  memoir  of  M. 
Haton  de  la  GoupUliere. — On  the  lines  generated  in  movement 
of  a  plane  figure. — On  some  consequences  of  the  constitution  of 
the  solar  spectrum,  by  M.  Comu.  If  the  sun's  outer  la]|rer  con- 
tain, like  aerolites,  a  large  amount  of  iron  vapour,  tms  metal 
probably  has  an  appreciable  action  on  our  terrestrial  magnetic 


phenomena.  The  central  part  6f  the  earth  seems  to  be  fonned  of 
much  denser  materials  than  the  crust,  probablv  metallic  matter ; 
and  the  probable  common  or^in  of  bodies  of  the  solar  system 
seems  to  point  to  iron  being  liiigely  present,  which  would  explain 
the  earth  s  action  on  the  magnetic  needle.  Again,  the  solar 
protuberances  may  correspond  to  illumination  by  induction 
(large  magnetic  masses  being  in  rapid  motion)  of  rarefied 
gaseous  masses««n  illumination  easily  produced  in  our  labo- 
ratories by  means  of  the  weakest  mechanical  actions.— On 
differential  actions  of  the  first  order  and  the  first  degree,  by  M. 
Darboux. — On  the  temporary  variation  of  permanent  magnetism, 
by  M.  Gaugain. — When  a  system  (tube  and  core,  or  even 
full  bar)  magnetised^  at  ordinary  ^temperature  is  raised  to  yxP 
or  400%  the  weakening  of  the  ma|;netism  is  not  exclusively 
due  to  a  part  of  this  magnetism  being  destroyed  ;  it  arises  in 
part  from  the  inverse  magnetism  being  developed  in  the  tube 
under  influence  of  heat— ^n  the  action  of  fluoride  of  boron 
on  organic  matters,  by  M.  Landolph.  —  Transformation  of 
bromated  hydrocarbons  of  the  series  of  ethylene  into  bromides 
of  acids  of  the  fatty  series,  by  simple  addition  of  oxygen,  by 
M.  Demole. — Analvsis  of  the  sulphurous  waters  of  Aix,  in 
Savoy,  and  of  Marhoz,  by  M.  WlUm. — Action  of  oxygen  on 
anatomical  elements,  by  M.  Bert  These  elements  are  nourished 
by  reducing  the  oxyhsemoglobic  combination  (and  similarly  to 
the  butyric  ferment) ;  but  if  their  substance  be  penetrated  arti- 
ficially with  chemically  firee  dissolved  oxygen,  they  become 
incapable  of  taking  oxygen  from  the  matter  which  furnished  it 
bdfore,  and  die  by  a  kind  of  asphyxia ;  in  a  word  they  are 
anarobies, — On  local  variations  of  the  pulse  in  the  forearm  of 
man,  by  M.  Mosso.  He  experiments  with  a  hydrosphygmo- 
graphs  which  is  a  modification  of  his  plethysmograph.  The 
effects  during  intellectual  effort,  sleep,  &c.,  are  described. — On 
lactic  fermentation  of  sugar  of  milk,  by  M.  Richet.  It  seems 
that  the  gastric  juice,  by  its  dissolving;  action  on  caseine  and 
perhaps  another  action  yet  unknown,  g[ive8  lactic  fermentation  a 
surprising  activity  and  rapidity. — Classification  of  Cestoides,  by 
M.  Perrier. 

Vienna 
:  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  Januarv  3. — On  the 
velocl^  of  propagation  of  spark- waves,  by  MM.  Idach,  Tumlirz, 
and  Kogler. — On  orthogonal  substitutions  and  some  related  to 
them,  by  M.  IgeL— On  ballooning,  by  M.  Ettalp.^.Three 
experiments  with  the  telephone,  by  M.  Sacher. 

CONTENTS  PAGB 

RsPJtBSBNTATION  OV  SCIBNCB  AT  TUB  PaSIS  EXHIBITION  ...  357 
Mbtrology  .     • 357 

Wolf's  History  op  Astronomy,  II  By  J.  R.  Hino^  F.R.S. ...  359 
OuB  Book  Srblt  >- 

Proctor's    *' Spectroscope  and   its  Woik.''~M.   M.    Pattison 

MuiR 360 

GiUmore's  **  Great  Thirst  Land  ;  a  Ride  throuffh  Natal,  Orange 
FreeSute,  Transvaal,  and  Kalahari  Desert 360 

LbTTBRS  to  TMB  RotTOB  \r^ 

Strychnia  and  its  Antidote.~J.  S1NCI.AIR  Holdbn.    .....  360 

Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  £voluti<Mi.— John  I.  Plummbr  .    .  3C0 

The  Zoological  Station  at  Naples.— Dr.  Anton  Dohrn   ....  360 

Faraday's    '*  Experimental    Reaearches.'*'-Pro&    Silvan  us    P. 

Thompson 36^ 

Mimicrv  in  Birds.— J  Stuabt  Thomson 361 

Great  Waterfalls.— Thos.  Bland 361 

Sbvbral  Nbw  Applications  or  Scibncb  Introoucbd  into  War  .  361 
Mbtborological  Notbs:  — 

Tornado  in  Chester  County,  Penn.,  U.S. 36s 

The  Law  and  Origin  of  Thunderstorms 36s 

Monthly  Meteorological  Bulletin  of  the  Montsouris  Observatory, 

N0.69     .    .    . .36a 

Meteorology  of  Western  Australia 363 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Uranian  SateUttes,  Ariel  and  Umbriel 363 

The  Tranut  of  Mercury  on  May  6 363 

The  Radcliffe  Observatory 363 

The  Harvard  College  Observatory,  U.S 363 

Gbocraphical  Notes:— 

The  Albert  Nyanza 364 

Mr.  Stanley's  Work 364 

South-West  Africa 364 

African  Dwarfs 364 

The  North-East  Paisage 364 

Dr.  Lenz 364 

Popular  Natural  History  (lfYM/ASM/rw/fVi») 365 

Nitrification.    By  R.  Wabington 367 

Fossil  Hunting  at  Bournemouth.    By  J.  S.  Gardner,  F.G.S.   .  369 

Fathir  Sbcchi 370 

Notes • 370 

Extent  anb  Principal  Zone  op  the  Aubora  Bobbaus    .    .    .    •  373 

Pabis  Academy  Pbizbs  for  1878 373 

UnIYBBSITV  AMD  SOUCATIONAL  InTBLLIGBNCB  374 

SasNTiPic  Serials 374 

SociBTiBs  AND  Academies         374 


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THURSDAY,   MARCH    14,  1878 


THE  LOCUST  PLAGUE  IN  AMERICA 

The  Locust  Plague  in  the  United  States;  being  more 
particularly  a  Treatise  on  the  Pocky  Mountain  Locust^ 
or  so  called  Grasshopper ^  as  it  occurs  East  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains^  with  Practical  Recommendations  for  its 
Destruction.  By  Charles  V.  Riley,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  State 
Entomologist  of  Missouri,  &c.  With  4.5  Illustrations. 
"^  (Chicago  :  Rand,  McNally,  and  Co.,  1877.) 

THE  greater  part  of  this  treatise  has  already  appeared 
in  the  Entomological  Reports  published  annually 
for  some  years  past  by  Mr.  Riley,  as  State  Entomologist 
for  Missouri,  in  which  the  information  was  given  piece- 
meal from  time  to  time  as  it  was  acquired.  The  whole  is 
now  brought  together  in  a  connected  and  systematic  form, 
and  we  have  in  it  a  very  complete  and  valuable  treatise 
on  the  different  kinds  of  locusts,  whether  species  or  varie- 
ties, which  have  proved  destructive  in  North  America. 
Ever  since  the  diiscovery  and  colonisation  of  that  con- 
tinent the  new  settlements  have  been  from  time  to  time 
subject  more  or  less  to  scarcities  resulting  from  the 
invasions  or  migrations  of  these  insects.  These  have 
gradually,  however,  become  scarcer  and  scarcer,  and 
confined  more  and  more  to  the  interior  as  the  insects 
retreated  before  the  advancing  wave  of  civilisation  and 
cultivation,  until  now  their  ravages  do  not  extend  east- 

L  wards  beyond  the  i6th  or  17th  degree  of  longitude  west 
of  Washington ;  in  other  words,  the  regions  lying  to  the 
east  of  the  Mississippi  are  now  nearly  free  from  them, 
and  it  is  only  in  those  lying  to  the  west  of  that  river  that 
their  propagation  and  migrations  take  place  on  such  a 
scale  as  seriously  to  affect  the  property  and  prosperity  of 
the  settlers.  It  is  not  that  the  species  originally  inhabit- 
ing the  eastern  coast  have  been  gradually  pushed  back  to 
the  interior,  but  that  the  species  peculiar  to  it  have  been 
reduced  in  number  in  the  cultivated  districts,  and  their 
rSle  has  been  successively  taken  up  by  other  species  lying 
more  inland  as  civilisation  has  grsiduailly  advanced.  The 
species  on  which  that  mission  has  now  devolved  are  two 
or  three  that  have  their  home  and  permanent  breeding- 
place  in  the  Rocky  Mountains— we  say  permanent  in 
contradistinction  to  temporary  breeding-place,  because 
when  they  make  their  migrations,  they  often  rest  and 
breed  at  its  furthest  limit,  the  brood  returning  in  the 
following  year  to  the  country  from  which  their  parents 
ame,  although  not  necessarily  by  the  same  route. 
The  rou^e  by  which  they  have  hitherto  invaded  the 
countries  to  the  east  of  their  proper  home  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  has  been  from  north-west  to  south-east  That 
by  which  the  fresh-bred  swarms  sprung  from  the  invaders 
have  made  their  way  back  again  next  year,  has  been 
from  south-east  to  north-west,  but  not  absolutely  in  the 
same  line  by  which  their  parents  came,  but  either 
parallel  to  it  or  slightly  divergent.  Their  course  of 
invasion  has  been  carefully  traced  for  many  years  by  Mr. 
Riley  and  others,  and  the  fact  of  their  return  on  their 
footsteps  in  this  way  is  beyond  question  ;  but  it  is  also 
beyond  doubt  that  the  new  brood  does  not  go  back  so 
strong  or  so  numerous  as  their  parents  came.  Their 
constitution  appears  to  be  sapped  by  the  change  of 
Vol.  xvii.— No.  437 


climate  or  condition  of  life  ;  they  are  feeble  and  infested 
by  parasites,  so  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  die  a 
natural  death — a  consideration  which  doubtless  explains 
why  the  vast  swarms  which  have  passed  from  one  country 
to  another  in  all  ages  and  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe, 
seem  never  to  have  made  good  a  permanent  footing  in  the 
country  they  have  invaded ;  at  all  events  never  in  num- 
bers at  all  corresponding  to  the  force  of  the  intruders. 
This  is  no  doubt  but  small  consolation  to  settlers  living 
on  the  borders  of  a  locust-stricken  land,  but  it  is  better 
than  none— they  would  be  still  worse  off  if  the  locusts 
were  to  remain  as  a  permanent  incubus  instead  of  only 
coming  occasionally  as  a  ravaging  horde. 

Of  the  amount  of  injury  done  by  the  invading  hosts, 
especially  during  the  more  recent  invasions  of  1873  and 
following  years,  Mr.  Riley  gives  a  striking  accoimt.  Where 
a  territory  of  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent  is  struck  with  deso- 
lation in  a  few  days  or  weeks  through  the  ravages  of  an 
insect,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  speak  of  it  without  exaggera- 
tion, and  some  qualijfication  will  almost  certainly  have  to  be 
made  upon  any  estimate  of  the  amount  of  damage  sup- 
posed to  have  been  sustained,  especially  when,  as  here,  we 
know  how  little  the  data  on  which  the  estimates  are  founded 
are  to  be  reUed  on.  In  Great  Britain  we  have  now  an 
elaborate  machinery  by  which  reliable  agricultural  returns 
are  obtained ;  the  land,  or  most  of  it,  has  been  measured 
and  mapped  out ;  the  best  means  are  taken  to  obtain  true 
and  correct  returns,  and  when  obtained  they  are  checked 
by  competent  and  trustworthy  experts  ;  so  that  no  error 
of  any  magnitude  can  well  creep  in  without  detection.  It 
is  otherwise  on  the  prairies  west  of  Missouri.  The 
admirable  United  States  Surveys,  although  sufficiently 
perfect  and  on  a  sufficiently  large  scale  to  answer  all 
general  purposes,  have  no  pretensions  to  such  detail  as 
we  have  adopted  in  our  Ordnance  Survey  Maps,  and  no 
attempt  is  made  to  give  the  acreage  of  the  different  plots 
in  cultivation  (which,  besides,  would  be  useless,  as  it  is 
an  uncertain  quantity,  varying  every  year).  At  the  best, 
therefore,  there  are  no  other  means  of  estimating  either  the 
amount  in  cultivation  or  the  amount  of  damage  inflicted 
on  it  than  an  empirical  estimate  furnished  by  the  farmers 
themselves,  a  mode  of  calculation  open  to  many  objections, 
and  requiring  much  allowance.  StiU,  giving  the  widest 
margin,  enough  remains  behind  to  satisfy  the  hungriest 
appetite  for  startling  results.  If  actual  starvation  did  not 
come  in  the  locusts'  train,  poverty  and  distress  did.  In  1874 
the  loss  to  three  exposed,  although  thinly-peopled,  states, 
Wyoming,  Dakota,  and  Montana,  is  said  to  have  been 
fifty  millions  of  dollars ;  and  in  1875  ^^  was  calculated 
that  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  of  people  were 
made  sufferers  on  a  strip  of  about  twenty-five  miles  broad 
along  the  banks  of  the  Missouri,  from  Omaha  to  Kansas. 

Mr.  Riley  gives  many  statistics  on  such  points.  His 
information  regarding  the  habits  of  the  locusts  and  their 
enemies,  and  the  best  way  of  dealing  with  them,  is  also 
ample ;  and  his  scientific  descriptions  and  natural  his- 
tory of  the  species  in  all  their  stages  leave  nothing  to 
be  desired.  He  even  touches  upon  their  value  as  food 
either  with  or  without  wild  honey,  and  gives  the  results 
of  his  experience  as  to  the  best  mode  of  cooking  them. 
During  a  visit  that  he  paid  to  this  country,  some  two  or 
three  years  ago,  he  brought  some  dried  potted  specimens 
with  him ;  but  thatwas  scarcely  faur  play  to  the  locusts 


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{March  14,  1878 


and  we  shall  not  say  what  we  thought  of  them.  Let  us 
still  be  just  If  we  are  to  condemn  them,  let  it  only  be 
after  a  trial  when  they  are  fresh  and  good.  We  have 
indeed  tried  them  in  their  native  country^  pounded  up 
with  acorns  and  mashed  into  balls  by  the  digger  Indians 
of  California ;  but  then  acorns  would  destroy  any  dish 
for  civilised  food,  so  that  we  prefer  to  leave  the  question 
of  their  culinary  merits  an  open  one  for  some  gas- 
tronomic jury,  stipulating  only  for  the  right  of  challenging 
Mr.  Riley,  as  one  of  its  members,  on  the  score  of  un- 
due favour  and  partiality  arising  from  too  intimate  an 
acquaintance  and  familiarity  with  the  individuals  under 
trial 

A  further  contribution  to  the  subject  treated  of  by  Mr. 
Riley  has  reached  us  in  the  shape  of  the  first  two 
Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Entomological  Commis- 
sion. Andrew  Murray 

ABNEY'S  TREATISE  ON  PHOTOGRAPHY 

A  Treatise  on  Photography,    By  W.  de  Wiveleslie  Abney, 
F.R.S.    (London  :  Longmans  and  Co.,  1878.) 

ALL  those  interested  in  this  most  attractive  study  will 
welcome  Capt  Abne/s  treatise  on  photography. 
Those  who  wish  to  become  acquainted  with  the  scientific 
principles  on  which  the  practice  of  photography  depends 
will  find  in  the  opening  chapters  a  clear  and  concise 
description  of  the  theory  of  sensitive  substances,  and  of 
the  action  of  light  on  'various  compounds,  whilst  by 
studying  the  closing  chapters  of  the  volume  they  will  be 
able  to  make  themselves  acquainted  with  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge  on  the  important  subjects  of  actino- 
metry,  photo-spectroscopy,  and  the  interesting  disco- 
veries made  by  the  author  and  others  on  the  sensitiveness 
of  different  salts,  and  the  methods  employed  for  obtaining 
pictures  of  the  various  portions  of  the  spectrum.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  artist  photographer  will  find  ample  matter 
for  interest  in  the  chapter  in  which  Capt.  Abney  most 
successfully  lays  down  the  rules  which  must  guide  the 
production  of  an  artistic  picture,  pointing  out  the  special 
difficulties  under  which  the  photographer  lies  in  the 
choice  of  subjects  in  order  to  avoid  incongruity  or  inar- 
tistic massing  of  light  and  shade,  and  showing  the  best 
mode  of  hghting  and  arranging  the  picture  by  choosing 
the  right  point  of  view  for  the  camera.  As  an  illustra- 
tion of  Capt  Abney's  happy  style  and  power  of  artistic 
treatment,  we  may  quote  the  following  description  of  a 
landscape  :— 

"  In  the  next  picture,  we  have  the  distance,  or 
perhaps  more  strictly  speaking,  the  middle  distance  as 
the  point  of  interest  The  horizon  line  is  kept  in  the 
weakest  part,  the  centre,  of  the  picture.  The  trees  in  the 
foreground  are  so  grouped  that  they  frame  the  view  with 
dark  masses,  relieved  by  the  light  foliage  of  some  of  the 
nearer  bushes  and  shrubs.  The  foreground  finishes  at  a 
distance  of  about  \  from  the  bottom.  More  of  it  would 
take  away  froih  the  value  of  the  middle  distance,  as  it 
would  place  it  in  the  weakest  part  of  the  picture — viz., 
centrally ;  less  of  it  would  have  rendered  the  picture  bald, 
and  have  cut  off  part  of  the  deeper  shades  which  are  so 
valuable  in  giving  the  effect  of  distance  to  the  stream 
beyond.  This  picture  would  have  been  spoilt  had  the 
camera  been  so  placed  as  to  give  more  top  foliage,  since 
^e  bough  whidi  now  partially  crosses  the  picture  at  about 
§  the  height,  would  nave  caused  an  ugly  division,  and 
also  the  tops  of  the  distant  trees,  and  the  sky  would  have 


appeared.  This  latter,  in  views  such  as  that  under 
criticism,  is  objectionable,  as  patches  of  white  give  the 
eye  an  inclination  to  wander  off  towards  it,  and  it  would 
have  been  an  insufficient  precaution  to  have  printed  in 
clouds  from  another  negative,  owing  to  the  difficulty  that 
would  exist  in  subduing  at  the  same  time  the  lights  on 
the  leaves  of  the  near  trees.  As  it  is,  the  picture  is  in 
pictorial  focus.  By  placing  the  stream  to  the  right  or 
left,  the  balance  would  have  been  wanting,  and  its  general 
direction  would  have  been  altered  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
have  given  a  feeling  that  it  was  a  subsidiary  part  of  the 
picture  instead  of  an  essential" 

Another  important  section  of  the  work  is  devoted  to  the 
necessary,  but  unavoidably  dry  descriptions  of  the  very 
numerous  photographic  processes  and  manipulations  now 
in  vogue,  of  the  construction  of  apparatus,  and  a  state- 
ment of  the  general  laws  of  geometrical  optics  so  far  as 
concerns  the  principles  on  which  the  construction  and 
use  of  photographic  lenses  depend.  On  all  these  subjects 
we  find  Capt  Abney's  statements  clear  and  concise. 

Then  again  no  book  on  photography  would  be  com- 
plete without  an  explanation  of  the  various  processes  of 
photo-lithography  and  photo-engraving,  and  accordingly  we 
find  a  short  account  of  the  more  important  of  these  inter- 
esting methods  of  reproducing  photographic  efiects.  To 
one  of  these  photo-relief  printing  processes,  that  dis- 
covered by  Wamerke,  with,  we  believe,  the  author's  co- 
operation, we  would  especially  draw  attention,  the 
picture  being  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  delicacy,  as 
well  as  for  the  force  and  depth  of  its  tones.  The  details 
of  this  process  are  not  yet  published ;  it  cannot,  however, 
be  doubted  that  it  is  capable  of  producing  the  finest  effects 
of  a  steel  or  copper-plate  engraving. 

It  is,  however,  the  scientific  side  of  Capt  Abney's  book 
which  will  especially  interest  the  readers  of  Nature. 
The  explanation  of  the  effect  of  vibration  as  setting  up 
chemical  change  in  the  molecule  is  clearly  set  forth  in 
Chapter  III.   The  case  in  which  the  atoms  are  in  a  stable 
though  verging  on  an  indifferent  equilibrium  as  with  the 
sensitive  mixture  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen,  being  well 
illustrated  by  the  equilibrium  of  a  frustum  of  a  pyramid 
standing  base  uppermost  on  as  narrow  section  of  the  base 
as  we  please.      In  these  cases  a  very  small  amoimt  of 
work  is  needed  to  make  the  systems  take  up  more  stable 
positions.     Then   "  extending  our  previous  illustration, 
supposing  we  had  a  row  of  such  frusta  of  pyramids, 
and  that  it  was  found  that  one  pellet  of  a  number  (all 
being  of  equal  weight)  when  striking  one  frustum  with 
a  certain  velocity  was  able  to  cause  it  to  fall,  and  also 
that  in  every  case  the  accuracy  of  aim  was  imdoubted, 
and  that  in  falling  one  frustum  did  not  strike  its  neigh- 
bour, then  at  any  interval  after  the  commencement  of  a 
bombardment  the  amount  of  work  expended  in  plrojecting  .  ^ 
the  pellets  could  be  compared  by  simply  counting  the 
number  of  frusta  which  had  fallen"  (p.  12}.     The  ques- 
tion of  the  action  of  vibrations  synchronous  with  the 
oscillations  of   the   molecule  on   the   stability   of  the 
molecule  is  next  discussed,  and  the  explanation  ren- 
dered clear  by  a  description  of  Rankine's  well-known 
contrivance  of  the  heavy  and   light  pendulums.     The 
difference   between    the   decomposition    of    explosives 
and  of  bodies  employed  for  photographic  purposes  in 
respect  to  the  nature  of  the  disturbing  vibrations  is  thus 
pointed  out    Explosives  are  affected  by  long  wave  rays, 
photographic  actions  as  a  rule  being  only  set  up  by  waves 


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of  short  length.  A  description  of  the  remarkable  negative 
or  reversing  action  effected  by  the  red  rays  on  the  sen- 
sitised plate,  first  observed  by  H.  Draper,  is  found  in 
Chapter  XXXIV.  A  partial  explanation  of  this  very  in- 
teresting fact  is  given  by  the  results  of  experiments  lately 
made  by  Capt.  Abney  {PhiL  Mag.y  January,  1878),  which 
show  that  the  image  can  be  rendered  undevelopable  by 
the  oxidation  of  the  altered  silver  compound  forming  it 
Chastaing  has  also  recently  announced  that  he  finds 
rapidity  of  oxidation  promoted  by  the  red  rays.  It  is 
thus  easy  to  see  that  the  sensitive  salt  of  silver  which  had 
been  altered  in  chemical  composition  by  a  slight  exposure 
to  white  light,  would  become  oxidised  where  the  red  rays 

"^  fell  upon  it,  and  that,  in  consequence,  where  the  dark 
Fraunhofer's  lines  in  the  ultra  re<l  spectrum  fell,  the  plate 
would  remain  unaffected  and  the  presence  of  these  in- 
visible bands  would  become  apparent 

Another  subject  of  great  interest,  that  of  the  production 
of  coloured  photographic  images,  is  being  attacked  ex- 
perimentally by  Capt  Abney.  The  results  of  the  experi- 
ments in  this  direction  by  Becquerel  and  Ni(5pce  de  St 
Victor  are  well  known,  and  many  of  the  visitors  to  the 
Loan  Exhibition  wiU  remember  the  coloured  photograph 
of  dolls  dressed  in  coloured  clothes  shown  by  the  latter 
chemist  Abney  believes  that  these  tints  are  rather  to 
be  ascribed  to  different  stages  of  oxidation  of  the  film, 
than,  as  has  hitherto  been  supposed,  to  the  colours  of 
thin  plates.  Then,  again,  on  the  subject  of  the  recent 
discoveries  by  Vogcl,  Waterhouse,  and  others,  as  to  the 
production  of  a  film  sensitive  to  the  red  rays  by  the 
iddition  of  a  red  dye  to  the  collodion,  Capt  Abney  has 
.omething  original  to  say.  He  has  found  that  the  addition 
of  certain  resins,  albumin,  and  other  organic  bodies,  when 
combined  with  silver,  tends  to  lower  the  limit  of  the 
impressible  spectrum  and  the  place  of  maximum  sensi- 
bility ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
an  unreversed  impression  of  the  thermal  spectrum.  A 
beam  of  light  was  allowed  to  pass  through  ruby  glass, 
and  the  spectrum  was  then  thrown  on  a  lesinised  plate 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  a  visible  impression  of  rays 
in  the  red  was  obtained  far  beyond  the  limit  of  the  visible 
spectrum,  as  is  seen  by  a  figure  in  the  volume. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  value  of  Capt 
Abney's  treatise  both  from  the  scientific  and  artistic 
points  of  view.  If  we  are  to  speak  on  the  part  of  amateur 
photographers  we  would  express  a  hope  that  the  subject 
of  the  explanation  of  defects  in  negatives  and  their  cure 
may  be  more  fully  treated  of  in  the  next  edition.  It  is 
perhaps  difficult  for  an  accomplished  photographer  like 
the  author  to  appreciate  the  difficulties  of  a  beginner  in 
tbe  art,  but  the  mere  mention  of  some  of  the  defects  met 
with  in  negatives  does  not  always,  as  the  author  states, 

^  suggest  the  cure  to  minds  unfamiliar  with  the  niceties  of 
manipulation  and  procedure  which  to  the  expert  come  as 
a  matter  of  course.  We  congratulate  Capt.  Abney  on  the 
appearance  of  this  most  useful  volume.  H.  E.  R. 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Archctological  Researches  at  Carnac^  in  Britanny.    By 
James  Miln.    (Edinburgh  :  David  Douglas.) 

This  beautiful  book  reflects  great  credit  on  its  author.  It 
wtuld  be  difficult  in  the  recent  literature  of  archaeology 
to  point  out  a  more  salient  example  of  the  great  gam 


which  b  sure  to  accrue  to  that  branch  of  science  from  the 
introduction  of  the  true  scientific  spirit,  and  attention  to 
details.  Camac,  in  most  people's  minds,  is  associated  with 
Druidical  circles,  and  it  was  to  see  the  wonderful  align- 
ments there  that  Mr.  Miln  visited  the  place.  But  wUle 
in  the  region  the  author  was  particularly  struck  with  the 
remains  belonging  to  a  very  different  time,  which  were 
pointed  out  to  Mr.  Miln  by  a  French  archaeologist  They 
are  termed  the  mounds  of  the  Bossenno.  With  charac- 
teristic enerey  Mr.  Miln,  who  was  determined  to  explore, 
endeavoured  to  buy  in  order  that  he  might  explore  the 
better.  In  this,  however,  he  was  foiled,  beset  by  too 
many  difficulties.  The  permission  to  explore  which  he 
subsequently  obtained  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a 
very  complete  one,  and  after  this  big  book  full  of  matter 
our  author  states  that  much  still  remains  to  be  done. 

The  results  of  the  excavations  so  carefully  carried  out 
by  Mr.  Miln  show  that  we  have  here  the  remains  of  a 
Gallo- Roman  settlement,  and  he  has  reconstructed  for  us 
out  of  its  ashes  the  condition  of  the  people  in  fomier 
times.  He  has  been  enabled  to  give  us  precise  informa- 
tion as  to  their  food  and  the  degree  of  luxury  in  which 
they  indulged.  Their  worship,  their  ceremonies,  and 
modes  of  manufacture,  and  the  exact  times  between 
which  the  colony  was  in  a  flourishing  condition  are  also 
fully  discussed.  He  traces  the  local  worship  of  Venus 
Genetrix,  at  the  Mont  St.  Michael,  in  a  most  interesting 
manner.  One  of  the  oldest  constructions  which  remains 
in  Britanny  is  the  chapel  of  St.  Agatha.  On  the  vault  of 
the  apse  a  few  years  ago  was  discovered  one  of  the  most 
curious  frescoes  which  the  Romans  have  left  in  Britanny. 
It  represents  Venus  rising  from  a  blue  sea,  surrounded 
by  fishes  and  dolphins.  This  church,  now  aedicated  to 
St  Vener,  is  styled  "  Ecclesia  Sancti  Veneris "  in  a 
twelfth  century  charter. 

The  beautiful  illustrations  comprise  not  only  almost 
everything  which  was  found,  but  large  coloured  plates  of 
the  chief  coloured  designs  rescued  here  and  there. 

All  antiquaries  will  do  well  to  lay  to  heart  the  remarks 
on  ancient  pottery  made  by  Mr.  Miln  (i  propos  of  his 
finds  in  the  excavation  which  he  desigpiates  A.  He  shows 
abundantly  how  much  caution  is  requisite  in  such  in- 
quiries and  how  a  careful  sifting  of  facts  brings  order  into 
what  at  first  sight  appears  a  hopeless  jumble  of  objects. 
It  is  curious  that  some  of  the  pottery  he  found  there  is 
similar  to  some  in  the  Guildhall  Museum,  which  was 
found  at  a  depth  of  forty-two  feet,  when  the  ground  was 
excavated  for  the  foundations  of  the  Royal  Exchange. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinicfts  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return, 
or  to  correspotui  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  eommunicationt, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspotideiUs  to  keep  tJieir  letters  a  r 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com' 
munications  containing  interesting  and  noz'cl  facts, "] 

The  Telephone 

In  hb  interesting  paper  (Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  2S3)  Mr. 
F.  J.  M.  Pa^  communicated  as  the  residt  of  his  experiment 
to  obtain  indication  of  currents  from  a  telephone  by  means  of  a 
mercury  capillaiy  tube,  that  the  motion  of  the  mercury  was 
*'  always  towards  the  end  of  the  capillary."  In  the  repetition  of 
this  experiment  before  the  Physical  Society  on  Saturday, 
February  16,  Mr.  Page  found,  however,  that  the  mercury  moved 
persistently  in  the  opposite  direction. 

In  the  December  (1S76)  number  of  the  Phil,  Mag,  I  showed 
that  the  motion  of  mercury  in  contact  with  dilute  acid  through 
which  a  current  passes,  is  due  to  rapid  circulation  of  the  mercury 
set  up  by  deoxidation  of  one  part  of  its  surface  whilst  another 
part  is  being  oxidised ;  and  that  a  very  slight  difference  in  the 
degree  of  oxidation  is  sufficient  to  produce  an  appreciable  electro- 
motive force. 


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When  the  mercury  tnbe  of  the  so-ctlled  electrometer  is  set  up, 
the  two  surfaces  of  the  mercury  in  contact  with  the  acid  are,  I 
believe,  almost  always  electrically  unequal,  that  in  the  capillary 
being  less  oxidised  than  the  other,  and  therefore  positive  to  it. 
When  the  circuit  is  closed,  a  feeble  current  passes  which,  if  it 
were  strong  enough,  would  move  the  mercury  iorwards.  When 
a  telephone  is  in  action  in  the  circuit,  its  equal  and  opposite 
currents  combine  alternately  with  the  mercury  current  which 
strengthens  the  impubes  in  one  direction  and  weakens  those  in 
the  other  ;  so  that,  whilst  the  sum  of  the  telephone  and  mercury 
currents  may  be  able  to  move  the  mercury  in  one  direction,  the 
difference  of  these  currents  is  not  able  to  move  it  in  the  other. 
Hence,  I  believe,  arise  the  motions  in  question. 

It  of  course  follows  that  if,  by  accident,  the  potentials  of  the 
two  mercury  surfaces  were  equal,  the  telephone  currents  would 
produce  no  movement  whatever  in  the  mercury.  Moreover  if 
by  variation  of  temperature,  or  by  difference  of  strength  of  acid 
at  the  contact  faces,  or  otherwise,  the  mercury  surface  in  the 
capillary  is  rendered  negative  to  the  other  surface,  the  accidental 
current  set  up  will  be  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the  tendency 
will  be  for  the  mercury  to  recede  in  the  tube,  as  was  ol>served  in 
the  experiment  performed  before  the  Physical  Society. 

Mr.  Page's  experiment  will,  I  have  no  doubt,  suggest  a  means 
of  deducing  the  potentials  of  the  telephone  impulses. 

Robert  Sabine 


After  reading  the  experiments  of  Prof.  Forbes  on  the  tele- 
phone, in  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  343,  it  occurred  to  me,  as 
probably  it  has  done  to  others,  that  this  instrument  might  be 
employed  in  comparing  the  electrical  resistances  of  wires. 
Accordingly,  two  weak  cells  were  connected  with  the  ordinary 
form  of  Whoatstone's  bridge,  and  the  telephone  placed  in  the  posi- 
tion usually  occupied  by  the  galvanometer.  The  current  was 
rendered  intermittent  by  a  small  electromagnetic  apparatus 
belonging  to  an  electric  bell ;  the  bell  itself  having  been  detached, 
the  intermiiter  was  placed  in  a  separate  room,  and  connected  by 
long  wires  with  the  battery  and  bridge.  The  German  silver 
wire  of  the  bridge,  having  a  resistance  of  *2  ohms,  was  further 
lengthened  at  each  end  by  resistance  coils  of  ten  ohms,  and  it 
was  found  that  with  a  little  practice  one  could  easily  compare 
two  resistances  of  about  two  ohms  within  at  least  i,oooth  of  the 
true  ratio. 

It  was  found  better  to  attach  the  sliding  piece  to  the  battery 
rather  than  the  galvanometer,  and  it  was  exceedingly  curious  to 
notice  the  effect  of  moving  the  sliding  piece  so  as  to  gradually 
diminish  the  difference  of  potential  at  the  two  terminab  of  the 
telephone,  the  sound  diminishing  until  at  last  there  seemed  to  be 
only  a  slight  uneasituss  produced  in  the  ear,  which  ceased  when- 
ever the  contact  between  the  sliding  piece  and  the  German  silver 
wire  was  broken.  I  have  no  doubt  whatever  that  with  a  more 
delicate  instrument  than  the  one  employed,  which  ¥ras  appa- 
rently not  nearly  so  sensitive  as  that  used  by  Prof.  Forbes,  one 
could  compare  with  considerable  accuracy  electrical  resistances 
in  thb  manner.  Of  course  the  telephone  could  also  be  employed 
instead  of  the  galvanometer,  in  comparing  the  electromotive  forces 
of  batteries,  and  it  b  my  intention  to  naiake  more  experiments  in 
thb  direction. 

By  using  a  tuning-fork  made  to  vibrate  by  electricity  and  a 
Helmholtz'i  resonator  in  conjunction  with  the  telephone,  the 
accuracy  of  testing  may  no  doubt  l>e  largely  increased. 

Herbert  Tomlinson 


1.  If  the  cavities  above  and  below  the  iron  disc  of  an  ordinary 
telephone  are  611ed  with  wadding,  the  instrument  will  transmit 
and  speak  with  undiminbhed  clearness. 

2.  On  placing  a  finger  on  the  iron  dbc  opposite  the  magnet, 
the  instrument  will  transmit  and  speak  distinctly.  It  only  ceases 
to  act  when  sufficient  pressure  b  applied  to  bring  plate  and 
magnet  into  contact 

3.  Connecting  the  centre  of  the  disc  by  means  of  a  short  thread 
with  an  extremely  sensitive  membrane  no  sound  b  given  out  by 
the  latter  when  a  message  b  transmitted. 

4.  Ten  telephones  were  connected  as  represented  in  the  follow- 
ing  diagram,  on  the  principle  of  a  battery  joined  for  surface  or 
quantity. 

J'rom  transmitter — \ 


A,  B,  C,  &c,  telephones. 

On  receiving  a  message  from  the  transmitter  it  cotdd  dutincUy 
be  heard  through  any  of  the  tern  instruments^  although  the  current 
had  been  split  up  ten  times,  (I  have  no  doubt  that  a  greater 
number  of  telephones  might  thus  be  joined  with  almost  equal 
effect ;  from  want  of  instruments  I  have  not  been  able  to  nnd 
out  the  limit) 

The  following  experiments  were  made  with  a  double  telephone, 
constructed  by  a  battery  of  hor»e-shoe  magnets  with  iron  cores 
at  their  ends.  The  wires  on  the  bobbins  were  wound  in  opposite 
directions,  as  on  an  ordinary  electro-magnet 

5.  On  connecting  the  similar  poles  of  the  coils  {as  +  and  + )  and 
joining  the  remaining  similar  poles  {as  —  and  — )  to  line  wires  the 
instrument  both  transmitted  and  spoke  with  equcU  distinctness. 

6.  On  placing  the  armature  on  the  horse- shoe  magnet  no  loss 
of  power  was  perceptible  in  either  transmitting  or  receiving,  nor 
was  there  any  increase  of  power  on  augmenting  the  number  of 
magnets. 

7.  If  the  inner  and  outer  coib  of  an  induction  coil  are  respec- 
tively connected  with  a  transmitting  and  receiving  instrument, 
sound  can  be  distinctly  transmitted  in  either  direction. 

8.  If  an  ordinary  Leyden  jar  is  interposed  in  the  line  wire,  one 
end  being  in  contact  with  the  inner,  the  other  with  the  outer 
coating,  sound  can  be  transmitted,  but  it  b  much  weakened  in 
strength. 

9.  Bringing  the  iron  cores  of  the  double  telephone  in  contact 
with  the  disc  and  pressing  with  the  fingers  against  the  plate  on 
the  other  side,  a  weak  current  from  a  Danicll  cell  produced  a 
distinct  click  in  the  plate,  and  on  drawing  a  wire  from  the  cell 
over  a  file  which  formed  part  of  the  circuit,  a  rattlbg  noise  was 
produced  in  the  instrument. 

Experiments  No.  i,  2,  3,  and  9  tend  to  show  the  absence  of 
mechanical  vibration.  For  the  ^periments  Nos.  4  and  5  I  fail 
to  find  a  reasonable  explanation.  No.  6  shows  that  strength  of 
the  magnet  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  force  of  the  sound  pro- 
duced, the  latter  being  simply  the  result  of  a  difference  of  two 
opposing  forces.     Nos.  7  and  8  require  no  explanation. 

The  above  notes  are  taken  from  a  paper  read  by  me  before  the 
Prie-itley  Club  on  February  16. 

Bradford  Grammar  School  Aurel  de  Ratti 


In  Nature,  vol.  xviL  p.  164,  there  was  a  notice  of  a  tele- 
phonic alarum  in  the  shape  of  a  tuning-fork.  Thi«,  however, 
requires  a  fixed  and  special  telephone.  The  following  method 
of  attracting  attention  requires  neither.  I  venture  to  send  it  you, 
as  I  have  teen  no  notice  of  any  one  having  tried  it ;  but  I  can 
scarcely  believe  it  to  be  the  case,  as  the  thing  would  suggest  itself 
to  any  one  studying  the  instrument  It  is  to  include  a  magneto- 
electric  machine  in  the  circuit,  when  turning  the  handle  pnxluces 
a  series  of  taps  in  the  telephone  audible  at  a  considerable  db- 
tance.  I  have  not  tried  it  for  any  long  distance — merely  fifty 
yards.  Thr  magneto-electric  machine  was  placed  in  the  observa- 
tory, and  the  telephone,  or  rather  a  battery  of  three  telephones, 
in  my  study.  The  noise  was  heard  at  the  further  end  of  my 
dining  room,  the  door  of  which  faces  that  of  the  study. 

Rugby  A.  Percy  Smith 

Experimenting  with  a  pair  of  telephones  the  other  day,  1 
thought  I  would  try  if  it  were  possible  to  utilise  underground 
pipes  as  conductors.  I  therefore  connected  one  terminal  of  each 
instrument  with  the  gas  and  the  other  with  the  water-pipes,  in 
two  houses  placed  about  thirty  yards  apart,  and  found  that  it 
was  possible  to  carry  on  conversation  by  means  of  the  instruments 
thus  connected.  The  voices  were  not  as  distinct  a-*  if  wire  had 
been  used,  but  singing  was  very  plainly  heard.  I  have  not  had 
the  opportunity  of  trying  a  longer  dbtance ;  perhaps  sOme  of 
your  readers^may  test  the  nuitter  further. 

Bury,  Lancashire  William  Stockdale 


<\    ^'A 


fB 


"Mimicry  in  Birds" 

Owing  to  the  special  meaning  of  late  attached  to  the  word 
"  mimicry "  by  naturalbts,  the  at>ove  heading  seems  liable  to 
mblead  when  applied  to  the  fact  mentioned  by  Mr.  J.  Stuar: 
Thomson  (page  361).  In  answer  to  hb  inquiry  perhaps  you  wil 
allow  me  to  quote  the  following  from  the  fourth  edition  of 
Yarrell's  "  British  Birds "  (vol.  iu  p.  229)  with  respect  to  Ac 
starling. 

"  Its  song  b  as  imitative  as  that  of  the  Tatmted  Mocking-brd, 


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NATURE 


?8i 


and  in  nothing  perhaps  is  it  more  grateful  than  in  the  reminis- 
cences it  brings  to  our  homes  of  its  wilder  associates  far  afield  ; 
for  Starlings  consort  with  many  kinds  of  birds,  learn  their  notes 
and  frequently  mingle  them  in  their  own  strain/' 

And  then  as  a  foot-note  : — 

"  Thus  the  well-known  wail  of  the  Lipwing,  and  the  piping 
note  of  the  Ringed  Plover  may  be  heard  in  places  wholly  unsuited 
to  the  habits  of  those  birds.  Messrs.  Matthews  mention  Starlings 
imitating  the  cry  of  the  Kestrel,  Wryneck,  Partridge,  Moorhen, 
and  Coot  among  other  birds  (Zool.  p.  2430).  Saxby  savs  that 
in  Shetland  the  notes  of  the  OjTiter-catcher,  Golden  Plover, 
Redshank,  Curlew,  Whimbrel,  and  Heriing-Gall,  are  perfectly 
mimicked.  Mr.  Hooper,  of  Upton  near  Didcot,  informs  the 
editor  that  Starlings  in  that  neighbourhood  will  render  exactly  the 
characteristic  cry  of  the  Quail  jmd  the  Corn-Crake.  The  common 
sounds  of  the  poultry-yard  are  often  copied  with  more  or  less 
V.  accuracy,  and  a  Duck  may  be  heard  to  quack,  a  lien  to  cackle, 
and  a  Cock  to  crow  from  the  topmost  bou^h  of  a  tall  tree.'' 

It  follows  that  if  a  Starling  can  so  well  imitate  the  notes  of  the 
above-named  bird?,  it  would  have  still  less  difficulty  with  those 
of  species  much  more  nearly  allied  to  it,  as  the  Blackbird, 
Chaffinch,  and  Sparrow.  Alfred  Nbwton 

Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  March  9 


The  "Geographical"  and  the  Public 

Quite  accidentally  this  evening  I  noticed  in  Nature  that 
Capt.  Evans  was  to  read  a  paper  on  the  Magnetism  of  the 
Earth,  before  the  Royal  Geo^iraphical  Society  at  the  London 
University.  Having  devoted  considerable  attention  to  the 
subject  I  was  desirous  of  hearing  the  paper  and  hurried  up  to  town. 
I  found,  however,  that  I  could  not  obtain  admittance  without  an 
order.  I  offered  payment  but  that  was  useless.  I  explained  to 
the  doorkeeper  that  I  had  come  a  long  distance,  was  most 
anxious  to  hear  the  paper,  and  did  not  know  until  then  the  terms 
uf  admission,  otherwise,  as  many  of  my  friends  are  Fellows,  I 
would  have  supplied  myself  with  the  necessary  order. 

I  offered  my  card  and  suggested  that  it  might  be  sent  in  to  Sir 
Henry  Rawlinson,  to  whom  I  was  known,  or  to  the  Secretary 
or  some  other  official,  but  to  all  my  endeavours  there  was  a  cart, 
tot  to  say  pert,  reply. 

It  occurred  to  me  that  if  I  waited  a  short  time  some  friend 
might  possibly  make  his  appearance  and  help  me  in  my 
''pursuit  of  knowledge  under  difficulties."  I  had  not  waited 
many  moments  when  I  noticed  the  door-keeper  despatch  on  an 
errand  a  lad  who  supported  him.  I  was  weak-minded 
enough  to  imagine  he  had  relented,  and  that  some  official  would 
come  to  my  aid.  An  official  did  certainly  come  back  with  the 
lad — it  was  a  policeman !  who  gave  me  a  look  which  I  inter- 
preted to  mean,  **  It  you  don'c  be  off  I'll  *  run  you  in.' "  A  few 
words  in  a  very  low  tone  passed  between  the  doorkeeper  and 
himself,  and  as  I  had  no  desire  to  spend  the  night  in  Vine  Street 
station,  I  departed,  feelmg  that  this  was  an  argumentum  ad 
homintm  which  I  could  not  resist  X. 

Temple,  Mardi  11 

Hearing  and  Smell  in  Insects 

All  that  I  have  observed  leads  me  to  believe  that  any  sensi- 
tiveness shown  by  insects  to  sound  b  due  to  a  diffused  sensibility 
to  vibration  rather  than  to  a  differentiated  sense  like  our  own. 
This  wiU  sufficiently  explain  the  behaviour  of  J.  C.'s  moths 
(Nature,  vol  xvii  p.  45),  and  my  own  larvae  (Nature, 
vol.  xvii  p.  102).  In  the  one  case  the  ringing  glass,  and  in 
the  other  the  vibrant  wood  of  the  feeding-box  compiuni- 
cated  the  alarm.  If  anyone,  an  hour  after  his  kitchen  has  been 
left  in  darkness  and  quiet,  will  enter  it  as  gently  as  possible, 
without  shoes  or  light,  and  then,  having  no  contact  with  any- 
thing, other  than  the  unavoidable  one  of  his  sock-muffied  feet 
with  the  floor,  will  speak  suddenly  and  sharply,  I  believe  he  will 
find  that  not  a  cockroach  shows  any  signs  of  alarm.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  should  drop  something  heavy  abruptly,  or  enter 
with  his  usual  step  in  boots,  there  is  a  stampede  ;  but  even  then 
nothing  to  compare  with  the  commotion  caused  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  light. 

As  to  smell,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  it  seems  to  me,  that  it 
is  a  very  finely- differentiated  sense;  residing,  I  suspect,  to  a 
great  extent,  in  the  anUnnse,  and  probably  capable  of  detecting 
qualities  in  suUtances  of  which  our  own  analogous  sense  gives  us 
no  warning.    The  ichneiunon  flies  are  an  example  in  point  One 


of  the  larger  of  these  alighted  inside  my  open  window  in  the 
sunshine  this  afternoon,  and  I  noticed,  as  often  before,  the 
incessant  play  of  his  antennae  as  he  hunted  restlessly  to  and  fro, 
apparently  in  search  of  larvae,  or  pupae,  concealed  under  the 
wood.  As  the  prey  of  some  members  of  this  tribe  are  always  so 
hidden,  and  the  egg  is  accurately  laid  therein,  by  means  of  the 
long  ovipositor,  without  the  aid  of  sight,  some  other  sense,  in 
great  perfection,  must  guide  them  in  their  quest.  But  here  is  a 
quite  conclusive  instance. 

I  saw  in  Athens,  March,  1864,  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Merlin, 
then  our  vice-consul  there,  placed  in  juxta-position  in  one  drawer 
in  his  cabinet,  a  wasp  and  spider,  of  which  he  told  me  that  that 
species  of  spider  is  the  habitual  prey  of  that  species  of  wasp,  and 
that  he  hunts  him  by  scent,  nose  down,  precisely  like  a  hound. 
He  witnessed  himself  the  chase  from  be^nning  to  end  in  the  case 
of  the  actual  specimens  I  saw.  It  occurred  in  his  own  house, 
and  was  continued  ior  some  time,  and  across,  as  I  understood 
him,  more  than  one  room.  The  spider,  as  soon  as  he  found  him- 
self marked  down,  showed  the  greatest  terror,  running  hither  and 
thither,  with  many  doubles  and  turns.  These  the  wasp— a  long, 
thin-bodied  variety — followed  accurately,  turn  by  turn,  never 
quitting  the  spider*s  track  for  an  instant,  recovering,  when  at 
faulr,  like  a  dog,  until,  after  an  exciting  chase,  he  seized  his 
exbaus;ed  prey,  and  the  keenly-interested  human  observer  secured 
both  pursuer  and  victim.  Hbnry  Cecil 

Bregner,  Bournemouth,  March  2 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

The  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  July  29.--Prof.  New- 
comb  has  lately  issued  empirical  corrections  to  Hansen's 
Lunar  Tables,  which  he  proposes  to  employ  in  the  Ameri- 
can Ephemeris  for  1883.  The  errors  of  the  tables  have 
now  attained  such  magnitude,  and  exhibit  so  steady  an 
increase,  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  corrections, 
even  though  they  may  be  of  the  otherwise  unsatisfactory 
nature  of  empirical  quantities,  and  it  is  probable  that 
Prof.  Newcomb  may  not  be  the  only  superintendent  of 
an  ephemeris  who  will  adopt  this  course  pending  the 
formation  of  new  lunar  tables  at,  it  may  be  hoped,  no 
distant  period. 

At  the  time  of  the  total  solar  eclipse  which  traverses 
the  United  States  in  July  next,  Mr.  W.  Godward  finds 
the  correction  of  the  longitude  of  the  moon  deduced  from 
Hansen's  tables  to  be  -  9"'5,  and  the  correction  of  the 
latitude  -f  o"'9,  according  to  Newcomb.  Applying  these 
corrertions  to  the  moon's  place,  and  adopting  Leverrier's 
diameter  of  the  sun,  with  a  somewhat  reduced  diameter 
of  the  moon  from  that  given  by  Hansen's  tables,  which 
corresponds  well  in  the  calculation  of  eclipses,  the  follow- 
ing equations  are  found,  which  may  be  expected  to  give 
the  times  of  beginning  and  ending  of  the  total  phase 
with  considerable  accuracy  for  any  point  not  far  distant 
from  Denver,  Colorado,  the  most  important  place  traversed 
by  the  belt  of  totality. 

Cos  w  =  597050  -  [i'852ii]  sin  /  +  [i'7iao4]  cos/,  cos(^  +  916°  ^S***) 
/  =9h.  54m.  34 'as.  =f  [i'93963]  sin  w  -  [3*56966]  sin  / 

-  [3  82402]  cos  /,  cos  (Z.  +  256*  25' "6). 

Here  /  is  the  geocentric  latitude  of  the  point,  L  its  west 
longitude  from  Greenwich,  to  be  used  with  a  negative 
sign,  and  the  quantities  within  square  brackets  are 
logarithms  ;  /  is  the  Greenwich  mean  time  of  beginning 
or  ending  of  totality,  according  as  the  upper  or  lower 
sign  of  the  second  term  is  used,  [1*939631  sin  w  repre- 
senting the  semi-duration  of  the  total  phase ;  and  apply- 
ing the  longitude  of  the  place  for  which  we  are  calculating 
in  the  usual  way,  the  local  mean  times  result 

As  an  example  of  the  method  of  using  formulae  of 
reduction  similar  to  the  above,  which  is  frequently  a 
matter  of  doubt  to  the  uninitiated,  we  may  find  from 
them  the  local  mean  times  of  beginning  and  ending  of 
the  total  eclipse  in  106°  14'  W.,  and  40°  23'  N.,  which, 
according  to  the  Nautical  Almanac  elements,  is  the 
position  of  the  central  eclipse  at  loh.  28m.  Greenwich 
mean  time. 

The  reduction  of  the  geographical  to  the  geocentric 


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NATURE 


[March  14,  1878 


latitude  (which  may  be  taken  from  tables  found  in  many 
astronomical  works — in  Loomis's  "  Practical  Astronomy," 
for  instance,  or  in  the  Berliner  Jahrbuch  for  1852)  is 
-  ii''4  and  consequently  /=  40**  ii'-6. 


W.  lODg. 

Constant 


Constant 
Log.  sin/ 


No.     ... 

Constant  . 
Sum  ...  . 
Log.  cos  w  . 
w , 


...  -  106°  14' 
...  +  216''  48''2 


-  106*  14' 
+  256°  25'-6 


...  +  110°  34'*2      B    ...  +  i5o<>  ir-6 


-  1-85211 
+  9  80981 

-  1*66192 

-  45-9111 

-  I3"8293 

~  597404 
+  597050 

-  0-0354 

-  8  54900 
92"  i'*7 


Constant  .. 
Log.  cos/  . 
Log.  cosA  .. 


No. 


+  1-71204 
+  9-88302 

-  9*54574 

-  1*14080 

-  13  8293 


Constant 
Log.  sinw 


No. 


1*939^3  Constant  -3*56966  Constant  —3*82402 
9  99973  Log.sin/  +9*80981  Log. cos/  +9*88^02 
Log.  cos  B -9*93837 


1-93936 


87s -o     No. 


■-3-37947 

-2395*  9 
+  44i9''-9  No. 


+  3*64541 
+f44i9*'9 


-2024-0 


Constant     ... 


9b  54^ 


'44*-o 
'  34'-2 


G.M.T.  of  middle  of  totality  10^  28°*  i8»-2 
Long.  W.  f» /iVwf     7*»   4"*  56^0 


3b  23™  22=^*2 
1™  275*0 


|h^:g".|LocaIM.T. 


Semi-duration    

Totality  begins 

„       ends      

The  duration  of  the  total  eclipse  is  therefore  2m.  54s. 
and  the  middle  at  loh.  28m.  i8s.  G.M.T. ;  the  Nautical 
AlmanacYiSLS  2m.  55s.  and  loh.  28m.,  so  that  the  correc- 
tions which  we  have  introduced  into  the  calculation  have 
had  but  very  insignificant  effect.  It  may  be  added  that 
when  cos  w  is  found  greater  than  unity,  and  therefore 
impossible,  the  place  for  which  the  calculation  is  made  is 
beyond  the  zone  of  totality. 

The  Star  Lalande  31266-7.-— Mr.  J.  E.  Gore  writes 
with  reference  to  this  object,  which  in  the  reduced  Cata- 
logue of  Lalande  appears  as  a  Jirsl  magnitude,  with  posi- 
tion for  1800  (by  a  mean  of  the  two  observations),  R.  A. 
i7h.  im.  22'36s.,  N.P.D.  45°  5/  2i"'6,  and  suggests  that 
it  may  prove  to  be  a  remarkable  variable,  since  it  is 
"  shown  6m.  in  Flammarion's  edition  of  Dien's  Atlas." 
The  introduction  of  such  a  star  into  the  Catalogue  is 
easily  explained,  and  in  fact  is  rather  an  old  story.  The 
two  observations  on  p.  353  of  the  "  Histoire  Cdleste " 
were  really  observations  of  Capella  {Chivre^  as  Lalande 
calls  it)  sub  polo y  and  were  erroneously  reduced  to  1800, 
as  though  the  star  had  been  observed  above  pole.  It  is 
singular  that  these  two  observations  should  have  given 
rise  to  the  introduction  of  a  spurious  star,  since  there  are 
eight  other  observations  of  Capella  sub  polo  in  the  same 
year,  1790,  between  April  19  and  July  24,  of  which  no  use 
has  been  made  by  the  computers  in  their  reduction  of  the 
stars  of  the  "  Histoire  Celeste."  There  is  no  sixth  mag- 
nitude in  the  position  of  the  reduced  catalogue. 


Minor  Planets.— There  are  yet  two  more  members 
to  be  added  to  this  group— No.  184,  discovered  by  Herr 
Palisa  at  Pola,  on  February  28,  and  No.  185,  Jby  Prof. 
Peters,  at  Clinton,  U.S.,  on  the  following  night.  The 
Berlin  Circular^  No.  86,  contains  elements  of  Nos.  i8r— 
183. 


BIOLOGICAL  NOTES 

Inland  Fisheries,  America.— We  are  indebted  to 
Mr.  Theodore  Lyman,  one  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioners on  Inland  Fisheries,  for  an  early  copy  of  the 
Twelfth    Annual     Report   to    the     Commonwealth    of 
Massachusetts.    Among  other  interesting  fjaicts  we  gather 
from  it  that  there  is  still  a  mystery  about  the  young  of  the 
Califomia;!  salmon  {Salmo  quinnat\  for,  notwithstanding  , 
the  hundreds  of  thousands  that  have  beien  put  into  New 
England  waters,  no    one  has   been  able  to  say  with 
certainty  that  a  single  smolt  has  been  seen.    In  reference 
to  the  true  salmon  {S,  salar)  it  is  pleasant  to  know  that 
the  return  of  mature  salmon  to  the  waters  of  the  Merrimac 
last  year  (1877)  commences  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
fish-culture  in  America.  From  the  observations  taken  many 
of  these  mature  salmon  were  from  eight  to  ten  pounds 
weight  each,  and  were  from  the  parr  put  into  the  river  in 
1873  ;  but  some  were  seen  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  pounds 
weight,  and  these  were  most  probably  the  result  of  the 
first  parr  put  into  the  river  m   1872.      From  1872   to 
1876  upwards  of  830,000  parr  were  put  into  the  river,  and 
hundreds  of  fine  fish  were  seen  passing  up  in  the  spring 
of  1877  ;  and,  so  says  the  report, "  it  will  be  seen  that  what 
we  have  so  long  fought  for,  what  the  mass  of  people  here 
have  generally  considered  mere  theories,  visions  of  men 
who  suffered  from  fish  on  the  brain,  has  been  fully  sub- 
stantiated.   It  is  true  it  took  a  little  longer  than  was  at 
first  thought,  but  now  Massachusetts  knows  that  while  she 
was  the  first  of  the  States  to  take  an  interest  in  fish- 
culture,  so  she  has  been  the  first  to  demonstrate  the 
certainty  of  a  good  return,  and  she  can  restock  those  rivers 
where  the  fish  have  been  for  a  long  time  killed  out" 

The  Development  of  Nerves.— Dr.  A.  M.  P»farshall 
is  continuing  his  careful  researches  into  the  earliest 
stages  of  nerves  in  vertebrate  embryos.  He  has  recently 
published  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical 
Science  some  of  his  latest  results,  obtained  from  embryos 
of  the  common  fowl,  treated  with  picric  acid.  He 
describes  a  distinct  neural  ridge  at  the  top  of  the  cerebro- 
spinal tube  in  the  middle  cerebral  track,  before  it  has 
even  closed  in,  the  embryo  being  barely  two  days  old  in 
development.  This  ridge  afterwards  becomes  continuous 
along  the  whole  brain  and  great  part  of  the  spinsd  cord, 
and  many  of  the  nerves  undoubtedly  arise  from  it  It 
appears  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  olfactory 
nerve  originates  from  the  anterior  part  of  this  ridge  ;  but 
Dr.  Marshall  is  quite  certain  that  there  is  no  special 
olfactory  vesicle  in  the  chick.  This  is  directly  contrary 
to  the  received  teaching,  which  speaks  of  an  olfactory 
lobe  of  the  brain,  and  does  not  compare  the  olfactory 
with  other  nerves.  Dr.  Marshall  believes  that  the 
common  olfactory  nerve  is  really  the  nerve  of  the  anterior 
cranial  segment.  The  third  nerve  is  for  the  first  time 
developmentaliy  traced  by  Dr.  Marshall,  and  he  finds  it 
to  be  a  strictly  segmental  nerve.  The  seventh  and  eighth 
nerves  (facial  and  auditory)  are  shown  to  have  a  common 
origin  ;  the  auditory  is  really  a  branch  of  the  facial.  The 
history  of  the  vagus  nerve  (pneumogastric)  is  regarded  as 
suggesting  very  strongly  that  it  is  equivalent  to  several 
spinal  nerves,  and  not  merely  to  one. 

French  Polyzoa. — An  important  contribution  to  the 
history  of  a  number  of  species  of  marine  polyzoa  will 
be  found  in  a  memoir  on  "  Les  Bryozoaires  des  C6tes  de 
France,"  by  M.  L.  Joliet,  of  the  Zoological  Laboratory  at 
Roscofif,  a  spot  so  well  known  to  every  tourist  in  Britanny. 


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383 


A  rhumd  is  given  of  the  remarkable  works  that  have 
appeared  on  the  structure  of  the  animals  of  this  group  in 
England,  Sweden,  and  Germany,  as  well  as  in  France. 
The  interesting  question  of  the  part  played  by,  as  well  as 
of  the  origin  of,  the  brown  bodies  \groddskaplar  of 
Nitsche)  is  very  fully  gone  into.  The  specialist  will  know 
what  a  subject  of  debate  lies  here.  Hincks,  our  best 
English  authority,  believing  them  to  be  special  formations 
elaborated  from  the  substance  of  the  polyp  ;  Clapar^de, 
that  they  are  products  of  secretion  ;  Nitsche  that  they 
are  only  the  remains  of  decaying  polyps.  With  the  last 
of  these  views  our  author  agrees  :  "  Le  corps  brun  est  un 
r^sidu,  le  re&te  de  la  mati^re  qui  constituait  un  polypide 
apr^s  que  celui-ci  a  subi  la  ddsorganisation.''  The  nature 
of  the  nervous  colonial  system  in  the  polyzoa  is  also  in- 
vestigated at  full  length,  and  M.  Joliet  feels  compelled  to 
doubt  if  this  so-called  system  merits  this  name.  The 
arguments  for  and  against  are  too  technical  for  us  to 
epitomise.  The  growth  and  development  of  several 
species  were  specisdly  investigated,  and  the  entire  memoir, 
to  which  is  appended  a  list  of  the  species  collected  (74) 
at  Roscoff  during  the  summers  of  1876  and  1877,  is  well 
worthy  of  the  attention  of  all  interested  in  the  study  of 
these  small  but  interesting  polyps.  It  will  be  found  in  the 
recently- published  Archives  de  Zoologie  Expcrimeniale 
(Tome  6,  No.  2). 

Structure  of  Lingula.— Mr.  E.  Morse,  Professor 
of  Zoology  in  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokio,  Japan, 
has  discovered  many  facts  quite  new  to  science  in  the 
life  history  of  this  interesting  form  of  Brachiopods.  Per- 
haps the  most  important  is  his  discovery  of  the  auditory 
capsules.  In  the  species  of  Lingula  investigated,  their 
position  and  general  appearance  recall  those  in  certain 
tubicolous  annelids  as  Hgured  by  CtaparMe.  He  has  also 
cleared  up  many  points  in  regard  to  their  circulation,  and 
maintains  the  absence  of  anything  like  a  pulsatory  organ, 
the  circulation  being  entirely  due  to  ciliary  action.^  In 
describing  the  habits  of  this  species  he  mentions  that, 
while  partially  buried  in  the  sand,  the  free  border  of  the 
pallial  membranes  join  so  as  to  leave  but  three  large  oval 
openings,  one  in  the  centre  and  one  on  either  side  ;  the 
bristles  then  arrange  themselves  so  as  to  form  these 
openings  into  funnels  which  arrest  the  mucous  secretion 
from  the  animal,  and  a  continuous  current  is  to  be  seen 
pcLSsing  down  the  side  funnels  and  escaping  by  the  central 
one.  They  can  bury  themselves  very  quickly  in  the  sand, 
and  the  peduncle  agglutinates  a  sand  tube.  Prof.  Morse 
exhibited  specimens  in  Boston  on  December  19,  1877, 
which  had  been  brought  living  from  Japan ;  the  water 
had  been  only  changed  twice  since  August  19,  and  yet 
none  had  died.  Their  viability,  therefore,  seemed  to  be 
great.  As  Prof.  Morse  is  now  on  his  way  back  to  his 
professorial  duties  at  Japan,  he  will  have  the  opportunity 
of  still  further  prosecuting  his  researches  into  the  struc- 
ture and  habits  of  these  forms  so  interesting  to  both  the 
palaeontologist  and  zoologist. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

New  Guinea. — A  recent  number  of  //  Movimcnto  con- 
tains a  letter  from  the  Italian  traveller,  D'Albertis,  dated 
from  Thursday  Island,  in  Torres  Straits,  on  January  8 
last,  in  which  some  account  is  given  of  his  last  expedition 
into  New  Guinea.  Leaving  Port  Somerset  on  May  3, 
1877,  iJ^  Jiis  steam  launch,  Neva^  it  was  not  until  the  21st 
of  that  month  that  he  succeeded  in  entering  the  embou- 
chure of  the  Fly  River,  where  he  was  well  received  by 
the  natives.  But  such  was  not  the  case  when  the  Neva 
had  advanced  a  little  further  up  the  river,  for  on  June  i  a 
sudden  and  unprovoked  attack  was  made  on  the  vessel, 
and  one  of  the  Chinese  crew  seriously  wounded.  These 
attacks  were  frequently  repeated  during  theiurther  ascent 
of  the  river,  though  always  successfully  repelled  without 

'  Semper  has  already  fully  demonstrated  this  (act.^S.  P.  W. 


casualties.  In  July  and  August,  when  far  in  the  interior, 
the  expedition  seems  to  have  been  unmolested,  but  on  the 
subsequent  descent  of  the  stream  the  banks  were  found 
again  beset  by  daring  and  hostile  parties  of  warriors, 
whose  efforts  to  hinder  the  return  of  the  expedition 
brought  on  frequent  skirmishes.  Signer  D'Albertis  was 
also  much  inconvenienced  bv  the  dissensions  of  his  crew, 
the  greater  part  of  whom  deserted  him,  leaving  only  five 
to  manage  the  vessel  and  to  repel  the  attacks  of 
the  natives.  Two  of  these  also  left  him  on  return- 
ing to  the  mouth  of  the  river,  leavmg  him  to  accom- 
plish the  dangerous  navigation  of  Torres  Straits  with 
only  the  engineer  and  one  sailor.  Eventually,  how- 
ever, with  aid  received  from  the  native  teachers  on 
some  of  the  islands  in  Torres  Straits,  he  succeeded 
in  reaching  Thursday  Island — now  the  catling-place  of 
the  Queensland  mail  steamers — on  Januarv  4  last.  As 
regards  the  results  of  the  expedition  no  details  are  given 
in  this  letter,  but  f  om  certain  expressions  employed  it 
would  appear  that  gold  in  some  quantity  was  obtained. 
Of  this  we  shall,  no  doubt,  be  duly  informed  before  long, 
as  also  of  the  zoologiCtJ  discoveries  in  which  Signor 
D'Albertis  has  on  former  occasions  been  so  successful 

New  African  Expedition.— It  is  rumoured  that  the 
Council  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  are  likely  soon 
to  send  out  a  new  expedition  for  the  exploration  of  Africa. 
The  region  between  Mombasa  and  Mount  Kenia  and 
Victoria  Nyanza  is  mentioned  as  the  probable  field  of  this 
expedition. 

African  Exploration.— Abbd  Debaise,  who  intends 
to  cross  Africa  from  Zanzibar  to  the  Congo,  has  received  a 
credit  of  100,000  francs  from  the  French  government.  This 
sum  was  voted  to  him  on  the  proposal  of  M.  Pcrrin,  a  radical 
member,  who  was  supported  by  M.  Gambetta,  the  leader 
of  the  Liberal  party.  The  Abb^  will  leav«  Paris  for 
Marseilles  in  a  few  days,  and  thence  proceed  to  Zanzibar. 
He  will  be  supported  by  the  new  Geographical  Society 
of  Marseilles,  and  its  president,  M.  Rambaud,  the  large 
Zanzibar  trader.  News  has  lately  been  received  in 
Berlin  from  the  African  traveller.  Dr.  G.  A.  Fischer, 
who  has  traversed  since  last  autumn  the  tropical  re- 
gions lying  opposite  the  island  of  Zanzibar.  Despite 
the  hostility  of  the  natives,  he  has  succeeded  in  making  a 
large  number  of  scientific  observations,  and  has  gathered 
a  large  collection  of  zoological  specimens,  which  are  now 
on  the  way  to  Berlin.  During  the  present  month  he 
starts  on  a  journey  up  the  river  Tana. 

Captain  Elton.— We  have  akeady  referred  to  the 
great  loss  sustained  by  geography,  by  the  death  of  this 
energetic  traveller  in  Ugogo ;  he  died  of  sunstroke. 
Mr.  Cotterill  and  Captain  Elton  had  reached  this  place 
from  the  north  end  of  Lake  Nyassa,  the  coimtry  tra- 
versed being  described  as  very  interesting  and  new  to 
geography.  They  found  the  sources  of  the  Ruaha, 
Usanga,  and  other  affluents  of  the  Lufigi,  the  Myembe 
tributary  being  specially  worthy  of  notice.  Mr.  Cotterill's 
narrative  will  be  looked  for  with  interest,  as  well  as 
Capt.  Elton's  diaries  and  map,  which  have  been  sent 
home.  The  latter,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  was  H.M. 
Consul  in  Portuguese  East  Africa,  and  had  done  work  in 
various  parts  of  the  world.  He  had  done  good  service  in 
helping  to  clear  up  the  history  of  African  Copal,  the 
produce  of  Trachylobium  Hanemannianum, 

Ancient  Maps  of  Central  Africa.— M.  Richard 
Cortambert,  one  of  the  librarians  of  the  National  Librarv 
in  Paris,  has  discovered  in  that  establishment  a  gilt 
globe,  dated  1540,  and  showing  apparently  that  the 
course  of  the  Congo  was  known  then  to  have  almost 
the  same  direction  as  given  to  it  by  Mr.  Stanley. 
There  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  public  library 
of  Lyons  a  globe  of  1701,  on  which  are  traced  in  detaD 
the  geography  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile  and  Congo. 
This  globe  is  said  to  have  been  executed  by  the  Fathers 


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\March  14,  1878 


Placide,  of  St.  Amour,  and  Crispinien,  of  Toulon,  and  by 
the  two  Brothers  Bonaventura  and  Gregory,  all  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  Father  Gregory,  it  is  said,  was 
the  celebrated  Lyonnaise  geogranher,  Henry  Marchand. 
In  speaking  of  these  discoveries  at  the  Paris  Geographical 
Society,  M.  R.  Cor^ambert  showed  that  there  was  nothing 
extraordinary  in  th'^m.  From  the  fifteenth  century  most 
of  the  maos  make  the  Congo  issue  from  a  g^eat  mass  of 
water  in  the  interior  of  the  African  continent.  No  doubt 
all  the  information  in  these  old  maps  was  furnished  by 
the  Portuguese.  M.  Vivien  de  St.  Martin  is  also  of  this 
opinion.  The  Portuguese  traders  were  quite  au  courant 
with  the  geography  of  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  all  the 
maps,  even  that  of  Fra  Mauro  (15th  century)  represent 
the  Nile  issuing  from  lakes  to  the  south  of  the  equator, 
and  give  an  idea  of  the  course  of  the  Congo,  similar  to 
that  made  known  by  Stanley.  M.  St.  Martin  reminded 
the  Society,  moreover,  that  Ptolemy  himself  had  indicated 
three  immense  lakes  in  the  centre  of  Africa  from  which 
issued  the  Nile  and  the  Congo ;  only  in  his  map  these 
lakes  are  placed  much  too  far  south.  Father  Kir'^her,  in 
his  **  Mundus  Subterraneus,"  published  at  Amsterdam  in 
1653,  gives  a  map  showing  four  large  lakes,  from  one  of 
which,  called  Zaire,  both  the  Nile  and  the  Congo  are 
made  to  issue.  Kircher  states  that  he  obtained  his 
information  from  the  General  Procurator  of  the  Jesuits  for 
these  provinces,  who  lent  him  a  manuscript  of  Father 
Pais.  This  manuscript  may  possibly  be  still  preserved  in 
the  Jesuit  College  at  Rome. 

Paris  Geographical  Society.— Besides  the  medals 
to  Mr.  Stanley  and  M.  St.  Martin,  the  Paris  Geographical 
Society  will  give  medals  to  Dr.  Harmand  for  his  explor- 
ation of  the  Mekong  and  the  coast  of  Anam,  and  to  M. 
Ujfalvy  for  his  travels  in'  Turkestan.  The  Bulletin  for 
December  contains  an  important  geographical  and  sta- 
tistical article  on  Kashgar,  compiled  from  various  sources 
by  M.  J.  B.  Paquier,  an  itinerary  on  the  Yang-tsze  from 
Shun^-shing  to  Yun-nan-fu,  by  M.  Rocher,  and  a  valuable 
summary  of  the  geodetic  work  of  the  Russian  Geographi- 
cal Society  in  Asia,  by  Col.  Chanoine. 

NOTE  ON  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  LTQUE- 
FACTION  OF  AIR  ANJ)  OF  THE  SO-CALLED 
PERMANENT  GASES 

TN  the  Notes  on  "  Recent  Science,"  in  this  month's 
JKittfteenth  Century ^  the  writer,  in  an  account  of  the 
results  of  the  researches  of  M.  Pictet  and  M.  Cailletet  on 
the  condensation  of  the  so-called  permanent  gases,  draws 
attention  to  the  lon^-neglected  paper  of  Mr.  Perkins 
*'  On  the  Compressibility  of  Water,  Air,  and  other  Fluids," 
an  abstract  of  which,  and  apparently  the  only  one  with 
which  the  writer  is  acquainted,  appeared  in  Thomson's 
Annals  0/ Philosophy^  N  S,^  vol.  vi.,  1823.  The  paper 
was  intended  for  the  Royal  Society,  but,  being  mislaid, 
was  not  read  at  the  appointed  time.  Either  it  or  a  second 
paper  was,  however,  brought  before  the  society  on  June 
15,  1826,  and  appears  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions 
for  that  year.  In  this  paper,  as  in  the  brief  record  in 
the  A  nnalsy  Mr,  Perkins  announces  that  he  had  effected 
the  liquefaction  of  atmospheric  air,  and  other  gases,  by 
a  pressure  of  upwards  of  1,000  atmospheres,  and  fully 
describes  the  apparatus  which  he  had  employed,  which 
is,  in  principle,  very  similar  to  that  of  M.  Cailletet. 
He  thus  describes  his  results  in  the  case  of  aeriform 
fluids  :— 

"  In  the  course  of  my  experiments  on  the  compression 
of  atmospheric  air  by  the  same  apparatus  which  had  been 
used  for  compressing  waten  I  observed  a  curious  fact 
which  induced  me  to  extend  the  experiment,  viz.,  that  of 
the  air  beginning  to  disappear  at  a  pressure  of  500  atmo- 
spheres, evidently  by  partial  liquefaction,  which  is  indi- 
cated by  the  quicksilver  not  settling  down  to  a  level  with 
its  surface.  At  an  increased  pressure  of  600  atmospheres, 


the  quicksilver  was  suspended  about  |th  of  the  volume  up 
the  tube  or  gasometer  ;  at  800  atmospheres  it  remained 
about  ^  up  the  tube  ;  at  1,000  atmospheres,  J  up  the  tube  ; 
and  small  globules  of  liquid  began  to  form  about  the  top 
of  it ;  at  1,200  atmospheres  the  quicksilver  remained  }  up 
the  tube,  and  a  beautiful  transparent  liquid  was  seen  en 
the  surface  of  the  quicksilver,  in  quantity  about  ^jf  part 
of  the  column  of  air.  On  another  occasion  a  second  tube 
was  charged  with  *  carbu retted  hydrogen '  and  subjected 
to  pressure ;  it  began  to  liquefy  at  about  40  atmospheres, 
and  at  1,200  atmospheres  the  whole  was  liquefied.'' 

Mr.  Perkins  goes  on  to  say  :  "  These  instances  of 
apparent  condensation  of  gaseous  fluids  were  first  ob- 
served in  January,  1822,  but  for  want  of  chemical  know- 
ledge requisite  to  ascertain  the  exact  nature  of  the  liquids 
produced,  I  did  not  pursue  the  inquiry  further ;  and 
as  the  subject  has  been  taken  up  by  those  who  are 
eminently  qualifled  for  the  investigation,  I  need  not  regret 
my  inability  to  make  full  advantage  of  the  potirer  I  had 
the  means  of  applying." 

Mr.  Perkins's  observations  seem  to  have  attracted  little 
attention  at  the  time  they  were  published,  and  have  since 
been,  apparently,  almost  forgotten.  Although  they  do  not 
in  the  least  detract  from  the  great  merit  of  M.  Cailletet's 
work,  they  undoubtedly  have  their  place  in  the  history  of 
this  subject  of  the  liquefaction  of  the  gases. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  point  out  that  the  statement 
that  all  the  gases  known  to  the  chemist  have  now  been 
liquefied  is  not  strictly  true.  The  most  recently-disco- 
vered of  these — phosphorus  pentaflaoride — has  not  yet 
been  seen  in  the  liquid  state,  although  there  is  not  the 
least  reason  for  believing  that  it  will  constitute  an  excep- 
tion to  the  general  law.  T.  E.  THORPE 


HELMHOLTZ'S  VOWEL  THEORY  AND   THE 

PHONOGRAPH  uj 

THE  following  experiments  with  the  phonograph  are  of 
interest  as  throwing  light  on  the  nature  of  vowel 
sounds : — 

Let  a  set  of  vowel  sounds,  as  A,  E,  I,  O,  U  (pronounced 
in  Italian  fashion)  be  spoken  to  the  phonograph  in  any 
pitch,  and  with  the  barrel  of  the  instrument  turned  at  a 
definite  rate.  Then  let  the  phonc^aph  be  made  to  speak 
them,  first  at  the  same  rate,  and  then  at  a  much  higher  or 
lower  speed.  The  pitch  is,  of  course,  altered,  but  the 
vowel  sounds  retain  their  quality  when  the  barrel  of  the 
phonograph  is  turned  at  very  different  rates.  We  have 
made  this  experiment  at  speeds  varying  from  about  three 
to  one,  and  we  can  detect  no  alteration  in  the  quality  of 
the  sounds. 

According  to  Helmholtz,  the  characteristic  quality  of 
each  vowel  is  given  by  the  prominence  of  a  constituent 
note  or  notes,  of  definite  or  approximately  definite  absolute 
pitch,  in  the  sounds  uttered.  Now  obviously,  the  absolute 
pitches  of  the  constituents  of  the  vowel-sounds  in  the 
above  experiment  were  all  altered  in  the  same  proportion, 
so  that  the  absolute  pitch  of  the  prominent  notes  varied 
greatly  ;  but  yet  the  vowel  quality  was  unchanged.  This 
experiment,  therefore,  appears  to  give  results  in  contradic- 
tion of  Helmholtz's  theory  as  we  understand  it. 

At  the  same  time  we  have  found,  in  the  course  of 
experiments,  of  which  a  full  account  will  shortly  be  com- 
municated to  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  that  if  a 
scale  be  sung  to  the  phonograph  with  one  vowel  sound, 
such  as  O,  the  wave-form  of  the  marks  on  the  tinfoil  does 
not  remain  unchanged  at  all  pitches.  We  have  not  yet 
had  time  to  analyse  the  curves  so  obtained  into  their 
harmonic  constituents.  Such  an  analysis  will  show 
whether  the  changes  we  have  observed  in  the  wave-form 
as  the  pitch  rises,  are  due  to  a  change  in  the  relation  of 
the  amplitudes  of  the  constituents  present,  or  only  to  a 
\'ariation  of  phase.  Fleeming  Jenkin 

Edinburgh,  March  11  J.  A.  EwiNG 


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3«5 


ELECTRICAL  ANALOGIES    WITH  NATURAL 
PHENOMENA  ^ 

II. 
JpOLAR  AURORjE.'-Tht  experiments  of  Dc  la  Rive 
•^  have  already  shown  the  connection  of  polar  aurorae  with 
terrestrial  magnetism  ;  but  they  do  not  explain  all  the 
circumstances  which  accompany  aurorae.  In  M.  Plantd's 
experiments  the  electric  current,  in  presence  of  aqueous 
vapour,  yields  a  series  of  phenomena  altogether  analogous 
to  the  various  phases  of  polar  aurorae. 


If  the  positive  electrode  of  the  secondary  battery  is 
brought  into  contact  with  the  sides  of  a  vessel  of  salt  water, 
we  observe,  according  to  the  distance  of  the  film  from  the 
liquid,  either  a  corona  formed  of  luminous  particles 
arranged  in  a  circle  around  the  electrode  (Fig.  8),  an  arc 
bordered  with  a  fringe  of  brilliant  rays  (Fig.  9),  or  a  sinuous 
line  which  rapidly  folds  and  refolds  on  itself  (Fig.  10). 
This  undulatory  movement,  in  particular,  forms  a  complete 
analogy  with  what  has  been  compared  in  aurorae  to  the 
undulations  of  a  serpent,  or  to  those  of  drapery  agitated 
by  the  wind.    The  rustling  noise  accompanying  the  ex- 


F1C6.  8,  9,  10.— CorooM  and  luminous  arcs. 


periments  is  analogous  to  that  sometimes  accompanying 
aurorae  ;  it  is  caused  by  the  luminous  electric  discharge 
penetrating  the  moisture.  As  in  aurorae,  magnetic  per- 
turbations are  produced  by  brining  a  needle  near  the 
circuit,  the  deviation  increasing  with  the  development  of 
the  arch.  Aurorae  are  produced  by  positive  electricity  ; 
the  net^tive  electrode  produces  nothing  similar. 

Globular  Ughtning, — To  study  the  effects  produced 


Fig.  II.— 'Flame  produced  over  distilled  water  by  an  electric  ciurrent  c»f  high 
teniion. 

on  distilled  water,  M.  Plants  increased  the  tension  of  the 
current,  combining  twenty  secondary  batteries,  composed 
each  of  forty  couples,  and  forming  a  total  of  800  second- 
ary couples,  whose  current  of  discharge  was  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  1,200  Bunsen  elements. 

When  the  current  of  this  combination  of  batteries  is 
made  to  act  on  distilled  water,  he  finds,  first,  in  much 
greater  intensity,  the  effects  already  observed  by  Grove, 
by  means  of  500  elements  of  his  nitric  acid  pile.    The 

>  Continued  from  p.  sag. 


positive  electrode  being  inserted  in  the  distilled  water, 
he  obtains,  by  approaching  the  negative  platinum  wire  to 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  immediately  raising  it,  a 
yellow  fiame,  almost  spherical,  of  about  two  centimetres 
in  diameter  (Fig.  11).  The  platinum  wire,  two  milli- 
metres in  diameter,  melts  ;  the  flame  is  formed  by  the 
rarefied  incandescent  air,  by  the  vapour  of  the  metal  of 
the  electrode,  and  by  the  elements  of  the  vapour  of  water ; 
spectral  analysis  shows  clearly  the  presence  of  hydrogen. 

If,  to  avoid  the  fusion  of  the  metal,  we  diminish  the 
intensity  of  the  current  by  interposing  a  column  of  water 
in  the  circuit,  the  spark  appears  under  the  very  compact 
form  of  a  small  globe  of  fire  from  eight  to  ten  millimetres 
in  diameter  (Fig.  12).  On  raising  the  electrode  a  little 
more,  this  globe  takes  an  ovoid  form  ;  luminous  blue 
points,  whose  number  varies  continually,  arranged  in 
concentric  circles,  appear  at  the  surface  of  the  water 
(Fig.  13).  Rays  of  tne  same  colour  soon  issue  from  the 
centre  and  join  these  points  (Fig.  14).  At  intervals  the 
rays  take  a  gyratory  movement,  now  in  one  direction, 
now  in  another,  de&cribing  spirals  (Figs.  15  and  16). 
Sometimes  the  points  and  the  rays  disappear  all  on  one 
side,  and  varied  curves,  formed  by  the  movement  of  those 
which  remain,  are  figured  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid. 
Finally,  when  the  speed  of  the  gyratory  movement 
increases,  all  the  rays  vanish,  and  only  blue  concentric 
rings  are  seen  (Fig.  17).  The  rings  are  found  to  be  the 
last  term  of  these  transformations  which  are  very  curious 
to  follow  with  the  naked  eve  or  with  a  telescope,  and  con- 
stitute a  veritable  electric  kaleidoscope. 

The  production  of  these  figures  is  explained  by  the 
great  mobility  of  the  arcs  or  luminous  threads  which  com- 
pose the  ovoid  light,  formed  between  the  water  and  the 
electrode.  On  examining  with  care  this  particular  form  of 
spark,  he  finds  that  it  is,  in  reality,  a  sort  of  voltaic  brush 
discharge,  analogous  to  the  brush  discharge  of  static  elec- 
tricity, but  more  dense  on  account  of  the  greater  quantity  ot 
electricity  in  play.  These  luminous  threads  being  in  a  state 
of  continual  agitation,  the  points  at  which  they  encounter 
the  surface  of  the  liquid  are  constantly  displaced,  and 
form  the    rays   observed.      Their  gyratory    movement 


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proceed^  from  the  reaction  due  to  the  flowing  of  the  elec- 
tric flux.  As  to  the  rings,  they  are  formed  in  a  visible 
manner,  under  the  eye  of  the  observer,  by  the  more  and 
more  rapid  movement  of  the  blue  points,  and  by  the  per- 
sistence of  the  impression  upon  the  retina. 

When  the  metallic  electrode  is  positive  and  the  dis- 
tilled water  negative,  the  spark  still  assumes  externally  an 
ovoid  form ;  but  the  middle  is  traversed  by  a  cone  of 
violet  light.  When  we  employ  two  metallic  electrodes 
we  obtain  a  luminous  spheroid,  the  interior  of  which  is 


traversed  by  a  brilliant  line.  This  appearance  corresponds 
to  the  spark,  and  the  aureole  of  the  spark  seen  in  the 
discharges  of  an  induction  coil ;  only  here  the  aureole 
occupies  more  space,  in  consequence  still  of  the  greater 
quantity  of  electricity.  In  fact,  if  we  much  increase  the 
length  of  the  column  of  water  interposed,  we  do  not  obtain 
more  than  an  arc  or  a  straight  line. 

M.  Plants  therefore  thinlu  globular  lightning  may  result 
from  an  abundant  flow  of  electricity  in  the  dynamic  state, 
in  which  quantity  is  joined  to  tension.    The  particular 


Fig.  za.— GlobuUr  spark  produced  over  disdUed 
water  by  an  electric  current  of  high  tension. 


Figs. 


lal^o  17.— OtomI  sparks  und  luminous  figures  produced  over  distilled  water  by  an  electric 
cunrent  of  high  tenskm. 


case  where  globes  of  lightning  present  slow  movements  or 
times  of  stoppage,  is  explained  by  the  movement  or  the 
repose  of  the  column  of  moist  sdr  strongly  electrified  and 
invisible,  which  serves  as  electrode.  To  imitate  this  effect 
it  is  sufficient,  in  one  of  the  preceding  experiments,  to 
make  the  electrode  oscillate,  it  being  previously  suspended 
under  the  form  of  a  long  pendulum  above  a  basin  full  of 
water  or  a  metallic  surface,  and  to  mask  by  a  screen  its 
lower  extremity.  We  then  see  a  little  ball  of  fire  move 
above  the  water  or  the  conducting  surface,  and  thus 
reproduce  all  the  appearances  of  the  natural  phenomenon. 


Fig.  18.— Experiment  reproduc'ng  the  effect  of  waterspouts. 

Waterspouts.—  Cause  a  narrow  stream  of  salt-water  to 
flow  from  a  funnel  provided  with  a  cock  communi- 
cJiting  with  the  positive  pole  of  a  battery  of  400  secondary 
couples ;  the  liquid  is  received  in  a  basin  containing  the 
negative  wire  and  below  which  is  an  electro-magnet  (Fig.  i8> 
As  soon  as  the  voltaic  circuit  is  closed  the  stream  appears 
furrowed  with  bright  lines  at  its  upper  part  and  traversed 
by  a  luminous  thread  at  its  lower  part.  Sparks,  illu- 
minated aqueous  globules,  play  with  a  rustling  noise  at  its 
extremity,  vapour  is  disengaged,  and  the  liquid  which 


surrounds  the  bottom  of  the  stream  takes  a  gyratory 
movement  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  hands  of 
a  watch  if  the  pole  of  the  electro-magnet  is  north,  and  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  hands  if  this  pole  is  south. 
The  movement  is  rendered  visible  by  light  oodies  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  water.  If  we  contract  the  stream  so 
as  to  avoid  all  solution  of  continuity  at  its  lower  part,  the 
electric  and  luminous  signs  disappear  almost  entirely.  The 
liquid  is,  nevertheless,  heated»as  is  shown  by  alight  vapour, 
and  the  eyratory  movement  is  yet  more  pronounced  and 
rapid.  On  extending  the  stream  anew  the  electric  mani- 
festations re-appear  as  before. 

This  expenment  reproduces  the  prindpal  effects  of 
waterspouts,  the  rustling  which  proceeds  from  them,  the 


Fig.  x^—EIectrlc  bore. 

mist  which  is  formed  around  them,  the  flashes  of  light 
which  furrow  them,  the  gk>bes  of  fire  which  sometimes 
appear  at  their  extremities — in  such  a  way  that,  according 
to  M.  Plants,  these  meteors  may  be  compared  to  elec- 
trodes of  liquid  or  of  vapour,  from  which  escape  to  the 
earth  or  the  sea  the  powerful  electric  currents  of  storm- 
clouds  ;  and  if  no  thunder  follows  it  is  because  the  con- 
ductor accompanies  them  to  the  ground,  and  there  is  in 
this  case  no  proper  electric  discharge,  no  more  than 
under  the  preceding  conditions. 

The  very  formation  of  waterspouts,  or  the  descent  or 
these  cloudy  appendages  towards  the  ground,  has  been 
connected  by  Brisson  and  Peltier  with  an  electrostatic 
attraction  between  the  clouds  and  the  earth.  We  may  add 
to  this  very  natural  attractive  force  an  action  of  transport, 


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NATURE 


l"^! 


of  which  dynamic  electricity  presents  numerous  examples, 
and  which  tends  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  water  from  an 
electrified  cloud.  The  agitation  of  the  liquid,  the  boiling 
of  the  waters  at  the  point  where  these  meteors  encounter 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  are  explained  not  only  by  the 
descending  movement  itself,  but  also  by  the  action  of  the 
electric  current,  which  may  repel  or  raise  liquid  masses 
like  a  breeze  or  an  impetuous  wind.     If  we  support,  in 


Fig.  aa— ^Electric  bore  or  formation  of  liquid  waves  b/  tbe  flow  of  a 
powerful  current  of  dynamic  etectricity. 

fact,  the  positive  electrode  agamst  the  sides  of  the  vessel 
of  salt-water  communicating  with  the  negative  pole,  we 
observe,  besides  the  luminous  streaks  and  jets  abounding 
in  vapour,  a  violent  whirling  of  the  liquid  forming  a  sort  of 
electric  bore,  which  raises  the  water  to  the  height  of  i^ 
centimetre  above  its  level  (Fig.  i^}.  When  the  current 
meets  at  certain  {loints  ineqtudities  of  resistance,  it  is 
divided  and  gives  rise  to  several  aqueous  hillodcs,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  2a 


ON  COMPASS  ADJUSTMENT  IN  IRON  SHIPS 

AND  ON  NA  VI CATION AL  SOUNDINGS » 

IV. — Oh  a  Navigational  Saimding  Machine, 

'T'HE  machine  before  yon  is  designed  for  the  purpose  of  obtain- 
-^  ing  soundings  from  a  ship  running  at  full  speed  in  water  of 
any  depth  not  exceeding  100  or  150  fathoms.  The  difficulties  to 
be  overcome  ase  twofold :  first,  to  get  the  lead  or  sinker  to  the 
bottom ;  and,,  secondly,  t»  get  sure  evidence  as  to  the  depth  to 
which  it  has  gone  down.  For  practical  navigation  a  third  diffi- 
culty most  also  be  met,  and  that  is  to- bring  the  sinker  up  again  ; 
for,  although  in  deep-sea  surveys  in  water  of  more  than  3iO0O 
fathoms'  depth  it  is  advisable,  even  when  pianoforte  wire  is  used, 
to  leave  the  thirty  or  forty  pounds'  sinker  at  the  bottom,  and 
bring  back  only  the  wire  wuh  attached  instrumenta,  it  would 
never  do  in  piacticaL  navigation  to  throw  away  a  sinker  every 
time  a  cast  is  taken,  and  the  loss  of  a  sinker,  whether  with  or 
without  any  postion  of  the  line,  ought  to  be  a  rare  occurrence 
in  many  casts.  The  first  and  third  of  these  difficulties  seem  in- 
supenible— at  all  events  they  have  not  hitherto  been  overcome— 
wuh  hemp  rope  for  the  sounding*line ;  exoept  for  very  moderate 
depths,  and  for  speeds  much  under  the  full  speed  of  a  modem 
fast  steamer.  It  may  indeed  be  said  to  be  a.  practical  Impos- 
sibihty  to  take  a  sounding  in  twenty  fathoms  from  a  ship  running 
at  sixteen  knots  with  the  best  and  best-managed  ordinary  deep- 
sea  lead.  Taking  advantage  of  the  great  strength  and  the  small 
and  smooth  area  for  resistanoe  to  motion  through  the  water,  pre- 
sented by  pianoforte  wire,.  I  have  succeeded  in  overcoming  all 
these  difficulties;  and  with  such  a  sounding  machine  as  that 
before  you  the  White  Star  liner  Briiannie  (Mc»srs.  Ismay,  Imrie, 
and  Co.,  Liverpool)  now  takes  sotmdings  regularly,  running  at 
sixteen  knots  over  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland  and  in  the 
English  and  Irish  Channels  in  depths  sometimes  as  much  as  130 
fathoms.  In  this  ship,  perhaps  the  fastest  ocean-going  steamer 
in  existence,  the  sounding  machine  was  carefully  tried  for  several 
voyages  in  the  hands  of  Capt  Thompson,  who  succeeded  per- 
fectly in  using  it  to  advantage ;  and  under  him.  it  was  finally 
introduced  into  the  service  uf  the  White  Star  Line. 

*■  Report  of  paper  read  to  the  Royal  United  Service  Institution,  February 
4.  by  bir  Wm.  Thomson,  LL.JX,  F.R.S.,  P.R.S.E.,  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  in  the  University  of  GIasgo«r,  and  Keilow  of  St.  Peter's  Collegr, 
Ca{nbndge.  Kevised  by  the  Author.  {The  Council  of  the  R U.S.I.  h*ve 
kindly  permitted  us  to  publish  Sir  W.  Thomson's  paper  in  advance,  and  have 
granted  us  the  use  of  the  iliustraiions.— £0.]    Contiaued  from  p.  354. 


The  steel  wire  which  I  use  weighs  nearly  14  lbs.  per  100 
fathoms,  and  bears  when  fresh,  from  230  to  240  Um.  without 
breaking  ;  its  circumference  is  only  '03  of  an  inch.  By  carefully 
keeping  it  always,  when  out  of  use,  under  lime  water  in  the 
galvanised  iron  tank  prepared  for  the  purpose,  which  you  see 
before  you,  it  is  preserved  quite'  free  from  rust,  and,  accidents 
excepted,  this  sounding  line  might  outlive  the  iron  plates  and 
frames  of  the  ship.  If  the  sinker  gets  jammed  in  a  cleft  of  rock 
at  the  bottom,  or  against  the  side  of  a  boulder,  the  wire  is 
inevitably  lost.  SiKh  an  accident  must  obviously  be  very  rare 
indeed,  and  there  dees  not  seem  to  be  any  other  kmd  of  accident 
which  is  altogether  inevitable  by  care  in  the  use  of  the  instru- 
ment. The  main  care  in  respect  to  avoidance  of  breakage  of  the 
wire  may  be  stated  in  three  words — beware  of  kinks.  A  certain 
amount  of  what  I  may  call  internal  molecular  wear  and  tear  will 
probably  occur  through  the  wire  bending  rouod  the  iron  guard 
rod  which  you  see  in  the  after  part  of  the  instrument,  when,  in 
hauling  in,  the  wire  does  not  lead  hxr  aft  in  the  plane  of  the 
wheel,  as  is  often  the  case  even  with  very  carefid  steering  of  the 
ship,  but  fronv  all  we  know  of  the  elastic  properties  of  metals, 
it  seems  that  thousands  of  casts  might  be  taken  with  the  same 
wire  before  it  would  be  sensibly  weakened  by  internal  molecular 
frictioiL  Practice  has  altogether  confirmed  these  theoretical  anti- 
cipations so  far  as  one  year  of  experience  can  ga  My  sounding 
machine  has  been  in  regular  use  in  charge  of  Captains  Munro 
send  Hedderwick  in  the  Anchor  liners  Anckona  and  Dwonia 
(Messrs.  Henderson  Brothers,  Glasgoor)  for  eleven  months  and 
seven  months  respectively,  and  in  neither  ship  has  a  fathom  o 
wire  been  lost  hitnerto^  though  soundings  have  been  taken- at  all 
houn  of  day  and  night,  at  full  speed,  in  depths  sometimes  as  great 
as  120  fiathoms.  No  break  not  explicable  by  a  kink  in  the  wire 
has  hitherto  taken  place  in  any  ship  provided  with  the  sounding 
machine.  That  it  will  bear  much  rough  usage  is  wdl  illustrated 
by  one  incident  which  happened  in  a  cast  takra  firom  the  Dtvoma 
running  at  thirteen  knots.  The  sinker  in  falling  fronrthe  wheel 
into  the  water  accidentally  fell  between  the  rudder  chain  and  the 
ship,  and  fifty  fathoms  or  so  had  gone  out  before  it  wa»  noticed  . 
that  the  wire  was  running  down  vertically  fromr  the  whed  instead 
of  nearly  horixontally  as  it  ought  to  have  been  by  that  time. 
The  handles  were  immediately  applied  to  the  sounding  wheel, 
and  it  was  turned  round  to  haul  m  without  reducing  tiie  speed 
of  the  ship.  Though  the  wire  was  bent  almost  at  right  angles 
round  the  chain  until  it  was  nearly  all  in,  it  was  all  got  safely  on 
board,  as  was  also  the  cod-line  with  attached  depth  gauge^  and 
the  sinker  at  the  end  of  it. 

When  soundings  are  being  taken  every  hour  or  more  frequently 
(as  in  the  case  ot  a  ship  feeling  her  way  up  channel  from  the  100 
fathom  line  when  the  position'  is  not  known  with  sufficient 
certainty  by  sights  and  chronometers)  the  soimding  wheel  should 
be  kept  on  itt  bearings  in  position  ;  with  the  rod-line,  depth 
gauge,  and  sinker,  all  bent  on  and  ready  for  use.  But  in  all 
other  cases  the  wheel  should  be  kept  in  its  tank  under  lime 
water,  and  the  cod-line  with  sinker  and  depth  gauge  attached 
should  be  kept  at  hand  in  a  convenient  place  near  Uie  stand  of 
the  machine,  which  should  be  alwajrs  fiixed  in  position  ready  for 
use.  With  such  arrangements,  and  methodical  practice,  as  part 
of  regular  naval  drill  in  the  use  of  the  sounding  machine,  one 
minute  of  time  should  suffice  to  take  the  sounding  wheel  out  of 
its  tanJc,  place  it  on  its  bearings,  adjust  the  brake  cord,  bend  on 
the  cod-lme,  and  be  quite  ready  for  a  cast.  When  the  nuichine 
is  to  be  shown  to  an  inspecting  officer  the  wheel  ought  to  be  in 
its  tank  of  lime  water  when  he  asks  to  see  a  cast.  It  should  be 
carefully  noticed  that  the  ring  at  the  end  of  the  vHre  is  securely 
lashed  by  small  cord  to  the  hole  provided  for  it  in  the  ring  of  the 
wheel  whenever  the  cod-line  is  unbent  from  the  ring.  If  the 
wire  and  ring  are  allowed  at  any  time  to  knock  about  slack  on 
the  wheel  when  the  wheel  is  being  moved  to  be  set  up  for  use  or 
to  be  replaced  under  the  lime-water  there  is  a  liability  to  some 
part  of  the  wire  getting  a  turn  which  may  be  pulled  into  a  kink.  * 
One  accident,  at  least,  has  happened  in  this  way :  the  sinker 
dropped  off  carrying  the  cod-lme  and  ring  with  it  just  as  it  was 
beiiig  let  down  trom  the  taffnul  for  a  cast.  If  the  sinker  had 
weighed  400  lbs.  ^  it  could  not  have  broken  the  double  wire  next 
the  ring  without  a  kink. 

A  description  of  the  machine  and  rules  for  its  use  are  given 
in  the  accompanying  printed  paper  of  instructions,  to  which  I 
have  only  now  to  add  a  few  words  regarding  the  depth  gauge. 
Erichsen's  self* regis leriog  sounding  lead  (patented  in  1836), 
depenaing  on  the  compression  of  air.  might  be  used  with  my 
machine,*  but  the  simpler  torm  before  you  is  preierable  as  being 
■  It  weigtis  aa  lbs. 


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torer.  It  too  depends  on  the  compression  of  air,  bnt  in  it  the 
extent  to  which  the  air  has  been  compressed  is  marked  directly 
on  the  interior  of  a  straight  glass  tube  by  the  chemical  action 
«»f  sea-water  on  a  preparation  of  chromate  of  silver  with  which 
the  tube  is  lined  internally.  Between  the  salt  of  the  sea« water 
and  the  chromate  of  silver  a  double  decomposition  takes  place. 
The  chlorine  leaves  the  sodium  of  the  common  salt  and  com- 
bines with  the  silver,  while  the  chromic  acid  and  oxygen  leave 
the  silver  and  coml^e  with  the  sodium.  Thus  chloride  of  silver, 
white  and  insoluble,  renuins  on  the  glass  in  place  of  the  orange- 
colonred  chromate  of  sUver  lining  as  far  np  ^  the  water  has  been 
forced  into  the  tube;  and  the  chromate  of  lodium  dissolved  in 
the  water  is  expelled  as  the  air  expands  when  the  tube  is  brought 
to  the  surf  ace. 

My  navigational  sounding  machine  was  brought  into  practical 
use  tor  the  first  time  in  the  steamship  Palmy  belonging  to 
Messrs.  Charles  Horsfall  and  Co.,  Liverpool,  in  a  voyage  to 
Odessa  and  back  aboot  a  year  ago;  in  command  of  Capt  £. 
Leighton.  I  cannot  illustrate  the  use  of  the  machine  better 
than  by  reading  to  you  an  extract  from  a  letter  I  received  last 
April  from  Capt  Leighton^  describing  his  experience  of  it  in  this 
first  trial :~ 

«  During  the  voyage  in  the  Palm  steamship,  which  has  just 
come  to  an  end,  I  took  firequent  opportunities  of  testing  the 
sounding  machine  when  I  had  a  chance  of  cross-beaiings  to 
verify  the  depths  as  shown  by  chait,  and  always  found  it  most 
accurate.  For  instance,  going  up  through  the  Archipelago  and 
just  after  clearing  the  Zea  cTiannel,  I  got  a  good  position  by 
bearings,  chart  showing  seventy-nine  and  seventy-six  fathoms, 
two  casts  of  your  gli^  gave  seventy-eight  and  seventy-five 
fi^oms.  In  the  Bosphorus  also  it  gave  capital  results  in  thicty 
to  forty  fisthoms  water. 

"  "  The  first  real  use  I  made  of  the  machine  was  in  the  Black 
Sea  during  a  fog  which  obscured  everything.  Wishing  to 
make  sure  of  my  position  I  put  the  ship's  haul  for  the  land 
and  kept  the  machine  at  work.  After  running  in  to  thirty 
fathoms  at  full  speed  I  slowed  down  and  went  in  to  twelve 
fathoms,  then  hauled  out  to  a  convenient  depth  and  put  her  on 
the  course  up  the  coast  When  it  became  dear  I  found  myself 
in  a  proper  position,  and  no  time  had  been  lost  by  stopping  to 
sound. 

"  How  many  shipmasters  let  hours  go  by  without  obtaining 
soundings  either  because  of  the  delay  or  on  account  of  the 
danger  of  rounding-to  in  heavy  weather  to  get  them,  when,  if 
thev  were  provided  with  your  sounding-machine,  they  could  have 
their  minds  set  at  ease  by  having  timely  warning  of  danger,  or 
by  knowing  that  they  were  in  a  good  position  1 " 

I  had  myself  very  satisfactory  experience  of  the  usefiilneu  of 
the  sounding  machine  in  coming  up  Channel  running  before  a 
gale  of  sou&west  wind  m  thick  weather,  on  the  6th  and  7th  of 
last  August,  on  returning  from  Madeira  in  my  yacht — a  small 
failing  schooner  of  126  tons.  About  5  A.M.  on  the  6th  I  took 
two  casts  and  found  ninety-eight  fathoms  (»and  and  red  spots) 
and  101  £sthoms  (sand  and  small  shells).  The  mean  with  a 
correction  of  2}  fiatboms  to  reduce  to  low  water,  according  to  the 
state  of  the  tide  at  Ushant  at  the  time,  was  ninety-seven  fathoms. 
Thenceforward  I  took  a  sounding  every  hour  but  one  till  eight  in 
the  evening.  By  writing  these  soundings  on  the  edge  of  a  piece  of 
paper  at  distances  equu  according  to  the  scale  of  the  chart  to 
the  distances  run  in  the  interval,  with  the  edge  of  the  paper 
always  parallel  to  the  course,  according  to  the  method  of  Sir 
James  Anderson  and  Capt  Moriarty,  I  had  fixed  accurately  the 
line  along  which  the  vessel  had  sailed,  and  the  point  uf  it  which 
had  been  reached,  with  only  a  verification  by  a  noon  lati- 
tude. At  6  o'clock  next  morning,  by  the  soundings  and  course, 
with  proper  idlowance  for  the  flood-tide,  I  must  have  been  about 
thirteen  miles  magnetic  south  of  the  Start,  but  nothing  of  the 
land  was  to  be  seen  through  the  haze  and  rain ;  and  with  the 
assistance  of  about  ten  more  casts  of  the  lead  (bv  which  I  was 
saved  from  passing  south  of  St  Catherine's)  I  made  the  Needles 
Lighthouse  right  ahtad,  at  a  disUnce  of  about  three  miles,  at 
2  P.M.,  having  had  just  a  glimpse  of  the  high  diflfs  east  of  Port- 
land, but  no  other  sight  of  laud  since  leaving  Madeira  and  Porto 
Santo.  In  the  course  of  the  280  miles  from  the  point  where  I 
struck  the  100  fathom  line  to  the  Needles,  I  took  about  thirty 
casts  in  depths  of  100  fathoms  to  nineteen  fathoms  without  once 
rounding-to  or  reducing  speed;  during  some  of  the  casts  the 
speed  was  ten  knots,  and  the  average  rate  of  the  last  220  miles 
was  a  little  over  nine  knots. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  me  to  be  able  to  add  that  the  sounding 
machine  has  also  been  successfully  used  in  the  Royal  Navy, 


Admiral  Beauchamp  Seynour  and  Capt  Lord  Walter  Kerr 
having  kindly  taken  it  on  board  H.M.S.  MtHCttmr  for  trial  last 
summer.  Lord  Walter  Kerr  wrote^  on  his  return  from  Vigo^ 
regarding  it  as  follows : — 

"  The  sounding  machine  is  most  serviceable.  We  have  been 
using  it  constantly  when  running  up  Channel,  from  the  time  of 
crowing  the  line  of  soundings  to  the  time  of  reaching  Plymouth, 
and  though  running  before  a  gale  of  wind  with  a  heavy  sea,  at 
the  rate  of  ten  knots,  we  were  able  to  get  soundings  as  if  the 
ship  had  been  at  anchor.  We  were  able  to  signal  to  the  squadron 
each  sowidlag  at  it  was  obtained ;  thus,  in  thick  weather, 
verifying  ov  position  by  too&diogt  widiottt  having  to  round  the 
ships  lo.** 

THE  ANALOGIES  OF  PLANT  AND  ANIMAL 
LIFE^ 

T  £T  «s  begin  our  inc^uiry  into  the  analogies  of  plant  and 
-^  animal  life  by  oompanng  the  egg  of  an  animal  with  the  seed 
of  a  plant  Let  it  be  the  ripe  seed  of  a  common  plant,  and 
the  egg  of  a  bird.  Both  seed  and  egg  may  be  said  to  consist  of 
the  young  creature  and  a  supply  of  food  which  is  stored  up  for 
its  use,  and  Is  gradually  exhausted  as  the  young  creature  develops. 
Every  one  who  has  tried  when  a  boy  to  blow  a  late  bird's  egg 
must  have  beoi  painfully  alive  to  the  fact  of  its  containing  a 
young  animal,  and  the  e^g  we  eat  for  breakfast  may  serve  to 
remind  us  of  the  store  of  food  which  we  diverted  from  its  proper 
coarse  of  nourishing  a  young  chicken. 

Here  is  a  diagram  representing  a  section  through  the  seed 
of  a  poppy,  in  which  the  young  plant  may  be  seen  lying 
in  its  store  of  food  containing  a  supply  of  carbohydrates 
and  nitrogenous  matter,  which  is  consumed  as  the  volk  of 
the  egg  is  consumed  by  the  young  chicken.  Other  seeds,  such 
as  a  bean,  an  acorn,  or  an  almond,  seem  at  first  sight  to  consist  of 
nothing  but  the  young  plant,  and  to  have  no  store  oc  food.  The  two 
halves  mto  which  a  pot  split  are  the  two  first  leaves  or  cotyledons 
of  the  young  plant,  the  embnro  stem  aid  root  being  represented 
by  the  little  projecting  mass  lying  between  the  two  halves  at  one 
end  of  the  seed.  Here  the  store  of  food  is  laid  up  in  the  body 
of  the  young  plant  just  as  manv  young  animals  carry  with  them 
a  store  of  food  in  the  shape  of  the  masses  of  fat  with  which  they 
are  cushioned ;  the  two  leaves  which  seem  so  gigantic  compared 
with  the  rest  of  the  plant  are  filled  with  nutriment,  and  perform 
the  same  function  ot  supplying  food  for  the  growth  of  the  seed- 
ling which  is  performed  by  the  nsass  of  nutrient  material  in 
which  the  embiyo  of  the  poppy  seed  is  embedded.  Recent 
researches  have  shown  that  embryo  plants  are  possessed  of 
powers  which  even  in  the  present  day  it  seems  almost  ludicrous 
to  ascribe  to  them.  I  mean  powers  of  digestion.  Gorap- 
Besanez,'  a  distinguished  German  chemist,  found  that  in  the 
germinating  seed  of  a  vetch  a  ferment  exists  similar  to  the  ferment 
in  the  pancreatic  secretion  of  animals — a  secretion  having  the 
power  of  reducing  both  nitrogenous  bodies  and  stareh  to  a  con- 
dition in  which  they  can  be  utilised  and  absorbed  by  the  tissues, 
so  that  the  embryo  plant  behaves  exactly  as  if  it  were  a  minute 
animal  digesting  ana  absorbing  the  store  of  food  with  which  it 
is  suppli^  The  power  of  digesting  starch  possessed  by  the 
embryo  plant  has  been  brilliantly  demonstrated  by  van  Tieghem,' 
who  found  that  the  embryo  removed  from  the  seed  of  the  Marvel 
of  Pern  (Mirabilis  jalafa)  was  distinctly  nourished  if  placed  in 
an  artificial  seed  made  of  starch  paste.  He  found  that  the  starch 
paste  was  actually  corroded  by  the  young  plant,  proving  that  a 
digestive  ferment  had  been  at  work. 

This  wonderful  experiment  is  of  special  interest  as  proving 
that  the  digestive  ferment  is  a  product  of  the  young  plant  itself, 
just  as  the  digestive  juice  of  an  animal  is  a  secretion  from  its 
stomach.  It  is  indeied  a  striking  thought  that  whether  we  grind 
up  a  grain  of  wheat  to  flour  and  eat  it  ourselves  as  bread,  or 
whether  we  let  the  seed  germinate,  in  which  case  the  young  plant 
eats  it,  the  process  is  identically  the  same. 

The  power  of  storing  up  food  in  a  fixed  condition  and  utilis- 
ing it  when  required  is  a  most  important  function  both  in 
arumal  and  plant  physiology.  And  just  as  this  utilisation 
is  seen  in  the  seed  to  be  brought  about  by  a  ferment — 
by  a  digestive  process — so  probably  wherever  the  transfer- 
ence or  utilisation  of  food  stores  occurs  it  is  effected  by 
ferments.    If  this  be  so  it  would  seem  that  the  processes  of 

'  A  Lecture  delivered  at  the  London  Institudon  on  Mardi  iz  by  Frands 
Darwin,  M.B. 
•  DettUck.  chfm,  GtuUsck,^  1874 ;  Botanixche  Zeitung,  1875,  p.  565. 
3  An„  Sc.  Na/.t  J873,  xviL  p.  305, 


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digestion  proper,  as  tbey  occur  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  of 
animals  and  on  the  leaves  of  carnivorous  plants,  I  say  it  is 
probable  that  these  processes  are  only  a  specialisation^  of  a  widely 
spread  power,  which  may  exist  in  the  simplest  protoplasmic 
ancestor  of  animals  and  plants.  In  this  case  we  shall  have  no 
right  to  consider  the  existence  of  carnivorous  plants  anything 
strange  or  bizarre ;  we  should  not  consider  if,  as  seems  sometimes 
to  be  done,  an  eccentric  and  unaccountable  assumption  of  animal 
properties  by  plants ;  but  rather  the  appearance  of  a  function 
which  we  have  quite  as  much  right  to  expect  in  plants  as  in 
animals.  Not  that  this  view  makes  the  fact  of  vegetable  diges- 
tion any  less  wonderful,  but  rather  more  interesting  as  probably 
binding  together  t>y  community  of  descent  a  wide  clasn  of  physio- 
logical functions.  Let  us  now  pass  on  to  consider  the  analogies 
of  plants  and  animals  in  a  more  advanced  stage  of  life. 

Great  differences  exist  among  animals  as  to  the  degree  of  de- 
velopment attained  before  the  young  ones  enter  the  world.  A 
young  kangaroo  is  bom  in  a  comparatively  early  stage  of  deve- 
lopment, and  is  merely  capable  of  passive  existence  in  its 
mother's  pouch,  while  a  young  calf  or  lamb  soon  leads  an 
active  existence.  Or  compare  a  human  child  which  passes 
through  so  prolonged  a  condition  of  helplessness,  with  a  young 
chicken  which  runs  about  and  picks  up  grain  directly  it  is  out  of 
its  shell.  As  analogous  cases  among  plants,  we  may  take  the 
mangrove  and  the  tobacco  plant  The  ripe  seed  of  the  mangrove 
is  not  scattered  abroad,  but  remains  attached  to  the  capsule  still 
hanging  on  the  mother  plant.  In  this  state  the  seeds  germinate 
and  the  roots  grow  out  and  down  to  the  sea-level,  and  the  plant 
is  not  deserted  by  its  mother  until  it  has  got  well  established  in 
the  mud.  It  is  due  to  the  young  mangrove  to  say  that  the  con* 
ditions  of  life  against  which  it  has  to  make  a  start  are  very  hard 
on  it.  The  most  intrepid  seedling,  might  well  cling  to  its  parent 
on  finding  that  it  was  expected  to  germinate  on  soft  mud  daily 
flooded  by  the  tide.  Perhaps  the  same  excuse  may  be  offered 
for  the  helplessness  of  babies— the  more  complicated  the  con- 
ditions of  life,  the  greater  dependence  must  there  be  of  offspring 
on  parent 

Now  compare  a  young  tobacco  plant  with  the  mangrove.  All  the 
help  the  seedling  tobacco  receives  from  its  parent  is  a  very  small 
supply  of  food ;  this  it  uses  up  in  forming  its  first  pair  of  leaves  ; 
it  has  then  nothing  left  by  way  of  reserve,  but  must  depend 
on  its  own  exertions  for  subsistence.  By  its  own  exertions  I 
mean  its  power  of  manufacturing  starch  (which  is  the  great 
article  of  food  required  by  plants)  from  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
air.  In  this  respect  it  is  Uke  a  caterpillar  which  is  formed  from 
the  contents  of  the  egg,  but  has  to  get  its  own  living  as  soon  as 
it  is  bom. 

In  many  cases  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  independence  in 
young  creatures,  which  are  nevertheless  largely  dependent  on 
their  parents'  help.  Thus,  young  chickens,  though  able  to  feed 
themselves,  depend  on  their  mother  for  warmth  and  guidance. 
A  somewhat  parallel  case  may  be  found  among  plants.  It 
has  been  shown  that  the  large  store  of  reserve  material  in  a  bean 
is  not  all  needed  for  the  development  of  the  seedling.  It  has 
been  proved  that  well-formed  and  ffourishing  seedlings  are  pro- 
duced, even  when  a  large  part  of  the  cotyledons  has  been  removed. 
In  fact,  the  store  of  food  in  the  bean  has  been  said  to  play  a 
double  part  in  the  economy  of  the  plant,^  first,  as  giving  abso- 
lutely necessary  formative  material,  and  secondly,  as  protecting 
the  young  plant  in  the  stmggle  with  other  plants,  by  supplying 
it  with  food  till  it  is  well  established  and  able  to  make  its  own 
food.  This  view  was  fully  established  by  my  father, ^  who  sowed 
various  kinds  of  seed  among  grass  in  order  to  observe  the 
struggle ;  he  found  that  peas  and  beans  were  able  to  make  a 
vigorous  start  in  growth,  while  many  ^othcr  young  plants  were 
kiUed  off  as  soon  as  they  germinated. 

The  young  bean  is  thus  indirectly  protected  by  its  mother  from 
death,  which  the  severe  competition  entails  on  less  forttmate 
seedlings.  This  kind  of  protection  can  only  in  a  certain  general 
sense  he,  compared  with  the  protection  given  by  parent  to  offspring. 
Nevertheless,  a  more  strictly  parallel  case  may  be  found  among 
anhnals.  Certain  fishes  retain  the  yolk  bag,  still  containing  a 
supply  of  food,  and  swim  about  leading  an  independent  life, 
carrying  this  store  with  them.  Among  plants,  a  good  case  of  a 
retention  of  a  store  of  food  occurs  *  in  the  oak.     Young  trees 

<  See  Morren,  "La  Digestion  V^^gfTude,"  Gand,  1876;  and  Pfefier, 
"  I^ndwirih.  Jahrb.,"  1877. 

3  Haberlandt,  "  Schuczeinrichtungen  in  der  Entwickelun^eo  der  Keim- 
pflanzen,"  1877,  p  s^  The  idea  is  quoted  as  originally  given  by  Sachs, 
Vienna  Acad ,  juucvii.,  1859. 

3  See  •'  Origin  of  Species,"  6th  edition,  p.  6a 

*  Haberlandt,  p.  la. 


possessing  woody  stems  and  several  leaves  mav  ttill  have  on 
acora  underground  with  an  unexhausted  store  of  rood. 

In  comparing  the  lives  of  plants  and  animals,  one  is  struck 
with  the  different  relation  which  the  welfare  of  the  race  bears  to 
the  welfare  of  the  individual.  In  plants  it  is  far  more  obvious 
that  the  aim  and  object  of  existence  is  the  perpetuation  of  the 
species.  The  striking  and  varied  development  of  the  reproduc- 
tiveorgans  in  plantsis  one  factor  in  this  difference.  Roughlyspeak- 
ing,  plantsstrikeusmostby  theirffowersand  seed—that  is  by  organs 
serving  the  interest  of  the  race.  Animab  are  most  striking  on 
account  of  their  m cements,  which  are  chieffy  connected  with 
the  wants  of  the  individual  If  a  child  wants  to  know  whether 
a  stick  is  a  stick  or  a  ctterpillar,  he  touches  it,  and  if  it  walks  off*, 
classes  it  in  the  animal  kingdom.  Of  course,  I  do  not  mean 
that  the  power  of  movement  is  a  mark  of  distinction  between 
animals  and  plants,  but  it  certainly  is  a  power  which  is  well 
developed  in  most  animals,  and  badly  developed  in  most  plants. 
It  is  the  absence  of  locomotive  powers  (as  opposed  to  the  absence 
of  simple  movements)  that  especially  characterises  most  plants. 
One  sees  the  meaning  of  this  if  one  inquires  into  mode  of  life  of 
stationary  and  of  locomotive  animals.  Stationary  animals  either 
inhabit  the  water,  or  else  are  parasitic  in  habits,  and  live  on 
tissues  of  plants  or  animals.  In  either  case  the  absence  of  loco- 
motion has  the  same  meaning.  Many  aquatic  animals  derive 
their  food  from  the  minute  organic  particles  floating  in  the  water, 
so  that  even  though  they  lead  a  stationary  life,  food  will  be 
brought  to  them  by  the  currents  in  the  water.  Parasitic  animals 
obtain  their  food  directly  from  the  juices  or  sap  of  their  host,  so 
that  they  do  not  need  to  move  about  as  other  animals  do  in 
search  of  food.  In  the  same  way  plants  live  like  parasites  on 
the  earth,  penetrating  it  with  their  roots,  and  sucking  out  its 
juices ;  and  their  food — carbonic  acid — b  brought  to  them  by 
the  currents  of  the  air,  so  that  like  both  an  aquatic  and  a  parasitic 
animal,  they  have  no  need  of  locomotion  as  far  as  concerns  the 
obtaining  of  food. 

In  the  case  of  many  young  animals  their  powers  of  locomo- 
tion would  be  useless  imless  the  eggs  were  deposited  by  the 
mother  in  a  proper  place ;  one  cannot  imagine  anything  more 
forlom  than  a  caterpillar  reared  from  an  egg  laid  anywhere  by 
chance,  and  expected  to  find  its  proper  plant.  The  necessity  of 
finding  proper  places  to  lay  her  eggs  implies  the  necessity  of 
locomotion  on  the  part  of  the  mother.  This  need  of  loco- 
motion is,  of  course,  equally  a  need  to  the  plant,  but  it  is 
supplied  in  a  distributed  way.  The  seeds  themselves  become 
locomotive ;  they  either  acquire  plumes  to  fiy  on  the  wind 
like  the  seeds  of  dandelions  or  they  become  burrs  and  cling  to 
passing  animals,  or  are  distributed  in  other  ways.  Vanous 
and  strange  are  the  means  of  transportal  adopted  by  seeds  ;  for 
instance,  the  acorn  seems  to  distribute  itself  by  deliberately 
trading  on  the  carelessness  of  creatures  which  are  usually  con- 
sidered its  superiors  in  intelligence.  Good  evidence  exists  that 
young  oaks  which  grow  scattered  in  large  number  over  a  wide 
extent  of  wild  heathy  land  have  sprung  from  the  acorns  acci- 
dentally dropped  by  passing  rooks.  In  all  these  cases  the  young 
plant  has  to  trust  to  chance  as  to  what  kind  of  soil  it  will.be  deposited 
m,  and  this  of  course  accounts  for  the  enormous  numoer  of  seeds 
produced  by  plants.  Some  seeds  are  more  fortunate  in  possessing 
a  kind  of  mechanical  choice  or  power  of  selecting  suitable  places 
to  grow  in.  Many;  years  ago  my  father  described  a  plumed  seed 
which,  when  damped,  poured  out  a  sticky  substance  capable  of 
gluing  the  seed  firmly  to  whatever  touched  it.  Imagine  such  a 
plant  blown  by  the  wind  over  some  sandy  waste ;  nothing  tends 
to  stay  its  course  till  it  happens  to  pass  bv  a  region  where  the 
soil  is  damper ;  then  it  sends  out  its  sticky  anchors,  and  thus 
comes  to  rest  just  where  it  has  a  chance  of  germinating 
favourably.  Again,  some  s^eds  have  a  certain  amount  of 
locomotive  power  independent  of  such  external  agencies  as 
wind  or  passing  animals.  I  mean  a  power  of  burying  them- 
selves in  the  ground;  the  seeds  of  grasses  are  the  best 
known  of  these  self-burying  seeds;  and  among  them  the 
feather-grass,  or  Stipa  pennaia^  is  the  most  conspicuous. 
These  seeds  possess  a  strong,  sharp  point,  armed  with  a  plume 
or  tuft  of  recurv«l  hairs,  which  act  like  the  barbs  of  an  arrow 
and  prevent  the  seed  from  coming  out  again  when  it  has  once 
penetrated  the  soil.  This  arrow-like  pomt  is  fixed  at  the  lower 
end  of  a  strong  awn,  which  has  the  remarkable  property  of 
twisting  when  dried  and  imtwisting  when  wetted.  Thus  the 
mere  alternations  of  damp  nights  and  dry  days  cause  the  arrow- 
like polut  to  rotate,  and  by  another  contrivance,  which  it  would 
take  too  long  to  go  into,  the  point  is  pressed  a^dnst  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  actually  bores  its  way  into  it    FriU  Miiller 


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described  in  a  letter  to  me  how  these  twistine  grass  seeds  bury 
themselves  in  the  extremely  hard  and  dry  soil  of  Brazil,  and  are 
thus  no  donbt  enabled  to  germinate.  Unfortunately  these  boring 
grass-seeds  do  not  always  confine  themselves  to  penetrating  the 
soil,  but  exercise  their  powers  on  both  men  and  animals.  I  have 
received  accounts  firom  India  and  from  Italy  of  the  way  in  which 
the  sharpopointed  seeds  work  their  way  through  thidc  trousers 
into  the  legs  of  unfortunate  sportsmen.  But  the  most  extraordi- 
nary case  is  that  of  certain  grasses  which  work  their  way  into 
sheep.  They  often  penetrate  the  skin  deeply  and  in  large 
numbers,  inflicting  ^reat  tortures  and  often  causing  death  by 
emaciation.  Mr.  Hmde,  of  Toronto,  has  given  me  the  details  of 
this  plague  to  sheep-farmers  as  it  occurs  in  Buenos  Ayres. 
Another  observer  has  described  it  in  Australia.^  He  states  that 
not  nnfrequently  the  seeds  are  found  actually  piercing  the 
heart,  liver,  and  kidneys  of  sheep  which  have  died  from  the 
effects.  I  believe  that  the  northern  part  of  QueensUmd  has  been 
actually  given  up  as  a  sheep  country  because  of  the  presence  of 
this  grass. 

Another  use  to  which  locomotion  is  applied  by  animals  is  that 
of  finding  a  mate  at  the  proper  season.  The  curious  imitation 
of  the  courtship  of  ammals  which  is  found  in  Vallismeria  is  well 
known.  The  stalk  grows  with  extreme  rapidity  up  through  the 
water  till  the  female  flower  reaches  the  surface,. and  there  awaits 
the  approach  of  the  male  flower,  which  breaks  loose  and  floats 
down  the  stream  to  meet  her.  But  most  plants  have  not  even 
this  amount  of  locomotive  power,  and  are  tnerefore  compelled  to 
employ  either  the  wind  or  insects  as  go-betweens.  Fortunately  for 
the  beauty  and  sweetness  of  our  woods  and  fields,  insect  fertilisa- 
tion is  the  commonest  means  adopted ;  and  all  the  bright  flowers 
and  sweet  smells  of  flowers  are  nothing  but  allurements  held  out 
to  insects  to  entice  them  to  cany  the  fertilising  pollen  from  one 
flower  to  another.  It  is  curious  to  find  a  plant  adopting  a  new 
mode  of  conveying  its  pollen  when  the  old  one  fails.  Thus,  a 
wild  cabbage- like  plant  which  grows  in  Keiguelen's  Land  is  now 
fertilised  by  the  wind,  that  is,  it  produces  dry  dust-like  pollen, 
which  is  easily  carried  by  the  wind.  Now  this  cabbage  is  the 
only  species  in  the  enormous  order  of  the  Cruciferae  which  is  not 
fertilised  by  insects  ;  so  that  we  may  be  certain  that  a  change  has 
taken  place  for  which  some  sufficient  reason  must  exist  And 
the  reason  of  the  change  is  no  doubt  that  the  insects  in  Kergue- 
Icn's  Land  are  wingless,  and  are  therefore  bad  distributors  of 
pollen.  And  to  go  one  step  further  back,  the  reason  why  the 
insects  are  wingless  is  to  be  found  in  the  prevalent  high  winds. 
Those  insects  which  attempt  to  fly  get  blown  out  to  sea,  and  only 
those  are  preserved  which  are  gradually  giving  up  the  habit  of 
flying.  Thus  the  pollen  of  the  cabbie  has  to  learn  to  fly, 
because  the  insects  will  not  fly  for  it. 

In  considering  the  analc^es  between  plants  and  animals,  one 
caimot  merely  compare  those  futctions  which  are  strictly  and 
physiologically  similar  in  the  two  kingdoms.  One  rather  sets  to 
work  and  studies  the  needs  which  arise  in  either  a  plant  or  an 
animal,  and  then  discovers  in  what  way  the  same  need  is  supplied 
in  the  other  kingdom.  There  is  no  connection  between  a  plant 
having  bright  flowers  and  an  animal's  power  of  walking  about, 
yet  they  may,  as  we  hive  seen,  play  the  same  part  in  the  economy 
of  the  two  lives. 

In  the  life  of  animals  the  first  needs  that  arise  are  supplied  by 
certain  instinctive  movements.  The  young  chicken  only  escapes 
from  its  egg  by  some  such  movements.  Mr.  W.  Marshall  has 
fldso  shown  that  the  chrysalides  of  certain  moths  possess  instinctive 
movements  by  which  they  escape  from  the  cocoon  or  outer  case. 
In  one  case  a  sharp  spike  is  developed,  sticking  out  from  the 
side  of  the  chrysalis,  and  as  the  latter  rotates  the  spike  saws 
the  cocoon  all  round,  so  that  the  top  lifts  off  like  a  lid. 
Again,  in  young  chickens  Spalding  has  shown  the  existence  of  an 
instinctive  power  of  obtaining  food,  and  instinctive  recognition 
of  the  hen  oy  sound  only.  This  was  proved  by  a  newly-hatched 
chicken,  wluch  had  never  heard  or  seen  its  mother,  running 
towards  a  cask  under  which  a  clucking  hen  was  hidden.  The 
powers  of  growth  which  exist  in  young  seedlings  would  certainly  be 
called  instinctive  if  they  existed  in  animals,  and  they  are  quite 
as  indispensable  as  those  just  mentioned  in  supplying  the  wants 
which  fint  arise. 

These  two  instincts  are  the  power  of  directing  the  growth  in 
relation  to  the  force  of  gravity,  and  in  relation  to  light ;  the 
first  being  called  geotropism,  the  second  heliotropism.  As  soon 
as  the  young  root  emerges  from  the  seed-coats,  it  turns  abruptly 
downwards,  perceiving  like  the  chick  in  what  direction  the  earth, 
its  mother,  lies.  Thus  the  young  plant  fixes  itself  firmly  in  the 
*  C  Freatice,  youmal^BoUny^  xS/a,  p.  sa. 


ground  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  is  enabled  to  begin  to  make 
arrangements  for  its  water  supply.  At  the  same  time  the  young 
stem  grows  upwards,  and  thus  raises  itself  as  much  as  possible 
over  its  neighbours.  The  power  of  directing  itself  vertically 
upwards  is  also  a  necessity  to  the  plant,  because  without  it  no 
massive  growth  like  that  of  a  tree  would  be  possible.  It  would 
be  like  a  child  trying  to  build  a  wooden  house  with  bricks  4hat 
did  not  stand  straight.  Thus,  both  the  young  stem  and  the  young 
root  have  an  instinctive  knowledge  as  to  where  the  centre  of 
the  earth  is— one  growing  towards  the  point,  the  other 
directly  away  from  it  This  fact  is  so  familiar  to  us,  that 
we  fail  to  think  of  it  as  wonderful ;  it  seems  a  matter  of 
course,  like  a  stone  falling  or  a  cork  floating  on  water. 
Yet  we  cannot  even  generalise  the  fact  so  far  as  to  say  it  is  the 
nature  of  all  stems  to  grow  up,  and  all  roots  to  grow  down,  for 
some  stems,  such  as  the  runner  of  a  strawberry,  have  a  strong 
wish  to  grow  down  instead  of  up^  and  side  roots  that  spring  from 
the  main  ones,  though  their  method  of  growth  is  identiod  with 
that  of  the  main  roots,  have  no  wish  to  grow  downwards.  We 
can  find  no  structural  reason  at  all  why  a  root  should  grow  dowa 
and  a  stem  up.  But  we  can  see  that  if  a  plant  took  to  burying 
its  leaves  and  rearing  its  roots  into  the  air,  it  would  have  a  l)ad 
chance  in  the  struggle  for  life.  It  is,  in  facr,  the  needs  of  exist- 
ence which  have  impressed  these  modes  of  growth  on  the  different 
organs  of  the  plane  in  accordance  «with  their  various  requirements. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  plant  is  not  absolutely  tied  down  by 
geotropism,  it  is  not  bound  to  grow  ahoays  in  a  vertical  line,  but 
is  ready  to  be  turned  from  its  course  if  some  other  direction 
can  be  shown  to  be  more  advantageous.  Thus  Sachs  ^  planted 
peas  in  a  little  sieve,  and  as  the  roots  emerged  underneath,  they 
were  enticed  from  the  vertical  by  an  oblique  damp  surface. 
Tins  power  of  giving  up  the  line  of  growth  for  the  sake  of  a 
more  advantageous  position,  must  be  of  great  service  to  roots,  by 
enabling  them  to  choose  out  damp  places  in  the  earth  which 
a  blind  adherence  to  rule  would  have  caused  them  to  pass  by. 

The  other  tendency,  which  may  be  also  compared  to  an  instinct, 
is  the  power  possessed  by  the  growing  parts  of  plants  of  perceiving 
the  position  of  the  chief  source  of  light  This  tendency  of  course 
interferes  with  the  geoTopic  tendency,  for  if  the  tip  of  a  growing 
shoot  bends  towards  the  light  it  deviates  from  its  vertical  course. 
This  contest  between  two  instincts  is  well  shown  by  placing  a 
pot  of  seedlings  close  to  a  lamp  or  a  window,  in  which  case 
the  heliotropic  beats  the  geotropic  tendency  and  the  young 
plants  curve  strongly  to  the  light ;  now  if  the  pot  is  removed  to 
a  dark  room  the  geotropic  tendency  reasserts  itself,  and  the  seed- 
lings become  once  more  upright  One  might  fancy  from  this 
that  the  darkness  of  night  would  be  always  undoing  any 
good  gained  by  heliotropic  growth  in  the  day.  An  imaginary 
case  in  the  life  of  a  seedling  will  show  that  ic  is  not  so.  A  seed- 
ling germinates  under  a  pile  of  sticks :  having  few  competitors  it 
makes  a  good  start,  but  in  consequence  of  the  darkness  it  begins 
to  starve  as  soon  as  it  has  exhausted  the  supply  of  food  given  it 
by  its  mother  plant  stored  up  in  the  seed  from  which  it 
sprang.  It  starves  because  it  is  dark  under  the  pile  of  sticks, 
and  without  light  it  cannot  decompose  the  carbonic  acid  of 
the  air  and  make  starch ;  carbonic  acid  may  be  siid  to  be 
the  raw  material  from  which  a  plant  makes  its  food — but 
without  the  help  of  light  the  plant  is  poweiless  to  make  food — 
it  starves  in  the  midst  of  plenty.  So  that  the  power  of  know- 
ing where  the  light  is  and  of  moving  towards  it  may  be  just  as 
necessary  to  prevent  a  young  plant  starving  as  the  power  of 
knowing  a  grain  of  corn  when  it  sees  one  aud  of  snapping  it  up 
are  to  a  young  chicken.  Luckily  for  our  imaginaiy  plant  a  ray 
of  light  streams  in  between  two  sticks— if  the  plant  insisted  on 
growing  straight  up  in  obedience  .to  the  geotropic  instinct  it 
would  lose  its  chance  of  life.  Fortunately  the  other  light-seeking 
instinct  wins  the  day  and  the  plant  thrusts  its  summit  between 
the  sticks  and  reaches  the  light.  And  now  it  is  clear  that  whtn 
the  plant  has  once  g«t  between  the  sticks  the  tendency  to 
straighten  again  in  the  night  will  not  be  able  to  undo  the 
advantage  gained  in  the  day  by  heliotropism.  Besides  the 
tendency  to  seek  the  light,  there  is  in  some  plants  another 
exactly  opposite  tendency  to  grow  away  from  it  Just  as 
in  the  case  of  geotropism  no  reason  can  be  given  why  two 
organs  should  be  affected  in  exactly  an  opposite  manner  by  the 
same  cause ;  no  difference  of  structure  can  be  perceived  and  no 
difference  in  manner  of  growth  can  be  found  between  a  tendril 
which  grows  away  from  the  light  and  one  which  grows  towards 
it  The  convenience  of  the  plant  seems  to  dictate  the  result 
Thus  the  Virginian  creeper  climbs  by  forming  little  sticky  feet  at 
«  "  Text  Book  of  Botany,"  Eog.  Tr.  p.  764. 


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the  end  of  its  tendrils,  and  as  it  climbs  up  a  support  each  new 
tendril  is  enabled  by  its  power  of  seeking  for  darkness  rather 
than  light  to  find  out  little  dark  crannies  in  which  to  place  its 
feet  On  the  other  hand  a  bryony  climbs  by  seizing  anything  it 
can  get  hold  o(  and  as  each  tendril  reaches  out  towards  the  light 
the  whole  plant  will  tend  to  be  dragged  towards  the  lighter  side 
of  the  bush  or  hedge  on  which  it  clambers. 

It  looks  as  if  the  case  might  be  put  thus  :  Given  the  fact  that 
light  produces  some  kind  of  movement,  the  convenience  of  the 
plant  shall  decide  whether  it  be  towards  the  light  or  away  from  it ; 
or  m  other  words,  grant  the  plant  the  power  of  knowing  where  the 
centre  of  the  earth  is,  and  grant  it  the  power  of  knowing  where 
the  light  comes  from,  then  the  plant  itself  can  decide  what  course 
of  growth  is  most  advantageous.  ^ 

{To  be  conHnued,) 

NOTES 
The  subscription  for  M.  Leverrier's  statue  is  progressbg 
favourably.  A  sum  of  4,200  francs  has  been  already  collected. 
The  subscribers  up  to  the  present  moment  number  thirty-five, 
almost  all  of  them  belonging  to  the  French  Institute.  M.  Cohen, 
of  Antwerp,  sent  1,000  francs.  Other  large  sums  are  expected 
soon  from  different  parts. 

It  is  stated  that  M.  Faye  has  declined  to  stand  for  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Paris  Observatory,  unless  it  is  agreed  to  retain  at  the 
observatory  the  International  Meteorological  Office.  It  is  very 
probable  that  the  long  spoken  of  Meteorological  Institute  will 
now  be  established;  at  all  events  a  solution  of  the  pending 
question  will  soon  be  adopted  by  the  government 

M.  Dumas  announced  to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
its  sitting  on  March  4  that  an  anonjrmous  donor  offers  a  prize  of 
6,000  francs  to  be  awarded  in  1880  to  the  person  who  makes 
the  most  useful  application  of  M.  Pasteur's  researches  to  the 
healing  art. 

A  COMMITTEE  hai  been' formed  >t  Kdnigsberg  to  erect  a 
fitting  monument  upon  the  grave  of  the  great  philosopher  Im- 
manuel  Kant.  The  City  authorities  have  headed  the  Ibt  of 
subscriptions  with  the  sum  of  4,000  marks  (200/.). 

In  a  report  by  M.  Daubr^  to  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences 
it  is  strongly  recommended  that  measures  should  be  taken  to 
preserve  the  many  boulders  which  are  scattered  over  Franca, 
and  many  of  which  are  disappearing  under  the  pick*axe  of  the 
builder.  The  Academy  has  appointed  a  commission  for  the 
purpose,  which  will  have  delegates  in  the  principal  districts  of 
the  country.  Similar  measures  have  been  taken  in  Switzerland 
since  1866,  and  our  Scotch  geologists  deserve  praise  for  their 
zeil  on  behalf  of  the  preservation  of  the  boulders  of  their 
country,  and  for  their  excellent  periodical  reports  on  the 
subject. 

Gen.  Duff,  in  a  letter  to  the  Earl  of  Derby,  dated  Gothen- 
burg, January  4,  reports  that  great  shoals  of  herrings  of 
the  large  kind  which  disappeared  from  this  coast  in  the  year 
1809  have  now  made  their  appearance  again  north*  of  Gothen- 
burg. The  first  appearance  of  the  herring  took  place  at  Christ* 
mas,  when  whales  were  seen  following  the  shoals  toward  the 
coast  Preparations  were  made  by  the  merchants  of  Gothen- 
burg to  make  good  use  of  this  godsend.  It  would  appear  from 
the  history  and  traditions  of  Sweden  [that,  after  an  interval  of 
seventy  years,  there  are  some  grouods  for  supposing  that  the 
shoals  of  herrings  may  be  expected  to  visit  the  coast  regularly 
for  fifty  or  sixty  years  to  come,  as  has  been  the  case  during  earlier 
periods.  The  Swedish  Government  have  appobited  Professors 
Sars  and  Smitt  to  inquire  into  the  various  questions  raised  by 
this  sudden  appearance  of  the  herring  shoals  off"  this  part  of  the 
Swedish  coast,  the  more  important  of  these  questions  being  the 

>  I  have  tpokea  as  if  the  existence  of  positive  and  negative  helio-  and 
geotropism  could  be  simply  explained  by  considering  the  convenience  of  the 

Elaat    Bat  in  details  many  difficulties  arise ;  for  initaaoei  leoM  roots  art 
eUotrot>ic.    (Sachs*  "Text  Book,", p.  755.) 


alleged  disappearance  of  the  shoals  from  the  coast  of  Norway, 
whither,  it  is  said,  they  have  betaken  themselves  since  1808,  and 
the  bearing  of  the  inquiry  on  the  futtire  of  the  fishery. 

The  first  National  Entomological  Exhibition  commenced  on 
Thursday  at  the  Royal  Aquarium,  Westminster,  and  is  thoroughly 
creditable  to  all  concerned.  There  are  altogether  about  250 
exhibitors  contributing  between  eight  and  nine  hundred  cases, 
with  an  average  of  at  least  300  insects  per  case  5  and  the  whole 
of  the  specimens  shown,  with  very  few  exceptions,  have  been 
collected  by  ladies  and  gentlemen  and  artisans^  in  their 
leisure  hours. 

Wb  regret  to  learn  the  death  of  Joachim  Monteiro,  at  Delagoa 
Bay.  He  was  an  activejand  enterprising  naturalist,  whose  work 
on  Angola  will  give  him  an  enduring  place  in  the  literature  of 
African  travel,  no  less  than  his  services  in  procuring  and  sending 
to  this  country  a  great  part  of  the  fine  series  of  specimens  from 
which  fT^/ti/^/Mia  was  originally  described. 

The  death  is  annoimced  of  Sulphiz  Kurz,  the  Curator  of  the 
Herbarimn  of  the  Calcutta  Botanic  Garden.  Possessed  of  an 
extensive  knowledge  of  Indian  botany,  he  had  recently  com- 
pleted the  preparation  of  a  Flora  of  British  Burma  for  the 
Indian  Forest  Department.  He  died*  at  Penang  on*1iis  way  to 
the  Island  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  for  the  purpose  of 
botanical  exploration. 

A  LETTER  has  been  written  by  the  Municipal  Council  of  Parif 
to  the  director  of  the  Meteorological  Service  of  the  Observatory 
asking  that  the  publication  of  weather  telegrams  and  prognosti* 
cations  he  made  in  Paris  as  well  as  in  provincial  towns. 

A  GREAT  prehistoric  burial  ground  has  recently  been  dis- 
covered at  Cremmen  (in  the  district  of  £ast*Havelland,  Prussia), 
net  fiiur  from  Berlin.  Numerous  urns  and  ash-jars  of  varied 
form,  all  containing  ashes  and  bones  of  burnt  human  remains, 
have  been  found.  The  urns  are  mostly  round  in  shape,  and 
stood  some  2\  to  3  feet  below  the  surface  upon  a  large  slab  of 
stone ;  they  were  surrounded  by  round  stones,  and  each  was 
covered  with  a  flat  stone  lid.  The  antiquities  will  all  be 
deposited  in  the  Provincial  Museum  of  Berlin. 

An  International  Agricultural  Exhibition  will  take  place  at 
Hamburg  on  June  13,  and  will  last  5  days ;  and  another 
exhibition  of  this  nature  will  be  held  at  Prague  on  May  15,  16, 
and  17. 

The  Royal  Society  for  Agriculture  and  Botany  of  Ghent,  will 
hold  its  Horticultund  International  Exhibition  on  March  31 
next.  These  exhibitions  are  quinquennial,  and  last  for  seven 
days.  The  [coming  'one  promises  ^to  be  unusually  brilliant,  to 
judge  from  the  copious  list  of  names  of  exhibitors. 

We  are  glad  to  see  that  a  begiiming  has  been  made  in  the 
formation  of  a  local  museum  at  Tenby,  the  proposal  for  which 
we  referred  to  some  time  since.  The  magnificent  geological 
collection  of  the  late  Mr.  Smith,  of  Gumfreston,  has  been  pur- 
chased.  The  Corporation  of  Tenby  has  given  the  old  National 
School*rooms  on  the  Castle  Hill,  and  after  some  slight  altera- 
tions have  been  made  they  will  be  admirably  well  adapted  for  a 
museum.  In  addition  to  the  geological  specimens  there  will  be 
a  valuable  collection  of  British  shells,  and  one  of  Pembrokeshire 
birds  and  eggs ;  also  a  library  of  scientific  books.  It  would  be 
idle  to  speak  of  the  advantage  this  institution  is  likely  to  confer 
on  the  town,  and  on  all  the  residents  in  South-west  Wales, 
where  nothing  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  museum  at  present  exists. 
About  300/.  is  still  required  before  the  museum  can  be  opened. 
The  trustees  ought  to  have  no  difficulty  in  raising  this  moderate 
sum  in  the  district  concerned ;  perhaps  some  of  our  readers 
might  like  to  contribute.  The  hon.  secretary  is  Mr.  Edward 
Laws,  Tenby. 


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[March  14,  1878 


The  Sp^tator  learns  from  a  private  letter  that  the  telephone 
ha*-  been  adopted  by  the  Chinese,  the  tel<'graph  being  useless,  as 
they  have  no  alphabet.  Five  hundred  miles,  it  is  stated,  have 
already  been  spoken  over  in  China.  Mr.  H.  F.  Stevens  writes 
from  Tabreez,  Persia,  that  conversation  and  music  were  trant- 
mitted  satisfactorily  by  telephone  between  that  town  and  Tlflis, 
along  the  line  of  the  Indo-European  Telegraph  Company. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  East  Kent  Natural  History  Society, 
P  of.  Gulliver  exhibited  a  very  extensive  series  of  drawings  of 
raphides  and  other  crystals  found  in  the  tissues  of  plants.  Mr. 
Gulliver  considers  that  sufficient  attention  has  not  hitherto  been 
directed  to  the  part  played  by  these  deposits  of  mineral  salta  in 
the  vital  cconomv  of  the  plant,  or,  from  the  soluble  condition  in 
which  they  are  presented,  in  the  nutrition  of  the  animals  which 
feed  on  thenu 

Apropos  of  the  note  in  Nature  (vol.  xvii  p.  311)  relating  to 
a  recent  attempt  to  tend  certain  6sh  to  America,  Mr.  Carring- 
ton,  of  the  Westminster  Aquarium,  writes  that  there  are  in  the 
Royal  Aquarium,  Westminster,  at  least  eighteen  species  of  fish 
fr  ri\  American  waters.  In  return  he  has  exported  a  nvimber  of 
gea-water  animals,  including  fish,  molluscs,  crustaceans,  and 
zoophytes.  At  first  a  large  proportion  of  specimens  was  lost 
during  the  voyage^  but  now  there  are  seldom  any  lost,  either  on 
the  homewazd  or  outward  voyages.  In  addition  to  the  constant 
attention  necessary  at  sea,  Mr.  Carrington  finds  the  great  secret 
of  success  is  to  have  the  animals  subjected  to  confinement  for 
some  weeks  before  shipment 

Messrs.  Longman  have  published  an  abridged  edition  of  Dr. 
Pole's  excellent  "Life  of  Sir  W.  Fairbaim."  The  personal 
narrative  has  been  retained  entire,  the  scientific  and  technical 
poitions  being  much  abridged.  The  little  work  deserves,  and 
00  doubt  will  have,  a  wide  circulation. 

We  are  pleased  to  see  that  the  Natural  History  Journal,  con- 
ducted by  the  Societies  in  Friends*  Schools,  whose  appearance 
we  noted  a  year  ago,  has  reached  the  beginning  of  a  second 
volume.  Of  the  170  contributors  sixty- three,  we  learn,  have 
been  boys  and  girk.  The  journal  is  well  conducted  and, 
judging  from  the  number  before  us,  its  contents  are  well  calcu- 
lated to  interest  its  young  readers  in  science. 

In  Nature,  vol.  xiL  p.  514,  W.  W.  Wood,  writing  from 
Manila,  describes  a  species  of  Navicnla  (?)  with  a  gelatinous 
ciliated  envelope,  whidi  is  there  figured.  Mr.  Wood  announced 
his  intention  of  submitting  his  specimens  to  a  competent  diato- 
mist,  but  three  years  have  nearly  elapsed,  and  no  more  has  been 
said  on  the  subject  It  is  one  of  such  extreme  importance  as 
bearing  on  the  ordinary  motion  of  diatoms,  that^  Mr.  G.  S. 
Boulger  writes  asking  for  on  explanation. 

Many  of  our  readers  will  be  sorry  to  hear  of  the  death,  on 
Monday  last,  of  the  old  hippopotamus,  in  the  Gardens  of  the 
Zoological  Society.  He  was  obtained  in  the  White  Nile  when 
only  a  few  days  old,  in  1849,  and  has  been  in  the  Gardens  since 
185a  Prof.  Garrod,  F.R.S.,  will  communicate  the  results  of 
his  examination  of  the  body  to  an  early  meeting  of  the 
Zoological  Society. 

With  reference  toa  note  in  Nature  (vol.  xvii.  p.  38)  respecting 
the  wninflammability  of  eucalyptus,  Mr.  A.  Nicols  writes  that  this 
must  be  a  mistake,  as  in  Australia  the  wood  is  extensively  used 
as  fuel  Acclimatisation  of  these  really  valuable  trees,  Mr. 
Nicols  thinks,  should  be  strongly  supported.  They  yield  timber 
of  immense  size  and  strength,  durable  alike  in  dry  or  wet  situ- 
ations, and  more  proof  against  the  attacks  of  termites  than  many 
other  woods,  and  some  work  up  into  beautiful  furniture.  They 
would  probably  thrive  wherever  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
not  below  60°,  or,  roughly  speaking,  over  an  area  of  about  one. 
half  of  the  habitable  region  of  the  earth. 


The  provisional  observatory  at  Meudon  is  in  full  operation,  a^ 
we  reported  some  months  ago.  Dr.  Janssen  has  done  such  good 
work  that  the  ministry  will  propose  to  restore  the  old  palace 
which  is  now  in  ruins,  and  establish  a  splendid  physical  observa* 
tory  is  an  admirable  situation.  A  credit  of  250,000  francs  is  to 
be  asked  for  ;  this  will  include  the  purchase  of  a  refractor  om. 
67  in.  diameter. 

The  governor  of  the  French  island.  Reunion,  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  reports  that  this  colony  was  visited  by  a  terrible  cyclone 
on  January  15,  causing  great  losses  of  life  and  property. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Deutscher  Fischerei-Verein, 
2,000,000  salmon  eggs  are  hatched  annually,  and  distributed 
among  the  various  rivers  of  the  empire.  Strong  efforts  are  now 
being  made  to  introduce  extensively  the  grayling,  which  is 
comparatively  rare  in  Germany. 
In  the  February  session  of  the  Berliner  polytechnische  Gesellschaft, 
Dr.  F.  Siemens,  of  Dresden,  the  inventor  of  the  new  compressed 
hard  glass,  gave  an  interesting  exhibition  of  this  new  invention. 
The  process  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection,  that  the  hard 
glass  is  not  only  more  easily,  but  more  cheaply  manufactured 
than  the  ordinary  glass.  The  power  of  retbtance  varies  from 
eight  to  ten  times  that  of  ordinary  glass.  The  serious  objection 
made  to  hard  glass  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  that  it  often  fell 
to  pieces  when  entirely  unexposed  to  pressure,  has  been  success- 
fully avoided.  This  property  was  found  to  residt  from  over- 
hardening,  and  it  is  now  possible  to  detect  all  articles  which  have 
acquired  it,  by  the  use  of  the  polarisator,  under  which  over- 
hardened  glass  shows  a  prevalence  of  violet  tints.  This  condi- 
tion is  also  detected  by  exposure  to  water  at  a  certain  temperature. 

The  working  out  of  the  results  obtained  by  the  Transit  of 
Venus  expeditions  sent  out  by  the  German  Government,  were 
expected  to  have  been  far  enough  advanced  for  publication  in 
the  year  1877.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  this  task  causes 
more  difficulties  and  expenses  than  had  been  at  first  anticipated. 
The  Imperial  Chancellor's  office  has  therefore  demanded  from 
the  German  Parliament  an  extra  credit  of  500/.  to  defray  the 
additional  costs. 

A  USEFUL  invention  has  recently  been  made  by  Herr  Weber, 
of  Hunmiel-Radeck,  near  LUbben  (Prussia).  This  gentleman  has 
contrived  to  construct  k  very  simple  machine  for  levelling  roads, 
which  for  working  requires  only  two  horses,  a  driver,  and  a 
labourer,  and  renders  Jt  possible  to  make  such  improvements  in 
a  road,  in  a  short  time,  as  could  otherwise  be  accomplished  only 
by  fifty  or  sixty  workmen.  The  machine  works  equally  well 
upon  gravel  or  clay  soil,  and  its  cost  is  only  forty-five  marks 
(killings).  The  whole  machine  works  much  in  the  same  vray 
as  an  ordinary  carpenter's  plane  does  upon  wood. 

On  January  25,  shortly  after  noon,  the  belfry  of  Toncy  ( Yonne) 
was  struck  by  lightning,  and  set  on  fire.  According  to  Dr. 
Roche  (who  describes  the  case),  the  wind  was  blowing  from  the 
north-west,  and  a  dense,  low  cloud  had  begun  to  cover  the 
ground  with  large  hailstones.  A  few  minutes  after  a  single  and 
prolonged  thunder  peal  was  heard,  and  the  cross  on  the  belfry 
was  then  seen  to  be  surrounded  by  a  luminous  meteor.  Persons 
in  the  houses  near  the  church  saw  coming  from  the  base  of  the 
belfry  two  fire-balls  of  about  o^om.  to  o*40m.  diameter,  and 
about  0'50m.  apart  They  rolled  on  the  steps  of  the  building 
about  20m.  and^  disappeared.  A  woman  in  a  room  about 
15m.  firom  the  belfry  was  carried  to  the  end  of  the  room ;  a 
young  man  who  was  passing  was  thrown  on  the  ground,  and 
several  other  persons  were  more  or  less  shaken.  Immediately 
after  the  thunder  peal  the  hail  ceased  and  was  replaced  by  a 
snow-storm  which  lasted  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  It  was 
afterwards  found  that  the  belfry  was  fired  at  two  points— one 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  north-west  side,  the  other  at  the  lower 
port  of  the  south-east  side,  probably  the  points  of  entrance  and 
exit  of  the  electric  fluid.    Toucy  stands  in  the  middle  of  a  narrow 


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valley,  runniDg  north-west,  and   is  taxely  visited  by  thunder- 
storms, which  pass  nearly  always  to  the  right  or  left. 

Some  researches  on  the  magnetic  properties  of  nickel  were 
recently  made  by  the  well-known  physicist  M.  H.  Wild,  and 
are  now  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  St.  Petersburg.  M.  Wild  arrives  at  the  following 
conclusions  :  (i)  Pure  nickel  can  become  permanently  magnetic 
to  a  considerable  degree,  thus  differing  materially  from  pure 
(soft)  iron.  The  maximum  quantity  of  permanent  magnetism 
which  pure  nickel  can  retain  is,  however,  only  between  one  half 
and  one- third  of  that  quantity  which  hard  steel  can  perroaneDtly 
retain.  (2)  Magnetism  is  less  permanent  in  nickel  than  in  well- 
hardened  steel,  after  the  magnetising  force  has  ceased  to  act ; 
the  slow  loss  of  magnetism  in  course  of  time,  as  well  as  by 
heating  and  cooling,  is  comparatively  greater  in  nickel  than  in 
steel ;  and  this  is  the  case  even  if  the  nickel  has,  like  hard  steel, 
by  repeated  heating  and  cooling,  been  brought  to  a  certain  state 
of  permanent  capacity.  (3)  The  temperature  coefficient  of  nickel 
magnets  in  the  latter  state  is  a  little  larger  than  that  of  properly 
hardened  steel.  (4)  The  temporary  magnetism  which  pure  nickel 
can  retain  is  about  double  its  permanent  quantity,  or  about  one 
half  of  the  temporary  magnetism  which  hard  steel,  and  about 
one  quarte"  of  that  which  soft  iron  can  retain.  In  its  magnetic 
properties  nickel  is,  therefore,  thoroughly  inferior  to  iron  and 
steel 

The  question  with  regard  to  the  existence  of  microscopic 
organisms  in  media  containing  no  oxygen  has  been  a  fruitfid 
subject  of  discussion  for  biologists  of  late,  and  some  doubts  have 
been  thrown  on  the  entire  absence  of  this  gas  in  the  experiments 
cited  by  Pasteur  and  others.  Prof,  von  N'ageli,  in  his  work  on 
•*  Die  niederen  Pike,"  which  has  just  appeared  in  Munich,  pre- 
sents some  interesting  6gures  in  this  connection.  According  to  his 
calculations  the  larger  bacteria  weigh  agooiooog  millignunme. 
If  we  assume  that  they  consume  the  same  amount  proportionally 
of  oxygen  daily  as  a  man,  viz.,  i  per  cent  of  his  weight,  then  a 
million  bacteria  would  require  in  twenty-four  hours  ^^\^^  milli- 
gramme, or  nearly  mjimr  cubic  centimetre  of  oxygen.  These 
calculations,  taken  in  connection  with  the  well-known  difficulties 
of  entirely  eliminating  gases,  will  probably  render  a  repetition  of 
the  best  experiments  necessary. 

From  recent  experiments  on  the  spread  of  gases  through 
bodies,  Dr.  Wroblewsky  {^Pogg,  Ann,)  arrives  at  the  following 
conclusion: — When  a  gas  is  absorbed  it  spreads  in  the 
absorbent  body  according  to  the  same  laws  as  those  ruling 
the  propagation  of  heat  in  a  solid  bar;  and  that  whether 
the  absorbent  body  be  liquid  or  solid,  or  in  a  transition 
state  between  these  two  extremes."  The  only  exceptions 
to  this  law  are  attributable  .to  the  action  of  gravity.  It 
is  known  that  the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid  by  an  animal  is 
increased  by  a  violent  muscular  action,  but  it  has  been  uncertain 
whether  the  CO^  is  a  direct  product  of  muscular  action,  i>., 
belongs  to  the  substances  which,  through  decomposition  pro- 
cesses, are  formed  in  greater  measure  during  contraction  of  the 
muscles.  To  clear  up  this  point,  M.  Sedgwick- Minot  recently 
forced  through  the  vascular  system  of  detached  muscles  of  dogs 
(the  blood  having  been  removed)  a  quantity  of  blood-serum 
saturated  with  oxygen,  and  determined  the  proportion  of  COj  in 
the  serum  in  a  series  of  cases  in  which  the  muscles  were  at  rest, 
and  in  another  series  in  which  they  were  repeatedly  stimulated 
to  contraction.  If  the  contraction  of  the  muscle  caused  a  greater 
formation  of  CO,,  the  serum,  after  passage,  must  contain  more 
COj  than  if  the  muscle  remained  at  rest  The  experiments, 
however,  gave  equal  quantities  of  COj  in  the  two  cases,  and  the 
reason  of  the  fact  referred  to  at  the  outset  is  not  determined. 

Tub  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  indude  two  Macaque  Monkeys  (Macacus  cynomolgus) 


from  India,  presented  respectively  by  Capt.  Pole  Carew,  and 
Mr.  Henry  Wright ;  a  Green  Monkey  {Ctrcopithecus  callitrkhus\ 
two  Common  Chameleons  {Chamaleon  vulgaris)  frcm  West 
Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  G.  H,  Garrett ;  a  Herring  Gull  (Larus 
argentatus),  European,  presented  by  Mr.  Capstick ;  two 
Undulated  Grass  Parrakeets  (Melopsiliacus  undulalus)  from 
Australia,  presented  by  Mr.  Hylton  JoUiffe;  an  American 
Darter  {Plotus  anhin^)  from  South  America,  purchased ;  two 
Sambur  Deer  {Cervus  arisiotelis)^  an  Isabelline  Bear  (C/rsus 
isabellinus)  from  India,  a  Javan  Adjutant  (LeptopHlus  javanicus) 
from  Java,  received  in  exchange. 

UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Oxford.— -Mr.  J.  R.  Terry,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege,  who  was  Fifth  Wrangler  at  Cambridge  in  1873.  lus  accepted 
the  senior  mathematical  mastership  in  Magdalen  College  School ; 
and  Mr.  D.  C.  Robb,  B.A.,  scholar  of  Worcester  College,  has 
been  appointed  to  a  science  mastership  (in  physics)  at  the  same 
time. 

Cambridge. — ^The  report  of  the  Council  of  the  Senate  recom- 
mending the  appointment  of  an  assistant  to  Prof.  Hughes  has 
been  confirmea  upon  the  understanding  that  the  person  to  be 
appointed  be  not  permitted  to  take  private  pupils. 

Edinburgh. — A  movement  has  originated  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  to  procure  a  portrait  of  Prof.  Balfour,  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  services  to  the  Universiry  in  having  for  thirty  years 
acted  as  Dean  of  the  Medical  Faculty.  This  movement  has 
been  joined  in  by  the  Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh, 
in  recognition  on  their  part  of  the  services  he  has  for  many  years 
rendered  to  the  Society  in  the  character  of  Secretary. 

61RKBECK  Institution. — A  course  of  six  lectures  on 
Electric  Telephony  will  be  delivered  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Wilson, 
F.C.S.,  on  Saturday  evenings,  at  eight  o'clock,  commencing 
March  23.  The  entire  proceeds  will  t>e  given  to  the  fund  now 
being  raised  for  the  erection  of  a  new  buildlnt^r  for  the  institution. 
The  lectures  will  be  very  fully  illostrated  by  experiments, 
diagrams,  &c,  and  will  lorm  a  complete  exposition  of  the 
subject. 

Paris. — M.  Pierre  Picard  Hs  proposed  as  a  successor  to  the 
late  Claude  Bernard  in  the  chair  of  physiology  at  the  College  de 
France.  He  was  for  a  long  time  assistant  to  the  famous  physio- 
logist, and  is  himself  the  author  of  valuable  researches  on  the 
constitution  of  the  blood  corpuscles.  At  present  he  is  a  professor 
in  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Lyons. 

Algeria. — M.  Bardoux  proposes  to  establish  in  Algeria 
three  preparatory  schools  for  medical  and  law  students,  one  in 
each  of  the  three  provinces.  At  present  Algiers  alone  is  pro- 
vided with  a  preparatory  school  of  medicine.  The  means  for 
obtaining  superior  instruction,  which  have  been  very  limited  up 
to  the  present  in  the  colony,  will  be  greatly  enlarged. 

Berlin.— >0n  the  night  of  the  8th  instant  the  professors  and 
students  of  the  Berlin  University,  assisted  by  civil  and  military 
dignitaries,  held  a  grand  *'  Commers,"  or  beer-drinking  revelry, 
in  the  time- honour^  style  of  German  academical  life,  in  honour 
of  the  sixtieth  anniversary  of  the  birthday  of  Prof.  A.  Hofmann, 
the  celebrated  chemist  The  proceedings  began  by  the  secretary 
of  the  committee  reading  a  letter  from  the  Chamberlain  of  the 
Crown  Prince  expressing  the  regret  O'  his  Imperial  Highness  at 
being  prevented  from  attending  the  festivity.  After  this  Prof. 
Helmhohz,  the  Rector  of  the^Berlin  University,  formally  con- 
gratulated Dr.  Hofmann,  who  replied  in  a  speech  to  the  felici- 
tations addressed  to  him  by  his  Berlin  colleagues  and  friends. 
Numerous  other  speakers,  among  them  Privy-Councillor  Jacob, 
Chief  of  the  Patent  Office,  and  Prot  Reuleaux,  Rector  of  the 
Berlin  Polytechnic  Academy,  then  addressed  the  hero  of  the 
day.  The  official  part  of  the  festivity  closed  at  2  o'clock,  after 
which  came  the  singing  of  all  the  obligatory  songs  and  the 
delivery  of  student  speeches.  Not  a  few  congratulatory  letters 
and  telegrams  reached  Prof.  Hofmann  on  the  auspicious  day 
from  England,  America,  and  France. 

Prussia. — The  three  agricultural  institutes  of  Prussia  are 
attended  at  present  by  270  students,  of  whom  215  are  from 
Prussia,  20  from  other  parts  of  Germany,  and  35  from  fore'gn 
countries. 


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\Marck  14,  1878 


German  Polytechnic  Congress.— At  the  recent  inaogun- 
tion  of  the  new  Polytechnic  Institution  of  Bnmswick,  the 
assemtded  men  of  science  considered  the  question  of  a  general 
congress  of  lecturers  at  the  German  polytechnic  schools.  It  is 
intended  to  hold  the  congress  at  Dresden,  and  a  preliminary 
meeting  of  delegates  will  take  place  in  the  beginning  of  April, 
in  order  to  fix  £e  programme  for  the  congress.  Dresden  has 
also  been  selected  as  the  meeting-place  for  a  congress  of  German 
CDj^ineers  and  architects,  and  it  is  supposed  thatUie  two  meetings 
will  be  held  simultaneously. 

Saxony. — An  interesting  example  of  the  comparative  sums 
devoted  in  Germany  to  various  educational  pur[K>ses  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  recently-issued  Report  of  the  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction  for  Saxony,  a  kiogdom  with  2,550,000  inhabitants. 
The  whole  number  of  educational  establishments  is  3,900,  of 
scholars  and  students,  523,000,  of  instructors,  6,400.  The 
salaries  amount  to  12,300,000  marks,  and  the  total  educational 
expenses  are  18,000,000,  of  which  5,000,000  are  contributed  by 
the  Government.  The  State  devotes  766,000  marks  to  its  76 
gymnasia  and  Realschulen,  1,354,000  to  the  general  school  sys- 
tem, and  nearly  as  much,  viz.,  1,048,000  marks  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Leipzig  with  its  161  professors  and  3,100  students,  besides 
893.000  marks  for  pensions.  The  total  annual  cost  of  the 
Leipzig  University  is  1,402,000  marks,  or  70,100/. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Annalm  der  Physik  und  Chtmie^  No.  I,  1878.— The  universal 
compensator,  by  M.  Beetz. — On  the  electromotive  force  and  the 
internal  resistance  of  some  thermopiles,  by  M.  Beetz. — The 
theory  of  stationary  currents  regarded  from  a  quite  general 
standpoint,  by  M.  v.  Bezold. — On  a  tangent  multiplier  and  the 
electromotive  force  of  the  Grove  element,  by  M.  Riecke. — On 
the  influence  of  density  of  a  body  on  the  amount  of  light  absorbed 
by  it,  by  M.  Glan. — On  the  theory  of  the  longitudmal-eliiptical 
vibrations  in  the  incompressible  ether,  by  M.  Ketteler. — On 
fluorescence,  by  M.  Lommel. — On  metallic  reflection,  by  M. 
Wernicke. — On  the  volume-increase  of  liquids  through  absorp- 
tion of  gases,  by  Messrs.  MacKenzie  and  Nichols. — Some  obser- 
vations on  Crookea^s  radiometer,  by  M.  Riecke. — Determination 
of  the  resonance-tones  of  the  mouth-cavity  by  percussion,  by  M. 
Auerbach.— On  the  pitch  of  a  tuning-foik  in  an  incompressible 
liquid,  by  M.  Auerbach. 

ZHtschrift  fur  wissenschaftliche  ZodogU^  vol.  xxx.,  part  I.— 
Rhizopod  studies,  by  £mil  Buck,  49  pp.  2  plates  ;  dealing  with 
the  development  of  arcella,  and  a  new  ^nus  parasitic  on  rotifers. 
— Revision  of  the  genus  analges  (avian  parasite),  by  G.  Haller. 
— Contribution  to  the  anatomy  of  asteridse,  by  Hubert  Ludwig, 
4  plates,  63  pp.,  describing  the  water- vascular  system,  the 
blood  system,  the  nervous  and  the  generative  apparatus,  the 
body  cavity. — Contribution  to  the  natural  history  of  the  cestodes, 
by  H.  A.  Pagenstecher,  dealing  with  Tdnia  critica  and  Canurus 
scrialis. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 

London 

Linnean  Society,  February  21. — W.  Camithers,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Thos.  Christy  illustrated  by 
diagram  and  made  remarks  on  M.  Ossenkep's  new  system  of 
plant-propagation ;  and  he  also  showed  the  recently  imported 
fresh  berries  of  the  Liberian  coflfee  of  this  year's  crop. — Mr. 
Holmes  exhibited  a  remarkable  oak  gall  of  ApHlothrix 
sieboldiit  Hart.,  obtained  at  Willesboro,  Leas,  Ashford,— Mr, 
Thiselton  Dyer  likewise  exhibited  and  made  a  few  observations 
on  the  inflorescence  and  a  drawing  of  the  palm  Pihychosptrma 
ruptcola^  Thw.,  which  had  flowered  for  the  first  time  in  Europe 
at  Kew. — A  paper,  notes  on  the  Mahwa  tree  {Bassia  laHfolia)^ 
was  read  by  Mr.  £.  Lockwood.  This  tree  grows  in  abundance 
in  India  ;  a  hundred  thousand  may  be  seen  in  the  plains  around 
Monghyr.  Wild  animals  of  aU  kinds  greedily  devour  the 
flowers^  of  which  one  tree  will  yield  several  hundredweights. 
Besides  being  highly  nutritious  to  man,  it  is  an  excellent  fattening 
agent  for  cattle,  &c.  A  strong-smeUing  spirit  is  obtained  by 
distillation  of  the  corolla,  an  essential  oil  trom  the  fruit,  and  as  an 
agent  in  soap- making  the  tree  is  invaluable.  Thus,  certain  yield, 
unlimited  supply,  nourishing  and  chemical  qualiti«^  easy  preser- 
vation, and  its  cheapness,  all  combine  to  render  it  a  commercial 
product  of  no  mean  importance  to  our  Indian  empire. — ^The  gist 


of  a  **  Synopsis  of  the  Hypoxidacese,"  by  Mr.  J.  G.  Baker,  was 
given.  This  group  differs  in  some  respects  from  the  Amarylli- 
daceae,  and  offers  a  close  alliance  witn  the  Bellosicex.  Four 
genera,  and  between  sixty  and  seventy  species  are  known.  The 
Cai)e  is  their  head-quarters,  but  some  are  found  in  Tropical 
Africa  and  Angola,  a  very  few  in  Abyssinia  and  the  Mascarenes. 
None  are  found  in  Europe,  Polynesia,  North  and  Central 
Asia,  nor  Extra  Tropical  South  America.  —The  Secretary  read 
an  abstract  of  a  technical  paper  on  the  Schoepfieae  and  Cervan- 
tesiiae,  distinct  tribes  of  the  Styraccae,  by  John  Miers,  F.R.S. — 
Then  followed  a  communication  by  Mr.  Arthur  G.  Butler,  on 
the  butterflies  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum,  hitherto 
referred  to  the  genus  Euplceaof  Fabricius.— Dr.  Hance,  of  China, 
Mr.  E.  Milner,  Dr.  Geo.  Shearer,  and  the  Rev.  R.  Boog 
Watson  were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Society. 

Chemical  Society,  February  21.— Dr.  Gladstone,  president, 
in  the  chair. — A  lecture  entitled  *'  Laboratory  Experiences  on 
board  the  Challenger "  was  delivered  by  Mr.  T.  Y.  Buchanan. 
After  describing  his  laboratory,  which  measured  10  feet  by  5  feet 
8  inches  and  6  feet  high,  and  its  fittings,  the  lecturer  gave  a  de- 
tailed account  of  the  means  by  which,  after  estimating  the  com- 
pressibilities of  water  and  mercuiy,  he  was  enabled  to  determine 
the  depths  and  temperatures  attained  by  the  souiMiing  line.  The 
compressibility  of  distilled  water  was  found  to  be  0*000049  per 
atmosphere,  or  0*0009  per  100  fathoms  ;  of  sea-water,  0*00077 
per  100  fathoms  ;  and  of  mercury,  0*0000271  per  100  fathoms, 
or  o  0000015  per  atmosphere.  He  then  descril^  the  apparatus 
and  methods  by  means  of  which  the  amounts  of  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
and  carbonic  acid  were  determined.  The  most  interesting 
results  obtained  were  the  following  : — From  the  surface  down  to 
300  fathoms  the  amount  of  oxygen  continuously  decreases  ;  from 
300  fathoms  downwards,  whatever  be  the  depth,  the  amount 
increases.  This  anomalous  result  the  lecturer  stated  to  be  due 
to  the  great  abundance  of  animal  life  at  the  depth  of  300  fathoms, 
the  increase  in  the  quantity  of  oxygen  at  greater  depths  being 
caused  by  its  non-consumption,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  life. 
The  next  part  of  the  lecture  dealt  with  the  distribution  of  the 
sea-water  as  rqgards  density,  in  depth  and  superficially.  Two 
regions  of  maximum  density  exist  north  and  soutti  of  the  equator, 
corresponding  to  the  tracts  frequented  by  the  trade  winds.  At 
350  fathoms  deep  a  great  zone  of  water  of  low  density  is  found. 
The  densest  water  is  found  in  the  Atlantic.  Light  water  is  found 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  ice  and  in  certain  regions  immediately 
after  the  cessation  of  the  monsoons.  The  maxima  of  density 
lie  in  the  north  hemisphere  to  the  south-west,  in  the  south  to 
the  north-west  of  the  maxima  of  barometric  pressure.  A  hearty 
and  unanimous  vote  of  thanks  was  given  to  Mr.  Buchanan  for 
his  interestmg  lecture,  which  was  illustrated  by  many  tables  and 
diagrams. 

Physical  Society,  February  16.— Prof.  W.  G.  Adams,  presi- 
dent, in  the  chair. — The  following  candidate  was  elected  a  Mem- 
ber of  the  Society:  Mr.  G.  H.  West,  M.A.--Dr.  Lodge  read, 
for  Mr.  H.  F.  Morley,  M.A.,  a  paper  on  Grove's  gas  battery. 
After  referring  to  the  views  of  M.  Gaugain  and  Mr.  Grove  him- 
self with  regard  to  the  cause  of  the  action  of  this  apparatus,  the 
author  proceeded  to  describe  an  elaborate  series  of  experiments 
he  has  recently  made  in  order  to  ascertain  the  circumstances  by 
which  it  is  regulated.  It  would  be  impossible  to  give  a  dear 
account  of  them  in  a  short  space,  but  some  of  his  conclusions 
are  as  follows  i — The  whole  of  the  current  is  due  to  dissolved 
gas,  and  if  ff  be  the  distance  of  the  level  of  the  liquid  from  the 


top  of  the  plate  in  the  H  tube,  and  E  = 


C  R 
1,000 


,  C  being  given 


in  galvanometric  readings  and  R  in  ohms,  he  finds  that,  approxi- 
mately, (I  +  no)  C  =^  b  +  n e -  (c  -^  ft d)  E,  where  a,,  b,  c,  d^ 
and  ^  are  constants.  The  electromotive  force  is  not  constant, 
but  rises  with  the  resistance.  The  current  is  greater  in  propor- 
tion as  the  gas  present  in  the  elements  is  less ;  and^  finadiy,  the 
current  appears  to  vary  directly  with  the  pressure. — Mr.  S.  C. 
Tisley  then  described  the  harmonograph,  specially  referring  to  its 
use  for  drawing  pairs  of  curves  for  the  stereoscope.  TMs,  the 
latest  forms  of  his  pendulum  apparatus,  is  capable  of  giving  a  very 
great  variety  of  curves,  for,  in  addition  to  rectangular  vibrations, 
parallel  and  elliptic  motions  can  be  combined  by  its  means.  In 
the  older  form  of  apparatus  each  pendulum  moves  on  the  other 
as  a  centre,  whereas  in  the  instrument  described  they  are 
independent.  One  pendulum  carries  at  its  upper  end  a  tab.e 
which  can  be  caused  to  rotate  by  clockwork  if  required.  The 
whole  is  supported  on  a  kind  of  gimbal  joint  formed  of  two 
pain  of  kmfe  edges  at  right  angles^  so  arranged  that  vH^ation 


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can  take  place  either  on  one  or  the  other,  or  the  two  can  be  so 
combined  as  to  give  a  circular  motion ;  or  again,  the  pendulum 
con  be  caused  to  vibrate  in  any  given  plane.  The  second  pen- 
dulum vibrates  in  the  plane  in  which  the  two  hang,  and  carries 
at  its  upper  end  an  arm  terminating  in  a  pencil  over  the  table  of 
the  other  pendulum.  A  very  ingenious  adjustment  renders  it 
possible  to  raise  or  lower  the  bob  of  the  second-named  pendulum 
during  its  motion*  If  two  pens  be  attached,  about  2\  inches 
apart,  instead  of  the  single  one  usually  employed,  and  two 
curves  be  traced,  they  are  not  precisely  smiilar,  and  when  viewed 
in  a  stereoscope  they  are  found  to  give  the  well-known  appear- 
ance of  solidity  to  the  figure.  It  was  further  shown  that  by 
graduadly  changing  the  relative  motions  of  the  pendulums  it  is 

Possible  to  impart  to  the  curve  many  of  the  forms  observed  in 
iaxial  crystals  in  the  polariscope. — Mr.  F.  J.  M.  Page  then 
exhibited  the  action  of  the  telephone  on  a  capillary  electrometer. 
The  construction  of  Lippman's  electrometer  as  modified  by 
Marey  was  first  explained,  and  the  meniscus  of  the  mercury  in 
the  capillary  tube  was  thrown  on  the  screen  by  the  electric  light. 
The  delicacy  of  the  instrument  was  shown  by  passing  a  current 
of  x(^-gth  of  a  Daniell,  which  caused  a  distinct  movement  of  the 
mercury.  Resistance  of  5,000  ohms  and  ^th  ohm  gave  ap- 
proximately the  same  deflection ;  so  that,  in  practice,  the  instru- 
ment may  be  considered  to  be  independent  of  resistance,  in 
addition  to  which  it  possesses  the  great  advantage  of  portability, 
and  its  indications  are  almost  instantaneous.  To  illustrate  the 
use  of  the  electrometer  for  physiological  investigations,  a  firog's 
heart  was  connected  by  non-polarisable  electrodes  with  the  in- 
strument ;  each  beat  of  the  heart  caused  a  considerable  move- 
ment of  Uie  mercury  column.  A  telephone  was  now  connected  ; 
on  pressing  in  the  iron  plate  the  mercury  moved,  and  on  revers- 
ing the  wires  the  movement  was  seen  to  be  in  the  opposite 
direction.  On  singing  to  the  telephone  each  note  produced  a 
movement,  but  the  fundamental  note  of  the  plate  as  well  as  its 
octaves  and  fifths  had  the  greatest  effect.  On  speaking  the 
mercury  oscillated  continually ;  some  letters  of  the  alphabet  had 
scarcely  any  effect,  and  the  w  was  especially  curious,  producing 
a  double  movement.  Reversing  the  wires  did  not  alter  the 
character  or  direction  of  these  movements.  The  same  effect  was 
observed  when  the  telephone  was  in  the  primary  and  the  elec- 
trometer in  the  secondary  coil  of  a  Du  Bois  Reymond's  induction 
coil.  In  conclusion,  Mr.  Page  showeil  the  contractions  produced 
in  a  frog's  leg ;  on  inserting  under  the  sciatic  nerve  two  platinum 
wires  coupled  with  the  binding  screws  of  a  telephone  and  talking 
to  this  instrument,  violent  contractions  ensued.  In  the  course  of 
the  discussion  which  followed,  Prof.  Graham  Bell  expressed  him- 
self as  highly  gratified  at  the  results  of  Mr.  Page's  experiments. 
He  has  made  very  many  attempts  to  ascertam  the  strength  of  the 
current  produced  by  the  human  voice  in  vain,  but  considers  the 
present  method  will  in  all  probability  give  some  most  valuable 
results.  He  was  quite  unable  to  account  for  the  fact  that  the 
motion  of  the  mercury  took  place  from  the  opening,  but  this 
seems  to  depend  on  conditions  not  yet  determined. — Mr.  Wilson 
then  exhibited,  for  Prof.  S.  P.  Thompson,  a  lantern  slide  galva- 
nometer for  showing  the  deflections  of  the  needle  to  an  audience. 
It  consists  of  a  coil  of  insulated  copper  wire  wound  on  a  flat 
bobbin,  within  which  a  needle  is  balanced  on  a  horizontal  axis  ; 
thb  needle  carries  a  long  needle  of  aluminium  traversing  a  semi- 
circular divided  photographic  scale,  and  as  this  is  transparent 
the  index  can  be  projected  on  to  the  screen.  The  whole  is 
inclosed  between  two  glass  plates. 

Geological  Society,  February  20. — Henry  Qifton '  Sorby, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — James  W.  Carrall,  Tientsin, 
China,  Edward  Cleminshaw,  Percy  John  Neate,  Arthur  Nicols, 
John  Snell,  and  John  Spencer  were  elected  Fellows  of  the 
Society. — ^The  following  communications  were  read :— Notes  on 
the  physical  geology  of  the  Upper  Punjab,  by  A.  B.  Wynne, 
F.GS.  The  author  stated  that  crystaUine  rocks  are  rare  in  the 
accession  parts  of  the  Upper  Punjab  district,  and  that  when 
present  they  consist  of  syenite  and  gneiss.  The  Cambrian  and 
Silurian  formations  are  represented  by  more  or  less  metamor- 
phosed azoic  slates  in  the  Himalayan  district,  and  in  the  Salt 
Range  by  a  zone  less  than  200  feet  thick,  containing  either 
ObolHS  or  Siphonotreta,  underlain  by  a  thick  unfosailiferous*sand- 
stone,  beneath  which  is  a  deposit  of  gypseous  marl  and  salt. 
Above  the  Silurian  in  the  Salt  Range,  and  conformable  to  it, 
comes  the  magnesian  sandstone  group  and  a  group  of  unfossili- 
ferous  sandstones  and  clays ;  in  the  Himalaya  these  deposits  are 
probably  represented  by  an  unfossiliferous  siliceous  .dolomite, 
which  rests  unconformably  upon  the  slates.    There  are  no  fossils 


indicative  of  rocks  of  Devonian  age.  The  carboniferous  rocks, 
are  also  conformably  deposited^  on  limestones,  sandstones, 
and  shales,  the  last  sometimes  carbonaceous.  These  deposits 
contain  haematite  in  sockets,  and  the  oldest  known  ammonites 
have  been  found  in  them.  An  infra-triassic  group  occurring  in 
Lei  Bau  mountain  consists  of  red  shales,  sandstones,  and  red 
quartzitic  dolomites,  overlain  by  lighter-coloured  siliceous  dolo- 
mites, which  in  their  turn  are  covered  by  haematite,  quartz 
breccia,  sandstones,  and  shales.  The  author  believes  these 
to  have  been  deposited  by  the  same  waters  which  subse- 
quently laid  down  the  trias,  which  is  largely  composed 
of  limestones  in  the  northern  Himalayan  area,  and  here 
and  elsewhere  includes  dolomites,  shales,  and  sandstanes. 
Numerous  fossils  occur  in  some  of  the  beds,  such  as  Dicero^ 
cardium,  Mfgalodon,  and  Nerinaa*  In  the  western  part  of  the 
Salt  Range  conglomerates  composed  of  great  blocks  are  regarded 
by  the  author  as  evidence  of  proximity  of  land.  The  Jurassic 
deposits  are  local  in  their  distribution^  and  consist  of  shales, 
sandstones,  and  limestones,  containing  abundant  fossils,  such  as 
belemnites,  ammonites,  jand  saurians.  A  dark  limestone  con- 
tains also  Gryphea  and  Trigonia,  The  cretaceous  deposits, 
when  present,  are  conformable  to  the  carboniferous ;  they  are 
variable  in  thickness  and  fossil  contents,  and  are  not  recognisable 
near  Attock  between  the  Jurassic  and  nummulitic  groups. 
Further  east  a  group,  supposed  to  be  cretaceous,  includes  clays 
with  boulders  of  crystallme  rock,  which  the  author  regards  as 
derived  from  land  to  the  south.  One  of  these  boulders  presented 
glacial  striae.  The  eocene  rocks  are  generally  limestones,  and 
lie  conformably  upon  the  subjacent  formations.  The  nummu- 
litic series  of  the  Salt  Range  includes  gypseous  and  coaly  shales. 
The  salt  beds  sometimes  attain  a  thickness  of  over  1,000  feef. 
The  Miocene  and  Pliocene  deposits  are  of  immense  thickness, 
and  contain  only  fossils  of  terrestrial  and  fresh-water  origin,  so 
that  the  deposits  were  formed  in  lakes  and  inland  seas.  The 
tertiary  epoch  closed  with  the  elevation  of  the  Himalayas  and 
Salt  Range,  which  was  followed  by  a  long  period  of  change, 
during  which  various  deposits  were  produced,  some  includ- 
ing great  quantities  of  erratics,  which,  however,  the  author 
believes  were  brought  to  their  present  position  rather  by 
floating  ice  than  by  Sie  extension  of  glaciers. — Description  and 
correlation  of  the  Bournemouth  beds ;  Part  L,  Upper  or  Marine 
Series,  by  J.  Starkie  Gardner, .  F.G.S.  The  author  comes  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  whole  group  is  contemporaneous  with 
the  Bracklesham  beds,  and  is  not  of  Lower  Bagshot  age.  Similar 
shore  conditions  probably  extended  into  the  London  basin,  and 
the  beds  mapped  by  the  Survey  as  Lower  Bafshot  are  probably 
of  the  same  age  as  those  at  Boscombe,  in  vmich  case  nothing 
more  than  the  Bracklesham  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  London 
basin.  The  similarity  of  the  leaves,  &c,  from  Bovey  Tracey  to 
those  obtained  by  the  author  leads  him  to  infer  that  the  former 
also  are  of  eocene,  and  not  of  miocene  age.  The  author 
increases  the  thickness  of  the  London  da^  at  Alum  Bay  at  the 
expense  of  the  Bagshot  beds,  and  diminishes  that  of  the 
Bracklesham  beds  at  WhitecUff  Bay  by  transferring  part  of  them 
to  the  Lower  Bagshot — Notes  on  certain  modes  of  occurrence 
of  gold  in  Australia,  by  Richard  Daintree,  F.G.S. — Notes  on 
the  geology  of  the  Island  of  Mauritius  and  the  adjacent  islets, 
by  W.  H.  T.  Power,  B.  A.  (Communicated  by  W.  WhiUker, 
F.G.S.) 

Entomological  Society,  February6.— H.  W.  Bates,  F.L.S., 
F.Z.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— Prof.  J.  O.  Westwood,  Mr.  J. 
W.  Douglas,  and  Mr.  F.  Smith,  were  nominated  by  the  pre- 
sident as  vice-presidents  for  the  year.— Mr.  Rich.  S.  Standon  and 
Mr.  T.  W.  Wonfor,  were  elected  Members  of  the  Society. — Mr. 
J.  Jenner  Weir  exhibited  the  following  spiders  : — three  species 
identified  by  Sir  Sydney  Saunders  as  Atypm  sulseri,  taken  at 
Lewes;  a  remaruble  form  from  Madagascar,  and  a  small 
species  beaten  out  of  trees  in  the  New  Forest,  which  in  marking 
and  coloration,  resembled  lichen. — Mr.  McLachLsm  exhibited  a 
small  collection  of  dragon-flies  in  illustration  of  a  paper  he  com- 
municated entitled  **  Calopterygina  collected  by  Mr.  Buckley  in 
Ecuador."  The  collection  contained  a  fine  series  of  a  new 
species,  Euthare  miraHUs, — Mr.  Meldola  exhibited  a  remarkable 
specimen  of  Let^ania  conigera^  The  colour  and  markings  of  the 
fore- wings  were  reproduce  in  the  lower  half  of  the  l^t  hind- 
wing.—Mr.  Meldola  read  extracts  fh>m  a  letter  addressed  to 
Mr.  Chas.  Darwin  from  Dr.  Fritz  MiUler,  St.  Catharina,  Brazil, 
tontaining  some  valuable  observations  on  the  discrimination 
exhibited  by  a  nnmber  of  butterflies  for  certain  colours  in  flowers. 
Mr.  Mitller  also  desaibed  the  odoriferous  organ  of  a  male  sphinx- 


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{March  14,  1878 


moth  which  exhaled  a  strong  musk- like  odour,  and  called  atten- 
tion to  a  secondary  sexual  character  observable  in  some  species 
of  Callidryas  and  other  Pierin^e,  in  the  serration  of  the  costal 
margin  of  the  anterior  wing.  This  is  confined  to  the  males, 
though  sometimes  found  in  the  females  of  Callidryas  Philea,  but 
in  a  far  less  degree. — Reference  was  made  to  a  sphinx-moth,  the 
proboscis  of  which,  measuring  22  centimetres,  had  been  for- 
warded by  Mr.  Miiller  and  was  exhibited  at  the  meeting. — 
Mr.  A.  G.  Butler  stated  that  he  had  measured  the  probers 
of  all  the  Sphingidae  from  Madagascar  contained  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  found  that  none  of  them  exceeded  5  inches  in 
length.  He  also  stated  that  the  Callidryades  in  the  British 
Museum  with  serrated  costal  margins  to  the  fore-wings,  included 
the  males  of  all  the  species  of  the  genera  Catopsilia,  Phoebis,  and 
Callydryas  (true),  with  the  addition  of  one  or  two  other  species. 
The  President  observed  that  in  the  genus  Prioneris  the  serrated 
costal  margin  existed  in  both  sexes. — The  Secretary,  on  behalf 
of  Capt  Elwes,  exhibited  some  coloured  illustrations  of  butter- 
flies which  had  been  taken  bv  a  new  process  of  nature-printing. 
— Mr.  G.  C.  Champion  exhibited  a  specimen  of  the  rare  British 
beede  Anthicus  bimaculatus^  taken  at  New  Brighton,  and  some 
specimens  of  the  genus  Cetonia,  from  the  Mediterranean  region. 
— Mr.  J.  W.  May  exhibited  a  specimen  of  Carabus  intricatus, 
which  he  described  as  taken,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  London. — Mr.  H.  Goss  called  attention  to  the  occurrence 
of  sexual  dimorphism  in  Erebia  tmcUa^  exhibiting  specimens  of 
both  forms  of  the  female. — Sir  John  Lubbock  read  a  paper  on 
the  colouring  of  British  caterpillars.  Ac;:epting  the  principle 
laid  down  by  Mr.  Darwin  ana  others,  that  dull-coloured,  green, 
and  smooth-skinned  caterpillars  are  eaten  by  birds,  &c ,  whilst 
spiny,  hairy,  and  brightly-coloured  species  are  rejected,  the 
author  stated  that  by  the  statistical  method  it  was  shown  that  no 
hairy  caterpillars  are  green,  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  a  large 
majority  of  black  and  brightly-coloured  species  are  hairy  or 
otherwise  protected. — Mr.  Meidola  read  extracts  from  a  recent 
communication  by  Dr.  Fritz  Miiller  in  Kosmos  on  the  subject — 
The  following  papers  were  communicated  by  Mr.  C.  O.  Water- 
house  : — "  Description  of  a  new  Dragon-fly  (Gynacantha)  from 
Borneo,"  "Description  of  a  new  Species  of  Chemetidae(Psett- 
doscorpionidae)  from  Spain,"  **  On  the  Different  Forms  occurring 
in  the  Coleopterous  Fanuly  Lycida^  with  Descriptions  of  New 
Genera  and  Species." 

Pa&is 
Academy  of  Sciences,  March  4.— M.  Fizean  in  the  chair. 
— The  following  papers  were  read  :— On  the  theory  of  the  tele- 
phone, by  M.  Da  MonceL  The  theory  of  speech  being  trans- 
mitted by  electro-magnetic  action  causing  the  plate  of  the 
receivine  telephone  to  repeat  the  vibrations  of  the  sending  one, 
is,  he  thinks,  untenaule.  The  phite  in  the  receiving  instru- 
ment merely  strengthens  by  reaction  the  magnetic  vibrations  of 
the  bar,  wmch  seem  to  be  due  to  contractions  and  dilatations  of 
the  magnetic  molecules,  through  being  successively  magnetised 
and  demagnetised.  Induced  currents  probably  owe  their  advan- 
tage for  tms  work  to  their  instantandty.  Their  greater  or  less 
intensity  is  of  small  account —The  vibrations  of  matter  and  the 
waves  of  the  ether  in  photo-chemical  combinations,  by  M.  Fav^. 
— Report  of  Committee  on  the  importance  of  preservation  of 
certain  erratic  blocks  situated  on  French  territory,  and  on  the 
work  of  MM.  Falsan  and  Chautre,  on  ancient  glaaers  and  the 
erratic  region  of  the  middle  part  of  the  Rhdne  valley,  by  M. 
Daubr^— On  the  telluric  etiology  of  cholera,  by  M.  De. 
caisne.  Cholera  appears  on  all  geological  formations,  but  its 
devdopment  and  propagation  depend  largely  on  the  physical 
aggregation  of  the  ground,  its  permeability  for  water  and  air, 
and  the  variable  quantity  of  water  it  contains.  The  partisans  of 
the  telluric  doctrine  always  suppose  a  specific  infections  sub- 
stance or  cholera  gorm,  which  iat  propagated  from  place  to  place 
by  human  communications,  not  oy  the  atmosphere.— Study  of 
the  resistance  of  the  air  in  the  torsion-balance,  by  MM.  Comu 
and  Bailie,  Eliminating  accidental  perturbations,  they  have 
established  these  two  laws :  (i)  The  amplitudes  or  distances  of 
two  succesiive  elongations  decrease  in  geometrical  progression  ; 
(2)  The  epochs  of  the  elongations  are  m  arithmetical  progression. 
One  theoretical  consequence  is  that  the  resistance  of  the  sur- 
rounding air  to  the  movement  of  the  lever  is  proportional  to  the 
first  power  of  the  angular  velocity  of  the  lever. — Influence  of 
electricity  on  evaporation,  by  M.  Mascart.  Small  basins 
containing  water  or  moistened  earth  were  placed  tmder 
conductors  (ha^g  the  form  of  circular  gratings),  which  vrere 
lectrified  by  a  liolts  machine  driven  by  a  water-motor,  and 
were  kept  in  a  constant  electric  state.    The  evaporation  was 


thus  constantly  increased,  sometimes  even  doubled.  Inequalities 
of  temperature,  however,  veil  the  influence  of  electricity ;  the 
basins  were  indosed  in  a  large  case,  the  air  in  which  was  regu- 
larly dried,  and  in  winter  the  operation  was  performed  in  a  kind 
of  subsoil. — Observations  on  gallium,  by  MM.  Lecoq  de  Bois- 
baudran  and  Jungfleisch.  InUr  alia^  the  authors  exhibited 
anhydrous  chloride,  bromide,  and  iodide  of  the  metal. — Dis- 
covery of  a  small  phinet  at  Clinton,  New  York,  by  Mr.  Peters. 
— ^Theory  of  Vesta,  by  M.  Perrotin.— On  the  employment  of 
particular  solutions  of  a  differential  equation  of  the  first  order 
and  the  first  degree,  in  the  investigation  of  the  general  integral, 
by  M.  Darboux. — On  the  fundamental  points  of  the  group  of 
plane  curves  defined  by  a  diflerential  equation  of  the  first  alge- 
braic order,  by  M.  Fouret.— On  the  sumnatory  formula  of 
Maclaurin,  by  M.  Callandreau. — On  the  elastic  forces  of  vapours 
emitted  li^  a  mixture  of  two  liauids,  by  M.  Duclaux.  A 
mode  is  indicated  of  calculating  beforehand  the  boiling  tem- 
perature of  a  li<|uid  of  known  constitution. — Theory  of 
the  new  direct-vision  spectroscope,  by  M.  Thollon. — On  the 
combustion  of  gases,  by  M.  Schii'zenberger.  This  relates  to  the 
propagation  of  combustion  in  eudiometers.  The  chief  conditions 
affecting  the  phenomenon  are  :  pressure  of  the  gas,  length  of  the 
gaseous  column,  composition  of  the  mixture,  and  diameter  of  the 
tube. — On  two  allotropic  varieties  of  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  by 
M.  Moissan.  Sesquioxide  of  iron  heated  in  an  atmosphere  cf 
hydrogen  or  carbonic  oxide  to  350*  or  440**,  is  transformed  in  a 
few  hours  into  magnetic  oxide  ;  but  this  is  very  different  in  pro- 
perties from  the  magnetic  oxide  got  at  a  high  temperature,  by 
decomposing  water  with  iron  at  a  red  heat  or  burning  iron  in 
oxygen,  or  dec  imposing  sesquioxide  at  a  livdyred. — On  the 
action  of  fluoride  of  boron  on  anethol ;  study  of  fluorhydrate  of 
fluoride  of  boron,  by  M.  Landolph. — New  carbonated  cupric 
liquor  for  determination  of  glucose,  by  M.  Pellet — On  lactic 
fermentation,  by  M.  Boutroux.  He  describes  the  form  of  the 
organism  present  and  its  mode  of  action. — Research  s  on  the 
chemical  composition  and  the  functions  of  the  leaves  of  plants, 
by  M.  Corenwinder.  The  predominance  of  azotised  substances 
in  young  leaves  indicates  that  it  is  these  substances  which  exercise 
the  respiratory  function  (absorbing  oxygen  and  exhaling  carbonic 
add).  Phosphorus  too  is  in  much  less  quantity  in  the  older 
leaves,  which  again  are  rich  in  calcareous  salts,  and  the  chloro- 
phyll in  them  retains  and  decomposes  the  COj  emanating  from 
respiration. — Researches  on  the  maturation  of  olives,  by  M. 
Roussile. — On  the  mineral  water  of  Challes,  in  Savoy,  by  M. 
Wdlm. — On  the  frequency  of  glaucoma  on  the  north  coast  of 
Africa,  by  M.  Gayal. 


CONTENTS  Pace 

Thb  Locust  Plagub  in  America.    By  Amdxbw  Murray  ....  377 

Abnry's  Trbatisb  ON  Photography •37^ 

Our  Book  aHBLr  >- 

Mtln's  "  Arclueological  Researches  at  Camac,  in  Britanny"   .    .  379 

Lbttbrs  to  tub  Editor  :— 

The    Telephone.— Robert    Sabinb  ;    Hbrbbrt    Touunson  ; 

AuRBL  OB  Ratti  ;  A.  Pbrcy  Smith  ;  Wiluam  Stockdalb  .  379 

"Mimicryin  Birds."~Prof.  Alfred  Newton.  F  RS 379 

The  ' '  Geographical "  and  the  Pubhc  ~X.     . 381 

Hearing  and  Smell  in  Insects.  —Henry  Cecil 381 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :« 

The  Total  Solar  Eclipse  of  July  99 381 

The  Star  Lalande  3x266  7 38' 

Minor  Planets 38* 

Biological  Notes:— 

Inland  Fisheries.  America • 3^* 

The  Development  of  Nerves 382 

French  Polyzoa 38a 

Structure  of  Lingula 383 

Gbographical  Notes:— 

New  Guinea 3^3 

New  African  Expedition 383 

African  Exploration 38^ 

Captain  Elton 3^3 

Ancient  Maps  of  Central  Africa 383 

Paris  Geographical  Society 3*4 

Note  on  thb  Discovery  of  the  Liquefaction  of  Air  and  of 
the  so-called  Permanent  Gases.    By  Pro£  T.  £.  Thorpb, 

FRS 384 

Hblmholtz's  Vowel  Theory  anb  the  Phonograph     By  Prof. 

Flbbming  Jrmkin,  F.R.S,and  J.  A.EWINC 384 

Electrical  Analogies   with  Natural  Phenomena.  II.  {Wiik  . 

lUustrations) -         .    .    •  1^1 

On  Compass  Adjustment  in  Iron  Ships  and  on  |Navigational 

Sounbihgs     By  Sir  Wm.  Thomson,  LLD,  F.R.S 3^7 

Thr  Analogies    of  Plant   and    Animal   Life.     By   Francis 

Darwin,  MB 388 

Notes ; 39« 

Universitt  AMD  Iducational  Imtblugbncb        39  s 

SCIBMTIPIC  SeiUALB ^« 

SociETiBS  AND  Academies 39* 


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THURSDAY,   MARCH    21,  1878 


EASTEkN  EXCAVATIONS 

MyccncE,  A  Natrative  of  Researches  and  Discoveries  at 
MycencB  and  Tiryns,  By  Dr.  Henry  Schliemann. 
(London  :  Murray,  1878.) 

Troy  and  its  Remains.  A  Narrative  of  Researches  and 
Disco7'eries  made  on  the  Site  of  Ilium  and  the  Trojan 
Plain,   By  Dr.  Henry  Schliemann.  (London  :  Murray, 

1875.) 

Exhibition  of  Antiquities  from  Hissarlik  at  the  South 
Kensington  Museum,     By  Dr.  Henry  Schliemann. 

Cyprus:  its  Ancient  Cities^ Tombs^aftd Temples,  A  Nar- 
rative of  Researches  and  Excavations,  By  Genera^ 
Louis  Palma  di  Cesnola.     (London  :  Murray,  1877.) 

TWO  Eastern  questions  occupy  the  attention  of 
Europe  at  the  present  time — one  relating  to  the 
present,  and,  it  is  to  be  feared  greatly,  to  the  future ;  the 
other  has  reference  to  the  past,  and  to  the  bridging  over 
of  that  little-known  protohistoric  period  which  connects 
the  civilisation  of  the  far  east,  that  is,  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
with  the  culture  of  ancient  Greece,  to  which  we  western 
Europeans  are  so  much  indebted.  Different  conditions 
of  thought  are  engaged  in  the  study  of  these  two  ques- 
tions, yet  both  are  connected,  for  the  present  crisis  in  the 
East  represents  the  returning  current  of  that  same  stream 
of  culture  which  was  flowing  westward  towards  the  dawn 
of  our  era.  What  Egypt  and.Assyria  lent  to  Greece  she 
passed  on  to  Etruria  and  Rome,  and  the  Romans  carried 
to  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  there  developing  and  fructify- 
ing, it  has  passed  back  eastward  in  a  return  wave,  reviving 
the  ancient  monarchies  in  its  path.  Rome  has  regained 
its  ancient  landmarks.  Germany  has  consolidated. 
Austria  has  been  pushed,  and  is  still  pushing  eastward. 
Greece  is  proclaiming  the  revival  of  its  ancient  nation- 
ality, and  this  will  doubtless  be  followed  in  times  to  come 
by  the  resuscitation  of  Egypt  and  Palestine.  The  Turk, 
representing  the  'Jast  wave  of  the  western  flow,  has  been 
met  and  swamped  by  the  returning  ebb. 

The  time  has  been  well  chosen  by  our  archaeologists 
for  an  examination  into  [the  sites  of  those  ancient  cities 
whose  history  corresponds  most  closely  to  the  period  on 
which  we  are  now  entering ;  and  to  us  English  the 
parallel  between  the  two  eras  has  special  interest  At  a 
time  when  our  fleets  are  massing  in  these  seas  in  order  to 
keep  open  our  commtmication  with  the  East,  we  are 
reminded  that  it  was  by  means  of  a  seafaring  people  that 
civilisation  was  spread  over  this  region  in  ancient  times. 
The  comparison  between  ourselves  and  the  Phoeni- 
cians has  been  often  drawn ;  like  causes  produce  like 
results.  For  the  same  reason  that  they  peopled  the 
shores  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  with  their 
colonies,  we  have  caused  them  to  be  studded  with  our 
military  posts.  What  the  Phoenicians  did  for  the  flow  of 
civilisation  in  days  of  old,  we,  if  we  fulfil  our  functions 
rightly,  shall  do  for  its  returning  ebb  at  the  present  time. 
Other  European  nations  are  concerned  in  continental 
movements,  but,  like  the  Phoenicians,  our  path  is  by  the 
sea.  Syria,  Cyprus,  Crete,  and  Greece  was  the  line 
they  traversed,  and  this  is  the  line  which  sooner  or  later 
we  appear  destined  to  occupy  in  the  struggle  to  come. 
Vol.  XVII.— Na  438 


It  is  not  Well  to  carry  a  simile  too  far,  but  one  otn 
parallel,  as  a  natural  outcome  of  the  instincts  of  the  two 
people,  may  be  fairly  drawn.  It  is  said  that  in  art,  in 
modem  times  at  least,  we  have  no  style  of  our  own. 
Neither  had  they ;  devoted  to  navigation  and  commerce, 
their  art,  instead  of  being  indigenous,  was  borrowed  from 
the  nations  with  whom  they  traded.  This  is  well  shown 
in  the  collection  of  antiquities  from  Cyprus,  for  the  know- 
ledge of  which  we  are  indebted  to  General  di  Cesnola, 
the  American  consul  in  that  island.  Cyprus  was  one  of 
the  first  islands  colonised  by  the  Phoenicians.  Three 
distinct  styles  of  art  are  recognised  in  the  Cypriote 
pottery,  sculptures  and  glyptic  representations,  the 
Assyrian,  the  Egyptian,  and  the  Greek.  In  the  temple 
of  Golgoi  the  objects  belonging  to  these  three  ditferect 
styles  were  found  separately  placed,  the  Egyptian  by 
themselves,  the  Assyrian  in  like  manner,  and  the  Greek 
also  together,  showing  in  the  opinion  of  the  author  that 
they  were  collected  at  different  epochs,  spreading  over  a 
long  series  of  years.  On  the  other  hand  a  considerable 
number  of  the  objects  figured  in  General  Cesnola's  book 
distinctly  include  both  the  Assyrian  and  the  Egyptian, 
for  example,  in  the  patera  from  Curium,  figured  in  p.  329 ; 
the  centre  figure  represents  a  winged  warrior,  probably  a 
king,  fighting  with  a  lion,  which  is  in  true  Assyrian  style, 
whilst  the  outer  circle  of  the  same  vessel  is  ornamented 
with  figures  that  are  as  purely  Egyptian.  Probably 
between  the  eighth  and  tenth  centuries  B.C.  both  styles 
may  have  prevailed  in  Cyprus  at  different  times,  but  it 
is  evident  that  a  period  arose  in  which  both  styles  as  well 
as  the  Greek  were  imited,  and  closely  imitated,  and  this 
constitutes  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Cypriote  art 

Very  different  in  this  respect  are  some  of  the  objects 
discovered  by  Dr.  Schliemann  in  the  royal  tombs  at 
Mycenae,  which,  though  rude  and  barbarous — more  so, 
indeed,  than  the  majority  of  the  Cypriote  antiquities— 
nevertheless  show  some  attempt  at  realism.  More 
especially  may  be  noticed  the  bull's  head,  the  bas  reliefs, 
and  some  of  the  gold  ornaments.  In  these  we  perceive 
an  absence  of  that  servile  imitation  of  earlier  styles 
which  has  been  noticed  as  the  characteristic  of  Cypriote 
art ;  and  although  falling  far  short  of  Hellenic  greatness, 
there  is  a  freedom  from  conventionality  which  left  the 
artist  at  liberty  to  turn  to  nature  as  his  instructor,  and 
thus,  with  the  aid  of  a  little  imagination,  we  may  perhaps 
recognise  potentially  in  these  rude  designs  the  germs  of 
those  qualities  which  made  Greek  art  so  famous  in  the 
times  that  followed. 

The  concentric  circles  of  the  Cypriote  ornamentation 
are  here  replaced  by  a  system  of  coil  ornaments  which 
resemble  those  in  use  during  the  bronze  age  of  Europe 
rather  than  anything  to  be  found  in  the  countries  im- 
mediately to  the  eastward.  Notwithstanding  this,  how- 
ever, the  connection  with  Cyprus  is  apparent  in  many 
of  the  forms.  The  rude  terra-cotta  figures  of  men 
and  animals  correspond  very  closely  with  those  foimd 
in  Cyprus  as  well  as  Rhodes,  and  the  long-nosed  war- 
riors drawn  on  the  fragment  of  a  painted  vase  (p.  133, 
"  Mycenae ")  might  clearly  claim  family  relationship 
with  the  lady  figured  on  the  Cypriote  vase  in  Fig.  394 
of  General  .Cesnola's  work.  The  mode  of  ornamenting 
the  eyebrows  by  means  of  parallel  incised  lines  is  dis? 
tinc*ly   Cypriote.    But  perhaps  the  objects  which  most 


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NATURE 


{March  21,  1878 


clearly  attest  the  connection  between  the  two  places  are  the 
golden  diadems  (p.  186  "  Mycenae  ")  found  on  the  heads  of 
the  bodies  in  the  tombs.  These  consist  of  pointed  oval 
plates  of  gold,  sometimes  highly  ornamented  and  having 
at  the  points,  small  holes  by  which  they  were  fastened 
round  the  head  with  a  wire.  The  position  of  the  graves 
in  which  similar  diadems  to  these  were  found  at  Idalium 
in  Cyprus  proves  distinctly  that  they  were  more  recent 
than*  the  graves  of  the  Phoenician  period  which  lay 
beneath  them.  Similar  forms  of  golden  diadems  from 
Kouyunjik  are  in  the  British  Museum.  The  golden  diadems 
found  at  Idalium  are  shown  by  these  associated  remains 
to  belong  to  a  more  advanced  period  of  art  than  the 
larger  and  more  massive  ones  discovered  in  the  royal 
tombs  in  the  Agora  at  Mycense,  the  former  being  probably 
of  the  Greco-Roman  age.  Nevertheless  the  identity  of 
the  forms  ought  not  to  escape  attention  when  considering 
the  relative  antiquity  of  the  finds ;  they  were,  as  Dr. 
Schliemann  truly  remarks  (p.  189),  in  very  extensive  use 
in  early  times,  and  an  investigation  into  the  origin  of 
these  peculiar  brow  ornaments  will  without  doubt  have 
an  important  bearing  on  the  period  of  the  interments 
with  which  they  are  associated.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  General  Cesnola,  although  he  mentions  ^e  finding 
of  these  diadems  in  p.  75  of  his  work  gives  no  illustration 
of  them,  but  a  number  of  them  were  sold  at  Sotheby's 
some  years  ago,  and  the  remarks  here  made  are  based 
upon  observations  made  at  the  time  of  the  sale. 

Turning  now  to  Hissarlik  our  attention  is  naturally 
drawn  in  the  first  place  to  the  so-called  owl- faced  vases 
which  form  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  antiquities  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Schliemann  there.  No  subject  has  been 
more  frequently  applied  to  the  ornamentation  of  funereal 
and  other  vases  than  the  representation  of  a  human  face, 
as  examples  of  which  we  may  call  to  mind  the  rude  jars 
representing  Besa  or  Typhon  in  the  Egyptian  depart- 
ment of  the  British  Museum,  or  our  own  Bellarmin  jugs 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Such  representations  are  usually 
at  first  realistic,  and  expressive  of  the  best  endeavour  of 
the  designer,  but  in  process  of  time  the  forms  suffer  de- 
gradation in  the  hands  of  inexpert  or  hasty  workmen ;  the 
transmutation  of  form  observable  on  British  coins  affords 
a  well-known  illustration  of  the  gradual  changes  produced 
by  means  of  imperfect  copies,  and  similar  degradation  is 
often  seen  in  the  tribal  and  other  ornaments  and  badges 
of  modem  savages.  On  the  pottery  found  in  the  Peru- 
vian graves  a  human  face  is  of  frequent  occurrence. 
Some  of  these  figures  of  faces  are  equal  to  the  best  pro- 
ductions of  Cyprus  or  Mycenae,  whibt  in  others  the 
features  are  so  much  dwarfed  and  distorted  that  little 
more  than  a  line  for  the  eyebrows  and  another  for  the 
nose  remains  to  denote  the  intention  of  the  potter,  the 
other  features  having  disappeared  in  those  examples  in 
which  nothing  more  than  a  rude  symbolism  has  been 
aimed  at.  An  examination  of  the  large  collection  of 
vases  from  Hissarlik,  now  exhibited  by  Dr.  Schliemann 
at  South  Kensington  is  sufficient  to  show  that  this  has 
been  the  true  history  of  the  yXovicwir,  or  **  owl-faced 
Goddess  Minerva.''  In  some  of  these  vases  all  the 
features  of  the  human  face  are  present ;  in  others  some 
of  them  disappear  or  become  conventionalised;  the 
mouth  is  no  longer  represented,  and  the  nose  shrinks  into 
a  small  beak-like  projection  beneath  the  eyebrows.    Yet 


if  the  form  of  it  is  looked  at  carefully,  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  is  still  a  nose,  and  in  no  case  has  it  been  the  intentioa 
of  the  potter  to  represent  a  beak  ;  its  position  is  never 
that  of  an  owl's  beak  beneath  the  line  of  the  eyes.    The 
eye  of  an  owl  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  complete 
disc  of  feathers,  but  in  no  single  instance  has  the  lower 
and  inner  side  of  such  a  disc  been  represented  on  these 
vases;  even  in  the  most  degraded  examples   the  line 
which  sweeps  rotmd  the  upper  and  outer  portions  of  the 
eye  is  still  seen  to  be  an  eyebrow,  which  is  a  feature  that 
is  entirely  wanting  in  an  owl.    In  many  cases  the  ear 
has  been  retained,  where  the  mouth  has  disappeared,       ^ 
and  the   ear   is    still    distinctly    hiunan.      It   may   be 
safely  said  that    there   is   no    example    in    the    whole 
collection  at  South   Kensington  in  which  the  form  of 
an    owl's    face    has    been     intentionally    represented. 
In  like  manner  the  long  upright   projections  on    the 
sides  of  some   of  the   vases,  which,  when   associated 
with  the  symbolic  features  above  spoken  of,  have  been 
said  to  represent  the  wings  of  an  owl,  can  be  shown  by  a 
selected  series  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  handles  of  the 
pots  developed  and  adapted  to  use  in  another  form. 
Other  handles,  of  which  most  of  the  pots  are  provided 
with  three  or  four,  have  been  dwarfed  so  as  to  dwindle  into  a 
mere  reminiscence,  marked  by  slightly  raised  lines  on  the 
sides  of  the  vessels.    Similar  developments  of  handles  may 
be  seen  in  the  specimens  of  terra-cotta  lamps  exhibited  by 
the  Palestine  exploration  committee  at  South  Kensington. 
Then  again,  the  small  flat  stone  objects  figured  in  page  36 
of  Dr.  Schliemann's  book,  "  Troy  and  its  Remains,*  and 
supposed  by  him  to  be  Athena  idols,  are  clearly  nothing 
more  than  symboUc  vases.    The  lines  denoting  the  face  on 
these  stone  objects  represent  the  face  on  the  vases,  the 

head,  neck,  and  body  of  the  vase  and  the  horizontal ^ 

lines  across  the  neck  marking  the  separation  between 
the  cover  and  body  of  the  vase  are  all  shown  on  these 
miniature  models,  which  correspond  to  the  stone  models 
of  vases  which  at  a  later  period  replaced  those  previously 
employed  in  Egyptian  tombs,  and  it  was  no  doubt  by 
means  of  some  such  symbolism  that  these  model  vases  at 
Hissarlik  came  to  be  introduced. 

The  peculiar  ''crown-shaped"  covers  found  by  Dn 
Schliemann  at  Hissarlik,  and  figured  at  page  25,  are  of 
interest,  and  serve  by  their  form  to  fuc  the  position  of  the 
Hissarlik  antiquities  in  point  of  sequence.  These  crown* 
like  lids  are  survivals  of  the  neck  and  handles  of  earlier 
forms  whose  history  is  to  be  traced  in  other  parts  of  the 
Levant.  The  form  of  vase  with  two  handles,  one  on  either 
side  joining  the  mouth  and  body  of  the  vessel,  of  which 
a  good  example  is  represented  on  page  102  of  General 
Cesnola's  work,  appears  to  have  given  rise  to  a  shape 
with  a  closed  or  dummy  neck,  in  which  the  form  of  the 
neck  and  handles  are  retained,  but  the  real  opening  is  in 
a  funnel-shaped  mouth  adjoining  the  dummy  neck.  Dr. 
Schliemann  found  specimens  of  these  altered  vases  in  the 
tumulus  at  Sparta  and  also  at  Mycenae.  An  illustration  of 
one  from  the  latter  place  is  given  at  page  64  of  his  work 
on  Mycenae.  They  are  conmion  in  Rhodes,  examples  of 
which  may  be  seen  in  specimens  from  lalysos,  in  the 
British  Museum.  They  are  also  found  in  Attica,  Cyprus, 
and  in  Egyptian  tombs.  The  ''crown-shaped"  covers 
found  at  Hissarlik  represent  a  further  degradation  of 
this  form  in  which  the  neck  has  disappeared,  the  mouth 


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and  handles  only  remaining.  Three  and  four  handles 
have  been  substituted ,  in  some  cases,  for  the  double 
handle  of  the  earlier  vessels.  The  cover,  with  the 
dummy  mouth  and  handles,  of  course  occupies  the 
position  previously  occupied  by  the  true  neck  and 
handles  on  the  top  of  the  vase.  As  these  crown-shaped 
covers  are  found  in  the  lowest  stratum,  the  '*  earliest 
city "  discovered  by  Dr.  Schliemann  at  Hissarlik,  it  fol- 
lows, if  the  history  of  these  forms  has  been  correctly 
stated  above,  that  the  whole  of  the  Hissarlik  antiquities 
are  of  comparatively  recent  protohistoric  date,  though 
belonging,  no  doubt,  to  a  people  in  a  barbarous  condition 
of  culture,  which  accounts  for  the  number  of  rude  stone 
implements  found  from  top  to  bottom  throughout  the 
excavations. 

The  so-called  crest  of  the  helmet  of  Athena  (p.  283, 
Hissarlik),  is  a  further  degradation  of  these  crown- 
shaped  tops,  and  represents  the  dwarfed  survival  of  one 
of  th?  handles,  the  connecting  links  being  represented  by 
three  specimens  in  the  collection  at  South  Kensington, 
where  the  vestiges  of  all  three  handles  are  shown  in  their 
proper  places,  and  these  were  subsequently  replaced  by 
one,  transferred  for  convenience*  sake  from  the  position 
formerly  occupied  by  the  three  to  the  centre  of  the  lid. 
In  short,  the  history  of  every  form  may  be  traced  by 
connecting  links  in  the  specimens  exhibited  at  South 
Kensington,  the  whole  collection  forms  a  continuous 
sequence  which,  by  judicious  arrangement  of  connected 
forms,  is  capable  of  demonstration,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  such  arrangement  may  be  adopted  before  this 
interesting  collection  leaves  the  place.  To  apply  the 
expression  "  Darwinism  ^  to  such  a  sequence  of  forms  is 
no  mere  figure  of  speech,  it  expresses  the  truth  as  fully  in 
its  relation  to  savage  art  and  ornament  as  to  the  forms  of 
nature.  Conservatism,  acquired  habits,  and  incapacity  for 
improvement  on  the  one  hand,  love  of  variety,  economy 
of  time  and  trouble,  and  imperfect  copying  on  the  other, 
combine  to  produce  those  slow  and  gradual  changes 
which  are  characteristic  of  all  barbarous  art  Every 
object  marks  its  own  place  in  sequence  by  means  of  its 
form,  and  it  is  the  recognition  of  this  principle  which 
supplies  the  place  of  written  records  in  those  prehistoric 
and  protohistoric  phases  of  culture  with  which  we  are 
dealing.  Earlier  forms  are  retained  side  by  side  with  the 
more  advanced  ones  and  are  applied  to  those  objects 
and  uses  for  which  they  appear  fittest  If  any  evidence 
were  wanting  to  disprove  the  absurd  imputations  that 
have  been  cast  upon  the  genuineness  of  these  antiquities, 
these  connected  varieties  would  alone  suffice  to  prove 
that  they  were  the  work  of  a  people  in  a  very  primitive 
condition  of  civilisation.  Whatever  difference  of  opinion 
may  exist  as  to  some  of.  Dr.  Schliemann's  deductions  no 
reasonable  archaeologist  will  be  found  to  dispute  the 
extraordinary  merit  of  his  discoveries.  We  are  glad  to 
hear  that  he  is  about  to  resume  his  excavations  at 
Hissarlik.  To  the  deep  research  and  disinterested 
enthusiasm  which  has  already  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  explorers,  will  now  be  added  a  large  amount  of 
archaeological  experience  and  knowledge  of  allied  forms 
that  he  has  acquired  since  his  first  excavations  were  con- 
ducted at  this  place,  leading  us  to  hope  that  his  future 
discoveries  will  exceed  them  all  in  interest  and  im- 
portance. 


PROFESSOR  BELTS  '' SELBORNE'' 

The  Natural  History  and  Antiquities  of  Selborne^  in  the 
County  of  Southampton.  By  the  late  Rev.  Gilbert 
White,  formerly  Fellow  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford. 
Edited  by  Thomas  Bell,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  -F.G.S,,  &c., 
Professor  of  Zoology  in  King's  College,  London.  8vo, 
2  vols.    (London  :  Van  Voorst,  1877.) 

THE  edition  of  this  classic  work  for  so  many  years 
expected  from  the  hands  of  Prof.  Bell,  has  at  length 
appeared,  and  readers  will  regard  it  with  much  gratifica- 
tion and  a  little  disappointment  The  former  feeling  will 
arise  from  the  large  amount  of  new  matter  which  it 
contains,  and  the  latter  from  the  conviction  which  cannot 
but  force  itself  upon  them  that  more  was  to  be  made  of 
the  whole  than  the  editor  seems  to  have  been  aware  of.  Yet 
Prof.  Bell's  long  life — it  is  more  than  fifty  years  since  he  first 
won  his  spurs  in  the  field  of  science — and  his  invaluable 
services  in  so  many  departments  of  zoology,  render  us 
very  unwilling  to  say  more  than  we  are  compelled  in 
detraction  of  this,  his  latest  labour,  and  the  child  of  his 
old  age.  He  writes  now,  as  he  always  has  written,  plea^ 
santly  enough,  but  he  fails  to  give  us  the  notion  that  he 
has  done  the  best  he  could  with  the  materials  placed  at 
his  disposal,  and  with  his  other  unequalled  opportunities. 
It  is  evident  that  his  task  grew  upon  him,  and  that  a 
considerable  portion  must  have  been  printed  off  before  its 
extent  was  determined.  This,  indeed,  is  not  an  uncommon 
thing  with  young  authors  and  editors ;  but  Prof.  Bell's 
literary  experience,  and  the  long  time  he  is  known  to  have 
had  the  present  work  in  preparation,  should  have  guarded 
him  from  an  error  of  the  kind.  We  might  almost  infer 
that  when  the  memoir  was  written  he  had  not  mastered 
all  the  details  of  the  deeply  interesting  correspondence 
which  forms  the  bulk  of  his  second  volume,  and  certainly 
that  he  had  not  decided  how  many,  and  which,  of  the 
letters  it  contains  should  be  given  to  the  world.  It  is 
sufficient  for  us  now  to  say  that  there  is  not  one  of  them 
that  could  have  been  spared,  for  we  must  presently  return 
to  their  consideration. 

That  any  memoir  of  Gilbert  White  must,  from 
the  scarcity  of  facts  relating  to  him,  give  a  meagre 
account  of  that  great  and  estimable  naturalist,  we 
are  ready  to  admit,  and  that  Prof.  Bell's  is  at  the 
same  time  far  more  copious  than  any  other  that 
has  been  published,  will  be  obvious  to  all  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  subject  But  we  cannot  help 
regretting  that  the  chief  biographicalfacts  have  not  been 
set  forth  in  a  clearer  light  than  they  appear,  and  fproper 
as  it  is  to  tell  us  something  of  all  the  members  of  the 
family,  we  unfortunately  find  least  is  told  us  of  those 
members  of  whom  we  should  like  to  know  most  Gilbert 
White  had  three  brothers  who  were  distinctly  men  of 
capacity  above  the  average,  beside  two  others  much  less, 
or  hardly  at  all,  distinguished.  Of  the  former,  Thomas, 
we  are  told,  was  successful  in  trade,  and  became  a  F.R.S., 
but  in  what  trade  or  when  he  died  we  are  left  ignorant. 
Benjamin  was  the  well-known  publisher  of  natural  history 
books — among  others  of  Pennant's — for  whom  Pro£  Bell 
has  some  hard  words,  not,  perhaps,  wholly  undeserved, 
but  it  is  very  probable,  to  say  the  least,  that  had  not  Gilbert, 
through  his  brother,  become  acquainted  with  Pennant 
the  "Natural  History  of  Selbome"  would  never  have 


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been  written.  The  third  remarkable^  brother  was  John, 
who  was  for  a  considerable  time  chaplain  at  Gibraltar^  of 
which  place  he  wrote  a  zoology  that  unfortunately  was 
never  printed,  and  of  which  the  manuscript  seems  to 
have  vanished,  though  Prof.  Bell  says  the  introduction  to 
it  is  in  his  possession.  Pity  it  is  he  has  not  given  us  this 
fragment,  for  some  of  the  hints  and  suggestions  that  Gil- 
bert was  always  imparting  to  John,  his  **  most  steady  and 
communicative  correspondent,"  must  surely  be  therein 
contained,  and  it  could  not  fail  to  have  been  a  valuable 
addition  to  these  volumes.  In  the  next  generation  were 
''Jack,**  son  of  the  aforesaid  John,  and  a  pupil  of 
Gilbert's,  who  thought  highly  of  him,  and  Samuel 
Barker,  another  nephew,  an  agreeable  and  evidently 
valued  correspondent  of  his  uncle's.  It  seems  hardly 
possible  but  that  diligent  research  would  not  have 
recovered  more  of  these  younger  men  than  we  find  here 
recorded. 

Of  Gilbert  himself  we  doubt  not  Prof.  Bell  has  done 
all  in  his  power  to  gather  information,  and  in  some 
respects  he  has  been  successful.  Bom  at  Selbome  in 
1720,  he  went  to  school  at  Basingstoke,  and  to  Oxford  in 
1739.  There  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1743,  and  the  follow- 
ing year  was  elected  to  a  Fellowship  at  Oriel,  which  he 
enjoyed  till  his  death.  Taking  orders  he  successively 
held  two  curacies  in  Hampshire,  one  at  Selbome  till 
1752,  when  he  filled  the  office  of  Proctor  {Junior  Proctor, 
Prof.  Bell  is  careful  to  tell  us)  for  a  year.  Then  he  took 
another  Hampshire  curacy  for  a  couple  of  years,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  he  came  once  more  to  live  at  Selbome, 
which  remained  his  home  till  his  death.  In  1757  he 
accepted  the  living  of  Moreton-Pinkney,  in  Northampton- 
shire, but  the  preferment  must  have  been  small,  as  it  did 
not  incapacitate  him  from  holding  ^his  Fellowship,  and, 
according  to  the  custom  of  the  times,''re8idence  was  not 
required  of  him.  The  following  year  his  father  died,  but 
he  did  not  come  into  the  family  property  at  Selbome— 
"  The  Wakes,"  now  possessed  by  Prof.  Bell— until  the 
death  of  an  uncle  in  1763.  He  seems  to  have  made 
Pennant's  acquaintance  about  1767,  or  perhaps  a  little 
earlier.  In  1768  we  find  him  writing  to  Banks,  and  the 
following  year  began  his  correspondence  .with^Barrington, 
who,  in  1774  and  1775,  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society  those  ever-memorable  monographs  of  the  British 
Hirundines^  which  first  made  known  White's  powers  of 
observation  and  feUcity  of  expression.  In  1774  he  refused 
no  fewer  than  three  college  livings^  for  he  was  doubtless 
in  easy  circumstances,  and  once  more  accepted  the  curacy 
of  his  birth-place.  At  the  age  of  sixty-nine  his  >ingle 
book  was  published,  and  he  survived  its  appearance  just 
four  years.  Another  event  in  his  life  must  be  noted  here 
—his  atuchment  to  the  sister  of  his  college  friend  Tom 
Mulso.  What  hindered  their  union  does  not  appear,  but 
in  1760  the  lady  was  married  to  Mr.  Chapone,  and  was 
subsequently  the  authoress  of  several  well-known  works, 
and  a  celebrated  "blue-stocking."  We  have  to  thank 
Prof.  Bell  for  collecting  most  of  these  facts  and  dates 
now  for  the  first  time  published,  but  they  are  not  very 
easily  gathered  from  his  memoir. 

Of  course  we  have  no  occasion  here  to  jeview  the 
letters  to  Pennant  and  Barrington  which  formed  the 
original  "  Natural  History  of  Selbome."  Their  place  in 
literature  and  science  is  assured.    It  were  impertinent  to 


speak  of  their  merits,  or  to  indicate  their  few— very  few 
— defects.  Being  the  results  of  the  personal  experience 
of  their  author  they  will  hold  their  ground  for  all  time. 
Never  before,  perhaps,  was  there  so  careful  an  observer, 
and  since,  we  know  of  but  one  other  so  accurate.  That 
other  has  no  doubt  surpassed  his  predecessor  in  the 
ingenuity  of  his  induction  and  the  versatility  of  its  appli- 
cation,  but  it  is  no  detriment  to  Gilbert  White  that  he 
should  be  ranked  as  an  observer  second  only  to  Mr. 
Darwin.  Numerous  editors  have  tried  their  hand  in 
annotating  this  ever-popular  work,  and  many  more  will 
make  the  same  attempt  Prof.  Bell  is  chary— too  chary, 
perhaps,  of  his  comments — but  if  he  errs  he  errs  on  the 
safe  side,  and  readers  who  have  been  disgusted  with  the 
inanity  or  the  flippancy  of  the  notes  to  some  recent  editions, 
will  rejoice  that  in  him  they  have  an  editor  whose  remarks, 
if  they  be  but  few,  are  always  to  the  point,  and  never  in 
bad  taste. 

Now  we  ought  to  consider  the  new  letters,  but  the  length 
of  this  article  warns  us  that  we  must  be  brief  in  what  we 
say  of  them.  They  remove  the  present  edition  from 
comparison  with  any  other,  and  we  have  sincerely  to 
thank  Prof.  Bell  for  having  shown  us,  by  printing  them, 
that  White  was  even  more  than  had  formerly  appeared. 
Every  grace  of  style,  every  power  of  thought— in  a 
word,  every  good  quality  which  was  foreshadowed  in  the 
famous  epistles  to  Pennant  and  Barrington  is  doubled,  or 
more  than  doubled  in  intensity  in  the  letters  now  given  to 
the  public — letters,  too,  which  were  never  prepared  by 
their  writer  for  publication.  We  have  him  before  us  as  the 
instigator  to  good  works,  the  sage  adviser  in  matters 
literary  and  scientific,  the  self-denier,  the  man  of  affec- 
tionate relations,  the  nian  of  high  aspirations,  yet  humble ; 
simple,  yet  full  of  humour  ;  a  recluse,  yet  a  man  of  the 
world  in  the  best  sense.  We  long  to  subjoin  extracts 
from  them,  but  want  of  space  renders  that  impossible. 
Our  readers  will  read  and  judge  for  themselves.  It 
must  suffice  to  say  that  there  are  more  than  one  hundred 
from  Gilbert's  pen,  of  which  scarcely  a  dozen  have  ever 
been  printed  before,  in  addition  to  a  most  interesting  cor- 
respondence between  John  White  and  Linnaeus  on  the 
zoology  of  Gibraltar,  and  letters  from  various  members 
of  the  family  which  faithfully  reflect,  as  it  were,  in  a 
remarkable  manner  Gilbert's  own  nature,  besides  a  few — 
too  few,  unfortunately— addressed  to  him  by  men  like 
Lightfoot,  Skinner,  Montagu,  and  Marsham.  For  the 
sake  of  these  we  readily  forgive  all  the  shortcomings  of 
the  present  volume — even  the  want  of  a  table  of  contents 
and  of  a  good  index. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

Proceedim^s  0/  tJu  London  Mathematical  Society^  voL 
viiL  (November,  1876,  to  November,  1877),  321  pp, 
(Messrs.  Hodgson.) 
This  goodly-sized  volume  bears  testimony  to  the  activity 
of  its  members,  and  contains  twenty-nine  papers,  pub- 
lished in  exienso.  We  may  specially  refer  to  one 
or  two.  The  *'Pure"  side  of  the  subject  of  mathe- 
matics, as  usual,  is  the  favoured  one,  and  furnishes 
memoirs  by  Prof.  Cayley  on  the  condition  for  the  exist- 
ence of  a  surface  cutting  at  right  angles  a  given  set  of 
lines,  on  a  general  differential  equation,  geometrical  illus- 
tration of  a  theorem  relating  to  an  irrational  function  of 
an  imaginary  variable,  on  the  curcular  relation  of  Mobius 


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and  on  the  linear  transformation  of  the  integral  /  /,,•"" 

Prof.  Clifford  has  an  excellent  paper  on  the  canonical 
form  and  dissection  of  a  Riemann's  surface.  Prof.  H.  J. 
S.  Smith  contributes  the  conditions  of  perpendicularity  in 
a  parallelepipedal  system,  and  a  very  interesting  presi- 
dential address  on  the  present  state  and  prospects  of  some 
branches  of  pure  mathematics.  Mr.  Spottiswoode  writes 
on  curves  having  four-point  contact  with  a  triply  infinite 
pencil  of  curves,  and  Prof.  Wolstenholme  gives  an  easy 
method  of  finding  the  invariant  equation  expressing  any 
poristic  relation  between  two  conies. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

[The  Ed'Uor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinioiu  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of,  rejected  manuscripts^ 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  ktrep  their  letters  at 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com" 
ptunications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts,"] 

Trajectories  of  Shot 

I  HOPE  you  will  be  able  to  afford  me  space  lor  a  lew  remarks 
on  the  following  extract  from  a  paper  on  the  Trajectories  of 
Shot,  by  Mr.  W.  D.  Niven,  which  appeared  in  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Royal  Society  for  1877. 

Mr.  Niven  arranges  his  paper  under  three  heads,  calling  them 
the  first,  second,  and  third  methods.  The  third  method  is  the 
one  he  favour?,  while  he  endeavours  to  dispose  of  the  other  two 
in  the  following  terms  : — 

"§  II.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  two  foregoing  methods 
each  open  with  the  same  equation  (a).  Now  there  is  a  serious 
difficulty  in  the  use  of  that  equation.  Suppose,  for  example,  we 
were  to  integrate  over  an  arc  of  i^,  we  should  have  to  use  the 
mean  value  of  k  between  its  values  corresponding  to  the  velo- 
cities at  the  be^^inning  and  end  of  the  arc.  But  we  do  not  know 
the  latter  of  these  velocities  ;  it  is  the  very  thing  we  have  to  find. 
The  first  steps  in  our  work  must  be  to  guess  at  it  The  prac- 
tised calculator  can,  from  his  experience,  make  a  very  good  esti- 
mate. Having  made  bis  estimate,  he  determines  k.  He  uses 
this  value  of  >('  in  equation  (a),  and  if  he  gets  the  velocity  he 
guessed  at,  he  concludes  that  he  guessed  rightly,  and  that  he  has 
got  the  velocity  at  the  end  of  the  arc  If  the  equation  (a)  does 
not  agree  with  him,  he  makes  another  guess,  and  so  on  till  he 
comes  right" 

The  case  would  be  indeed  hopeless,  if  all  this  was  quite  cor- 
rect. But  I  have  to  inform  Mr,  Niven  that,  in  all  proper 
cases  Vfi  may  be  found  accurately  from  equation  (a),  and  without 
any  "guessing"  whatever.  Taking  Mr.  Niven's  own  solitary 
example,  I  wiU  calculate  the  value  of  v^  at  the  end  of  an  arc,  not  of 
1%  but  of  3°,  and  compare  my  result  with  his  own.  The  initial 
velocity,  v^,  is  here  1,400  f.s.,  and  the  corresponding  value  of 
the  coefficient  k^,  given  in  my  table,  is  104*0.  Substitute  this 
value  for  k  in  equation  (a),  given  below,  and  v^  will  be  found 
12917  f.s.,  z,  first  approximation.  Now  calculate  the  mean  value 
of  k  between  velocities  1,400  and  1,290  f.s.  by  the  help  of  the  table, 
and  it  wiU  be  found  to  be  equal  to  106  3.  Substitute  this  new 
value  of /C' in  equation  (a),  and  v^  will  be  found  1 289'$  f.s.,  a 
second  approximation.  We  must  stop  here,  because  if  we 
attempted  to  carry  the  approximation  further,  we  should  obtain 
the  same  value  of  k,  and  therefore  of  v^,  as  in  the  second 
approximation.     Mr.  Niven  finds  vp  =  1290  f.s. 

Of  course  in  ordinary  cases,  a  calculator,  in  making  his  first 
approximation  to  Vfi,  would  commence  by  taking  a  value  of  k 
corresponding  to  a  velocity  somewhat  below  the  initial  velocity. 
In  this  way  a  better  first  approximate  value  of  v^  would  be 
found.  Thus,  again  referring  to  Mr.  Niven's  own  example,  I 
will  take  a  step  over  an  arc  of  6^,  from  o  -  -1-  3'*  to  /3  =  -  3°. 
The  iniiial  velocity  is  1,400  f.s.  I  now  go  so  far  as  to  **  guess  " 
that  the  mean  value  of  k  will  correspond  to  a  velocity  consider- 
ably below  1,400  f.8.,  and  toke  k  =  107*9,  corresponding  to  a 
velocity  1,300  f.8.  This  gives  i/^  =  1 208*1,  a/frx/  approxima- 
tion. The  mean  value  of  k  between  1,400  and  1,210  f.s.  is  now 
found  to  be  107*2,  which  gives  V/g  =  1209*0  f.s.  Mr.  Niven 
obtains  1207*4  by  stepping  over  two  arcs  of  3*^.     If  any  fiirther 


adjustment  was  required,  proportional  parts  might  be  used, 
seeing  that  a  correction  9  k  —  —  0*7  gives  hv^  *»  +  1*8. 

Mr.  Niven  then  proceeds  to  question  the  accuracy  of  what  he 
is  pleased  to  call  the  **  process  of  guessing,"  as  follows  i — 

*'  It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  this  method  of  going  to  work, 
leaving  out  of  accotmt  the  loss  of  time,  is  open  to  objection  in  the 
point  of  accuracy.  For,  first  there  is  no  method  of  determiningj 
on  what  principle  the  mean  value  of  k  is  found — what  manner 
of  mean  it  is.  Again,  let  us  suppose  for  an  instant  that  the 
velocity  at  the  end  of  the  arc  guessed  at,  and  the  value  of  k,  are 
in  agreement ;  that  is  to  say,  let  the  equation 

('•««>  sec-fl  -  ('-•-<^>  sec».  =  ^-    *(/-.  -  P,)  -  (.) 

hold  for  the  values  oiv^  and  /'  used  by  the  calctilator.  It  by  no 
means  follows  that  he  has  hit  on  the  right  value  of  v^  and  /*. 

For  if  he  is  dealing  with  a  part  of  the  tables  in  which  —  - 

d  7' 

happens  to  be  nearly  equal  to  -3  ^f"  ~^^-  ^^*^~>  ^^  ^^  ob- 

vious  that  there  are  ever  so  many  pairs  of  values  of  Vfi  and  k 
which  will  stand  the  test  of  satisfying  the  above  equation.  Now 
an  examination  of  Mr.  Bashforth's  tables  fur  ogival-headed  shot 
shows  that  the  value  of  k  diminishes  as  v  increases  from  1,200 

//  !• 

feet  upwards,  so  that  -  -  is  negative  for  a  considerable  range  of 
dv 

values  of  v  which  are  common  in  practice.     It  is  not  at  all 

unlikely,  therefore,  that  the  value  for    ,     just  stated  may  often 

dz 

l>e  very  nearly  true ;  in  which  the  case  the  process  of  guessing 

becomes  extremely  dangerotis." 

I  here  observe  that  Mr.  Niven  is  not  entitled  to  assume  that, 

because  two  quantities  have  the  same  sign,  they  will  therefore  be 

probably  often  nearly  of  eqt*al  value.     Without  discussing  the 

value  of  his  test  of  danger,  I  have  to  state  that  my  tabular  value 

of     ^,  for  velocities  above  1,200  f.s.,  lies  between  o  and  —0*09. 

OVfi 

I  have  calculated  the  numerical  values  of  Mr.  Niven's  expression 

dk 
for  -T-,  for  shot  fired  from  various  guns,  from  the  MartiniJIenry 

dv 
rifle  up  to  the  8o-ton  gun,  and  have  always  obtained  a  numerical 
result  so  far  outside  the  limits  of  the  tabular  value,  that,  for  the 
present,  I  conclude  that  Mr.  Niven's  condition  (whatever  'may 
be  its  value)  is  tiever  nearly  satisfied  in  any  practical  example. 
But  when  a  practical  case  is  produced  where  **ever  10  many 
pairs  of  values  of  v^  and  k"  differing  sensibly,  "stand  the  test 
of  satisfying  the  above  equation"  (a),  it  shall  receive  my  bc&t 
attention. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  problem  of  calculating  the  trajectory 
of  a  shot,  like  so  many  other  practical  problems,  does  not  admit 
ofadirect  and  complete  solution.  So  that  all  solutions,  being 
approximations,  are  more  or  less  erroneous.  But  I  feel  perfect 
confidence  in  the  results  given  by  my  methods  of  calculation, 
because,  the  smaller  the  arcs  taken  at  each  step,  and  the  nearer 
the  calculated  will  approach  to  the  actual  tts^tctary.  But  methods 
of  approximation  require  to  be  used  with  judgmeaL  For  instance 
with  the  heaviest  shot  in  use,  we  may  take  steps  of  5*'  for  veloci- 
ties above  1,100  f.s. ;  while  for  small  arm  btdlets  arcs  of  half  a 
degree  will  be  quite  large  enough.  In  any  case  of  real  difficulty 
the  remedy  will  be  to  divide  the  trajectory  into  smaller  arcs. 

From  what  I  have  said  it  appears  that  my  method  of  finding 
the  trajectories  of  shot,  when  properly  applied^  is  neither  a 
"  process  of  guessing  "  nor  yet  '*  dangerous. " 

Minting  Vicarage,  March  8  F.  Bashforth 


Australian  Monotremata 

I  AM  surprised  to  find  that  **  P.  L.  S."  was  not  aware  that  the 
Echidna  Tachyglossus  hystrix,  is  found  in  Northern  Queensland. 
For  the  benefit  of  your  readers  I  may  mention  that  the  Aus- 
tralian Museum  possesses  a  fine  specimen  of  T,  hystrix  from 
Cape  York.  Mr.  Armit,  of  Georgetown,  Mr.  Robt  Johnstone, 
and  others,  have  frequently  found  them  in  various  parts  of 
Queenslsmd.  One  specimen  from  Cape  York  was  obtained  there 
by  our  taxidermist,  J.  A.  Thorpe,  in  1867. 

The  Platypus  {Omithorhynchus  anatinus)  is  also  found  in 
Queensland  as  far  north  as  the  Burdekin  at  least,  perhaps 
further. 

Tachyglossus,  strictly  speaking,  has  no  pouch,  but  the  areola 


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NATURE 


\March  21,  1878 


is  sunk  in  the  skiu,  and  when  the  young  are  first  bom  this  de- 
pression,  or  miniature  pouch,  is  large  enough  to  hold  them ; 
when  about  a  month  or  so  o^d,  their  hinder  parts  may  be  seen 
sticking  out ;  when  two  or  three  months  ola,  only  the  head, 
and  afterwards,  as  they  become  larger,  only  the  snout  is  hidden, 
the  marsupial  bones,  which  are  wdl  developed,  support  the 
weight  of  the  youug'one  while  sucking.  The  young  does  not 
leave  the  mother  until  at  least  one>third  grown,  and  even 
when  fully  the  site  of  the  adult,  the  quills  are  only  then  begin- 
ning to  show  through  the  skin,  which  is  black,  and  thinly 
covered  with  black  hair. 

The  new  species,  T.  lawesii,  Ramsay,  from  Port  Moresby,  may 
be  distinguished  at  once  by  the  stiff  flat  bristles  of  the  face  and 
the  more  cylindrical  form  of  its  spines ;  71  ^rugniihzs  a  very  long 
snout,  nearly  twice  the  length  of  any  other  species  at  present 
known.  See  Frocecdings  L.  Soc  of  N.  S.  W.,  VoL  ii.,  Pt.  i. 
PI.  I.  E.  P.  Ramsay 

Australian  Museum,  Sydney,  January  25 

P.S. — It  may  interest  your  readers  to  know  that  Messrs. 
Ramsay  Bros.,  of  Maryborough,  Queensland,  have  a  fine  series 
of  eleven  Ceratodus  alive  in  a  large  tank  constructed  for  them. 
These  fish  have  now  lived  and  thnven  well  in  confinement  for 
over  eighteen  months.  I  was  the  first  to  send  the  Ceratodus  in 
spirits  to  England,  although  1  never  got  the  credit  of  it ;  nor 
did  any  of  those  naturalists  to  whom  I  forwarded  specimens 
through  a  friend  at  the  Zoological  Society,  ever  think  it  worth 
their  while  to  acknowledge  them.  Had  it  been  otherwise,  living 
specimens  would  have  found  their  way  to  England  long  since. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  the  Ceratodus  b  now  common ; 
they  can  only  be  obtained  at  certain  seasons  and  in  certain  parts 
of  the  Rivers  Mary  and  Burnet.  The  Osteoglossum  (Barra^ 
muttdi),  with  which  the  Ceratodus  {Teebine)  is  often  confounded, 
is  plentiful  enough  in  the  western  waters  of  Queensland. 

E.  P.  R. 

Fetichism  in  Animals. — Discrimination  of  Insects 

I  HAVE  frequently  noticed  the  fetichism  of  dogs,  and  was 
therefore  much  interested  by  Mr.  G.  J.  Romanes'  letter  of  Decem- 
ber 27,  which  I  have  but  just  seen.  Our  terrier — a  very  queer 
character  and  a  great  warrior — is  abjectly  superstitious.  He 
will  not  come  near  a  toy  cow  that  lows  and  turns  its  head,  but 
watches  it  at  a  distance  with  nose  outstretched.  A  vibrating 
finger-glass  terrifies  him ;  indeed  he  has  so  many  siy)erstitions 
that  we  often  make  him  very  miserable  by  working  on  his  fears. 
I  feel  sure  he  constantly  tries  to  understand,  but  never  gets 
further  than  the  sense  of  **  uncanny  "-ness.  Dogs  vary  greatly 
as  to  this. 

A  propos  of  the  discriminating  power  of  insects.  I  have  seen 
humming-bird  moths  deceived  by  sight.  They  were  seeking  in  an 
open  loggia,  ceiled.with  wood,  some  dark  place  in  which  to  hide ; 
the  pine  wood  was  studded  with  brown  knots.  Again  and  again 
the  two  moths  flew  from  knot  to  knot,  felt  and  rejected  them. 
At  last  they  reached  the  open  work— holes  which  looked  much 
like  the  knots — and  in  them  they  hid  themselves. 

I  was  much  struck  at  the  time,  as  it  appeared  to  me  to  show 
they  possessed  some  dim  sense  of  colour,  but  no  defining  per- 
ception of  surface.  C.  G.  O'Brien 

Cahirmoyle,  Ardagh,  Co.  Limerick 


hunting  by  scent ;  but  when  one  recollects  the  fine  line  usually 
left  by  spiders  as  they  go,  it  is  evident  that  sight  or  feeling  may 
have  been  the  sense  exercised,  and  that  the  fatal  clue  may  have 
bewn  the  guide  to  the  wasp.  £.  Hubba&d 

March  18 


Nitrification 

It  seems  right  to  direct  attention  to  the  fact  that  Bacteria  were 
observed  by  Meusel  to  convert  nitrates  into  nitrites  ;  an  abstract 
of  which  observations  is  to  be  found  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine 
of  Natural  Bistorv  lot  February,  1876;  this  abstract  b  copied 
from  Silliman*s  jM*mal  for  January,  1876,  where  the  reference 
to  Meusel's  paper  will  be  found.  This  reference  is  Ber.  Berl, 
chem.  Gesel,^  October,  1875. 

No  indication  of  their  knowledge  of  these  observations  is  to 
be  found  in  Schloesing  and  Munk's  paper  in  the  Comptes  Rendus 
(February,  1877)  or  in  Mr.  Warington's  communication  to 
Nature,  voL  xvii.  p.  367.  F.  J.  B. 

Oxford,  March  11 

The  Wasp  and  the  Spider 

May  I  suggest  a  possible  explanation  of  the  curious  case  of 
spider-hunting  by  a  wasp  cited  by  Mr.  Cecil ;  had  the  prey  so 
accurately  tracked  by  the  wasp  been  anything  but  a  spider,  it 
would,  indeed,  have  seemed  an  almost  conclusive  instance  of 


ENTOMOLOGY  AT  THE  ROYAL  AQUARIUM 

AN  aquarium  is  put  to  its  legitimate  use  when  it  is 
made  the  home  of  natural  history  exhibitions,  and 
any  attempt  to  rescue  one  from  the  too  dominant  sway 
of  the  showman  deserves  every  support  at  the  hands  of 
science.    The  Entomological  Exhibition,  the  opening  of 
which  at  the  Roy^  Aquarium  we  noticed  last  week,  is 
also  quite  a  novdty,  though  it  is  the  outcome  in  a  parti- 
cular branch  of  the  idea  that  led  to  the  Loan  Exhibition 
of  Scientific  Apparatus  at  South  Kensington  ;  as  in  that 
case  the  exhibitors  are  induced  by  no  hope  of  prizes,  but 
merely  from   the  love  of  their  science  to  lend  their 
treasures.    One  learns  from  such  an  exhibition  as  this 
how  much  genuine  love  for  natural  history  exists  amongst 
men  whose  daily  lives  are  devoted  to  manual  labour,  and 
that  there  are  those  who  live  within  sound  of  Bow  Bells, 
who  make  as  good  a  use  of  their  more  limited  oppor- 
tunities as  Edward  in  Banffshire.   Here  is  a  Mr.  Machin, 
compositor  by  trade,  whose  long  day's  work  has  not  pre- 
vented him  from  collecting  and  rearing  a  magnificent 
series  of  crepuscular   and  nocturnal  moths,  shown  in 
twenty  beautifully-arranged  cases  and  accurately  named  ; 
and  the  collections  of  some  others  are  scarcely  less  notice- 
able in  this  respect  But  apart  from  the  interest  attaching 
to  some  of  the  e^diibitors,  the  material  brought  together 
affords  an  opportunity  both  to  the  entomologist  proper 
and  to  the  general  naturalist  not  often  to  be  met  with. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  whole  exhibition  is  perhaps 
inevitably  taken  up  with  British  lepidoptera,  but  these  are 
not,  as  might  be  feared,  an  endless  multitude  of  specimens  ^ 
of  no  special  interest  beyond  their  rarity  and  beauty,  but  are 
made  to  teach  as  well  as  please.    Lord  Walsingham,  for 
example,  shows  the  larvae,  pupae,  and  imagines  of  nearly     g^^ 
370  species  with  the  plants  on  which  they  occur — so  that 
we  have    their  complete  life-history  so   far  as   it   can 
possibly  be  represented  to  us.    This,  perhaps,  from  its 
scientinc  character  and  the  beautiful  means  of  preserva- 
tion adopted,  is  the  most  interesting  to  the  general  natura- 
list, but  there  are  others  more  limited,  but  scarcely  less 
instructive — as  those  shown  by  the  Messrs.  Adams,  in 
which  the  usual  parasites  are  included  in  the  series  with 
each  insect.    Other  instructive  collections  are  those  which 
illustrate  the  varieties  of  a  single  species  ;  such  is  the  set 
of  specimens  of  Colias  edusa,  exhibited  by  Mr.  Harper,  a 
grand  series  showing  insensible  passages  between  peifectly 
distinct  colourings.    The  influence  of  climate  on  colour 
is  well  illustrated  in  the  melanic  northern  varieties  of 
several  species  of  moths,  which  are  usually  of  a  lighter 
colour  in  the  south  of  England,  the  two  varieties  being 
placed  side  by  side  in  the  Yorkshire  collections,  and  the 
results  of  selective  breeding  in  the  same  direction  in  the 
photographs,  unfortunately  not  specimens,  of  the  common 
gooseberry  moth,  varying  from  nearly  white  to  almost 
entirely  dark.     The  moths  and  butterflies  of  the  fen 
districts,  which  are  now  becoming  so  scarce^  are  repre- 
sented by  a  very  large  collection  by  Mr,  Fam.    But  one 
of  the  most  interesting  objects  is  a  large  white  close-set 
web,  in  appearance  like  a  cloth — some  eight  feet  by  four 
feet,  spun  by  the  larvae  of  a  moth,  Ephestia  elutella^  that 
feeds  on  chicory.    It  is  a  portion  only  of  a  larger  web, 
six  times  the  size,  formed  on  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  a 
chicory  warehouse  in  York,  by  the  incessant  marching  to 
and  fro  of  the  well-fed  larvae.    The  threads  composing  it 
are  less  than  -^^^  inch  in  diameter,  and  as  they  are 
nearly  contiguous  and  eight  or  ten  deep^  the  portion 
exhibited  represents  about  4,000  miles  of  their  wanderings. 
When  twisted  into  a  rope,  it  has  been  made  to  support  a 


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403 


weight  of  561bs.  The  foreign  Lepidopteraalso  figure  largely, 
and  are  naturally  attractive  from  their  beauty,  and  in 
General  Ramsay's  cases  from  Nepaul,  for  their  rarity. 
This  portion  of  the  series,  however,  is  chiefly  valuable 
for  the  illustrations  of  protective  mimicry  which  it  affords. 
Admirable  specimens  of  the  leaf  butterfly,  Kallima 
inachiSj  with  the  varying  tints  of  their  under  surfaces,  are 
in  Gen«  Ramsay's  collection,  and  Mr.  Swanzy  has  a  grand 
series  specially  arranged  of  Diademas  and  Papiliones 
mimicking — some  in  the  females  and  some  in  both  sexes 
—the  nauseous  smelling  members  of  the  Danaidse  and 
Acraidae.  Similar  series  are  shown  by  Rev.  J,  A.  Walker 
and  Mr.  Weir.  The  extraordinary  differences  between 
male  and  female  in  some  butterflies  is  well  illustrated  by 
Mr.  Briggs'  collection  of  Lycacnas. 

The  remaining  orders  are  in  some  instances  admirably 
illustrated,  but  by  far  fewer  exhibitors.  Dr.  Powers'  nearly 
complete  collections  of  British  coleoptera  and  British 
hemiptera,  are  among  the  best  ever  made;  and  Mr. 
Frederick  Smith's  hymenoptera,  which  supplied  much  of 
the  material  for  the  British  Museum  Catalogue,  and  Mr. 
Stevens'  exhaustive  collection  of  weevils,  both  the  results 
of  forty  years'  work,  are  here  exhibited.  A  most  in- 
structive series  of  Grecian  hymenoptera,  with  their 
galleries  bored  in  briars,  and  some  magnificent  cole- 
optera from  Ashantee,  containing  beautiful  examples 
of  Goliathus  Drurii,  complete  the  list  of  the  more  note- 
worthy objects.  Some  important  orders  are  thus  without 
speciad  illustration  here,  but  no  doubt  this  will  not  be  the 
last  as  well  as  the  first  of  such  exhibitions  ;  and  when  it 
comes  round  to  the  insects  again  we  may  hope  to  see  as 
complete  sets  of  diptera  or  neuroptera  as  of  other  orders.  It 
would  be  a  great  advantage  to  students  if  such  exhibitions 
of  limited  classes  could  be  periodically  instituted  by  loan, 
and  Mr.  Carrington  cenainly  deserves  our  thanks  for  the 
idea  and  its  successful  realisation. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  RESEARCH  FUND 

THE  following  list  of  grants  to  be  paid  from  the 
Government  Fund  of  4,000/.  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Royal  Society,  durmg  the  present  year,  in  aid 
of  scientific  research,  has  been  sent  us  for  publication  : — 

Not  Pcrsottal, 

David  Gill,  93,  Wimpole  Street,  W.— To  defray  Expenses 
connected  with  a  Determination  of  the  Solar  Parallax  by 
Observation  of  the  Diurnal  Parallax  of  Mars     ^250 

Rev.  Dr.  Haughton,  Trinity  College  Dublin.— For  Aid  in  the 
Namerical  Redactions  of  the  'Hdal  Ot>servations  made  on 
board  the  Discovery  and  Alert  in  the  late  Arctic  Expedi- 
tion           £7S 

Prof.  Fle^jning  Jenkin,  3,  Great  Stuart  Street,  Edinburgh. — 
For  Experimental  Investigations  on  Friction       £^0 

W.  Chandler  Roberts,  Royal  Mint,  Tower  Hill,  E.— For 
Researches  on  Metals  and  AUoys  in  a  Molten  State  passing 
through  Capillary  Tubes        £2^ 

J.  Kerr,  Free  Church  Training  College,  Glasgow. — For 
Continuation  of  Electro-Optic  and  Magneto-Optic  Re- 
searches           j^5o 

J.  Norman  Lockyer,  16,  Penywem  Road,  South  Kensington, 
S.W. — For  Continuation  of  Spectroscopic  Researches    ^200 

Dr.  O.  J.  Lodge,  University  College,  Gower  Street,  W.C— 
For  Investigations  into  the  Effect  of  Light  on  the  residual 
Charge  of  Dielectrics ;  on  the  Conductivity  of  Hot  Glass,  and 
other  Transparent  Conductors,  on  Electrolytic  Conduction, 
a^d  other  SubjecU £iQO 

Thomas  Stevenson,  Hon.  Sec.  Scottish  Meteorological  Society, 
General  Post  Office  Buildings,  Edinburgh. — For  Aid  m 
carrying  on  a  Simultaneous  Series  of  Anemometrical  Observa- 
tions at  different  heights,  and  in  sheltered  and  unsheltered 
situations £S0 

W.  Galloway,  Cardiff.— For  further  Investigation  of  the  Explo- 
sive Properties  of  Mixtures  of  Fire  Damp  and  Coal  Dust  with 
Air £iQO 

Sir  William  Thomson,  University  College,  Glasgow. — For  Tidal 
Investigations £100 


For  Experiments  in  Magnetisation  of  different  Qualities  of  Iron, 
Nickel,  and  Cobalt  under  varying  Stresses  and  Tempera- 
tures      ^100 

J.  E.  H.  Gordon,  Pixholme,  Dorkmg. — For  Continuatioa  of 
Experimental  Measurements  of  the  Specific  Inductive  Capacity 
of  Dielectrics    £^00 

H.  Tomlinson,  36,  Burghley  Road,  Highgate  Road. — For  Re- 
searches on  the  Alteration  of  Thermal  and  Electrical  Conduc- 
tivity produced  by  Magnedsoi,  and  on  the  Alteration  oi 
Electrical  Resistance  produced  in  Wires  by  Stretching    ;^ioo 

Prof.  H.  AUeyne  Nicholson,  University  of  St.  Andrew's ;  R 
Etheridge,  jun..  Geological  Simrey  Office,  Edinburgh.— For 
Aid  in  examining  the  Fauna  of  the  Silurian  Deposits  of  the 
Girvan  District,  Ayrshire,  and  in  publishing  a  Descriptive  List 
of  the  same       £f^ 

R.  McLachlan,  39,  Limes  Grove,  Lewisham — For  Aid  towards 
the  Expense  of  Publication  of  a  Revision  and  Synopsis  of 
European  Trichoptera    £^0 

C.  Callawav,  Wellington,  Shropshire. — For  Aid  in  working  out 
the  so-called  Eruptive  Rocks  of  Shropshire,  and  in  verifying 
certain  points  in  Local  Geology     £2^ 

H.  T.  Stainton,  Mountsfield,  Leirisham. — In  Aid  of  the  Publica- 
tion Fund  of  the  Zoological  Record  Association £iS^ 

Dr.  J.  W.  Dawson,  McGill  Collie,  Montreal— For  Aid  in 
excavating  Erect  Trees  in  the  Coal  Formation  of  Nova  Scotia, 
in  Beds  where  they  are  known  to  contain  Reptilian  and  other 
Remains    ^50 

Dr.  R.  H.  Traquair,  Museiun  of  Science  and  Art,  Edinburgh. — 
For  Aid  in  preparing  and  publishing  a  Monograph  on  the 
Carboniferous  Ganoid  Fishes  of  Great  Britain    ^75 

W.  Saville  Kent,  St  Helier's,  Jersey.— To  pay  for  Microscopical 
Apparatus  for  the  Further  Prosecution  of  Investigations  into 
the  Structure  and  Life- History  of  certain  Lower  Protozoa  ^50 

Dr.  W.  A.  Brailey,  38,  King's  Road,  Brownswood  Park,  Green 
Lanes,  N. — For  Researches  on  the  Catues  determining  the 
Tension  of  the  Globe  of  the  Eye  in  Man  and  Animals,  and  on 
the  Physiological  Influence  on  this  Tension  of  such  Substances 
as  Atropia,  Daturin,  Eserine,  and  Pilocarpine    £2% 

E.  A.  Schafer,  University  College,  Gower  Street. — For  Pay- 
ment  of  an  Assistant  in  Continuing  his  Histological  and  Em- 
bryological  Investigations       £^0 

H.  Woodward,  117,  Beaufort  Street,  Chelsea.— For  Continua- 
tion  of  Work  on  the  Fossil  Crustacea,  especially  with  refer- 
ence^ to  the  Trilobita  and  other  Extinct  Forms,  and  their 
Pubhcation  in  the  Volumes  of  the  Palseontographical  So- 
ciety          £7$ 

Prof.  H.  G.  Secley,  61,  Adelaide  Road,  N.W.— For  an 
Examination  of  the  Structure,  Affinities,  and  Classification  of 
the  Extinct  Reptilia  and  Allied  Animals     ^75 

Dr.  C.  R.  A.  Wright,  St  Mary's  Hospital,  Paddington.— For 
Continuation  of  Researches  on  Certain  Points  in  Chemical 
Dynamics;  on  the  Determination  of  Chemical  Affinity  in 
Terms  of  Electrical  Magnitudes ;  and  on  some  of  the  lesser- 
known  Alkaloids     £100 

Prof.  C.  Schorlemmer,  Oveens  College,  Manchester. — For  Con- 
tinuation of  Researches  into  (t)  The  Normid  Paraffins. 
(2)  Suberone.     (3)  Anrin      £^00 

Prof.  E.  J.  Mills,  234,  East  George  Street,  Glasgow.— For  a 
Research  on  Standard  Industrial  Curves     ^100 

Fersanal, 

J.  Allan  Broun,  9,  Abcrcom  Place,  St  John's  Wood,  N.  W.,— 
For  Continuation  of  Correction  of  the  Errors  in  the  published 
Observations  of  the  Colonial  Magnetic  Observatories    £iSo 

Dr.  J.  P.  Joule,  12,  Wardle  Road,  Sale^  near  Manchester.— For 
an  Exhaustive  Inquiry  into  the  Change  which  takes  place  in 
Uie  Freezing  and  Boiling  Points  of  Mercurial  Thermometers 

*    by  long  Exposure  to  those  Temperatures    £200 

Prof.  W.  K.  Parker,  36,  Claverton  Street,  S.  W.— For  Assistance 
in  Continuation  of  Researches  on  the  Morphology  of  the  Ver- 
tebrate Skeleton  and  the  Relations  of  the  Nervous  to  the 
Skeletal  Structures  chiefiv  in  the  Head      /300 

Prof.  A.  H.  Garrod,  10,  Harley  Street,  W.— For  Aid  towrards 
Publication  of  the  Second  Fasciculus  of  an  Exhaustive  Trea- 
tise on  the  Anatomy  of  Birds       £10^ 

Rev.  J.  F.  Blake,  11,  Gauden  Road,  Clapham,  S.W. —For  Aid 
in  continuing  the  Publication  of  a  Synopsis  of  British  Fossil 
Cephalopoda    ^100 

Dr.  W.  A.  Brailey,  38,  King's  Road,  Brownswood  Park,  Green 
Lanes,  N.— For  Researches  on  the  Qnses  determining  th 


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{March  21,  1878 


Tension  of  the  Globe  of  the  Eye  in  Mm  and  Animals,  and  on 
the  Physiolo^cal  Influence  on  Uiis  Tension  of  such  Substances 
as  Atropia,  Daturin,  £serine,and  Pilocarpine     ^"25 

Dr.  C  R.  A.  Wright,  St.  Mary's  Hospital,  Paddington.— For 
Continuation  of  Researches  on  certain  Points  in  Chemical 
Dfnamics ;  on  the  Determination  of  Chemical  Affinity  in 
Terms  of  Electrical  Magnitudes ;  and  on  some  of  the  lesser- 
known  Alkaloids     ji^200 

Prof.  Schorlemmer,  Owens  College,  Manchester. — For  Continua- 
tion of  Researches  into  (i)  the  Normal  Paraffins,  (2)  Suberone, 
(3>  Aurin ^150 

W.  N.  Hartley,  King's  College,  Strand.— For  Inyestigation  of 
the  Fluid  Contents  of  Mineral  Cavities  ;  of  the  Properties  of 
the  Phosphate  of  Cerium;  of  Methods  of  Estimating  the 
Carbonic  Add  in  small  Samples  of  Air ;  and  of  Photographic 
Spectra      ^150 

Dr.  Armstrong,  Lewisham  Village,  S.E. — For  Continuation  of 
Researches  into  the  Phenol  Serief ^250 


•   THE  SOURCES  OF  LIGHT  "^ 

AIT  HEN  the  sun  rises  in  the  morning,  the  darkness  of 
^  *  the  night  seems  to  fede  away,  and,  wherever  we 
look,  without  or  within,  all  the  air  and  space  about  us 
appears  to  be  full  of  light.  When  evening  comes  again, 
the  daylight  disappears,  and  the  moon  and  the  stars  give 
us  another  light.  In  the  house  we  start  the  lamps,  and 
they  give  us  another  light.  Out-of-doors,  in  the  dusky 
meadows,  we  see  the  fire-flies  darting  about,  and  giving 
out  pale  sparkles  of  yellow  light  as  they  fly.  We  look  to 
the  north  in  the  night  and  see  the  aurora,  or  we  watch 
the  lightnings  flash  from  cloud  to  cloud,  and  again  we  see 
more  light 

This  light  from  sun  and  moon,  the  stars,  the  fire,  the 
clouds,  the  sky,  is  well  worth  studying.  It  will  give  us  a 
number  of  the  most  beautiful  and  interesting  experiments, 
and  by  the  aid  of  a  lamp,  or  the  light  of  the  sun,  we  can 
learn  much  that  is  both  strange  and  curious,  and  perhaps 
exhibit  to  our  friends  a  nimiber  of  charming  pictures, 
groups  of  colours,  magical  reflections,  spectres,and  shadows. 
All  light  comes  from  bodies  on  the  earth  or  in  the  air,  or 
from  bodies  outside  of  the  atmosphere ;  and  these  bodies 
we  call  the  sources  of  light.  Light  from  sources  outside 
of  the  atmosphere  we  call  celestial  light,  and  the  sources 
of  this  light  are  stars,  comets,  and  nebulae.  The  nebulae 
appear  like  flakes  and  clouds  of  light  in  the  sky,  and  the 
comets  appear  only  at  rare  intervals,  as  wandering  stars 
that  shine  for  a  littie  while  in  the  sky  and  then  disappear. 
The  stars  are  scattered  widely  apart  through  the  vast 
spaces  of  the  universe,  and  they  give  out  their  light  both 
day  and  night.  The  brightest  of  these  stars  is  the  sun. 
When  it  shines  upon  us,  the  other  stars  appear  to  be  lost 
in  the  brighter  light  of  this  greater  star,  and  we  cannot  see 
them.  At  night,  when  the  sun  is  hid,  these  other  stars 
appear.  We  look  up  into  the  sky  and  see  thousands  of 
them,  fixed  points  of  light,  each  a  sun,  but  so  far  away 
that  they  seem  mere  spots  and  points  of  light.  Besides 
these  stars  are  others,  called  the  planets,  that  move  round 
the  sun.  These  give  no  light  of  their  own,  and  we  can 
only  see  them  by  the  reflected  light  of  the  great  star  in  the 
centre  of  our  solar  system.  Among  these  stars  are  the 
Moon,  Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  many  others.  We  might 
call  celestial  li^ht  starlight ;  but  the  light  from  the  great 
star,  the  sun,  is  so  much  brighter  than  the  light  of  the 
others,  that  we  call  the  light  it  gives  us  sunlight,  and  the 
light  from  the  other  suns  we  call  starlight.  For  conve- 
nience, we  also  call  the  reflected  light  from  the  planets 
starlight,  and  the  light  from  our  nearest  planet  we  call 
moonlight 

Terrestrial  light  includes  all  the  light  given  out  by 
things  on  the  earth,  or  in  the  air  that  surrounds  the  earth. 

*  From  at  forthcomiog  Tolame  of  the  **  Nature  Series  '*— **  Light :  a  Scries 
of  Simple,  Eotertaioing,  and  InexpeiuiYe  Experiments  in  the  Phenomena 
of  Liffht,  for  Che  Use  di  Students  of  Every  Age/'  by  Alfred  M.  Mayer  and 
Charles  Barnard. 


The  most  common  light  we  call  firelight,  or  the  light  that 
that  comes  from  combustion.  When  we  light  a  lamp  or 
candle,  we  start  a  curious  chemical  action  that  gives  out 
light  and  heat.  The  result  of  this  action  is  fire,  and  the 
light  that  comes  from  the  flame  is  firelight  When  a 
thimder-storm  rises,  we  see  the  lightning  leap  from  the 
clouds,  and  give  out  flashes  of  intensely  bright  light. 
Sometimes,  at  night,  the  northern  sky  is  full  of  red  or 
yellow  light,  darting  up  in  dancing  streamers,  or  resting 
in  pale  clouds  in  the  dark  sky.  You  have  seen  the  tiny 
sparkles  of  light  that  spring  from  the  cat's  back  when  you 
stroke  her  fur  in  the  dark,  or  have  seen  the  sparks  that 
leap  from  an  electrical-machine.  All  these— the  aurora, 
the  li^tning,  and  the  electric  sparks — are  the  same,  and  V 
we  call  such  light  electric  light. 

Sometimes,  in  the  night,  we  see  shooting-stars  flash 
across  the  sky.  These  are  not  stars,  but  masses  of 
matter  that,  flying  through  space  about  the  earth, 
strike  our  atmosphere  and  suddenly  blaze  with  light. 
The  friction  with  the  air  as  they  dart  through  it  is  so  great 
that  these  masses  glow  with  white  heat,  and  give  out 
brilliant  light  Two  smooth  white  flint  pebbles,  or  two 
lumps  of  white  sugar,  if  rubbed  quickly  together,  will 
give  out  light,  and  this  light  we  call  the  light  from 
mechanical  action. 

Sailors  upon  the  ocean  sometimes  see,  at  night,  pale- 
yellow  gleams  of  light  in  the  water.  A  fire»fly  or  glow- 
worm imprisoned  under  a  glass  will  show,  in  the  dark, 
bright  spots  of  light  on  his  body.  A  piece  of  salted  fish 
or  chip  of  decayed  wood  will  sometimes  give  a  pale,  cold 
light  in  the  night ;  and  certain  chemicals,  like  Bologna 
phosphorus  and  compounds  of  sulphur,  lime,  strontium, 
and  barium,  if  placed  in  the  sunlignt  in  glass  vessels  and 
then  taken  into  the  dark,'  will  give  out  dull-coloured  lights. 
All  these— the  drppsof  fire  in  the  sea,  the  glow-worm,  the 
bit  of  decayed  wood,  and  these  chemicals — are  sources 
of  the  light  called  phosphorescence.  -^ 

These  are  the  sources  of  light — the  stars,  the  fire, 
electricity,  friction,  and  phosphorescent  substances.  We 
can  study  the  light  from  all  of  them,  but  the  light  from  k 

the  sun  or  a  lamp  will  be  the  most  convenient.  The  light  of 
the  sun  is  the  brightest  and  the  cheapest  light  we  can  find, 
and  is  the  best  for  our  experiments.  A  good  lamp  is  the 
next  best  thing,  and  in  experimenting  we  will  use  either 
the  sun  or  a  lamp,  as  happens  to  be  most  easy  and  con- 
venient 

The  Heliostat 

In  looking  out  of  doors  in  the  daytime  we  find  that  the 
sunlight  fills  all  the  air,  and  extends  as  far  as  we  can  see. 
It  shines  in  at  the  window  and  fills  the  room.  Even  on 
a  cloudy  day,  and  in  rooms  where  the  sunshine  cannot 
enter,  the  light  fills  everything,  and  is  all  about  us  on 
every  side.  Now,  in  studying  light  we  do  not  wish  a 
great  qtiantity.  We  want  only  a  slender  beam,  and  we 
must  bring  it  into  a  dark  room,  where  we  can  see  it  and 
walk  about  it  and  examine  it  on  every  side,  bend  it,  split 
it  up  into  several  beams,  make  it  pass  through  glass  or 
water,  and  do  anything  else  that  will  illustrate  the  laws 
that  govern  it 

Choose  a  bright,  sunny  day,  and  go  into  a  room  having 
windows  through  which  the  sun  shines.  Close  the 
shutters,  curtains  and  blinds,  at  all  the  windows  save  one. 
At  this  window  draw  the  curtain  down  till  it  nearly  closes 
the  window,  and  then  cover  this  open  space  with  a  strip 
of  thick  wrapping-paper.  Cut  a  hole  in  this  paper  about 
the  size  of  a  five-cent  piece,  and  at  once  you  will  have  a 
slender  beam  of  sunlight  entering  the  hole  in  the  paper 
and  felling  on  the  floor.  Close  the  upper  part  of  the 
window  with  a  thick  shawl  or  blanket,  and,  when  the 
room  is  perfectly  dark,  our  slender  beam  of  light  will 
stand  out  clear,  sharp,  and  bright. 

As  soon  as  we  begin  to  study  this  beam  of  light,  we 
find  two  little  matters  that  may  give  us  trouble.  The  sun 
does  not  stand  still  in  the  sky,  and  our  beam  of  light 


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NATURE 


405 


keeps  moving.  Besides  this,  the  beam  is  not  level,  and 
it  is  not  in  a  convenient  place.  We  want  a  horizontal 
beam  of  light,  and  some  means  of  keeping  it  in  one  place 
aU  day.  An  instrument  that  will  enable  us  to  do  this, 
and  that  can  be  adjusted  to  the  position  of  the  sun  in  the 
sky  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  and  every  hour  of  the  day, 
may  be  readily  made,  and  will  cost  only  a  small  sum  of 
money. 

We  give  several  drawings  giving  different  views  of  such 
an  instrument  and  some  of  its  separate  parts.  It  is 
called  a  heliostat,  and  we  shall  find  it  of  the  utmost  value 
in  our  experimenting  in  light,  heat,  sound,  electricity, 
and  other  branches  of  physical  science. 


Fig.  f. 

The  first  drawing  represents  a  front-view  of  the  helio» 
Stat.  The  second  drawing  gives  an  end-view,  and  we 
can  now  make  one  by  simply  following  these  few  direc- 
tions :  The  part  marked  A  in  the  two  drawings  is  a  piece 
of  pine  boird,  23  inches  (58*4  centimetres)  wide  and  two 
or  more  feet  long,  or  as  long  as  the  window  where  it  is  to 
be  used  is  wide.  Any  boy  who  can  use  plane  and  saw 
can  make  this  piece  of  work  out  of  common  inch-board, 
and,  if  you  have  no  pieces  so  wide  as  that,  it  can  be 
made  of  two  or  more  pieces  fastened  together  with  cleats ; 
but,  in  this  case,  all  the  cracks  must  be  close  and  tight. 
In  the  middle  of  this  board,  cut  a  round  hole  5  inches 
(127  centimetres)  in  diaineter,  with  its  centre  8  inches 


from  the  bottom  of  the  board  Jn  the  Arst  drawing  this 
hole  can  be  seen  at  B,  and  in  (he  second  drawing  yl  is 
shown  by  dotted  lines  at  B.  On  one  side  of  the  board 
screw  two  iron  brackets,  using  brackets  measuring  14 
inches  (35*5  centimetres)  by  12  mches  (30*5  centimetres). 
These  brackets  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  jthe  hole 
in  the  board,  and  are  placed  14  inches  (35*5  centimetres) 
apart,  and  with  the  short  arm  of  the  bracket  against  the 
board.  In  the  first  drawing  the  two  brackets  are  shown, 
and  in  the  second  drawing  one  is  shown  in  profile,  and 
they  are  marked  C  in  both  drawings.  On  the  end  of  the 
brackets  is  placed  a  flat  piece  pf  board,  6J  inches  (16*5 
centimetres)  wide  and  14  inches  (35*5  centimetres)  long, 
or  long  enough  to  reach  fron^  one  bracket  to  the  other. 
This  board  may  be  screwed  up  to  the  brackets,  and  thus 
make  a  shelf.  Care  must  be  taken  in  fas^ning  this  shelf 
to  the  brackets  to  place  it  so  tha(  the  outside  edge  pf  the 
shelf  will  be  16  inches  (40*6  centimetres)  from  the  large 
board.  On  the  outside  edge  of  this  shelf  another  board, 
7  inches  (17*8  centimetres)  wide,  is  placed  upright,  and 
secured  with  screws  and  small  strips  of  wood  at  the  ends, 
as  in  the  drawing.  This  she^f,  with  the  wooden  back,  is 
marked  D  in  the  drawings. 

These  things  make  the  fixed  parts  of  the  heliostat,  and 
we  haye  next  to  make  the  movable  parts,  or  the  machinery 
whereby  it  can  be  adjusted  to  the  movement  of  the  sun 
in  the  heavens.  First,  get  out  a  flat  piece  of  board  \o\ 
inches  (267  centimetres)  long,  6J  inches  (16  centimetres) 
wide,  and  \  inch  (12  millimetres)  thick  Then  make  a 
flat,  half-round  piece,  shaped  like  the  figure  marked  G. 
This  piece  must  be  J  inch  (7  millimetres)  thick,  5^  inches 
(14  centimetres)  along  the  straight  side,  and  with  the 
circular  part  with  a  radius  of  3  inches  (7*6  centimetres). 
A  hole,  \  inch  (12  millimetres)  in  diameter,  is  made  in 
thiS|  as  represented  in  the  drawing,  and  then  the  half-round 
piece  must  be  screwed  to  the  flat  piece  of  wood  we  just  cut 
put.  In  the  part  marked  N  in  Fig.  1  you  will  see  these  two 
pieces  fastened  together.  The  piece  marked  I  is  the  most 
difficult  piece  of  all.  It  should  be  made  of  ash  or  some 
hard  wood.  One  end  is  square,  and  has  a  deep  slot  cut 
in  it ;  the  rest  is  round,  and  may  be  \\  inch  (3a  milh- 
metres  in  diameter.  The  square  part  must  be  large 
enough  to  slip  over  the  half-circular  piece,  G,  as  is  shown 
at  H.  A  hole,  \  inch  (12  millimetres)  in  diameter,  is  cut 
in  the  two  ends,  as  marked  by  dotted  lines  at  j,  and 
through  these  holes  an  iron  bolt  and  nut  are  fitted,  so  as 
to  hold  the  circular  piece,  G,  and  ^et  allow  it  to  tum  freely 
in  every  direction.  A  hole,  \\  mch  (32  millimetres)  in 
diameter,  is  cut  through  the  triangular  piece  of  wood  K, 
as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  then  this  block  is 
securely  fastened  to  the  back  of  the  large  board,  as  shown 
in  the  second  drawing.  An  opening  of  the  same  diameter, 
and  having  the  same  direction,  is  also  cut  through  the 
board,  and  the  movable  piece,  marked  l,  is  put  through 
this  hole,  as  in  the  drawing.  Finally,  we  want  a  wooden 
washer,  3^  inches  (87  centimetres)  wide,  as  represented 
at  M.  This  we  slip  over  the  long  wooden  handle,  as 
shown  in  the  second  drawing,  and  this  washer  rests  on 
the  block  K,  the  top  of  which  is  3  J  inches  square.  This 
makes  all  the  movable  parts  of  the  heliostat,  and,  when 
we  have  put  in  the  mirrors,  the  instrument  is  finished  and 
ready  for  use.  We  must  have  two  mirrors,  one  6  inches 
(15 '2  centimetres)  square  and  one  10  inches  (25*4  centi- 
metres) long  and  6  inches  (iS"2  centimetres)  wide.  These 
may  be  made  of  common  looking-glass  :  but  plate-glass 
with  silvered  back  is  far  better,  and  costs  only  a  little 
more. 

Any  carpenter  can  make  this  instrument,  and  the  cost 
will  be  about  as  follows :  Wood,  50  cents  ;  labour,  $175  ; 

flass,  ti  ;  iron  nut,  5  cents  ;  brackets,  50  cents— total, 
3.80.  When  finished,  the  instrument  should  have  a  coat 
of  shellac-varnish,  and,  when  this  is  done,  the  mirrors 
may  be  put  in  place,  and  fastened  on  with  very  heavy 
bands  of  rubber.     This  will  enable  us  to  take  the  glasses 


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[March  2i.  1878 


off  when  the  instrument  is  not  in  us«»«nd  if  the  elastic 
bandk  or  rings  are  very  sttong,  they  will  answer  perfectly. 
The  long  mfrtor  is  to  go  on  the  movable  piece  at  K»  and 
the  smaR^mirror  stands  on  the  shelf^  facing  lite  opening  in 
the  board,  at  o.  This  mirror  stands^  at  the  angfe  shown 
in  the  next  drttwing  (Fig.  2),  and  the  other  mirror  i»  ad- 
justed to  the  Sim  at  its  Various  positions  ia  the  sky  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year. 

Here  is  a  diagt^m  showing  the  position  «if  the  handle 
of  the  heliostat,  and  the  mirror  for  different  seasons  and 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  handle  must  be 
placed  on  a  line  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  earthy  and 
the  four  dotted  lines  give  its  position  when  the  heliostat  is 
to  be  used  in  Boston,  New  York,  Washington,  and  New 
Orleans.  This  also  causes  the  block  of  wood  marked  K 
to  have  a  slightly  different  shape,  so  that  the  hole  through 
it  will  be  in  the  middle.-  The  dotted  line  marked  "At 
Equinox  **  shows  the  path  of  t&e  light  from  the  sun^  and 

\ 


"% 


\  f  / 


S&XGTMimLEMtRKit. 


I'lQ.  u- 

the  three  dotted  lines  show  the  paths  of  the  reflected  Kght 
as  it  passes  from  one  mirror  to  the  other.  The  position 
of  the  movable  mirror  is  also  shown  in  the  positions  it 
has  at  the  summer  and  winter  solstices. 

First  ExPerinurU  wiik  tkt  HtlioskU^ 
Choose  a  bright  sunny  dav,  and  take  the  helioslat  into 
a  room  having  a  window  mcing  the  south.  Raise  the 
sash  and  place  the  instrument  in  the  windlow,  and  fasten 
it  there  so  that  it  wUI  be  6rm  and  stead>\  Before  closing 
the  window  down  upon  it,  move  the  larger  mirror  on  its 
axis  till  it  reflects  a  beam  of  light  into  the  small  mirror. 
Then  turn  the  handle  to  the  right  or  left,  and  a  round, 
horizontal  beam  of  light  wfll  enter  the  room.  When  this 
is  done,  close  all  the  windows,  so  as  to  make  the  room  as 
dark  as  possible.  To  do  this,  shawls  or  blankets  or 
enamelled  cloth  will  be  found  oseCul  inside  the  curtains 
and  shutters.  Then  get  a  piece  of  cardboard,  about  6 
inches  (15*2  centimetres)  square,  and  V^y  a  five-cent  piece 
in  the  centre,  and,  with  a  knife,  cut  a  hole  fn  the  card  just 
the  sire  of  the  cohi.  Then  fasten  this,  wkh  pins  or  tacks, 
over  the  opening  in  the  heliostat. 

We  have  now  a  slender  beam  of  light  in  a  dark  room. 
Walk  about  and  study  it  from  different  sides.  See  how 
straight  this  slender  bar  of  light  is ;  it  bends  to  neither 
the  left  nor  the  right,  but  extends  across  the  room  in  an 
absolutely  straight  line.  As  the  sun  moves,  turn  the 
handle  of  the  heliostat  to  keep  the  Ught  in  place. 
Here  (Fig.  3)  i&a  picture  o£ adark  room,  in  the  window  of 


which  is  the  hc^ostat.  In  the  centre  of  the  piece  of  carci- 
board  is  the  small  hole  where  the  light  enters  the  room. 
A  boy  is  holding  one  end  of  a  long  piece  of  linen  tjhread 
just  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  in  the  card,  and  aoother 
bay  has  drawn  the  thread  out  straight  and  tight,  so  \\xM 
it  iust  touches  the  beam  of  light  throughout  its  length. 

Were  you  to  try  this  experiment,  you  woukl  see  that  tbe 
thread  would  suddenly  be  lighted  up  throughout  its  whole 
length*  and  ^ould  shine  in  the  oark  room  Uke  sibrer. 
Then  if  the  boy  allows  the  thread  to  become  slack  and 
loose,  or  if  he  lowers  it  even  a  very  little,  it  will  disappear 
in  the  darkness.  If  he  raises  and  lowers  it  cjuickly,  it 
will  seem  to  appear  and  disappear  as  if  by  magic. 

This  is  a  very  pretty  experiment ;  but  we  must  not  stop 
to  look  at  its  merely  curious  effects.  Try  it  over  several 
times,  and  see  if  it  does  not  show  you  something  about 
the  beam  of  sunlight.  Plainly,  if  the  thread  is  hghted 
up  its  whole  length  when  it  is  straight,  then  the  beam  of 


Fig.  3. 

light  must  be  straight  also.  Here  we  discover  something 
about  light ;  we  learn  that  it  has  a  certain  property. 
Our  experiment  shows  that  light  moves  in  straight  lines. 

Experiment  with  Cards  ana  a  Lamp, 

Here  (Fig.  4)  is  a  picture  representing  three  little  wooden 
blocks  placed  in  a  row  upon  a  flat,  smooth  table,  and 
fastened  to  them  are  three  postal-cards,  so  that  they  will 
stand  upright.  At  the  end  of  the  table  is  a  small  lamp. 
This  is  all  we  need  to  perform  another  experiment,  that 
will  show  us  the  same  thing  we  observed  with  the  beam 
of  light  from  the  heliostat.  To  make  these  things,  get 
a  piece  of  wood  10  inches  (25*4  centimetres)  long,  3 
inches  (76  millimetres)  wide,  and  i^  inch  (37  millimetres) 
thick,  and  saw  it  into  5  pieces,  each  2 J  inches  (64  milli- 
metjes)  long.  Next  make  three  slips  of  pine,  4  inches 
(10  centimetres)  long,  3  inches  (76  millimetres)  wide,  and 
\  inch  (4  millimetres)  thick.  Having  made  these,  get 
three  postal-cards,  and  lay  tbcm  t^at  tm  a  bo4u*1,  one  over 
the  otner.  Just  here  we  need  a  tool  for  rtwkmg  sniail 
holes  and  doing  other  work  itr  the^e  experi merits  ;  jtod  we 
push,  with  a  pair  of  pliers,  a  cambric  needk  inio  tlia  <l4 
of  a  wooden  penholder  or  other  slender  stick,  eutliiiff  the 
eye-end  into  the  wood,  and  thus  making  a  neeoie-pnrQttd 
awl.  Measure  off  one-half  inch  from  one  eod  of  the  lop 
postal-card,  and  with  the  awl  mmch  a  fcu»le  thj-ouf h  them 
all,  just  half-way  from  each  side.  Lift  ifce  CMtis  up»  nnd 
with  a  slurp  penknife  pare  off  the  rai4|^  i4e<^  <jf  tbe 


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NATURE 


407 


holes,  and  then  run  the  needle  through  each,  so  as  to 
make  the  holes  clean  and  even. 

Take  one  Of  these  cardsaod  onei  oC  the  wooden  slips, 
and  put  the  catd  squarely  on  one  of  the  wooden  blocks 
and  place  the  slip  over  it,  and  tack  them  both  down  to 
the  block.  This  will  give  vs  the  cajrds  and  bloqks  as 
shown  in  the  picture.  When  each  caord  is  thus  fastened 
to  a  block,  we  shall  have  two  blocks  left.  These  we  can 
lay  aside,  as  we  shall  need  thera  in  another  experiment. 

Now  Hght  the  lamp^  and  place  one  block  on  the  Uble, 
ouite  near  the  lamp.  \Axk,  at  the  lamp  carefully,  and  see 
that  the  flame  is  just  on  a  level  with  the  hole  in  the  card. 
If  k  is  too  high  or  too  low,  place  some  books  under  it,  or 
put  the  lamp  on  a  pile  of  books  on  a  chair  near  the  table, 
fake  a  chair  and  sit  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  table,  and 
place  another  card  before  you.  Now  look,  through  the 
hole  in  this  card,  at  the  first  card  before  the  lampw  If 
the  table  is  level,  you  will  see  a  tiny  star  or  point  of  light 
shining  through  the  holes  in  the  two  cards.  Without 
moving  the  eye,  draw  the  third  card  into  line  between  the 
others,  and  in  a  moment  you  will  see  the  yeHow  star 
shining  through  all  three  cards. 

Next  take  a  piece  of  thread  and  stretch  it  against  the 
sides  of  the  three  cards,  just  as  they  stand,  and  immedi- 
ately you  see  that  they  are  exactly  in  line.  The  holes  in 
the  cards  we  know  are  at  the  same  distance  from  the  edges 
of  the  cards,  and  our  experiment  proves  that  the  beam  of 
light  that  passed  through  all  the  holes  must  be  straight, 


Fiu  4. 

or  we  could  not  have  seen  it.  The  cards  are  in  a  straight 
Hne,  and  the  beam  of  Kgfat  must  also  be  straight.  This 
experiment,  like  the  first,  shows  us  that  there  is  a  law  or 
rofe  governing  the  movement  of  Kght,  and  that  law  is, 
that  light  moves  in  straight  lines. 

Move  the  lamp  as  near  to  the  edge  of  the  table  as 
possible,  and  then  bring  one  of  the  cards  close  to  the 
lamp  chimney.  Then  change  your  seat,  and  repeat  this 
experiment  several  times  in  different  directions.  Each 
time  you  will  see  exactly  the  same  thing,  no  matter  in 
what  direction  the  light  moves  from  the  lamp.  The  lamp 
may  be  moved  from  one  side  of  the  table  to  the  other, 
and  in  every  direction  we  shall  find  the  light  moving  in 
exactly  straight  lines  from  the  source  of  light.  This  is 
true  whether  the  source  be  the  sun,  a  lamp,  or  a  star. 
One  can  walk  all  about  the  lamp  and  see  it  from  every 
side,  and  we  can  place  our  three  cards  in  any  direction, 
north  or  south,  up  or  down,  east  or  west,  or  in  any  and 
every  direction,  and  every  time  it  will  give  the  same 
result. 

Thus  we  have  found  out  the  law  by  which  light  moves, 
viz.^  it  moves  in  straight  lines  in  all  directions  from  the 
source  of  light 

Knowing  this,  you  can  readily  think  of  a  number  of 
things  in  which  these  laws  are  made  useful.  A  farmer 
planting  an  orchard,  an  astronomer  fixing  the  positions 
of  stars,  a  sailor  steering  his  ship  by  night,  employs  this 
law :  the  first,  to  arrange  his  trees  in  straight  lines ;.  the 


second^  to  aaeasure  oui  loast  angles  m  the  sky ;  and  the 
third,  to  lay  the  courses  of  his  ship  in  safety.  Each  env- 
ploys  these  laws  with  certainty  and  safety^  because  they 
are  ^xed  and  never  change. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

DOUBLV  Stars.— Vol.  xUiL  of  the  Mtnndrs  of  iJU 
Royat  AstronomiictU  Society  contains  two  series  of  micro- 
metrical  measures  of  double  stars.  The  first,  by  Mr. 
Knott,  iactedes  measures  taken  near  Cuckfield,  Sussex, 
between  the  years  i860  and  1873,  with  a  refractor  by 
Ahran  Clafk,  having  an  aperture  of  7^  inches,  one  of  the 
instruments  formerly  in  the  possession  of  the  Rev.  W.  R. 
Dawes.  Measures  of  most  of  the  well-known  binaries 
will  be  fouBd  in  this  series,  as  also  of  a  number  of  objects 
not  so  frequently  under  observation.  Amongst  the  latter 
Is  the  suspected  variable,  U  Tauri,  which  has  been 
observed  on  several  occasions  since  November,  1863  ; 
D* Arrest  first  pointed  out  that  this  star,  supposed  to  be 
variable  by  Mr.  Baxendell,  is  really  double  ;  it  is  included 
in  Schdoldd's  last  catalogue  of  suspicious  objects  with 
the  query,  *'welche  Componente  verknderlich  ? "  Mr- 
Knott's  observations  throw  no  light  on  this  point,  as  he 
appears  to  have  failed  to  notice  any  certain  traces  of 
change.  A  note  referring  to  a  star  near  ^  Leonis  deserves 
attention.  Smyth,  in  his  Cycle  of  Celtstial  Objects^  gives 
a  measure^  or,  as  it  should  perhaps  be  termed,  an  estima- 
tion of  the  position  of  a  companion  to  this  bright  star, 
which  he  caiils  an  eighth  magmtude,  and  dull  red,  position 
114^  distance  298''.  At  the  epoch  1864*38  there  was  no 
star  of  such  magnitude  in  this  place,  but  Mr.  Knott 
measured  one  which  by  the  method  of  limiting  apertures 
was  found  to  be  1 1 '6m.,  position  iis°'4,  distance  303""5. 
The  injference,  especially  in  presence  of  Smyth's  judg- 
ment of  the  colour  of  his  companion,  must  be  that  we 
have  here  a  new  variable  star.  The  Durchmusterung  has 
nothing  in  this  position. 

The  other  series  of  double  star  measures  to  which  we  have 
referred  emanates  from  the  Temple  Observatory,  Rugby, 
and  forms  the  second  catalogue  issued  by  Mr.  Wilson 
and  Mr.  Seabroke.  The  previous  catalogue  was  printed 
in  the  preceding  volume  of  the  Memoirs^  and  contains 
some  introductory  remarks  that  are  wanting  in  the  present 
one.  The  selection  of  objects  and  the  instrumental 
means  appear  to  be  the  same  ;  the  stars  are  found  either 
in  the  Dorpat  Catalogue  or  in  the  Pulkowa  Catalogue  of 
1850.  Amongst  them  may  be  noted  0.2.  298,  the  first 
measures  of  which  by  the  discoverer  gave,  for  1846*49, 
position  183^-8,  distance  i'''i9,  while  the  Temple  Obser- 
vatory measures,  1873*48,  assign  for  the  position  232% 
with  an  estimated  disunce,  o"  45,  and  the  intermediate 
measures  by  Baron  Dembowski,  in  1866,  confirm  the 
change  in  angle  and  distance.  A  great  change  is  re- 
marked in  2  651  ;  at  the  epoch  1829*67  we  have,  position 
101^  8,  distance  io'''82,  whereas  the  Rugby  measures  give 
for  1 87^*1 8,  position  59^*3,  distance  16" '26.  In  this  case 
it  is  probable  that  the  alteration  is  caused  by  proper 
motion  of  one  of  the  components  :  thus  the  measures 
may  be  reconciled,  if  we  suppose  an  annual  motion  of  the 
principal  star  of  about  o'''243  in  the  direction  i7*'-9.  Of 
32  Ononis  it  is  remarked  '*  not  divided,  perhaps  binary,^ 
and  the  angle  for  1874*1  is  I98°*5 ;  between  1830  and 
1853  the  distance  appears  to  have  been  about  one  second 
without  any  decided  change  in  the  position,  which  by  a 
mean  of  Struve,  Dawes,  and  Jacob  was  203°  6  ;  the  star 
seems  to  require  further  attention.  Of  33  Pegasi,  another 
object  measured  at  Rugby,  Struve  remarks  "  comes  in 
ccelo  prorsus  quiescit,''  or  in  other  words  the  change  in 
angle  and  distance  noted  between  his  measures  in  1829 
and  185 1,  is  due  to  the  proper  motion  of  the  principal 
star,  which,  according  to  Madler,  amounts  to  34"  *o  in  the 
century,  in  the  direction  93°'5.  Mr.  Wilson's  measures 
of  O.X  311  confirm  the  marked  dmunution  of  distance 


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4o8 


NATURE 


[Marck  21,  1878 


mentioned  by  Dembowski  in  A,N,  iSzj—'proper  Ehotton  of 
one  component  is  no  doobt  here  also  die  cause  of  chani^e. 

Tliese  catalogues  of  double-star  measures  made  at  the 
Temple  Observatoiy  are  meritorious  productions  from  an 
institution  not  exclusively  devoted  to  a  regular  course  of 
observations,  but  also  occupied  in  endeavourii^  experi- 
mentally to  interest  the  youths  of  the  school  in  astro- 
nomical science,  with  the  hope  that  some*  to  use  the 
wofds  of  the  last  Annual  Report  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society,  '*  may  hereafter  join  that  band  of  amateurs  to 
whom  is  owing  much  of  what  is  most. characteristic  of 
English  astronomy.** 

While  referring  to  this  Report  it  occurs  to  us  to  mention 
an  article  by  O.  Struve  on  the  Baron  Dembowskt*s  long 
series  of  measures  of  double  stars  which  is  not  noticed  in 
the  address  of  the  President  of  the  Society,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  richly-merited  award  of  the  gold  medal  to 
the  Italian  astronomer.  It  is  published  in  vol  viiL  of 
the  Vierieljahrsschrift  der  astronamischen  Gesellsckaft, 
Alter  a  general  outline  of  the  Baron's  work,  there  is  given 
an  index  to  the  volumes  and  numbers  of  the  Astrono- 
mische  Nachtichten^  in  which  his  measures  have  appeared, 
and  which,  though  not  entering  into  much  detail,  is  useful 
in  their  present  scattered  state.  Is  it  too  much  to  hope 
that  eventually  the  results  of  the  indefatigable  Gallarate 
observer,  may  be  presented  in  a  collective  form,  at  least 
as  regards  .'their  annual  means  ? 

Schmidt's  Lunar  Chart.— It  is  understood  that  this 
great  work,  which  has  been  engraved  at  the  expense  of 
the  Prussian  Government,  will,  with  accompanying  letter- 
press description,  beteadv  for  issue  in  the  course  of  a  few 
weeks.  We  believe  ProL  Auwers,  of  Berlin,  is  superin- 
tending its  publication. 

Tempel's  Comet  of  Short  Period  (1873  H.)— It  is 
probable  that  the  period  of  revolution  of  this  comet, 
determined  by  Mr.  .W.  £.  Plummer,  from  observations 
extending  from  July  3  to  October  20,  will  not  be  found  to 
require  very  material  correction  ;  according  to  his  orbit, 
the  comet  cannot  attain  the  distance  of  Jupiter  in  its 
aphelion,  and  as  at  the  last  psissage  through  this  point, 
the  planet  was  distant  from  it  770  (the  earth's  mean 
distance  »  i)  perturbations  during  the  actual  revolution 
are  likely  to  be  small.  Assuming,  then,  with  Mr.  Plummer, 
Uiat  the  revolution  occupies  1,850  days,  the  comet  may 
again  arrive  at  perihelion  about  July  19*5  in  the  present 
year.  Reducing  the  perihelion  and  node  to  1878*0,  we 
have  the  following  expressions  for  the  comet's  heliocentric 
co-ordinates  referred  to  the  equator  : — 

X  =  r  [9*99212]  tiu  (v  +    3*6  51-8) 

y  =  r  [9'98i7o]  sin  (v  +  310    7*9) 

*^r  [9'533t3]  »in  (»  +  274  531) 

Combining   the    co-ordinates    thus   found    with    the 

X,  Y,  Z  of  the  Nautical  Almanac^  and  taking  July  19*5 

for  the  time  of  perihelion  passage,  the  following  apparent 

track  results : — 

I2h.  G.M.T. 

Right  North  Polar  Distance 

Ascensioo.  DUtanoe.  from  Eaith. 

•       *  •       * 

IX)2S 
0708 
0488 
0-376 
0397 

The  comet  would  be  nearest  to  the  earth  on  July  29,  and 
brightest  about  that  date.  With  such  a  course  it  should 
be  well  observed.  Though,  possibly,  observations  may 
have  been  made  later  than  October  20  in  1873,  so  far  as 
we  know  none  such  Lave  been  published.  Mr.  Plummer's 
elements  will  be  found  in  the  Monthly  Notices  R.A.S.  for 
December,  1873. 

[Since  the  above  was  written,  we  learn  that  Herr 
Schulhof  is  engaged  upon  this  comet,  with  the  view  to 
providing  an  ephemeris  for  the  approaching  appearance.] 


April     20 

..       281    I       .. 

.        9556 

May      20 

..  .  297  53 

9350 

June      19 

3«6    7      .. 

95  12 

July       19 

..      33442 

104  56 

August  18 

347  22      .. 

118  45 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

American  Longitudes.— The  United  States  Hydro- 
graphic  Office  is  continuing  the  work  of  establishing 
secondary  meridians  of  longitude  by  the  electric  tel^ 
graph.  Lieut-Commander  F.  M,  Green,  U.S.N.,  with 
the  same  officers  who  have  been  engaged  in  similar  work 
in  the  West  Indies  for  some  time  past,  has  commenced 
the  determination  of  South  American  meridians  by  mea- 
suring from  the  Royal  Observatory  at  Lisbon  through  the 
cables  of  ^e  Brazilian  Submarine  Company  to  Madeira 
and  St  Vincent  The  measurement  will  be  continued  by 
way  of  Pemambuco  to  Bahia,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  Valparaiso*  The  longitude  of  the  Royal 
Observatorv  at  Lisbon  will  shortly  be  determined  ^oth 
great  exactitude  by  electrical  measurement  from  London 
and  Paris.  The  expedition  has  met  with  the  most  grati- 
fying and  cordial  assistance  from  the  officers  of  the 
Portuguese  Government  and  the  authorities  of  the  tele- 
graph companies. 

New  Guinea. — The  statement  that  gold  has  been  dis- 
covered in  New  Guinea  by  Mr.  Goldie,  a  plant-collector 
sent  out  by  Messrs.  Williams  and  Co.,  has  caused  con- 
siderable excitement  in  the  Australian  Colonies,  but  a 
letter  in  yesterday's  Times^  from  the  Rev.  W.  G.  Lawes, 
who  has  just  returned  from  a  three  years'  residence  on 
the  south-east  coast,  ought  to  make  would-be  gold-hunters 
cautious.  As  yet  the  metal  has  been  found  in  alm6st 
infinitesimal  quantities,  and  we  heartily  support  Mr. 
Law^  recommendation  that  Government  ought  to  take 
some  means  to  prevent  a  rush  of  adventurers  who  would 
be  sure  to  demoralise  the  people,  and  change  to  hostility 
their  present  decidedly  friendly  disposition  towards  white 
men.  It  is  for  the  interests  of  the  scientific  exploration 
of  the  country  that  this  friendly  disposition  should  be 
maintained.  We  may  state  that  Mr.  C.  S.  Wilkinson, 
Government  Geologiod  Surveyor  of  New  South  Wales, 
inferred  two  years  ago,  from  the  rock  specimens  brought 
back  by  Mr.  Madeay,  that  gold  would  probably  be  found 
in  New  Guinea,  but  he  refrained  from  publishing  the  fact, 
he  states,  fearing  it  might  cause  a  rush.  Mr.  Wilkinson 
states  that  gold  is  not  iBcely  to  be  found  more  plentifully  in 
New  Guinea  than  in  the  vast  auriferous  formations  of 
New  South  Wales. 

African  Exploration.— Dr.  Emin  Effendi,  who  in 
1876  travelled  with  Gordon  Pasha  to  the  Somerset  River, 
sends  from  Mruli  to  Dr.  Petermann,  a  sketch  dated 
November  last,  of  his  second  journey  from  Magungo  on 
the  Albert  Nyanza,  across  Kirota  and  Masindi  to  Mruli 
in  August  last,  and  from  Mruli  to  Mpara-Njamoga,  in  the 
south  of  Masindi,  and  back  to  Mruli  (in  September  and 
October).  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  it  will  be  remembered, 
found  Kaba  Rq?a,  the  lord  of  Ungoro,  utterly  intract- 
aUe  ;  but  Dr.  Emin  Efiendi  spent  a  month  alone  with 
him,  showing  the  impossibility  of  anticipating  the  chances 
of  such  travels.  In  November  Dr.  Effendi  was  to  go 
from  Mruli  to  Uganda  and  Karague,  and  thence,  accord- 
ing to  Gordon  Pasha's  desire,  to  reach,  if  possible,  Lake 
^anyaru,  the  Mfumbiri  Mountains,  and  Ruanda. 

Arctic  Exploration. — The  U.S.  Senate  has  passed 
the  Bill  for  allowing  the  Pandora^  which  has  been 
chartered  by  Mr.  James  Gordon  Bennett  for  an  Arctic 
Expedition,  to  sail  under  the  American  flag,  and  for 
permitting  United  States  naval  officers  to  be  detailed 
for  service  on  board  that  vessel  during  the  proposed 
expedition. 

Petermann's  Mittheilungen.— As  a  sequel  to  a 
former  paper  on  the  distribution  of  the  sedimentary  for- 
mations of  Europe,  Petermann's  Mittheilungen  for  March 
contains  another  on  Europe  during  the  two  glacial  periods, 
accompanied  by  a  map.  The  paper  on  the  distribution  of 
palms  IS  concluded,  and  the  first  instalment  of  a  summary 
of  exploration  of  the  Ogovd  given,  accompanied  by  a  map. 


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The  April  part  will  conuin  a  long  paper,  with  map,  by 
Prof.  Hertzberg,  on  the  Ethnology  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  the  con- 
clusion of  the  paper  on  Prof.  Nordenskjdld's  proposed 
expedition  from  Norway  to  Behring's  Straits.  There  is 
also  the  itinerary  (with  map)  of  a  journey  between  Ozaki, 
Kioto,  Nara,  and  Ominesanjo,  in  Nippon,  Japan,  by  Dr. 
Knipping. 

American  Geographical  SoaETV.— In  the  Bulletin 
of  the  Society,  Na  5  (1876-7)  will  be  found  a  pretty  full 
account  of  the  work  of  the  American  Palestine  Explora- 
tion Society,  by  Dr.  Merrell,  and  a  paper  on  a  trip  up  the 
Magdalena,  and  among  the  Andes,  b^  Mr.  J.  A«  Bennett, 
U.S.  Consul  at  Bagotd.  At  the  meetmg  of  the  society  on 
February  27,  the  president,  Chief-Justice  Daly,  gave  his 
annual  address,  summing  up  in  an  interesting  and  com- 
plete manner  the  geographical  work  of  the  past  year. 

Berlin  Geographical  Society.— The  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  foundation  of  this  Society  will  be  celebrated 
in  the  Kaisersaal  of  the  Flora.  The  Crown  Prince  of 
Germany,  several  ministers,  and  numerous  foreign 
guests,  are  expected  to  be  present  at  the  festival,  which 
will  bqgin  on  April  31.  The  last  three  numbers  for  1877 
of  the  Verhandlungen  of  this  Society  contain  some 
papers  which  may  interest  geographers  and  ethnologists. 
Among  these  (in  No.  8)  are  a  paper  by  Prof.  Virchow  on 
''  The  Anthropology  of  America,''  and  in  the  same  number 
a  paper  on  "The  Hygiene  of  the  Tropics,"  by  Herr 
Fsdkenstein ;  in  No.  lo  a  paper  by  Dr.  HUdebrandt  on 
his  travels  in  East  Africa,  in  ms  attempt  to  reach  Mounts 
Kenia  and  Kilima-Njaro,  to  which  we  have  already 
referred. 

Sumatra.— The  Dutch  Geographical  Society  has 
recently  received  important  news  from  the  Expedition  in 
Sumatra.  MM.  van  Hasselt  and  Veth  report  that  in  the 
course  of  their  exploration  of  the  southern  highlands  of 
Padang,  they  ascended  the  Peak  of  Indrapura,  the 
highest  mountain  in  Sumatra.  From  the  sunmiit  of  this 
volcano  they  had  an  extensive  view  over  the  land  and 
lakes  of  KorintjL  The  travellers  also  report  that  of  late 
they  had  met  with  less  enmity  on  the  part  of  the  inde- 
pendent chiefs  than  at  the  outset  of  their  expedition. 

NOTES 
During  the  field  operations  of  one  of  the  parties  connected 
with  the  U.S.  Geological  Surve^  of  the  Territories,  in  charge  of 
Prof.^F.  V.  Hoyden,  portions  of  south-western  Colorado,  north- 
western  New  Mexico,  and  north-eastern  Arizona,  were  traversed, 
embracing  that  broken-up  conntry  occupied  iii  remote  times  by 
a  race  of  people  who  were  known  as  the  clifi'-dwellers.  This 
subject  is  well  known  to  readers  in  general,  but  we  must  recur  to 
it^again  so  as  to  be  able  to  reach  the  importance  of  the  discovery 
to  be  described.  In  one  of  the  caiions,  known  as  the  Chaco, 
Mr.  H.  W.  Jackson  made  detailed  investigations  and  measure- 
ments of  the  immense  ruined  buildings.  In  one  of  the  arroyas 
or  dry  water-courses,  the  sectional  view  of  the  allnrial  deposit 
was  exposed  to  a  depth  of  about  sixteen  feet.  Fourteen  feet 
beneath  the  surface^  a  layer  of  pottery  and  tUbris  came  to  view. 
This  may  not  seem  strange,  as,  in  a  comparatively  narrow  valley, 
dirt  and  gravel  to  the  depth  of  fourteen  feet  might  be  deposited 
in  a  short  term  of  years.  But  ten  feet  above  this  layer  the 
foundation  walls  of  ancient  buildings  were  visible,  built  upon 
another  layer  of  gravel  and  sand.  These  were  in  time  covered 
with  the  allurium  upon  which  now  stand  the  famous  ruins,  of 
which  no  history  is  extant,  and  of  the  builders  of  which  no  history 
will  ever  be  known.  How  many  ages  have  passed  since  the 
lower  or  first  bed  was  the  surface  upon  which  moved  the  nume- 
rous hordes,  of  which  all  eridence  at  present  is  hidden  behind 
the  veil  of  the  dark  past?  Now,  a  skull  comes  to  view  upon 
the  layer  of  pottery,  which  is  beneath  two  eras  of  occupation 


and  semi-civilisation.  This  skull,  in  its  contour,  is  unique.  Its 
closest  relations  are  the  ancient  Mexicans,  Peruvians,  Caribs,  and 
Natchec  There  is  an  extraordinary  flattening  of  the  upper 
posterior  portion  of  the  head  (posterior  parietal),  which  is  evident 
in  those  figured  in  Morton's  Crania  Americana,  The  contents  of 
the  skull  as  found,  consists  of  sand,  which  is  now  as  hard  as 
ordinary  agglutinated  sandstone,  and  has,  in  nearly  all  portions, 
the  appearance  of  liminite.  The  skull  will  be  described  and 
figured  by  Dr.  W.  J.  Hoffmann,  of  the  U.S.  Survey,  and  it  affords 
another  strong  link  in  the  chain  of  facts  and  hypotheses  of  the 
cliff-dwellerB  and  the  ancient  Mexicans  being  more  nearly  related 
than  is  generally  admitted  or  supposed. 

Mr.  Park  Harrison  telegraphs  to  us  firom  Worthing  that 
he  has  just  (yesterday)  exhumed,  at  Cissbury,  a  contracted  skele- 
ton, sbcteen  feet  deep,  lying  in  the  centre  of  the  pit,  over  which 
the  dst  was  found  last  autunm.  The  work  will  be  continued 
on  Saturday  and  next  week. 

A  SCRUTINY  took  place  on  the  i8th  instant  at  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  for  the  nomination  of  a  successor  to  M.  Leverrier 
as  member  of  the  section  of  astronomy.  The  successful  candi- 
date was  M.  Tisserand,  the  Director  of  Toulouse  Observatory, 
who  took  thirty- two  votes  out  of  fifty-five,  against  M.  Wolf. 
M.  Tisserand  was  the  second  astronomer  of  the  Japan  Mission 
for  the  Transit  of  Venus,  which  was  led  by  M.  Janssen. 

As  we  have  already  stated,  a  subscription  list  has  been  opened 
in  France  for  the  foundation  of  a  memorial  to  Claude  Bernard. 
A  small  sub-committee  has  been  formed  to  obtain  subscriptions 
in  this  country,  consisting  of  Sir  James  Paget,  Dr.  J.  Burdon 
Sanderson,  Prof.  Humphry,  Dr.  Michael  Foster,  Mr.  Ernest 
Hart,  Mr.  Romanes,  and  Prof.  Gerald  Yeo,  King's  College, 
to  the  latter  of  whom,  as  honorary  secretary  of  the  Physiological 
Society,  subscriptions  may  be  sent. 

PoRTSR  AND  CoATBS  of  Philadelphia  are  about  to  bring  out 
a  new  and  cheap  edition  of  Wilson  and  Bonaparte's  '*  American 
Ornithology,"  three  volumes  in  one,  together  with  103  new 
plates. 

The  report  of  Major  Feilden,  the  naturalist  of  the  Arctic 
Expedition,  is  now  nearly  completed,  and  will  shortiy  make  its 
appearance  as  a  Parliamentary  Paper,  together  with  some  inter- 
esting additional  remarks  by  Sir  George  Nares. 

General  de  Nansouty  published  in  the  b^inning  of  March 
a  letter  stating  that  a  sum  of  20,000  fran^  ^as  required  to  com- 
plete the  Pic-du-Midi  Observatory,  of  which  he  is  director. 
Thcae  days  after  the  publication  of  his  letter  in  the  XlXme 
SiicUy  an  inhabitant  of  Calais  sent  him  5,000  francs,  and  five 
days  later  he  was  presented  with  a  sum  of  15,000  francs  by  M. 
Bischofsheim,  the  eminent  Parisian  banker,  whose  generosities  to 
science  we  have  so  often  to  record. 

Brofwnea  grandiceps  is  producing  its  fine  Rkododendron-hkt 
heads  of  flowers  in  No.  i  house  at  Kew. 

King  Humbert  of  Italy  has  granted  four  annual  prizes  of 
5,000  lire  each  (about  190/.)  for  the  best  productions  in  art, 
science,  and  literature.  The  Academia  del  Lincei,  at  Rome,  is 
charged  with  the  annual  award  and  distribution  of  these  prizes. 

A  competitive  trial  of  German  and  Swiss  chronometers  took 
place  recentiy  at  the  Deutsche  Seewarte  at  Hamburg,  by  order 
of  the  German  .Admiralty.  The  best  Instrument  was  fiimished 
by  Herr  Brooking,  and  its  perfonnance  is  said  to  be  superior 
to  that  of  any  chronometer  examined  at  Greenwich  during  the 
last  three  years. 

Major-General  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson,  K.CB.,  F.R.S., 
and  Sir  John  Lubbock,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  have  been  appointed 
trustees  of  the  British  Museum  in  the  place  of  the  late  Right  Hon. 
Sir  David  Dundas  and  the  late  Sir  William  Stirling  Maxwell. 


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[March  21,  1878 


The  death  is  annotmced  of  Dr.  Joseph  Henry  Corbett,  of 
DnbhiL  The  deceased  was  formerly  Professor  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,  and  an  Examiner  in  the  Queen's  University  in 
Ireland. 

We  understand  that  the  herbarium  of  the  late  eminent 
botanist,  Alexander  Brann,  has  been  purchased  by  the  German 
Goremment  for  the  sum  of  21,000  marks. 

The  cryptogamic  herbarium  of  the  late  Italian  botanist, 
G.  De  Notaris,  has  been  acquired  by  the  Italian  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  for  the  Botanic  Garden  at  Rome. 

We  are  happy  to  state  that  a  decree  has  established  in  Lyons, 
in  Bordeaux,  and  in  Besangon  observatories  for  astronomical, 
meteorological,  and  horological  purposes.  For  the  two  former 
towns,  and  especially  for  Lyons,  this  decree  is  merely  an  ac- 
knowledgment and  regulation  of  former  efforts,  but  the  merit  of 
this  measure  is  not  lessened  by  that  consideration,  as  it  puts  an 
end  to  all  local  opposition. 

Easter  being  very  late  this  year,  the  meeting  of  the  delegates 
of  the  French  learned  societies  will  take  place  in  the  last  days  of 
April,  only  three  or  four  days  before  the  opening  of  the  Interna- 
tional Exhibition. 

At  a  meeting  at  the  Mansion  House  last  week  an  influential 
committee  was  formed  to  promote  the  holding  of  a  great  agri- 
cultural exhibition  in  London  next  year,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England.  Hyde]  Park  was 
proposed  as  the  place  for  holding  the  show. 

A  SHOCK  of  earthquake  is  reported  to  have  been  felt  at  Deboi- 
ham,  a  few  miles  from  Ipswich,  on  Saturday  morning. 

Though  the  cultivation  in  India  of  the  best  quinine-yielding 
species  of  Cmchona  (C.  officinalis)  has  not  proved  a  success,  it  is 
satisfactory  to  know  that  one  species  at  least  thrives  most 
abundantly  in  the  Sikkim  plantations.  From  a  paper  read  at 
the  last  meeting  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  by  Mr.  Wood, 
the  Government  Quinologist  in  India,  it  seems  that  out  of  a  total 
of  about  three  million  trees,  comprising  four  or  five  species  of 
Cinchona  it  is  estimated  that  there  ^are  as  many  as  2,500,000 
belonging^to  the  species  succirttbra.  It  is  from  this  bark  that 
the  now  well-known  "  Cinchona  febrifuge  "  is  prepared.  This 
substance,  according  to  msmy  well  known  medical  practitioners  in 
India»  possesses  to  so  very  nearly  the  same  extent  the  anti-periodic 
prop^es  of  quinine  that  it  may  *be  safely  substituted  for  the 
latter  in  the  treatment  of  ordinary  fevers  and  ague.  5,000  lbs. 
of  this  febrifuge,  we  are  told,  has  already  been  made  and  issued, 
and  it  is  now  being  made  at  the  rate  of  4,000  lbs.  a  year ;  the 
demand,  however,  is  so  rapidly  overtaking  this  scale  of  produc* 
tion  that  a  further  extension  will  shortly  be  necessary.  For  use 
it  appears  in  the  form  of  a  fine  white  powder,  which,  however, 
becomes  in  a  short  time  of  a  pale  buff  tint  It  does  not  agglu- 
tinate exen  in  the  Indian  climate.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  weak 
acids  and  is  readily  taken  up  by  lemon-juice,  which  constitutes 
a  pleasant  vehicle  for  its  administration. 

The  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain  has  just  issued 
an  excellent  catalogue  of  the  fine  collections  of  Materia  Medica 
and  chemical  products  in  their  museum  in  Bloomsbury  Square. 
The  catalogue  is  the  work  of  the  Society's  Curator,  Mr.  £.  M. 
Holmes,  F.L.S.,  and  includes  a  great  deal  of  information 
regarding  the  several  products  mentioned.  The  alphabetical 
classification  of  the  plants'  according  to  their  genera  in  each 
order  and  the  numerous  references  to  figures  in  English,  Ameri- 
can, and  foreign  works  will  make  this  book  valuable  not  only  to 
students  of  the  collection  it  illustrates,  but  also  for  handy  refer- 
ence on  the  subject  generally. 

Those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  of  railway  brakes  will 
obtain  much  instruction  and  pleasure  by  a  visit  to  the  offices 
of  the  Westinghouse  Brake  Company,  at  St.  Stephen's  Palace 
Chambers,  Westminster,  where  the  Company's  Automatic  Brake 


may  be  seen  at  work.  By  an  ingenious  arrangement  the  brake- 
power  sufficient  for  a  train  of  ten  carriages  is  represented.  At 
one  view  the  whole  of  the  apparatus  that  would  be  brought  into 
play  to  bring  such  a  train  to  a  stop  is  seen.  A  steam-engine 
compresses  the  air  and  distributes  it  through  all  the  tubes  and 
the  ten  reservoirs  extending  over  the  whole  length  of  the  train, 
and  which,  by  simply  turning  a  handle,  acts  upon  the  brakes, 
one  of  which  is  ready  to  clasp  each  wheel  of  the  train.  The 
brake  can  be  applied  by  engine-driver  or  guard  in  little  more 
than  five  seconds,  and  its  action  is  so  powerful  that  a  train  g(»ng 
at  forty  miles 'an  hour  can  be  brought  to  a  dead  stop  in  something 
like  fifteen  seconds  and  within  a  distance  of  about  500  yards. 
The  essential  principle  of  this  system  is  the  admission  of  com« 
pressed  air  into  a  cylinder  attached  underneath  a  carriage,  and 
containing  the  ends  of  two  pbtons  acting  by  leverage  upon  the 
brakes ;  the  compressed  air  is  stored  in  pipes  attached  to  the 
cylinder,  and  is  thus  ready  for  instantaneous  admission,  which  is 
effected  by  producing  a  reduction  of  pressure,  and  thus  opening 
a  set  of  valves  that  admit  the  air  into  the  cylinder.  The  air 
thus  adnutted  acts  upon  the  pistons  by  pushing  them  out  and 
causing  the  brakes  to  dasp  the  wheels  and  instantly  stop  their 
revolution.  The  distinctive  feature  of  the  automatic  brake  is 
that  in  case  of  the  train  breaking  into  one  or  more  parts  or  in 
case  of  its  meeting  with  any  obstruction  or  leaving  the  rails,  the 
brakes  are  at  once  applied  automatically,  and  thus  the  risk 
of  disaster  is  immensely  diminished.  Our  examination  of  the 
apparatus  has  convinced  us  of  its  perfect  efficiency,  which  we 
find  is  testified  to  by  all  the  railway  companies  that  have  used  it ; 
and  any  one  who  has  recently  travelled  north  by  the  Midland 
Railway  must  admit  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  improve  upon  a 
system  that  can  bring  a  long  train  going  at  full  speed  to  a  stop 
within  a  few  seconds.  The  brake  can  be  applied  with  any 
strength,  and  thus  is  of  great  service  in  going  down  inclines 
and  taking  sharp  curves.  On  the  apparatus  at  St  Stephen's 
Chambers  is  a  nozzle  firom  which  the  compressed  air  may  be 
allowed  to  escape,  and  with  which  some  curious  phenomena  with 
a  hollow  elastic  ball  are  shown.  The  ball  is  placed  within  the 
current  of  escaping  air,  and  if  the  Up  is  kept  upright  the  ball 
is  sustained  as  if  by  a  jet  of  water,  but  with  little  or  no  revolving 
motion.  If  the  tap  be  brought  to  an  angle  of  say  thirty  or  forty 
degrees  firom  the  perpendicular,  the  ball  is  still  sustained  by  the 
current,  receding  and  advancing  in  the  line  of  the  tap  and  revolr- 
ing  rapidly  outwards  in  the  direction  of  the  current,  so  rapidly 
as  to  produce  a  most  marked  flattening  at  the  poles  or  sides  at 
right-angles  to  the  direction  of  motion.  Ultimately  it  becomes 
almost  a  disc.  Gradually  the  axis  of  rotation  changes  till  it  is  at 
right-angles  Xo  its  original  position,  when  the  speed  of  rotation 
diminishes  and  the  ball  gradually  comes  to  rest  Again  it  begins 
to  spin  upon  its  new  axis,  going  through  the  same  changes 
again  and  again  so  long  as  it  is  kept  within  the  action  of  the  jet 
In  concluson  we  may  say  the  brakes  are  comparatively  simple 
in  construction ;  it  is  almost  impossible  to  put  them  out  of 
order,  -and  they  may  be  effectually  handled  by  ordinary  railway 
officials. 

The  method  of  coincidences  has  recently  been  applied  by  M. 
Szathmari,  to  determine]  the  velocity  of  sound  in  free  air,  as 
follows  :— A  pendulum,  whose  rate  was  accurately  known,  closed, 
at  each  passage  through  the  vertical  position,  a  battery  circuit, 
the  line  of  which  vras  220  m.  long,  and  included  two  electric 
bells.  When  both  bells  are  placed  before  the  observer,  he  hears 
them  simultaneously.  If  one  be  moved  a  little  way  off  this 
simultaneity  ceases ;  and  if  the  bell  be  moved  still  further  a  point 
is  reached,  at  which  both  bells  are  heard  simultaneously  again. 
The  distance  is  that  through  which  the  sound  moves  in  the 
interval  between  two  successive  ringings  of  the  bells.  The  pen- 
dulum, in  the  present  case,  had  a  period  of  0*2961  seconds  ;  the 
distances  at  which  tlie  sounds  of  the  two  bells  were  heard  at 


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411 


ottce  were  dircctlf  mcuafn^  and  the  vnx^gt  mdiie  (fto»  tUrtf 
measarements)  was  99*^$  m.  From  this  the  velocity  of  sound 
in  free  air  =  335*19  m>  Reducing  the  value  to  that  for  dry  air 
at  zero  the  number  obtained  is  331 '57  m.  This  lies  about 
midway  between  Regnau]lf»TaJiie  (33107)  m^  that  of  Moll  and 
Van  Beck  (333*36). 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Berlin  Geographical  Society^  ProC 
Karsten,  of  Kiel,  read  an  interesting  account  of  the  activity 
of  the  Comnissioo  ettabliahed  in  SchleswigkHolstein,  which 
hat  for  its  object  the  exact  and  minvte  investigation  of  the 
dimatological,  physical,  and  chemical  conditions  of  the  Baltic 
and  the  German  Ocean,  as  well  as  of  the  influence  which  these 
conditions  exercise  upon  organic  life.  The  commission  has 
estakdished  alarge  number  of  stationa  for  making  observations  of  : 
the  currents  existing  in  these  8ea%  m  order  to  obtain  data  for  the 
understanding  of  the  general  laws  governing  marine  currents. 
With  regard  to  animal|life,  the  comnusaion  has  up  to  the  present 
confined  its  labours  to  the  most  impostant  inhabitant  of  the  two 
seas,  the  common  herring,  and  'it  kas  succeeded  in  determining 
with  certainty  the  few  zoofogical  varieties  of  this  fish,  as  well  as 
in  finding  its  spawning  places,  and  as  a  result,  the  artificial  culti- 
vation of  herrings  has  already  been  set  on  foot  The  CO  mmiflsion 
will  now  devote  its  attention  to  other  species  of  fish. 

A  German  Viticnltural  Society  has  just  been  formed  at 
CasseL  For  the  present  the  Society  intends  to  take  up  two 
important  matters,  viz.,  (i)  discovering  the  best  method  for  the 
destruction  of  phylloxera,  and  (2)  the  suppression  of  the  seoet 
manufacture  of  wines  by  artificial  means. 

In  Nature  (vol.  xviL  p.  372)  an  account  is  given  of  the  diffi- 
culty met  with  in  Australia  in  getting  bees  to  work  after  a  few 
years.  A  correspondent  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  similar 
difficulty  occurred  in  California,  where  it  has  been  obviated  by  a 
systematic  abstraction  of  the  honey  as  the  bees  collected  it.  If 
this  were  tried  in  Australia  it  might  possibly  meet  the  difficulty. 

In  a  recent  communication  to  the  Belgian  Academy  on  diges- 
tion in  insects,  M.  Plateau,  after  a  carefid  examination  of  forty 
individuals  of  various  types  retires  from  his  former  position  that 
the  digestive  juices  (in  the  nomud  state)  are  never  acid.  In 
insects  which  feed  wholly  or  partly  on  animal  matters,  they  are 
slightly  acid.  He  will  not,  however,  concede  a  constant  acidity 
for  all  insects  (which  some  naturalists  affirm) ;  and  in  reply  to 
the  objection  based  on  the  characteristic  acidity  of  the  gastric 
juice  of  vertebrates,  he  contends  that  the  digestive  liquid  in 
articulata,  insecta,  myriapoda,  arachnida,  and  Crustacea  ia  not 
analogous  to  that  jnicc^  but  rather  to  the  pancreatic  juice ;  the 
acidity  is  an  accessory  character  and  not  the  sign  of  a  physio- 
logical property.  The  ferment  present  is  evidently  something 
quite  different  from  the  gastric  pepsine  of  vertebrates.  Thus, 
a  very  little  hydrochloric  acid,  so  far  from  promoting  its  action, 
retards  or  arrests  it 

A  NEW  method,  said  to  be  more  accurate  in  its  results  than  that 
of  Helmholtz,  for  determining  the  tones  of  the  mouth-cavity  which 
correspond  to  the  vowels,  is  recommended  by^M.  Auerbach  in 
a  recent  number  of  ^<t  Annalen  der  Pkysik,  It  is  based  on 
percussion.  Having  made  a  long  inspiration,  you  bring  the 
month  into  the  position  corresponding  to  the  particular  vowel, 
and  then  strike  the  larynx  after  the  manner  of  'physicians,  i./., 
place  the  middle  finger  of  one  hand  firmly  on  it,  and  strike  it 
with  that  of  the  other  hand.  A  comparatively  distinct  tone  is 
then  heard,  which  varies  with  the  position  of  the  mouth,  but  for 
a  given  position  is  always  the  same.  The  effects  are  perceived 
more  distinctly  if  the  ears  are  previously  stopped  with  wax. 
M.  Auerbach  describes  results  of  observation  by  this  method. 

Mr.  a.  W.  Bennett  (Lecturer  on  Botany,  St  Thomas's 
Hospital,  London,  S.E.)  requests  us  to  state  that  he  is  engaged 
on  an  introductory  handbook  of  Ciyptogamk  Botany,  to  be  pub. 


liahed  in  the  luteinaUonai  Sdendfic  Series^  and  that  he-  will 
be  extremely  glad  of  any  recent  original  memoirs^  l^igHsh 
or  Foreign,  bearing  on  any  branch  of  die  subject  which  the 
authors  may  incline  to  send  him. 

An  Intematitaoid  Congress  of  Bntaay^and  Horticultttrt  will'  be 
held  in  Paris  on  August  16  and  following  days,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  BotanicaL  Society  and  the  Central  Horticultural 
Society  of  France^  in  the  rooms-  of  the  latter  Sodaty,  84,  cue 
de  Crenelle.  A  programme  of  subjects,  botanical  and  hortioul«- 
tund,  is  announced,  on  which  papers  ace  especially  mvited,  as 
well  as  the  exhibition  of  ilUistrative  specimens,  collections,  and 
apparatus.  One  of  these  subjects  is  the  establishing  and  fitting^ 
up  of  botanical  laboratories.  Th»  attendance  aiMli  coropenUloA 
of  foreign  botanififes  am  coodiaUy  tbs^Mu  • 

In  the  year  1877  no  less  than8,ooo.new  publications, appeared 
in  Italy..  Amongst  these  there  were>  5,743  new  books 
(1876:4,323),  1,880  pamphlete  (1876^:  (^534),  and  194  new 
journals  (i^T^  :  256). 

Thil  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardena  dnriag  the 
past  week  include  two  Coounon  Mannosets  (Htipait  jtuchui) 
firom  South- East  Brazil,  presented  by  Afr.  R.  Donaldson;  a 
Three-striped  Paradoxure  (Paradoxurus  trivirffitus)  from  Indiai, 
presented  by  Capt  Dalxymple ;  a  Secretaiy  Vulture  {Serpm- 
tariui  reptUifforu^  from  Som^  Afiric%  presented  by  Messrs.  W. 
Rigg  and  J.  Curtis ;  a  Green  (Mossy  Starling  (Lamprocolius 
ehalybeus)  from  North-East  Africa,  a  White-eared  Bulbul 
{Pycfumcfus  lemoiis)  from  India»  a  Califbmian  Quail  (CaUipepla 
ca/i/oruica)  firom  California,  presented  by  Mrv  Asabin*  FXS.  ; 
a  Common  Kestrel  ( TtMHumulms  alaMdarms\  European,  pre- 
sented by  Mr.  A.  Blumenthal ;  a  Lion  {Edis  Im)  from  Africa,  a 
Variegated  Sheldrake  ( Tadoma  varif^ata)  from  New  2Sealand, 
received  in  exchange ;  two  Common  Swans  {Cy^mts  olor)^  Euro- 
pean, deposited ;  three  Black  Swans  {Cygnus  airaius)^  bred  in 
the  Gardens ;  a  Zebu  {Bos  indicw},  two  Common  Badgen 
(MpUs  kixtis),  bom  in  the  Gardens. 

THE  ANALOGIES  OF  PLANT  AND  ANIMAL 

LIFE' 

II. 

IITE  may  find  a  kind  of  analogv  for  these  cases  of  contradictory 

^  ^     action — for  th^  really  strike  one  as  contradictory. 

The  chameleon  and  the  frog  are  both  affected  in  a  peculiar 
manner  by  light ;  they  both  diange  colour  in  accordance  with 
variations  in  the  intensity  of  the  light  Moreover,  the  change  of 
colour  is  produced  by  the  same  mechanism  in  the  two  cases ;  by 
a  kind  of  contraction  and  expansion  of  certain  coloured  cells  in 
their  skin.  But  the  curious  fact  is  that  chameleons*  become 
darker  in  sunshine;  while  frogs'  become  pale  in  sunshine 
and  darker  in  darkness.  No  doubt  both  these  changes  are  in 
some  way  serviceable  to  the  frog  and  the  chameleon,  ai^  we  mi^ 
suppose  that  the  whole  phenomenon  is  really  analogous  to  the 
opTOsite  effects  of  light  which  occur  in  plants. 

To  quit  the  paths  of  science  for  those  of  another  region  of 
"  Wonderland,  it  has  been  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Linvis  Carrol 
that  dogs  wag  their  tails  when  they  are  pleased,  whereas  cats  du 
BO  when  angry.  Seriously  the  principle  b  the  same— given  that 
emotion  proiduces  disturbance  of  the  tail,  it  wiU  depenu  on  the 
suTTOundmg  circumstances  in  which  the  creatures  live  as  to 
whether  a  given  emotion  shall  produce  a  wasging  or  a  rigid  tail. 

Let  us  once  more  consider  what  needs  willarise  in  the  life  of 
an  animal,  and  then  see  how  the  same  needs  are  supplied  by 
plants.  An  animal  needs  to  be  alert  to  changes  going  on  in  the 
world  around  it ;  it  needs  delicate  sense-oigans  to  perceive  the 
approach  of  enemies  or  the  whereabouts  of  its  food  In  fact  it 
is  evident  that  to  prosper  in  the  varying  conditions  of  life  an 
animal  must  be  sensitive  to  these  chaises.    By  sensitiveness  one 

'  A  Lecture  delivered  at  the  London  Inarirnrion  on  March  11  by  Francis 
Darwin,  M.B.    Continued  from  p.  391. 

'  Brflcke,  tVien,  Denkukri/t,  1851 ;  r.  Bedriaga,  **  Die  Sntctehung  der 
Farben  bci  den  Eidechsen,"  1874. 

s  Lister,  Cutsneous  Pifmentary  System  of  lh«  Frog.  iPhil*  Th'atts., 
X858 ;  V.  Wiitieli.  MtHtrS  Ankiv,  1854. 


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means  that  an  animal  must  be  capable  of  being  affected  by 
changes  which,  considered  as  mere  physical  agents,  are  insigni- 
ficant. A  fly  living  in  the  same  room  with  an  active-minded 
boy  will  depend  for  its  safety  on  its  power  of  rapidly  appreciat- 
ing the  approaching  shadow  of  the  boy's  hand.  Now  the 
changes  produced  in  the  arrangement  of  forces  in  the  universe 
are  not  perceptibly  affected  by  this  shadow — it  is  utterly  insigni- 
ficant— yet  what  a  violent  effect  it  has  on  the  fly.  It  is  because 
the  nervous  system  of  the  fly  possesses  the  property  of  ma^ni- 
f]ring  external  changes  so  that  apparently  slight  disturbance 
causes  large  results. 

This  power  of  being  strongly  affected  by  apparently  slight 
changes  is  a  very  important  character  of  living  matter.  The 
processes  which  occur  within  the  fl/  have  been  likened  to  the 
explosion  of  a  pistol,  the  force  used  in  moving  the  trigger  being 
utterly  insignincant  when  compared  with  the  result  produced. 
I  do  not  mean  that  this  exploding  power  is  a  distinguishing  mark 
of  living  matter,  but  it  certainly  is  a  well  marked  ^ture. 
Besides  the  power  of  magnifying  or  intensifying  external  changes, 
which  we  have  described  as  the  exploding  power  of  irritable  tissue, 
there  is  another,  the  power  possessed  by  nerves  of  transmitting  a 
stimulus  wave  from  one  part  to  another.  We  will  first  look  for 
this  transmitting  power  as  it  exists  in  plants. 

The  leaf  of  the  sundew,  or  Drosera,  consists*  of  a  shallow, 
slightly  saucer-shaped  disc  covered  over  with  short  glands,  and 
frineed  all  round  with  projecting  tentacles  which  also  terminate 
in  glands.  The  glands  secrete  a  sticky  fluid,  which  hangs  in 
drops  on  them,  hence  the  name  of  sundew,  because  the  leaves 
seem  to  be  covered  with  dew  in  sunshine,  when  other  plants 
are  dry.  Insects  are  caught  by  the  sticky  secretion,  and  are 
also  embraced  and  held  fast  by  the  outer  tentacles,  which  possess 
the  power  of  moving.  When  the  insect  has  been  killed  by  being 
drowned  in  the  sticky  secretion,  it  is  digested  by  the  acid  juice 
poured  out  by  the  glands  and  subsequently  absorbed. 

The  extenul  or  movable  tentacles  may  be  made  to  bend  in- 
wards, either  by  insects  alighting  on  the  centre  of  the  disc  of  the 
leaf,  or  on  the  sticky  glands  of  the  tentacles  themselves.  In  the 
first  case,  when  an  insect  is  caught  on  the  middle  of  the  leaf, 
and  the  external  tentacles  bend  in  and  surround  it,  we  have  a 
true  transmission  of  stimulus,  a  message  sent,  like  a  message  is 
sent  along  a  nerve.  The  insect  may  be  struggling  to  free  itself, 
and  will  probably  succeed  in  doing  so,  unless  the  external 
tentacles  give  their  help.  The  external  tentacles  can  be  made 
to  bend  not  only  by  insects  or  other  objects  placed  on  the  centre 
o'  the  leaf,  but  also  by  an3rthing  placed  on  the  gland  at  the  end 
of  the' tentacle  itself.  In  this  case  the  meaning  of  the  movement 
is  equally  obvious.  If  a  gnat  or  fly  lights  on  one  of  the  external 
glands,  it  will  probably  escape,  unless  carried  to  the  centre  of  the 
leaf,  where  it  will  be  also  held  by  the  small  sticky  glands.  Here 
also  there  is  a  true  transmission  of  stimulus.  The  message  has 
to  be  sent  from  the  gland  at  the  top  to  the  place  where  the 
tentacle  bends ;  a  message  is  sent  from  the  gland  to  the  bending 
part  of  the  tentacle,  just  as  a  message  goes  through  nerve  tissue 
from  our  skins  to  our  muscle. 

In  this  case  the  tentacle  always  carries  the  fly  it  has  caught 
to  the  actual  centre  of  the  leaf.  But  if  a  fly  has  been  caught 
by  the  disc  of  the  leaf,  and  not  quite  in  the  centre,  then  the 
messages  are  sent  in  accordance  with  the  position  of  the 
fly,  and  all  those  tentacles  within  reach  move  to  the  point 
of  irritation  with  marvellous  precision.  This  transmission 
of  messages  is  all  the  more  wonderful,  because^  as  far  as 
our  powers  of  observation  go,  there  is  no  special  structure  to 
convey  the  stimulus.  It  is  true  that  waves  of  stimulation  do 
travel  with  special  facility  along  the  fibro- vascular  bundles,  or  what 
are  usually  called  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  But  in  this  case,  where 
tentacles  converge  to  a  given  point  in  the  disc  of  the  leaf,  this 
mode  of  transmission  is  impossible,  because  the  veins  are  few  in 
number,  and  could  not  cause  so  nice  an  adaptation  of  move- 
ments. Moreover,  stimuli  can  travel  across  a  leaf  of  Drosera 
after  the  vascular  bundles  have  been  cut  through.^  So  that 
we  have  the  wonderful  fact  of  a  wave  of  stimulation  travel- 
ling with  great  accuracy  transversely  through  a  number  of  cells 
with  absolutely  no  structure  like  nerve-fibre  to  guide  the  course 
in  which  the  stimulus-wave  shall  flow. 

One  other  curious  phenomenon  may  be  alluded  to  as  showing 
the  extraordinary  power  of  stimulus-transmission.  If  a  piece  of 
meat  is  placed  on  an  external  tentacle,  the  gland  on  which  it 
rests  sends  forth  an  acid  secretion ;  and  if  a  piece  of  meat  is 

«  See  Batalin,  **  Flora,**  1877.  who  ha«  correctlir  pointed  out  the  import- 
ance of  the  fibro-vascular  bunoles  as  conveying  stimulus -waves. 


placed  on  the  centre  of  the  leaf,  the  tentacles,  as  before  said, 
bend  in  and  ultimately  touch  it ;  but  if  the  external  glands  are 
tested  with  litmus  paper  before  they  reach  the  meat  in  3ie  centre, 
they  will  be  found  to  be  covered  with  acid  secretion,  proving 
that  not  only  had  a  message  been  sent  to  the  moving  part  of  the 
tentacle,  but  also  to  the  secreting  cells  in  the  gland. 

One  might  find  a  parallel  to  this  in  the  action  of  the  human 
salivary  glands.  The  gland  nerves  may  be  excited  either  by  the 
stimulus  of  food  placed  in  the  mouth,  or  by  the  voluntary  action 
of  the  muscles  of  mastication.  Here  the  saliva  is  poured  out, 
although  there  is  no  food  to  act  on,  just  as  the  Drosera-gland 
secretes  during  the  movement  of  the  tentacle  before  there  is  any* 
thing  for  its  secretion  to  digest. 

Having  briefly  considered  the  '^transmission  of  stimulus- waves 
as  shown  in  Drosera  I  will  pass  on  to  consider  what  manifesta- 
tions may  be  found  of  the  other  general  property  of  nerve  tissue, 
the  property  which  I  have  called  exploding  power.  It  is  chiefly 
manifested  in  Drosera  by  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  glands 
on  the  external  tentacles.  It  is  found  not  to  be  necessary  to 
place  meat  or  insects  on  the  gland,  but  that  bits  of  glass,  wood, 
paper,  or  anything  will  excite  them.  Smaller  and  smaller  atoms 
were  tried  and  still  the  glands  were  found  to  be  sensitive  to  their 

Sresence.^  At  last  a  minute  piece  of  a  human  hair,  about  one- 
undredth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  weighing  just  over  ^^nr  of  a 
grain,  was  placed  on  the  gland  of  a  tentacle  and  it  caused  unmis- 
takable movement.  The  case  is  yet  more  wonderful  than  it 
sounds,  because  the  piece  of  hair  mu^t  be  partly  supported  by  the 
thick  drop  of  secretion  on  the  gland,  so  that  it  is  probably  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  the  gland  can  perceive  a  weight  of  one- 
millionth  of  a  grain.  This  de^ee  of  sensitiveness  is  truly 
astonishing,  it  seems  to  us  more  like  the  sense  of  smell  than  that 
of  touch,  for  to  our  most  delicate  tactile  organ,  the  tongue,  such 
atoms  are  quite  imperceptible. 

The  power  which  Drosera  has  of  perceiving  the  presence  of 
ammonia  is  perhaps  still  more  astonishing.  A  solution  of  phosphate 
of  ammonia  in  pure  distilled  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  part 
to  over  two  million  of  water,  caused  inflection  of  tentacles.'  One 
may  form  an  idea  oi  this  result  by  making  a  solution  of  a  single 
grain  of  the  phosphate  and  thirty  gallons  of  distilled  water,  and 
then  finding  out  that  it  is  not  pure  water.  Considering  the  v 
water-supply  which  we  at  present  enjoy,  we  may  well  ht  grateful 
that  our  senses  are  duller  than  those  of  a  sundew. 

As  examples  of  simple  sensitiveness  these  facts  are  sufficiently  ^ 
striking,  but  the  powers  of  discriminating  between  different  kinds  * 
of  stimuli  are  equally  curious.     The  tentacles  having  proved  so  ' 

extraordinarily  sensitive  to  light  bodies  resting  on  them,  one 
would  expect  that  the  slightest  touch  would  make  them  bead. 
But  it  is  not  so  ;  a  single  rapid  touch,  though  it  may  be  violent 
enough  to  bend  the  whole  tentacle,  does  not  cause  inflection. 
The  meaning  of  this  is  clear,  for  in  windy  weather  the  glands 
must  be  often  touched  by  waving  blades  of  grass,  and  it  would 
be  a  useless  labour  to  the  plant  if  it  had  to  bend  and  unbend  its 
tentacles  every  time  it  was  touched.  It  is  not  excited  except  by 
prolonged  pressures  or  quickly  repeated  touches.  This  is  also 
quite  intelligible;  for  wnen  an  insect  is  caught  on  the  sticky 
secretion  of  the  gland  it  will  give  a  somewhat  prolonged  pressure, 
or  a  number  of  ^cks  to  the  sensitive  gland,  unless  indeed  it  flies 
away  after  a  single  struggle,  and  in  that  case  the  tentacle  will 
be  also  saved  from  uselesj>ly  bending. 

In  another  carnivorous  plant,  Dionaea,  the  specialisation  of 
sensitiveness  is  exactly  the  reverse ;  thick  and  comparatively 
heavy  bits  of  hair  can  be  cautiously  placed  on  the  sensitive  organs 
without  causing  any  movement,  but  the  delicate  blow  received 
from  a  cotton  thread  swinging  against  the  hair  causes  the  leaf  to 
close.'  Diontea  catches  its  prey  by  snapping  on  it  like  a  rat- 
trap — there  is  no  sticky  secretion  to  retain  the  insect  as  in 
Drosera  till  the  slowly  moving  tentacles  can  close  on  it  Its 
only  chance  of  catching  an  insect  is  to  close  instantly  on  the 
slightest  touch.  The  specialisation  of  sensitiveness  in  Dionxea 
is  therefore  just  what  it  requires  to  perfect  its  method  of  capture. 

In  describing  the  sensitiveness  of  Drosera  and  Dionaea  I  wish 
rather  to  insist  on  a  wide  and  general  similarity  to  the  action  of 
nerves.  There  may  be  said  to  be  an  analogy  between  the 
specialisation  of  extreme  sensitiveness  in  Drosera  and  Dionsa  and 
the  nervous  tissues  of  animals,  because  these  properties  play  the 
same  part  in  the  economy  of  the  plant  that  is  supplied  through 
some  kind  of  nerve  machinery  in  the  higher  animals.  Closer 
analogies  could  be  pointed  out.    There  are,  for  instance,  the 

«  "Insectivorous  Planu," p.  3a. 
»  "Insectivorous  Plants  "p.  170. 
3  "  losccUyorous  Plauts,"  p.  aS^. 


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wdl-known  researches  of  Dr.  Bardon  Sanderson,  in  which  he 
compares  the  electrical  disturbances  which  occur  in  the  leaf  of 
Dionsea  to  those  which  take  place  in  nerve  and  muscle.  Again 
Mr.  Romanes  has,  in  a  recent  lecture  in  this  place,  compared 
the  peculiar  sensitiveness  of  Drosera  to  repeated  touches  with 
the  phenomenon  known  in  animal  physiology  as  the  summation 
of  stimuli.  But  I  have  merely  sought  to  show  that  we  find  in 
Drosera  a  power  of  conduction  of  stimuli,  an  extreme  sensitive- 
ness to  minute  disturbances,  and  a  power  of  discriminating 
between  different  kinds  of  stimuli  which  we  are  accustomed  to 
associate  with  nervous  action.  To  establish  this  analogy  I 
believe  that  the  examples  already  mentioned  may  sufHce. 

We  will  now  inquire  whether  among  plants  anything  similar 
to  memory  or  habit,  as  it  exists  among  animals,  may  be  found. 

The  most  fruitful  ground  for  this  inquiry  will  be  the  pheno- 
menon known  as  the  sleep  of  plants.  The  sleep  of  plants 
consists  in  the  leaves  taking  up  one  position  by  day  and  another 
at  night ;  the  two  positions  for  night  and  day  following  each  other 
alternately.  The  common  sentitive  plant  (Mimosa)  is  a  good 
example  of  a  sleeping  plant  The  leaf  consists  of  a  main  stalk 
from  which  two  or  more  secondary  stalks  branch  off ;  and  on 
these  secondary  stalks  are  borne  a  series  of  leaflets  growing 
in  paiis.  The  most  marked  character  of  the  night  or  sleeping 
position  is  that  these  leaflets,  instead  of  being  spread  out  fiat 
as  they  are  in  the  day,  rise  up  and  meet  together,  touching  each 
other  by  their  upper  surfaces.  At  the  same  time  the  secondary 
stalks  approach  each  other  and  ultimately  bring  the  rows  of 
closed-up  leaflets  (two  rows  on  each  stalk)  into  contact.  Besides 
this  well-marked  change  the  main  stalk  alters  its  positioiL  In 
the  afternoon  it  sinks  rapidly,  and  in  the  evening  it  begins  to  rise, 
and  goes  on  rising  all  night,  and  does  not  begin  to  sink  until 
daylight.  From  that  time  it  sinks  again  till  evening,  when  it 
again  rises,  and  so  on  for  every  day  and  night.  In  reality  the 
movement  is  more  complicated,  but  the  essential  features  are  as 
I  have  described  them. 

In  comparing  the  sleep  of  plants  wiih  anything  that  occurs  in 
animal  physiology,  we  must  first  give  up  the  idea  of  there  being 
an^  resemblance  between  this  phenomenon  and  the  sleep  of 
animals.  In  animals,  sleep  is  not  necessarily  connected  with  the 
alternation  of  light  and  darkness,  with  day  and  night.  We  can 
imagine  an  animal  which  by  always  keeping  its  nutrition  at  an 
equal  level  with  its  waste  would  require  no  period  of  rest  The 
heart  which  beats  day  and  night  shows  us  that  continuous  work 
may  go  on  side  by  side  with  continuous  nutrition.^  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  has  suggested  that  since  most  animals  are  unable  to  lead 
a  life  of  even  ordinary  activity  during  the  night  because  of  the 
darkness,  therefore  it  answers  best  to  lead  an  extremely  active 
life  in  day  when  they  can  see,  and  recover  the  waste  of  tissue  by 
complete  rest  at  night  On  the  other  hand,  certain  animals  find 
it  more  to  their  profit  to  sleep  in  the  day  and  rest  at  night.  But 
there  is  nothing  of  this  kind  in  plants ;  their  sleep  movements 
are  not  connected  with  resting.  Although  the  leaflets  close  up, 
yet  the  main  stalk  is  at  work  2^  the  night  through.'  Moreover, 
owing  to  the  closing  up  of  the  secondary  stalks  of  the  leaf,  the 
length  of  the  whole  origan  is  increased,  and  therefore  the  work 
done  by  the  main  stalk  is  also  increased.  So  that,  far  from 
testing  at  night,  the  main  stalk  is  actually  doing  more  work  than 
in  the  day.  Besides  this,  instead  of  being  more  or  less  insensible, 
as  a  sleeping  animal  is,  the  primary  petiole  of  the  Mimosa 
remains  fully  sensitive  at  night,  and  displays  the  same  property 
which  it  shows  by  day,  viz.,  that  uf  falling  suddenly  through  a 
large  angle  on  its  irritable  joint  being  touched.  Brides  these 
points  of  difference,  there  is  the  important  distinction  that  the 
movements  of  sleeping  plants  are  strictly  governed  by  light  and 
darkness  without  any  reference  to  other  circumstances. 

In  Norway,'  in  the  region  of  continual  day,  the  sensitive 
plant  remains  continoally  in  the  daylight  position— although  no 
animals  probably  remain  continually  awake. 

There  is  one^ — ^but  only  a  fanciful  resemblance — ^between  the 
sleeping  plants  and  animals,  namely,  that  both  have  the  power  of 
dreaming.  I  have  been  sitting  quietly  in  the  hot-house  at  night 
waiting  to  make  an  observation  at  a  given  hour,  when  suddenly 
the  leaf  of  8^  sensitive  plant  has  been  seen  to  drop  rapidly  to  its 
fullest  extent  and  slowly  rise  to  its  old  position.  Now  in  this 
action  the  plant  is  behaving  exactly  as  if  it  had  been  touched  on 
its  sensitive  joint ;  thus  some  internal  process  produces  the  same 
impression  on  the  plant  as  a  real  external  stimulus.    In  the  same 

>  Leaving  out  of  the  question  the  repose  during  diastole. 
*  In  Mimosa  at  least. 

3  Schabler»  quoted  by  Pfeifer  ("Die  periodische  Beweguogen  der  Blatt- 
organe,"  1875,  p.  36). 


way  a  dog  dreaming  by  the  fire  will  yelp  and  move  his  legs  as  if 
he  were  hunting  a  real  instead  of  an  imaginary  rabbit^ 

I  said  that  in  the  regions  of  perpetual  light  the  sensitive  plant 
remains  constantly  in  3ie  day  position.  We  might  fairly  expect, 
therefore,  that  we  should  be  able  to  produce  the  same  effect  by 
artificial  light  constantly  maintained.  This  experiment  has,  in 
fact,  been  made  by  A.  de  CandoUe,^  Pfeffer,  and  others  with 
perfect  success.  But  before  the  leaves  come  to  rest  a  remarkable 
thing  takes  place.  In  spite  of  the  continuous  illumination,  the 
sleeping  movements  are  executed  for  a  few  days  exactly  as  iif  the 
plant  were  still  exposed  to  the  alternation  of  day  and  night. 
The  plant  wakes  in  the  morning  at  the  right  time  and  goes  to 
sleep  in  the  evening  ;  the  only  difference  between  these  move- 
ments and  those  of  a  plant  under  ordinary  circumstances  is  that 
under  constant  illumination  the  movements  become  gradually 
smaller  and  smaller,  until  at  last  they  cease  altogether.  When 
the  plant  has  been  brought  to  rest  it  can  be  made  to  sleep  and 
wake  by  artificial  alternations  of  darkness  and  light.  This  fact 
seems  to  me  extremely  remarkable,  and  one  which,  in  the  domain 
of  animal  physiology,  can  only  be  paralleled  by  facts  connected 
with  habit  The  following  case  b  given  me  by  a  friend  and  is 
probably  a  common  experience  with  many  people : — Having  to  be 
at  work  at  a  certain  time  every  day,  he  has  to  get  up  at  an  early 
hour,  and  wakes  with  great  regularity  at  the  proper  time.  When 
he  goes  away  for  his  holiday  he  continues  for  a  time  waking  at  the 
proper  hour  to  go  to  work,  but  at  last  the  body  breaks  through 
the  habit,  and  learns  to  accommodate  itself  to  holiday  hours. 

It  seems  to  me  that  this  case  may  fairly  be  likened  to  that  of  the 
sensitive  plant  in  constant  illumination.  There  is  the  same  con- 
tinuance of  the  periodic  movement  on  the  first  removal  of  a 
stimulus,  and  the  same  gradual  loss  of  periodicity  consequent  on 
the  e-^^/iif ma/ absence  of  the  stimulus. 

From  this  kind  of  habitual  action  there  is  but  a' small  step  to 
those  actions  in  which  we  say  that  memory  comes  into  play.  Dr. 
Carpenter  '  relates  the  case  of  a  boy  who,  in  consequence  of  an 
injury  to  his  braio^  never  acquired  the,  power  of  speech  or  of 
recognising  in  any  way  the  minds  of  other  people.  In  spite  of  this 
mental  incapacity  he  had  an  extraordinary  sense  of  order  or 
regularity.  Thus  although  he  disliked  personal  interference,  his 
hair  having  been  one  day  cut  at  ten  minutes  past  eleven,  the  next 
day  and  every  following  day  he  presented  himself  at  ten  minutes 
past  eleven,  as  if  by  fate,  and  brought  comb,  towel,  and  scissors, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  cut  a  snip  of  hair  before  he  would  be 
satisfied.  Yet  he  had  no  knowledge  whatever  of  clocks  or 
watches,  and  was  no  less  minutely  punctual  when  placed  beyond 
the  reach  of  these  aids. 

It  is  hard  to  say  whether  this  boy  actually  remembered  at  ten 
minutes  past  eleven  that  now  was  the  time  to  have  his  hair  cut, 
or  whether  it  was  an  unconscious  impulse  that  made  him  do  so. 
But  whether  we  call  it  habit  or  memory,  there  is  the  same  know- 
ledge of  the  lapse  of  time,  the  internal  chronometry,  as  Dr. 
Carpenter  calls  it,  which  exists  in  the  sensitive  plant,  and  the 
same  tendency  to  perform  an  action  because  it  has  been  done 
previously.  There  is,  in  fact,  hardly  any  distinction  between 
habit  and  memory ;  if  a  man  neglects  to  wind  up  his  watch  at 
night,  he  says  that  he  forgot  it,  and  this  implies  that  memory  nor- 
mally impels  him  to  wind  it ;  but  how  little  memory  has  to  do  with 
the  process  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  we  have  often  to  examine  our 
watches  again.to  see  that  they  are  wound  up.  It  is  the  old  problem 
of  conscious  and  unconscious  action.  If  a  friend,  in  order  to 
test  our  powers  of  self-control,^  moves  his  hand  rapidly  near 
the  face,  we  cannot  help  winking,  though  we  know  he  will  not 
hurt  us ;  and  when  we  are  breaking  through  a  hedge  or  thicket, 
we  close  our  eyes  voluntarily  to  keep  twigs  out  Here  are 
two  actions  performed  with  the  same  object  by  the  same  muscles 
under  command  of  the  same  nerves,  yet  one  is  said  to  be  directed 
by  the  will  and  the  other  by  instinct,  and  a  great  distinction  is 
drawn  between  them.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  presence  ot  what 
Mr.  Lewes  calls  ''thought  consciousness"  is  not  the  crucial 
point,  and  that  if  it  is  allowed  that;  the  sensitive  plant  is  subject 
to  habit  (and  this  cannot  be  denied),  it  must,  in  fact,  possess 
the  germ  of  what,  as  it  occurs  in  man,  forms  the  groundwork  of 
all  mental  physiolo^. 

I  am  far  from  wishing  to  make  a  paradoxical  or  exaggerated 
statement  of  this  resemblance  between  the  periodic  movements 
of  plants  and  memory  of  the  human  mind.     But  the  groundwork 

'  This  curious  phenomenon  was  first  observed  by  MiUardet,  who  describes 
it  as  of  rare  occurrence.    (Miliardet,  loc.  cit.,  p.  39.) 
'  Quoted  by  Pfeffer  ("Periodlscbe  Bewegungen,   p.  31). 
3  "  Mental  Phvsiology/*  p.  349. 
*  See  "  Physiology  of  Gomaion  Life,**  vol.  it  p.  aoo. 


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NATURE 


{March  21^  1878 


of  both  phenoznena  seems  to  be  the  repetition  of  a  series  of  acts, 
or  the  recalling  of  a  series  of  impressions,  in  a  certain  order  at 
a  certain  time,  because  they  have  been  repeated  in  that  order 
and  at  that  time  on  many  previous  occasions. 

I  will  mention  one  more  fiict  in  connection  with  the  move- 
ments of  Mimosa,  in  which  the  formation  of  habit  is  illustrated. 
Every  one  knows  that  a  noise  regularly  repeated  ceases  to  dis- 
turb us ;  that  one  becomes  habituated  to  it,  and  almost  ceases  to 
hear  it.  A  boy  fast  asleep  inside  an  iron  boiler  while  riveting 
is  going  on,  is  an  example  of  this  power  of  habituation.  The 
same  Siing  occurs  with  the  Sensitive  Plant.  A  single  violent 
shake  causes  the  main  stalk  to  drop,  and  the  leaflets  to  shut  up ; 
in  a  minute  or  two  the  leaf  recovers,  and  will  again  react  on 
being  disturbed.  In  order  to  test  the  power  of  habituation,  I 
fastened  one  end  of  a  thread  to  the  leaf  of  a  sensitive  plant,  and 
the  other  to  the  pendulum  of  a  metronome,  and  placed  the  plant 
just  at  such  a  distance  from  the  instrument  that  it  received  a  pull  at 
every  beat.  The  first  shock  caused  the  leaf  to  shut  up,  but  alter 
a  few  repetitions  it  became  accustomed  to  it,  and  I  had  the 
curious  sight  of  a  highly-sensitive  plant  unaffected  by  a  series  of 
blows.  £1  nature  wis  power  no  doubt  enables  the  plant  to 
withstand  the  constant  shaking  of  the  wind. 

In  spite  of  the  amount  of  time  which  has  been  spent  on  the 
study  of  sensitive  and  sleeping  plants,  no  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  the  use  which  the  movements  are  to  the  plant  has  ever 
been  given.  In  the  case  of  the  carnivorous  plants,  we  saw  that 
the  movements  of  plants  may  be  offensive,  and  like  the  move- 
ments of  animals  in  sectiring  its  prey.  In  the  case  of  certain 
flowers  which  we  will  now  consider,  the  movements  are  ^^en- 
sive,  like  the  closing  of  a  sea  anemone.  I  shall  describe  these 
movements  with  a  view  to  showing  the  existence  of  periodicity 
or  habit,  and  some  other  general  resemblances  to  animal 
physiology. 

The  crocus  is  perhaps  the  best  example  of  a  flower  which 
opens  and  shuts  in  accordance  with  changes  of  external  circum- 
stances. The  crocus  is  especially  sensitive  to  changes  of  tem- 
perature. If  a  light  index  is  fastened  into  one  of  the  petals  or 
divisions  of  the  flower,  very  small  movements  are  made  visible^ 
and  in  this  way  it  has  been  shown  that  the  crocus  actually  appre- 
ciates a  difference  of  temperature  of  one  degree  Fahrenheit^ 
I  have  seen  a  crocus  distinctly  6pen  when  a  hot  coal  was  brought 
near  it.  The  use  of  this  power  of  movement  is  connected  with 
the  fertilisation  of  the  flower.  In  the  warm  sunshine  the  flower 
opens  wide,  and  the  bees  are  soon  hard  at  work,  and  carry  pollen 
from  one  flower  to  another.  If,  now,  a  cloud  hides  the  sun,  the 
temperature  falls,  and  the  crocus  b^ins  to  close,  and  by  the 
time  the  sky  has  become  overcast  and  the  first  drops  of  rain 
fall,  the  precious  pollen  is  housed  safe  beneath  the  roof  of 
petals.  The  crocus  is  warned  of  the  coming  danger  by 
the  shadow  of  the  cloud  just  as  the  fly  is  warned  by  the  shadow 
of  the  approaching  hand.  The  crocus  is  sensitive  to  changes  of 
light  and  darkness  as  well  as  to  changes  of  temperature,  and  the 
sum  of  these  influences  alternately  acting  by  night  and  day  produce 
a  periodic  opening  and  shutting  which  resembles  the  periodic 
movement  or  sleep  of  the  Sensitive  Plant.  Corresponding;  to  the 
regular  repetition!  of  the  stimulus  of  light  and  heat,  an  internal 
periodicity  has  arisen  in  the  flower  which  shows  itself  in  a 
curious  manner.  This  phenomenon  is  best  shown  by  certain 
flowers  which  are  not  so  sensitive  to  temporary  changes,  but 
which  open  and  close  regularly  by  day  and  night.  Raising  the 
temperature  in  the  evening  does  not  produce  nearly  the  same 
amount  of  divergence  of  the  petals  as  a  similar  rise  in  the 
morning.  With  the  white  waterlily,  Oxalis  roseOf  and  some 
other  flowers,  the  same  thing  is  well  seen.'  If  the  flowers 
have  been  allowed  to  close  at  the  natural  hour  in  the  evening  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  perceive  the  least  opening  of  the  petals 
even  when  the  temperature  is  raised  from  50°  to  82°.  On  the 
other  hand  a  considerable  lowering  of  temperature  does  not 
produce  so  much  effect  in  the  morning  as  it  does  towards  even- 
iDgf  In  all  biological  problems  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the 
internal  condition  of  the  organism  quite  as  much  as  the  other 
element,  viz.,  the  external  condition.  It  is  a  familiar  fact  that 
similar  external  causes  do  not  produce  like  results.  A  man  may 
fall  ill  after  exposure  to  wet  and  cold  at  different  times  of  his 
life  and  the  kind  of  illness  may  be  very  different.  Once  it  may 
be  rheumatic  fever,  another  time  pleurisy,  or  some  other  malady, 
so  that  in  the  case  of  the  flowers]  which,  under  a  given  change 
of  temperature,  behave  differently  at  different  times  of  day, 
we  tee  the  variability  in  the  internal  condition  or  receptive 

*  Pfeffer,  "Physioloipsche  Untcn.,'*  1873,  p.  183. 
'  Pfcffcr,  **  Pbyaologisch«  Untew,,"  p.  195- 


state  of  the  organism  exemplified,  the  most  interesting  £act 
being  that  the  receptiveneis  varies  not  capricously  but  with 
periodicity. 

The  same  phenomenon  may  also  be  seen  when  the  cyde  ia 
a  yearly  and  not  a  daily  one.  A  German  phvsiologist  has  lately 
made  a  long  and  patient  research  on  the  yearly  penodicity  in  the 
growth  of  buds.'  The  method  consisted  in  ascertaining  the 
weight  of  100  chary  buds  gathered  at  frequently  repeated 
intervals  throughout  the  year.  In  order  to  discover  whether 
the  growth  of  buds  would  be  equally  increased  in  rapidity 
at  all  times  by  a  given  increase  of  temperature,  branches 
were  cut  and  kept  in  a  greenhouse  at  a  temperature  of 
60  to  70  at  various  times  of  the  year.  This  experiment 
showed  that  branches  thus  treated  in  the  beginning  of 
December  were  hardly  at  all  hurried  on  in  growth,  while  the 
rise  of  temperature  at  once  produced  energetic  growth  in  buds  in 
the  middle  of  January.  If  this  fact  b  to  be  clawed  with  the  very 
similar  effects  of  temperature  on  the  daily  periodic  changes  in 
flowers — and  I  can  hardly  doubt  that  it  ought  to  be  so  dassed 
— a  difficulty  arises.  The  buds  being  new  growths,  have 
never  experienced  a  previous  winter  or  spring,  so  that  the 
periodicity  cannot  originate  in  their  tissues  ;  it  must,  therefore, 
depend  on  some  property  common  to  all  the  branches,  some 
periodicity  conmion  to  the  nutrition  of  the  tree.  A^enasy 
describes  the  case  as  the  occurrence  of  some  chemical  change 
which  goes  on  in  the  buds,  rendering  them  sensitive  to  rise  of 
temperature  at  a  certain  period.  The  case  bears  a  resemblance 
to  the  hybernation  of  animals.  Thus,  Berthold  ^  says  that  when 
the  dormouse,  Myoxus  avellanarius  first  goes  to  sleep  in  the 
autumn,  it  can  be  partly  awakened,  and  then  sent  into  deep 
sleep  by  alternations  of  temperature,  answering,  like  the  crocus, 
to  alternations  of  heat  and  cold  ;  but  when  the  winter  sleep  has 
fairly  set  in,  no  effect  could  be  produced  by  raising  the  tempe- 
rature,— just  as  the  oxalis  and  water  lily  when  once  shut  for  the 
night  coiud  not  be  made  to  open. 

I  have  no  doubt  that  many  closer  analogies  will  some  day  be 
shown  to  exist  between  the  behaviour  of  plants  and  animals,  as 
regards  nerve-physiology.  The  after-effect  of  stimuli  seems  to 
be  represented  in  the  movements  of  plants.  If  a  stimulus  is  sud- 
denly applied  and  then  removed,  the  nerves  acted  on  do  not 
cease  to  be  disturbed  the  instant  the  stimulus  ceases.  The 
molecular  change,  whatever  it  is,  which  goes  on  in  the  nerve, 
cannot  leave  off  directly  the  stimulus  ceases.  The  molecular 
action  goes  on  like  the  vibration  of  a  bell  after  it  has  been  struck. 
When  a  wheel  is  turned  round  rapidly  before  our  eyes  the  image 
of  a  new  spoke  strikes  the  retina  before  the  image  of  the  old 
one  has  died  away,  so  that  we  cannot  distinguish  one  from 
another.  In  the  same  way  a  burning  stick  whirled  round  looks 
like  a  circle  of  fire.  This  after  effect  of  stimuli  is  represented  in 
plants  by  heliotropism  and  geotropism.  I  have  myself  observed 
It  in  the  latter.  I  took  a  young  growing  shoot  and  put  it  through 
a  hole  in  a  cork,  so  that  it  was  firmly  fixed  into  a  bottle  of  water. 
I  then  put  the  bottle  on  its  side  in  a  vessel  filled  with  wet  sand, 
and  fixed  it  firmly  bv  piling  wet  sand  over  it.  The  shoot  thus 
projected  horizontally  from  the  vessel  of  sand.  It  now  began  to 
straighten  itself  by  geotropism,  that  is  to  say,  the  tip  of  the 
shoot  began  to  curve  upwards.  I  applied  a  delicate  means  of 
measuring  this  upward  movement,  and  allowed  it  to  continue  for 
some  time.  I  then  turned  the  bottle  round  on  its  axis,  so  as  to 
rest  on  what  had  been  its  upper  surface,  and  the  action  of 
gravity  being  now  reversed  as  far  as  the  shoot  went,  the  tip 
ought  to  have  reversed  its  direction  of  growth,  and  curved  up- 
wards, but  instead  of  this  it  went  on  curving  towards  the  earth  in 
consequence  of  the  after-effect  of  the  old  stimulus.  And  it  was 
more  than  an  hour  liefore  it  could  reverse  its  movement,  and 
again  grow  upwards. 

With  this  case  I  conclude  my  comparison  of  plants  and 
animals.  Some  of  the  points  of  resemblance  which  I  have 
attempted  to  point  out  are  purely  analogical.  Nevertheless, 
I  have  tried  to  show  that  a  true  relationship  exists  between  the 
physiology  of  the  two  kingdoms.  Until  a  man  b^[ins  to  work 
at  plants,  he  is  apt  to  grant  to  them  the  word  "  alive  **  in  rather 
a  meagre  sense.  But  the  more  he  works,  the  more  vivid  does 
the  sense  of  their  vitality  become.  The  plant  physiologist  has 
much  to  learn  from  the  worker  who  confines  himself  to  animals. 
Possibly,  however,  the  process  may  be  partly  reversed — it  may 
be  that  from  the  study  of  plant-physiology  we  can  learn  some- 
thing about  the  machinexy  of  our  own  lives. 

'  Askenasy,  Bot*  Ztitung,  1877,  Na  50,  51,  5a  |  abstiact  Natutfortchtr, 
1878,  p.  44. 
"  ~      lold,  MUllti^t  ArcMv,  1837,  p.  63. 


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415 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge. — The  Vice- Chancellor  has  published,  for  the 
inTormatlon  of  the  Senate,  a  statement  received  from  the  Uni- 
versity Commission.  There  appears  to  the  Conunissioners  to  be 
sufficient  evidence  of  needs  which  will  ultimately  require  a  con- 
tribution equivalent  to,  at  least,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  net  income 
of  the  Colleges.  The  Commissioners  think  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  specify  in  general  among  the  purposes  for  which  provision 
should  be  made  : — 

*'  I.  Additional  buildings  for  museums,  laboratories, '.libraries, 
lecture-rooms,  and  other  rooms  for  University  business. 

"  2.  The  maintenance  and  furnishing  of  such  buildings, 
including  the  provision  of  instruments  and  apparatus,  together 
with  the  employment  of  curators,  assistants,  skilled  workmen, 
and  servants. 

"  3.  Additional  teachhig  power  by  the  institution  of  new 
permanent  or  temporary  professorships,  and  the  employment  of 
lecturers  and  readers,  including  the  increase  of  the  stipends  of 
some  of  the  existing  professor^ps  and  the  provision  of  retiring 
pensions. 

"  4.  Grants  for  special  work  in  the  way  of  research,  or  for  in- 
vestigations conducted  in  any  branch  of  learning  or  science  con- 
nected with  the  sudies  of  the  University. 

"  The  sources  from  which  funds  for  the  purposes  described 
should  be  obtained  appear  to  be  clearly  pointed  out  by  the  Act 
itself,  when  it  empowers  the  Commisioners  to  enable  or  require 
the  several  Colleges,  or  any  of  them,  to  make  contributions  out 
of  their  revenues  for  University  purposes,  regard  being  first  had 
to  the  wants  of  the  several  colleges  in.themselves.for  educational 
and  other  collegiate  purposes. 

"  The  principles  on  which  payments  from  the  Colleges  should 
be  contributed  are,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commissioners,  as 
follows : — 

"That  such  contributions  should  be  made  by  the  several  col- 
leges as  nearly  as  possible  on  a  imiform  scale  throughout, 
whether  by  annual  payments  to  the  proposed  common  University 
fiind,  or  b^  a  capital  sum  to  be  provided  by  the  college  out  of 
mone^  belonging  to  it  in  lieu  of  such  annual  payments  ;  or  by 
annexing  any  coU^  emolument  to  any  office  in  the  University, 
with  sp^ified  conmtions  of  residence,  study,  and  duty ;  or  by 
assigning  a  portion  of  the  revenue  or  property  of  the  college  as 
a  contribution  to  the  common  fund,  or  otherwise,  for  encourage- 
ment of  instruction  in  the  University  in  any  art,  or  science,  or 
other  brandi  of  learning,  or  for  the  maintenance  and  benefit  of 
persons  of  known  ability  and  learning,  studying,  or  making 
researches  in  any  art  or  science,  or  other  branch  of  learning  in 
the  University ;  or  by  providing  out  of  the  revenue  of  the  college 
for  payments  to  be  made,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Uni- 
versity, for  work  done  or  investigations  conducted  in  any 
brandi  of  learning  or  inc^uiry  connected  with  the  studies  of  the 
University  within  the  Umversity. 

"  The  Commissioners  think  it  probable  that  over  and  above 
the  contributions  to  be  required  from  the  college  on  a  uniform 
basis,  some  colleges  may  be  willing,  following  in  this  respect  the 
example  of  Trinity  College,  and  in  consideration  of  prospective 
additions  to  their  revenues,  or  for  other  reasons,  to  contribute  to 
the  wants  of  the  University  by  founding  professorships  or  other- 
wise.'* 

Oxford.— The  vacant  Burdett  Coutts  Scholarship  has  been 
awarded  to  Mr.  Edward  B.  PoultoD,)*B.A.,  Scholar  of  Jesus 
College.  The  examiners  have  also  announced  that  Mr.  Francis 
H.  Butler,  B.A.,  Worcester  College,  distinguished  himself  in 
the  examination  and  is  worthy  of  honourable  mention. 

Glasgow. — At  a  private  meeting  of  the  members  of  the 
University  Council  to  consider  who  should  fill  the  vacanor  in  the 
Chancellorship  caused  by  the  death  of  Sir  William  Stirling- 
Maxwell,  fifty  members  voted  for  the  Duke  of  Bucdeugh,  and 
thirty-one  for  Sir  Joseph  Hooker.  A  committee  was  appointed 
to  endeavour  to  concentrate  the  vote  upon  the  duke. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

i  Royal  Society,  March  7. — "Experimental  Researches  on 
the  Temperature  of  the  Head,"  by  J.  S.  Lombard,  M.D.,  for- 
tnerly{Aisistant-Professor  of  Physiology  in  Harvard  Universi^, 
U.S.    Communicated  by  H.  Qiarlto&  Bastian,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 


Professor  of  Pathological  Anatomy  in  University  College, 
London. 

"Addition  to  Memoir  on  the  Transformation  of  Elliptic 
Functions,"  by  A.  Cay  ley,  F.R.S.,  Sadlerian  Professor  of  Pure 
Mathematics  in  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

March  14, — **  On  the  Function  of  the  Sides  of  the  Vessel  in 
maintaining  the  State  of  Supersaturation,"  by  Charles  Tomlin- 
son,  F.R.S. 

Anthropological  Institute,  February  26.— Mr.  John  Evans, 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — The  following  new 
Members  were  announced  :— Mr.  W.  Cohen  and  Mr.  Gabriel. — 
A  weapon  from  New  Zealand  was  exhibited  by  Mr.  Hyde 
Clarke. — Mr.  J.  Sanderson  exhibited  some  stone  implements  and 
fragments  of  pottery  from  Natal,  and  read  a  paper  on  the  subject 
of  the  present  native  inhabitants  and  their  legends.  The  Pre- 
sident remarked  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  implements  exhibited 
were  extremely  rude ;  and  in  respect  to  the  pottery,  observed 
that  it  presented  remarkable  similarity  in  pattern  to  pottery 
found  in  this  country,  a  statement  confirmed  by  the  Rev.  Canon 
Greenwell,  who  remarked  that  the  pottery  was  hard  and  well- 
baked,  and  probably  made  for  use  in  the  household. — Mr.  W. 
St.  Chad  Boscawen  read  a  paper  on  the  primitive  culture  of 
Babylonia,  in  which  he  referred  to  the  rudely  pictorial  character 
of  early  Babylonian  writing,  and  to  its  gradual  development  into 
a  syllabic  character,  as  shown  in  the  syllabaries  of  Assur-bani- 
pal,  which  he  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  growth  of  pro- 
nominal ideas  and  the  change  of  the  archaic  forms  through  hieratic 
into  a  court,  or  script  hand.  Treating  the  earlier  forms  as  pic- 
torial, he  suggested  that  they  gave  evidence  that  the  original 
form  of  dwelUiog  was  a  cave,  which  then  gave  place  to  a  con- 
struction of  wattle  and  daub,  and  that  to  a  structure  supported  by 
wooden  beams  on  columns,  and  having  doors  and  windows.  To 
these  were  probably  attached  gardens  about  the  entrance.  The 
honour  in  which  women  were  held  by  their  diildren  is  indicated 
by  ^  ideograph  for  mother,  which  sixties  "  home-divinity." 
Mr.  Boacawen  then  stated,  as  his  opimon,  that  the  early  Baby- 
lonians used  the  fire-stick  to  kindle  their  fires.  The  ideograph 
for  "prison"  is  "dark-hole."  Li  these  early  dties  tJiere  were 
policemen  who  patrolled  day  and  night  A  vast  number  of 
other  curious  illustrations  of'^the  manners  of  andent  Babylon 
were  deduced  by  Mr.  Boscawen  firom  the  ideographs  and  sylla* 
banes,  and  his  lecture  was  listened  to  vrith  great  interest 

Physical  Society,  March  2.— Pro£  W.  G.  Adams,  pre- 
sident, in  the  chair. — The  following  candidates  were  elected 
Members  of  the  Sodety :— Mr.  J.  P.  Kirkman  and  Dr.  W.  J. 
Russell,  F.R.S.— Mr.  Sedley  Taylor  exhibited  the  colours  pro- 
duced in  thin  films  by  sonorous  vibrations.  A  piece  of  thin  brass 
perforated  with  a  triangular,  circular,  or  rectangular  aperture, 
and  bearing  a  thin  film  of  soap  solution,  was  placed  horizontally 
on  one  end  of  an  L'Bhaped  tube ;  the  beam  of  the  electric 
lamp,  after  reflection  from  it,  was  recdved  on  a  screen.  .  It  was 
shown  that  when  a  sound  is  emitted  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
open  end  of  the  tube,  the  film  takes  up  a  regmar  form  which  is 
indicated  by  the  different  colours  of  the  reflected  light,  and  each 
note  has  its  own  particular  colour  figure ;  and  further,  with 
different  instruments  we  have  different  figures.  Thus  when  a 
square  film  was  employed  a  kind  of  coloured  grating  was  the 
rmlt,  which  was  modified  by  changing  the  note,  and  with  a  cir- 
cular film  concentric  rings  traversed  by  two  bars  at  right-angles 
were  observed.  —Mr.  W.  H.  Preece  eachibited  and  described  the 
phonograph.  After  referring  to  the  manner  in  which  the  pre- 
ceding communication  bore  on  Uie  subject  of  the  tdephone,  he 
went  on  to  explain  the  construction  of  the  two  instruments 
exhibited,  whicn  have  been  made  in  accordance  with  the  pub- 
lished accounts  of  the  apparatus  and  details  received  from  the 
mventor,  Mr.  T.  A.  Edison,  by  Mr.  Pidgeon  and  Mr.  Stroh 
respectivdy.  In  the  first  of  these  the  recdving  and  emitting 
discs  are  distinct,  the  former  being  of  ferrotype  iron,  and  Uie 
latter  of  paper,  whereas,  in  the  second  form  of  apparatus,  both 
these  functions  are  performed  by  one  and  the  same  disc  of  iron. 
They  also  differ  in  that  in  Mr.  Pidgeon's  apparatus  the  drum 
receives  its  motion  by  hand,  and  in  that  of  Mr.  Stroh  a  descending 
wdght  is  caused  to  communicate  motion  by  a  suitable  train  of 
whms,  which  motion  can  be  controlled  and  regulated  by  an 
adjustable  pah:  of  vanes.  In  both  cases  the  dram  is  of  brass 
traced  over  \fj  a  spiral  groove^  and  the  whole  is  mounted  on  a 
screw  of  the  same  pitch.  The  manner  of  using  the  phonograph 
is  extremdy  simple.  The  drum  having  been  covered  with  tin- 
foil, a  uniform  movement  of  rotation  is  given  to  it,  and  a  fine 
metal  point,  firmly  fixed  to  the  centre  of  the  recdving  plate,  is 


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brought  in  contact  with  it,  care  being  taken  to  place  the  point 
accurately  over  the  groove.  If  now  this  plate  be  sung  or  spoken 
to,  the  tinfoil  will  be  indented  in  accordance  with  the  vibrations 
communicated  to  the  plate.  The  emitting  plate  having  been 
provided  with  a  resonator,  its  point  is  now  brought  into  the 
position  initially  occupied  by  the  point  of  the  receiving  platen 
and  on  rotating  the  drum,  with  the  same  velocity,  fairly  identical 
sounds  are  given  out  It  will  be  seen  that  Mr.  Stroh's  apparatus 
has  an  advantage  over  that  of  Mr.  Pidgeon,  in  that  it  secures  a 
constant  rate  of  rotation ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  sounds 
emitted  by  the  paper  disc  appeared  to  be  more  distinct  than  those 
from  the  iron.  A  number  of  experiments  were  performed  with 
the  instruments.  The  sounds  were  reproduced  at  times  with 
remarkable  distinctness,  and  when  Mr.  Spagnoletti  and  Mr. 
Sedley  Taylor  sang  **  God  Save  the  Queeo,"  as  a  duet,  through 
a  double  mouthpiece,  the  two  voices  could  be  clearly  distin- 
guished on  its  being  reproduced.  It  was  shown  that  even  when 
an  indented  sheet  of  tixifoil  has  been  employed  to  emit  sounds,  it 
retains  its  form  with  such  perfectness  that  the  sounds  can  be 
reproduced  by  means  of  it  a  second,  and  even  a  third  time,  with 
nearly  equal  dbtinctness.  Prof.  Graham  Bell  pointed  out  that 
the  articulation  of  the  instruments  was  very  similar  to  what  he 
had  observed  in  the  earlier  forms  of  telephone,  and  he  had  no 
doubt,  judging  from  his  own  experience  of  that  instrument,  that 
the  phonograph  will  ere  long  be  so  adjusted  as  to  articulate 
much  more  perfectly.  He  anticipated  that  the  quality  of  the 
sound  would  be  found  to  vary  as  the  rate  of  rotation  was  altered, 
as  wdl  as  thejpitch,  and  this  proved  on  experiment  to  be  the 
case. 

Royal  Microscopical  Society,  Mardi  6. — ^Mr.  H.  T.  Slack, 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr,  Chas,  Stewart  described  a  new 
species  of  coral  said  to  have  been  obtained  from  an  island  in  the 
vicinity  of  Tahiti,  and  which  was  referred  to  the  genus  Stylaster, 
The  characteristics  of  the  genus  and  the  distinctive  features  of  the 
new  species  were  explamed  and  illustrated  by  black  board 
drawings,  and  specimens  of  the  coral  were  exhibited  under  the 
microscope. — A  paper  on  a  new  operculated  Infusorian  from  New 
Zealand,  by  Mr.  Hutton,  of  Otago,  was  read  by  the  president.— 
A  paper  by  Mr.  Adolf  Schulze  on  a  new  and  simple  method  of 
resolving  the  finest  balsam-mounted  diatom  tests,  was  read  by 
the  secretary,  and  described  the  success  which  had  attended  the 
examination  of  thb  class  of  objects  by  means  of  the  reflex- 
illuminator,  and  the  immersion  paraboloid,  moistened  with 
castor  oil  in  place  of  water.  The  lines  on  Amphipleura  pellucida 
were  shown  m  this  manner  by  Dr.  Dickson,  in  illustration  of  the 
paper. — Lissajous  curves  drawn  microscopically  upon  glass  by 
Mr.  West,  were  exhibited  by  Mr,  Curtics, 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  February  a6.— Mr.  W.  H. 
Barlow,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — ^The  paper  read  was  on 
liquid  fuels,  by  Mr.  H.  Aydon. 

Victoria  (Philosophical)  Institute,  March  4. — A  paper 
was  read  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Rule,  in  reference  to  ancient  Onental 
monuments. 

Cambridge 

Philosophical  Society,  February  11.— Mr.  J.  W.  L. 
Glaisher  made  a  communication  on  the  mode  of  formation  of  the 
factor  table  for  the  fourth  million,  now  in  course  of  construction. 

Paris 

•  Academy  of  Sciences,  March  11. — M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair. 
— ^The  following  papers  were  read : — On  the  phenomena  con- 
nected with  vision  of^coloured  objects  in  motion,  bv  M.  Chevreul. 
He  is  able  to  show  on  a  circle,  one-half  of  which  is  black,  the 
other  half  coloured,  the  complement  of  this  colour,  and  prove 
that  it  is  due  to  the  arrangement  of  the  two  surfaces  with  r^ard  to 
circular  motion.— On  some  applications  of  elliptical  functions 
(continued),  by  M.  Hermite.— On  the  relative  affinities  and 
reciprocal  displacements  of  oxyfi;en  and  halogen  elements  com- 
bined with  metallic  substances,  bv  M.  Berthelot.  The  compara- 
tive reactions  of  the  halogens  and  oxygen  on  various  metals,  and 
specially  the  reciprocal  displacement  l^ween  iodine  and  oxygen, 
depend  neither  on  type  nor  on  atomic  or  other  formulae  of  the 
combinations,  but  on  the  quantities  of  heat  liberated  by  direct 
combination  of  the  metals  with  each  of  the  antagonistic  elements 
taken  in  equirUent  weights. — Influence  of  M.  Pasteur's  discoveries 
on  the  progress  of  surgery,  by  M.  Sedillot  He  shows  the 
relation  (to  those  discoveries)  of  Lister's  treatment  of  wounds 
and  its  results;  also  Guerin's  (with  wadding,  &&).  M. 
D'Abbadie  stated  that  on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  the  natives 


have  a  maxim  that  a  wound,  to  be  healed,  should  remain  in 
contact  with  air ;  and  he  found  this  was  the  case.  He  thinks 
the  air  may  there  be  free  from  microbes.— The  vibrations  of 
matter  and  the  waves  of  the  ether  in  chemical  combinations*  by 

M.  Favd — On  Mr.  Edison's  phonograph,  by  M.  du  MonceL 

On  the]  industrial  applications  of  electricity,  by  M.  Du  Moncel. 
This  is  a  short  summary  of  vol.  v.  of  his  **  Expos^  des  Applica- 
tions de  TElectricit^  "  (third  edition). — M.   Cialdi  was  elected 
correspondent  for  the  section  of  Geography  and  Navigation,  in 
room  of  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  elected  Foreign  Associate. — On 
elliptic  polarisation  by  reflection  at  the  surface  of  transparent 
bodies,  by  M.  Comu. — Note  on  the  vibrations  of  liquids,  by  M , 
Barthelemy.     A  claim  of  priority. — Discovery  of  a  small  planet 
at    the    Observatory    of   Pola,    by  M.    Palisa. — Observations 
of  small  planets,  by  M.  Palisa. — On  the  fundamental  points  of 
the  system  of   surfaces  defined  by  an  equation    with    partia.1 
derivatives  of  the  first  algebraic  order,  linear  with  regard  to 
these  derivatives,  by  M.  Fouret. — On  a  class  of  transcendant 
functions,  by  M.  Picard. — On  the  variations  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism, by  M.  Quet     He  examines,  with  the  aid  of  calculation, 
the  theory  which  attribute*  to  the  sun  a  direct  action  on  the 
magnetic  and  electric  fluids  of  the  earth. — On  the  precise  orien- 
tation  of  the    principal   section   of  Nicols,  in   apparatus    of 
polarisation,  by  M.   Laurent.      For   this    purpose   he   places 
between  polariser  and  analyser  a  diaphragm,  one-half  of  which 
only  is  covered  with  a  thin  plate  of  quartz  parallel  to  the  axi5, 
having  the  thickness  of  half  a  wave.     When  the  Nicol,  e,g,y  has 
to  be  placed  at  a  determinate  anele  to  certain  reticular  wires, 
the  border  of  the  plate  is  brought  into  the  position,  then  the 
Nicols  are  placed  accordingly. — ^Study  of  chloride  of  sulphur, 
by  M.  Isambert     There  is  only  one  chloride  of  sulphur  in  which 
the  chloride  is  dissolved  in  considerable  proportion  at  a  low* 
temperature. — On  the  substitution   of    sulphur  for  oxygen  in 
the  fatty  series,  by  M.  Dupr^. — On  the  catechines  (third  note). 
Catechines  of  gambirs,  by  M.  Gautier. — Action  of  fluoride  of 
boron  on  organic  matters  (benzylic  aldehyde,  ethylene),  by  M. 
Landolph. — On  a  new  pyrc^enous  derivative  of  tartaric  acid, 
dipyrotartaric  acetone,  by  M.  Bourgoin. — On  the  acid  of  gastric 
juice,  by  M.  Ricbet.     The  hydrochloric  acid  of  gastric  juice  is 
in  combination  with  tyrosine,  leucine,  and  perhaps  other  similar 
substances. — Experimental  researches  on  the  inequality  of  the . 
corresponding  regions  of  the  brain,  by  M.  Le  Bon.  He  examined 
287  skulls  in  the  Museum  of  Anthropology,  and  found  125  with 
predominance  of  the  right  side  over  the  left,  1 1 1  with  predomin- 
ance of  the  left  side,  and  51  in  which  the  bones  were  unequal 
but  compensated  each  other,  making  the  right  side  nearly  equal 
to  the  left — Classification  of  Stellerides,  by  M.  Viguier. — On 
Gamierite,  by  M.  Gamier.  — Artificial  production  of  brochantitc, 
by  M.  Meunier.    This  was  done  by  keeping  firagments  of  galena 
about  eleven  months  in  s^  moderately  concentrated  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper. — The  Silurian  Tigillites,  by  M.  Crie.     He 
attributes  those  in  the  west  of  France  to  ancient  plan's,  of 
calamitoid  aspect,  that  lived  in  shallow  water.— On  the  rdU  of 
the  retina  in  vision  of  near  or  distant  objects,  by  M.  Fano. 

CONTENTS  p^K 

Eastbrn  Excavations 397 

Professor  Bsll's  "  Srlbornb  "..... •    •  a^ 

Our  Book  Shblt  :— 

"  Proceedings  of  the  London  Mathematicftl  Society  " 400 

Lbttbrs  to  ths  Editor  :— 

Trftjeciorics  of  Shot.— Rev.  F.  Bashforth 41 

Australian  MonotremaU.—E.  P.  Ramsay  ^E.  P.  R.      ....  401 

Fetichism  in  Aoimals. — Discrimination  of  Insects. — C.  G.  O'Brikn  40J 

Nitrification.— F.  J.  B. 409 

The  Wasp  and  the  Spider.— Mrs.  E.  Hubbard 40a 

Entomology  at  the  Royal  Aquarium 402 

The  Government  Resbabch  Fund 403 

The  Sources  op  Light.     By  |Alpred  M.  Mayer  and  Charles 

Barnard  {,With  Illustrations) 404 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

Double  Stars 407 

Schmidt's  Lunar  Chart 40S 

Tempel'sCometof  Short  Period  (1873  II) 408 

Geographical  Notes  :" 

American  Longitudes 408 

New  Guinea 403 

African  Exploration .  408 

Arctic  Exploration 4<^ 

Peterraann's  Mittheilungen 408 

American  Geographical  Society 409 

Berlm  Geographical  Society 409 

Sumatra 4^9 

Notes  ........  409 

The  Analogies  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life.  II.     By   Francis 

Darwin,  M.B 411 

UnIVBRSITV  AMD  EDUCATIONAL  INTELLIGENCE 415 

Socibtiks  AMD  Academies 415 


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THURSDAY,  MARCH    28,  1878 

SCIENTIFIC    WORTHIES 

XII.— William  Harvey,'  Born  April  i,  1578, 
Died  June  3,  1658 

^ILLIAM  HARVEY  was  born  three  hundred  years 
ago,  on  the  first  of  April,  1578,  at  Folkestone,  in 
Kent.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  his  father ;  who  seems 
to  have  been  a  substantial  fanner,  wealthy  enough  to  send 
his  eldest  son  to  the  university  and  to  embark  his  five 
other  male  children  in  the  mercantile  pursuits  in  which 
they  all  acquired  riches.  At  sixteen,  Harvey  was  sent 
to  Caius  Collie,  Cambridge,  and  graduated  B.A.  at 
nineteen.  But,  desiring  to  become  a  physician,  Harvey 
wisely  determined  to  proceed  with  his  medical  studies  at 
one  of  the  great  continental  seats  of  learning ;  and,  by 
good  hap,  chose  the  University  of  Padua,  which  had  been 
famous  for  a  long  succession  of  admirable  anatomists, 
among  them  Vesalius  and  Fabricius  of  Aquapendente, 
who  was  the  incumbent  of  the  anatomical  chair  in 
Harvey's  time. 

After  five  years*  study  at  Padua,  Harvey  took  lys 
doctor's  degree  in  1602,  returned  to  England,  and  ob- 
tained the  doctorate  of  his  own  university.  In  1604, 
he  married,  began  practice  in  London,  and  five  years 
afterwards  became  physician  to  St.  Bartholomew's  Hos* 
pital.  In  1615,  Harvey  was  elected  **  Professor  of 
Anatomy  and  Surgery "  by  the  College  of  Physicians, 
and  his  first  course  of  lectures  mas  delivered  in  1616.  It 
is  possible  that  he  expounded  his  ideas  respecting  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  on  this  occasion ;  but,  in  this  case, 
it  is  not  obvious  why  he  himself,  in  the  dedication  of  the 
'<  Exercitatio  Anatomica  de  Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis,** 
published  in  1628,  should  not  have  said  so.  On  the 
contrary  he  writes  : — 

"Meam  di  motu  et  usu  cordis  et  circuitu  sanguinis 
sententiam  E.D.D.  antea  saepius  in  praelectionibus  meis 
anatomids  apemi  novam  ;  sed  jam  per  novem  et  amplius 
annos  mnltis  ocularibus  demonstrationibus  in  conspectu 
vestro  confirmatam,  rationibus  et  argumentis  illostratam, 
et  ab  objectionibus  doctissimorum  et  peritissimorum 
anatomicorum  liberatam,  toties  ab  omnibus  desideratam, 
k  quibusdam  efflagitatam,  in  lucem  et  conspectum  onmium 
hoc  libello  produximus.** 

Why  ''jam  per  novem  et  anrplius  annos,"  if  he  had 
really  taught  the  circulation  "per  duodecim  annos?" 
Harvey  is  so  careful  a  writer  that  I  cannot  doubt  he  had 
a  meaning  in  the  use  of  the  particular  words  he  has 
adopted,  and  that  he  did  not  wish  to  lay  claim  to  having 
enunciated  his  complete  views  before  1618  or  1619. 

However  this  may  be,  the  famous  treatise  itself  was  not 
g'.ven  to  the  public  until  1628,  and  its  appearance  conferred 
upon  its  author  a  fame  which  rapidly  extended  over  the 
civilised  world.  James  the  First  died  in  1625,  and  it 
is,  on  the  whole,  pleasant  to  reflect  that  Harvey  owed 
nothing  to  that  foul  pedant  But  his  son  was  a  man  of  a 
different  stamp,  and  whatever  the  verdict  on  his  political 
deeds  may  be,  shines  as  one  of  the  few  English  sovereigns 
who  have  shown  an  enlightened  sympathy  with  letters, 

■  The  pommit  oTHanrey  wSO  b«  prcMotad  to  oar  rMden  b  om  of  tho 
ICsT  mraibert  of  Natuve.  Tlioagn  every  fadHtv  has  been  aflbrdod  by  the 
ColMt*  of  Phytidans,  there  has  been  imaToidable  detoy  in  its  preparatioo. 
Sd. 

Vol.  xviL^Na  439 


with  science,  and  with  art  Harvey  became  Charles  the 
First's  physician  about  1632,  and  the  monarch  repaid  the 
real  respect  and  affection  with  which  his  eminent  subject 
evidently  regarded  him,  in  the  only  way  for  which  Harvey 
was  likely  to  care ;  namely,  by  doing  his  best  to  aid  him 
in  his  investigations,  and  taking  a  cordial  and  intelligent 
interest  in  them. 

Between  1630  and  1632,  Harvey  travelled  on  the  Con- 
tinent with  the  young  Duke  of  Lennox ;  and,  in  1636,  he 
was  physician  to  the  Earl  of  Arundel's  embassy  to  the 
Emperor.  During  this  visit,  he  is  said  to  have  tried  to 
convince  Caspar  Hofmann,  of  Nuremberg,  of  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood,  experimentally,  but  in  vain.  When 
the  troubles  between  the  King  and  the  Parliament  broke, 
our,  Harvey  accompanied  his  master  in  his  campaigns 
He  was  at  the  battle  of  EdgehiU,  in  charge  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales  and  the  Duke  of  York  ,*  and  he  told  Aubrey  that 
«'  he  withdrew  with  them  under  a  hedge,  and  tooke  out  of 
his  pockett  a  booke  and  read.  But  he  had  not  read  very 
long  before  a  bullet  of  a  great  gun  grazed  on  the  ground 
neare  him,  which  made  him  remove  his  station." 

By  the  King's  order,  Harvey  was  elected  Warden  of 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  in  1645  t  <^<i  to  the  same 
efficient  cause,  or  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the  King's 
physician,  we  must  probably  look  for  the  conference  of 
an  honorary  degree  by  the  University  of  that  day  on  a 
mere  scientific  discoverer.  But,  after  the  surrender  of 
Oxford  in  the  following  year,  Harvey  retired  from  public 
life  altogether,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  at 
the  homes  of  one  or  other  of  his  brothers,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  London. 

In  1649  Harvey,  published  his  two  letters  to  Riolan, 
which  form  a  supplement  to  the  ** Exercitatio  Anatomica  \^ 
and,  in  1651,  when  he  had  reached  the  ripe  age  of 
seventy-three,  the  "  Exerdtationes  de  Generatione  "  ap- 
peared ^The  rest  is  silence,"  save  a  few  letters.  In 
the  last  of  them  we  have,  dated  April  24,  1657,  he  writes 
to  Vlackveld  :— 

^Frustra  autem  calcar  mihi  addis,  ut  in  aetate  hac, 
non  solum  matura,  sed  etiam  fessa,  ad  aliquid  noviter 
moliendum  me  accingam.  Videor  enim  jam  mihi,  meo 
jure,  rudem  deposcere." 

No  man  had  a  better  right  to  claim  an  honourable 
discharge  from  duty.  Six  weeks  later  the  wished-for 
release  arrived,  and  on  June  3, 

Spectattim  satis  ct  dooatnm  jam  mdc^ 
Harvey  died  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  full  of 
honours  as  of  years,  more  than  sufficiently  wealthy,  and 
able  long  before  his  death,  to  say  that  the  great  truth 
he  had  discovered  and  taught  was  accepted  by  all  whose 
opinion  was  worth  having.  ^ 

The  only  works  which  Harvey  published  are  the 
famous  treatise  on  the  Circulation  (1628),  with  the  two 
letters  to  Riolan  (1649},  and  the  ^  Exercises  on  Genera- 
tion (165 1).''  But  he  was  a  most  diligent  observer  and 
'  writer,  and  he  incidentally  refers  to  a ''  Disquisition  on 
'  the  Causes  and  the  Organs  of  Respiration,"  to  *'  Medical 
Observations,**  to  a  treatise  ^On  the  Generation  of 
Insects,**  and  to  many  observations   on   Comparative 

I       '  "  Qicuitum  lengwiiOT  adninbilem,  •  me  jampridein  inveptom.  video 

Hopemcwini  onaibiu  plecMiwe :  aec  ab  aliquo  qiii|wiein  hacceaus  objectum 

I  eeae,  quod  rtipoiwini  owigaopere  mwetuf .  '^MstfviiatitmstkG^mmtum^, 


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Anatomy,  the  whole  of  which  appear  to  have  been 
destroyed  when  his  house  was  plundered  with  the  con- 
nivance, if  not  by  order,  of  the  Parliament,  during  his 
absence  from  London  with  the  King. 

Of  the  ''  Exercitatio  de  Motu  Cordis  et  Sanguinis,**  I 
have  treated  so  fully  elsewhere '  on  a  recent  occasion,  Uiat 
I  will  again  not  touch  upon  the  subject  except  so  far  as  to 
repeat  that,  in  my  judgment,  Harvey  is  entitled,  beyond 
dispute,  to  be  regarded  as  the  sole  discoverer  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  of  the  method  of  its  pro- 
pulsion by  the  heart 

The  story  of  the  extraction  of  the  manuscript  of  the 
'*  Exercitationes  de  Generatione  "  from  Harvey  is  well  told 
by  £nt,  who  undertook  the  charge  of  seeing  the  work 
through  the  press  ;  a  task  of  no  small  magnitude  if  we 
consider  the  superlative  badness  of  the  extant  specimens 
of  Harvey's  handwriting. 

The  preface  contains  a  singularly  interesting  disquisi- 
tion on  scientific  method ;  and,  among  other  observations 
the  following,  which  is,  perhaps,  the  weightiest  in  small 
compass  ever  laid  before  the  student  of  physical  science. 

"  For  those  who  read  the  words  of  authors,  and  to  whom 
impressions  of  their  own  senses  do  not  represent  the 
things  signified  by  those  words,  conceive,  not  true  ideas, 
but  falsae  eidola  and  inane  phantoms ;  whence  they  fill 
their  minds  with  shadows  and  chimaeras,  and  their  whole 
theory  (which  they  think  to  be  science)  represents  but  a 
waking  dream  or  a  sick'man's  delirium." 

As  in  the  case  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  the 
scientific  opinions  of  the  day  respecting  the  conditions  of 
generation  and  the  embryogenic  process  had  descended 
from  the  Greeks.  No  one  doubted  that  a  large  proportion 
of  the  lower  forms  of  life  owed  their  origin  to  equivocal 
or  spontaneous  generation,  or,  as  it  is  now  termed,  abio- 
genesis  ;  and,  with  respect  to  sexual  generation,  it  was 
believed  that  the  embryo  originated  at  the  time  of  sexual 
union,  by  the  combination  of  two  substances  poured  out 
ad  hocy  Uie  one  being  derived  from  the  female,  the  other 
from  the  male  parent  In  this  opinion  both  Aristotle  and 
the  Medici,  following  Galen,  agreed ;  but  they  differed  in 
the  view  which  they  took  as  to  the  nature  and  function 
of  the  two  sexual  elements.  According  to  Aristotle,  the 
female  supplied  merely  the  material  of  the  embryo,  by  the 
excretion  of  a  substance  which  he  r^arded  as  the  purest 
part  of  the  catamenial  blood  ;  this  was  ^coagulated,  and 
endowed  with  the  faculty  of  developing  into  an  organism, 
by  the  spermatic  fiuid,  of  the  male.  The  Medici,  on  the 
other  hand,  considered  that  the  female  produced  a  true 
spermatic  fluid,  analogous  to  that  of  the  male,  and  having 
an  equal  formative  energy  \  and  indeed,  that  the  sex  of 
the  embryo  was  determined  by  the  predominance  of  the 
one  or  the  other  spermatic  fluid. 

As  r^ards  the  embryogenic  process  itself,  the  Greeks 
had  studied  the  development  of  the  chick,  and  had  learned 
somewhat  respecting  the  fcetal  state  of  viviparous  animals ; 
while,  since  the  revival  of  learning,  several  important 
embryological  investigations  had  been  undertaken.  Of 
these  the  most  notable  were  those  of  Aldrovandus,  of 
Goiter,  of  Harve/s  master,  Fabricius  of  Aquapendente,  of 
Vesling,and  of  Parisanus,  on  the  development  of  the  chick. 
Fabricius'  treatise,  *'  De  Ovo  et  PuUo,"  was  accompanied 

*  "  Wtliiam  Hftrvcy,**  Forint'ghi!y  Rer>.\w,  Febiiiarj-  i,  1878. 


by  figures  of  the  stages  of  development,  which,  for  the 
time,  must  be  termed  very  good  ;  and  it  served  Harvey 
as  a  sort  of  text-book,  to  which  he  constantly  refers. 

The  "  Exercitationes  "  show  no  advance  on  the  know- 
ledge of  the  ancients  respecting  the  conditions  of  genera- 
tion. Innumerable  passages  show  that  Harvey  believed, 
as  firmly  as  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries  did,  in 
equivocal  generation.*  The  persistent  ascription  to  Harvey 
of  the  contrary  opinion  is  simply  astounding,  and  can 
only  be  explained  on  the  supposition  that  those  who  quote 
what  they  are  pleased  to  call  ''Harvey's  aphorism,"'' Omne 
Vivum  ex  Ovo,"  against  the  holders  of  the  doctrine  of 
spontaneous  generation,  have  never  read  the  woiks  of  their 
authority. 

I  cannot  discover  the  exact  phrase  **  omne  vivum  ex 
ovo"  anywhere  in  Harvey's  woiks,  though  it  is  true  that 
the  sense  of  the  words  is  expressed  by  him  over  and  over 
again.  But  the  context  shows  his  meaning  to  be,  not  the 
assertion  of  the  doctrine  of  biogenesis ;  but  simply  a 
declaration  that,  in  whatever  way  a  living  being  is  gene- 
rated, the  nature  which  it  at  first  possesses  is  that  of  an 
tg%.  And  what  Harvey  wants  to  impress,  by  the  frequent 
iteration  of  his  opinion  on  this  subject,  is  the  diflierence 
between  his  view,  that  a  germ  is  something  which  comes 
into  existence  more  or  less  as  a  unit  and  has  an  indi- 
viduality of  its  own,  and  that  of  his  predecessors,  who  held 
that  it  is  formed  by  the  coalescence  of  separate  entities. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  an  indication  that  Harvey  was  on 
the  right  track  in  respect  of  the  question  of  spontaneous 
generation  ;  and  that,  if  his  papers  on  the  generation  of 
insects  had  not  been  destroyed,  he  might  have  anticipated 
Redi ;  for  the  forty-first  exercise  contains  the  following 
remarkable  passage : — 

''  But  on  these  matters  generally  we  shall  have  much  to 
say,  when  we  shall  show  that  many  animals,  especially 
insects,  take  their  origin  and  are  generated  from  elements 
and  seeds  so  small  as  to  escape  observation  (like  atoms 
floating  in  the  air),  which  are  scattered  and  dispersed 
hither  and  thither  by  the  winds;  yet  these  animals  are 
supposed  to  arise  spontaneously,  or  frt>m  putrefieurtion, 
because  their  germs  are  nowhere  to  be  found." 

It  was  exactly  this  thesis  that  Redi  adopted  and  proved 
to  demonstration,  seventeen  years  aftem^uxis,  and  there- 
fore long  before  Harvey's  death  ;  and  it  is  by  following 
up  the  same  line  of  argument  that  modem  investigators 
have  deprived  abiogenesis  of  its  last  supposed  experi- 
mental evidence.  In  whatever  way,  however,  the  germ 
of  a  plant  or  of  an  animal  is  produced  it  is  the  equivalent 
of  an  egg,  and  what  Harvey  means  by  an  tfsg  is  clearly 
shown,  in  the  following  as  in  many  other  passages : — 

"  In  the  generation  of  all  living  things  (as  we  have  said) 
this  is  established,  that  they  arise  from  some  primordium 
(primordio  aliquo)  which  contains  not  only  the  matter  but 
the  power  of  generation ;  and  is,  therefore,  that  out  of 
which  and  from  which  the  thing  generated  takes  its 
origin.  Such  a  primordium  in  animals  (whether  they 
proceed  from  parents,  or  arise  spontaneously  or  out  of 
putrefaction)  is  a  humour  contained  in  a  membrane  of 
some  kind,  or  shell ;  in  fact,  a  homogeneous  body  (corpus 
nempe  similare)  possessing  life,  either  actually  or  poten- 

<  I  pmnted  this  out  twenty  years  ago  in  in^  "Lectures  on  General 
Natural  History,"  publuhea  in  the  Medical  Times  tmd  Gazette.  Take 
oa« passage  out  of  fifty  that  might  be  cited:  "Atque  etiam  terra  sul 
spooM  plurima  general  iin«  semine"  (Exerdt.  xxix*).  M.  Poochetnii^ 
huve  takrn  this  sentence  for  a  motto. 


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dally.  This  primordiumi  if  it  is  generated  within  an 
animal  and  remains  there,  until  a  like  animal  (univocum) 
is  produced,  is  vulgarly  called  a  conception;  if,  however, 
t  is  thrust  out  by  parturition^  or  if  it  has  originated  else- 
where by  chance,  it  is  termed  an  ovum  or  vermis,  I 
think,  however,  that,  in  either  case,  that  from  which  an 
animal  arises  should  be  called  primordium ;  just  as 
plants  produce  their  young  from  seeds ;  and  that  sdl  these 
primordia  are  of  one  kind,  namely,  living  things. 

''  I  find  a  primordium  of  this  sort  in  the  uterus  of  all 
viviparous  animals,  before  any  foetus  can  be  discerned. 
In  fact,  there  is  a  clear,  viscid,  white  [colourless]  fluid,  like 
the  white  of  an  egg,  inclosed  in  a  membrane,  which  I  term 
the  eg^  pf  these  animals ;  and,  in  red-deer  and  fallow  deer, 
in  sheep  and  other  cloven-footed  animals,  it  fills  the  whole 
uterus  and  both  its  comua." » 

It  will  be  observed  that,  in  the  foregoing  passage 
Harvey  insists  upon  one  main  quality  of  the  primordium, 
namely,  that  it  \sz.  corpus  similar e;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
it  is  relatively  homogeneous  ;  and,  in  the  seventy-second 
exercise, ''  De  humido  primogenio,"  he  insists  strongly  on 
what  he  believes  to  be  the  fact  that  the  embryo  takes  its 
rise  in  a  certain  '^humidum  radicale  et  primigenium," 
''  stmplicissimum,  purissimum  et  sincerissimum  corpus," 
in  which  all  the  parts  of  the  embryo  are  present  poten- 
tially, but  not  actually,  and  out  of  which  they  arise  by  a 
gradual  process  o(  differentiation. 

''  The  first  rudiment  of  the  body  is  a  mere  homogeneous 
and  soft  jelly,  not  unlike  a  spermatic  coagulum,  which, 
becoming  changed  (in  accordance  with  the  law  of  genera- 
tion) and  at  the  same  time  split  or  divided  into  many 
parts,  as  by  a  divine  command,  as  we  have  said  (let  bone 
arise  here,  muscle  or  nerve  there,  here  viscera,  there  re- 
ceptacles of  excretion,  &c.)  out  of  the  inorganic  arises  the 
organic,  out  of  the  similar  the  dissimilar ;  out  of  the  one 
and  the  same  nature,  many  things  of  diverse  and  of 
contrary  natures ;  not,  indeed,  by  any  transposition  or 
local  motion  (as  when  by  the  power  of  heat  homogeneous 
things  unite,  or  heterogeneous  things  are  separated),  but 
rather  by  the  disaggregation  of  homogeneous  things,  than 
by  the  aggregation  of  heterogeneous  things.''  * 

In  this  passage,  as  in  those  in  which  he  advocates 
epigenesis^  Harvey  shows  a  complete  grasp  of  the  great 
truth  that  development  is  a  gradual  process  of  change 
from  relative  homogeneity  to  heterogeneity,  put  into  such 
clear  light  in  our  own  time  by  Meckel  and  von  Baer. 

Again,  when  Harvey  dwells  upon  the  close  resemblance 
of  the  early  conditions  of  the  higher  animals,  and  accounts 
for  harelip  as  a  retention  of  an  embryonic  condition, 
we  see  him  hovering  on  the  brink  of  some  of  the  most 
important  embryological  generalisations  oif  a  century  and 
a  half  after  his  time. 

After  Harvey,  embryological  theory  distinctly'  retro- 
graded for  a  full  century,  until,  in  fact,  a  hundred  and 
eight  years  had  elapsed,  and,  in  1759,  Caspar  Friedrich 
Wolff  published   his  "Theoria  Generationis.*     In  the 

X  *'  De  Uteri  Membnms  et  Hnmorilms."  Elsewhere  (Exerdtatio  xxvi.) 
Harvey  says : — 

**Ovum  itaque  ett  corpus  naturale,  virtute  antmali  pneditum:  prindpio 
nempe  mot<U,  tra&smutationis.  quietis,  et  coaservationis.  ICst  deoique  ejus- 
modi,  ut,  ablato  omni  impedimeato,  in  formam  animalis  abiturtMn  sit ;  nee 
ma^is  nattiraliter  gravia  omtiia,  rcmotis  obstaculis,  deorsum  tendunt ;  aut 
laevia  sursom  moventur  :  qu^im  semen  et  ovum  in  plantam  aut  animal,  insita 
a  natord  propensione,  feruntur.  Ustque  semen  (atque  eliam  ovum)  ejusdem 
Iructus  et  fiius,  cuius  estpxindpitun  sUque  cffidcns. 

9  Ex.  Ixxil.  "De  humido  primogenio." 


interval,  the  great  truths  laid  down  by  Harvey,  that  all 
germs  are  homogeneous  relatively  to  the  forms  to  which 
they  give  rise,  and  that  all  those  of  the  higher  animals, 
at  any  rate,  pass  by  epigenesis  into  the  perfect  livmg 
thing— "  Fabrica  a  parte  aliqua  tanquam  ab  origine 
incipit :  ejusque  ope  reliqua  membra  adsciscuntur :  atque 
haec  per  epigenesin  fieri  dicimus :  sensim  nempe  partem 
post  partem :  estque  isthase,  prasaltera,  proprie  dicta 
generatio"  (Exerciutio  xlv.);  these  verities,  justified  by 
all  our  present  knowledge,  were  ignored,  and  the  doctrine 
of  the  " pre-existence  of  germs"  and  of  "evolution  "  took 
their  place.  And  so  strong  was  the  hold  of  the  latter, 
that  even  WolfTs  conclusive  investigations  produced  little 
effect,  and  the  full  acceptance  of  Harvey's  generalisations 
dates  fiom  the  last  half-century. 

But  while  Harvey's  views  respecting  the  general  nature 
of  the  embryogenic  process  were  as  much  in  advance  of 
his  time  as  were  his  doctrines  respecting  the  motion  o 
the  heart  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  his  demonstra- 
tion of  them  is  a  failure,  the  phenomena  being  too  subtle 
and  recondite  for  the  means  of  invest^ation  which  he 
possessed. 

So  far  as  the  process  of  fecundation  is  concerned,  he 
is  further* from  the  truth  than  were  the  Greeks  ;  for  he 
steadily  denies  that  the  male  element  enters  into  the 
substance  of  the  ^%%i  or  even  comes  into  physical  contact 
with  it ;  and  he  ascribes  the  efficacy  of  the  male  to  a 
sort  of  contagion,  by  which  the  female  organism  is  in- 
fected, and  in  consequence  of  which,  the  ova,  which  he 
justly  declares  to  be  formed  Uke  any  other  growth,  acquire 
the  property  of  developing  into  embryos. 

Again,  though  Harvey's  discovery,  that  the  region  of  the 
cicatricula  in  the  hen's  t%g  is  the  seat  of  the  changes 
which  give  rise  to  the  embryo,  was  of  primary  importance, 
he  has  not  the  least  notion  of  the  real  nature  of  the  cica- 
tricula or  of  its  relations  to  the  yolk!  The  "  primigenial 
radical  humour,"  which  he  supposes  to  be  the  first  com- 
mencement of  the  embryo,  is  nothing  but  the  amniotic  fluid, 
which  is  really  formed  long  after  the  rudimentary  body  of 
the  chick  has  appeared.  And  Harvey's  supposition  that  the 
blood  is  that  which  is  first  formed  and  that  the  substance 
of  the  body  grows  round  the  vessels  "  like  a  mucor  or 
fungus,"  is  an  error,  which  is,  of  course,  enormous,  and 
may  seem  unpardonable  to  any  one  who  has  not  tried  to 
make  out^the  early  stages  of  the  development  of  the  egg 
with  the  naked  eye,  or  even  aided  by  a  hand-glass. 
It  was  the  discovery  that  the  rudiment  of  the  body  of 
the  chick  exists  in  the  t%%^  long  before  Harvey  sup- 
posed, that  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  adoption  of 
the  notion  of  the  pre-existence  of  germs  which  led  to 
the  "  evolution  "  and  "  emboitement**  hypotheses.  Btiffon, 
in  fact,  went  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  chick  **  exists  fully 
formed  {^en  entier)  in  the  middle  of  the  cicatricula  when 
the  egg  leaves  the  body  of  the  fowrl,"  1  thereby  erring  as 
far  as  Harvey  did,  but  in  the  opposite  direction. 

After  due  deduction  is  made  for  these  errors  and 
shortcomings,  however,  the  great  merit  of  having  been 
the  first  to  grasp  the  true  principle  of  interpretation  of 
the  process  of  development,  must,  I  think,  be  accorded  to 
Harvey ;  and  if  we  consider  the  part  which  the  study  o 
development  has  played,  and  must  henceforward  continue 

*  BufTon,  "Histoire  Natiuxfle,"  t  il,  ed.  3,  1750,  p.  35 1. 


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to  play  in  biology,  the  ^  Exerdtationes  de  Generatione," 
though  second  to  .the  "  Exerdtatio  Anatomica,"  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  another  rival  in  the  contemporary 
literature  of  biological  science. 

Modem  morphology,  no  less  than  physiology,  has  its  root 
in  the  work  of  William  Harvey.  T.  H.  Huxley 


ZOLLSER'S  SCIENTIFIC  PAPERS 
Wissenschafttiche  Abhandlungen  (Erster  Band).    Von  F. 
Zollner.    (Leipzig  :  L.  Staackmann,  1878.) 

IF  we  take  a  somewhat  different  course  in  reviewing 
this  work  from  that  which  we  should  naturally  adopt 
with  works  professedly  scientific,  we  hope  at  least  to 
justify  our  conduct  to  the. reader  before  we  finish.  For, 
alas,  all  is  not  scientific  that  professes  to  be  science,  and 
even  celestial  minds  can  harbour  very  curious  fedings 
and  express  them  with  most  unmistakeable  vigour,  while 
not  always  striking  above,  the  bdt. 

The  key-note  of  this  work,  as  well  as  of  a  great  deal  of 
the  other  somewhat  voluminous  writings  of  Prof.  Zdllner, 
is  struck  by  himself  in  a  foot-note  to  p.  129,  where  he 
tells  us  that  ^  the  aim  of  all  his  scientific  efforts  has  been 
Co  contribute,  as  far  as  the  ability  given  him  permits,  to 
the  realisation "  of  a  certain  **  hopeful  project  ^ : — viz., 
the  explanation  of  all  molecular  actions  by  means  of  that 
Law  of  Electric  Attraction  (due  to  W.  Weber)  which 
^  has  already  been  so  fruitful  in  cdordinating  under  one 
prindple  all  dectric  and  magnetic  phenomena." 

Very  good  and  laudable :— though  we  may  permit  our- 
selves to  say,  in  passing,  probably  very  unpromising. 
But  it  is  quite  impossible  to  say  what  hints  a  competent 
mathematician  may  not  obtain  while  he  is  attempting  to 
prosecute  the  applications  of  any  theory—however  remote 
iis  prindples  may  be  from  those  which  the  experimental 
facts  themselves  suggest  to  the  physical  investigator  in 
his  laboratory.  Unf«»itunately  even  this  concession  is 
thrown  away  upon  Prof.  Zdllner : — for  he  not  only  does 
not  daim  to  be  considered  as  a  mathematidan,  but  has 
on  a  fcmner  occasion  (in  his  work  on  Comets)  expressly 
denounced  those  who  attempt  ''by  differentiating  and 
integrating  *  to  get  at  natural  laws.  He  is,  as  Hdmholtz 
long  ago  said,  a  genuine  Metaphysician,  and  (as  such)  is 
a  curiosity  really  worthy  of  study : — not  of  course  merely 
because  he  is  a  Metaphysidan,  but  because  in  this  nine- 
teenth century  he  attempts  to  bring  his  metaphysics  into 
pure  physical  sdence. 

To  a  man  whose  whole  object  in  scientific  life  is  the 
establishment  of  Weber's  Law  as  the  fundamental  fact  of 
the  Kosmos,  of  course  all  works  are  an  Abomination  in 
which  even  an  attempt  is  made^to  show  that  action  at  a 
distance  can  be  (and  therefore  ought  to  be)  dispensed 
with.  Hence  Qerk-Maxwell's  Theory,  which,  even  its 
opponents  must  allow,  has  succeeded  at  least  as  well  as 
Weber's  in  connecting  and  explaining  the  phenomena  of 
electricity^  magnetism,  and  light,  must  be  demolished  at 
all  hazards.  But  the  reader  of  Maxwell's  great  work  on 
Electricity^  who  has  seen  in  its  very  Preface  ^^baX  the  main 
object  of  that  work  was  to  carry  out  to  thdr  legitimate 
mathematical  devdopments  the  i^jrsicai  ideas  of  Faraday, 
will  scarcdy  be  prepared  to  find  that  Prof.  Zdllner  accepts 
Faraday  and  denounces  Maxwell ! 

Tuis  tour  deforce  is  worthy  of  so  accomplished  a  meta- 


physician. 1 1  is  absolutdy  refreshing  in  its  coolness  ! 
According  to  Prof.  Z611ner,  both  Clerk-Maxwdl  and  Sir 
W.  Thomson  (to  whose  advice  the  former  owns  his 
indebtedness)  quote  Faraday  correctly,  and  yet  altogether 
misapprehend  his  meaning !  In  fact  we  are  now  told, 
though  not  in  so  many  words,  that  Faraday,  whom  we 
had  all  looked  on  as  an  opponent  of  action  at  a  distance, 
was  really  a  firm  believer  in  it,  and  a  strenuous  advocate 
of  it  2  Not  only  Faraday,  but  even  Newton  himsdf : — in 
spite  of  the  celebrated  Letters  to  Bentley^  in  whidi  all  of 
us  have  hitherto  read  the  inconcdvabihty  of  distance- 
action  to  any  mind  which  "Jhas  in  philosophic  matters  a 
competent  faculty  of  thinking" — even  Newton  himsdf,  it 
seems,  bdieved  in  action  at  a  distance  ! 

On  this  no  farther  comment  is  necessary  than  one  I 
made  some  time  ago,  when  Prof.  Zdllner,  to  his  own  satis-  . 
faaion  at  least,  proved  me  to  be  ignorant  alike  of  Latin 
and  of  the  very  First  Law  of  Motion  ;—y\z ,  that  "  Prof. 
Zdllner  should  not  attempt  to  criticise  .  .  .  until  he 
acquires  sufficient  knowledge  of  British  technical 
terms  ...  * 

That  a  good  deal  oC  Prof  ZdOner's  censure  is  due  to  his 
imperfect  apprehension  of  English,  will,  I  think,  be 
allowed  by  every  candid  reader.  I  say  nothing  of  nume- 
rous misspellings— sometimes  ludicrous,  such  as  ^iVi  his 
sobber  {sic)  senses  "—which  occurs  twice  at  least  (pp.  142, 
7t  i),  because  there  are  quite  as  many  mbspdlings  in  the 
German,  and  all  are,  therefore,  probably  due  to  the 
printer.  But  it  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  information  for  us 
benighted  islanders  to  be  tdd  that  our  foremost  scientific 
men,  while  quoting  Newton  accurately,  entirdy  miss,  or 
rather  misrepresent,  his  meaning.  So  wonderfd  that  I 
certainly  shall  not  be  believed,  unless  1  refer  definitely  to 
some  of  the  inculpatory  passages : — 

[The  passage  (pp.  141-152)  is  too  long  for  translation, 
so  I  give  a  small  part  only  ;  restricting  myself  to  the  tone 
in  which  British  authors  are  spoken  of,  for  the  substance 
of  the  accusation,  such  as  it  is,  has  been  already  indi- 
cated.] ; 

"  One's  impaired  power  of  discovering  contradictions 
prevents  his  recogmsin^  them  as  such  even  when  the 
effect  of  the  contrast  is  heightened  by  juxtaposition. 
Hence  we  must  ascribe  the  non-retracution  of  such  by 
their  authors  not  to  moral  weakness  but  to  incapadty. 
Hence  also  the  surprising  naivetS  with  which  such  men 
(i>..  Sir  W.  Thomson,  CSiak'ULxxmtW.et  hoc  genus  omne) 
hand  over  to  thdr  critic  the  weapons  with  which  to  exter- 
minate them,  &c,  &c.  He  who  thinks  it  superfluous  to 
bother  himself  with  the  thoughts  of  his  predec^sors  and 
contemporaries  loses  ipso  facto  all  right  to  consideration 
for  himself  and  his  wriungs.  Such  an  author  will  in  after 
time  be  forgotten,  just  as  he  has  forgotten  his  prede- 
cessors, and  this  in  the  name  of  Eternal  Right  For, 
only  in  the  continuity  of  the  mental  work  of  succes- 
sive generations  is  there  security  for  the  progress  of 
Humanity  I " 

The  reader  of  this  will  perhaps  think  that  he  has  seen 
enough  of  Prof.  Zdllner  and  his  work  :— enough  at  least 
to  enable  him  to  form  a  pretty  shrewd  guess  as  to  the 
scientific  value  of  the  whole.  But  I  must  be  excused  if  J 
trouble  him  irith  a  few  additional  remarks  on  another 
aspect  of  the  book. 

Some  years  ago  Prof.  Hehnholtz  kindly  undertook  to 
revise  the  German  translation  of  Thomson  and  Tails 
Natural  Philosophy^  wad  m9»  in  consequence  somewhat 


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421 


wildly  attacked  by  Prof.  Zailner  in  the  Preface  to  his  book 
on  Comets.  To  that  attack  Prof.  Hdmholtz  refdied  in  a 
very  admirable  article,  of  which  a  translation  has  already 
appeared  in  Nature  (vol.  xL  pp.  149, 211). 

The  great  crime  which  according  to  Prof.  Zdllner  was 
committed,  was  a  double  one.  Sir  W.  Thomson  and  I 
ventured  to  express  an  opinion  (to  which  we  still  adhere) 
unfavourable  to  theories  such  as  that  of  Weber :— and 
Prof.  Helmholtz  so  for  forgot  his  duty  as  a  German  as  to 
be  responsible  for  the  reproduction  of  our  work  in  his 
native  tongue  !  As  we  now  know  that  the  promulgation 
and  extension  of  Weber's  Theory  has  been  the  object  of 
Prof!  Z6lhier's  life-work,  perhaps  it  was  not  unnatural 
that  he  should  complain  of  such  conduct  But  it  is  quite 
another  thing  when,  after  being  completely  demolished 
from  the  scientific  point  of  view,  he  returns  to  the  attack 
in  another  style— bringing  against  the  various  persons 
named  charges  of  a  totally  different  character— though 
all  equally  groundless. 

A  great  many  of  these  arise  undoubtedly  from  imper- 
fect acquaintance  with  the  English  language.  Thus,  to 
take  a  ludicrous  one.  Prof.  Z5Uner  evidently  imagines  that 
^smoke-rings"  must  be  formed  with  tobacco-smoke? 
And  he  fancies  that  it  was  in  a  smoking  party  that  Sir 
W.  Thomson  hit  upon  his  hypothesis  of  vortex  atoms. 
For,  after  translating  part  of  Thomson's  own  account  of 
his  theory,  he  says  that  a ''  skilled  and  powerful  tobacco- 
smoker  wai  necessary  to  the  experimental  verification 
of  it** 

Smdcers,  to  whose  charmed  circle  Pro£  ZdUner  evi- 
dently does  not  belong,  can  alone  judge  how  skilled  and 
powerful  they  would  have  to  become  before  they  could 
produce  from  their  own  lips  the  vortex  rings,  full  of  sal' 
ammoniac  crystals  and  somewhere  about  six  or  eight 
inches  in  diameter,  which  Sir  W.  Thomson  ^describes  in 
the  paper  referred  to.  But  Prof.  Z^Uner  comes  back  to 
this  notion,  as  he  does  to  others,  with  absolutely  **  damn- 
able iteration."  Here  is  an  instance  (p.  103)  which  we 
paraphrase  as  follows  : — 

"The  reader  will  note  that  *  Tobacco-smoke '  and  a 
*  creative  act '  are  the  inseparable  companions  of  Thom- 
son's Vortex-atoms :— although  in  the  whole  of  Helm- 
holtz's  paper,  on  which  Sir  W.  Thomson  has  erected  the 
airy  structure  of  his  hypotheses,  there  is  not  a  single 
passage  in  which  such  things  aie  alluded  to. 

"  Suice  Sir  W.  Thomson  and  the  mathematical  sup- 
porters of  his  hypotheses  continually  emplov  tobacco- 
smoke  fbr  the  explanation  of  their  views,  1  also  may  be 
permitted  to  employ  the  same  medium  to  noAke  clear  my 
notions.  Were  I  to  describe  the  feelings' with  which  1 
crossed  the  threshhold  of  the  Vortex-world  of  Thomson 
after  leaving  the  dear  and  bright  Thought-world  of 
Newton,  Kant,  and  Faraday,  I  could  not  succeed  better 
than  by  comparing  them  to  those  of  the  Alpine  traveller 
who  leaves  the  enlivening  freshness  of  the  dear  mountain 
air  to  enter  the  tobacco-laden  atmosphere  of  a  muggy 
beerhouse!" 

We  next  have  Thomson's  (and.Hehnholtz's)  speculations 
as  to  the  origin  of  life  on  the  earth :— once  more  over- 
hauled and  torn  to  shreds.  Then  the  unfortunate  'Mumi- 
B0«a  corpusde"  of  Thomson  and  Tait  has  again  to 
perform  its  antics— but  in  a  somewhat  new  phase.  For  it 
is  now  shown  to  be  due  to  the  same  inaccuracy  of  thought 
(Denkfehlcr)  as  the  "  moss-grown  fragments." 

"Only  the  yet  undevdoped  understanding  of  a  child 


can  content  itself  with  such  hypotheses,  as  it  does  with 
the  answer  to  the  child's  question,  *  Where  did  the  new- 
bom  little  brother  or  sister  come  from  ? '  The  mother 
soothes  the  childish  causation-exdtement  with  the  answer, 
'  The  Stork  brought  it ' : — on  the  correct  presumption  that 
the  child  will  not  farther  inquire  whence  or  from  whom 
the  Stork  recdved  the  infant." 

So  far  as  I  can  judge  without  an  attentive  perusal  of 
the  whole  732  pages  of  the  work  {Erster  Band)^  such  as, 
amusing  though  it  is  throughout,  I  cannot  spare  time  to 
bestow.  Prof.  Zdllner  seems  to  think  that  Clerk-Maxwell, 
Thomson,  and  myself  believe  in  the  existence  of  those 
imaginary  beings  (invented  by  Maxwdl,  and  called 
Demons  by  Thomson)  who  were  introduced  for  the 
purpose  solely  of  showing  the  true  basis  on  which  the 
Second  Law  of  Thermodynamics  has  to  be  received  as 
a  £aict  in  physical  sdence !  Hence  we  are  treated  to  a 
whole  Chapter  called  "  Thomson^s  Ddmonen  und  die 
SchatUn  Plato's!"^ 

But  it  was  well  that  this  Chapter  should  be  written. 
For  Prof.  Zdllner  has  recorded  in  it  a  discovery  of  the  very 
first  order:— \i  it  be  confect.  He  has  hdd  the  two  ends 
of  a  cord  (sealed  together)  in  his  hand,  while  trdoil  knots, 
genuine  IRREDUCIBLE  TREFOIL  KNOTS,  of  which  he 
gives  us  a  picture,  were  devdoped  upon  it !  He  shows 
us  the  reasoning  by, which  he  was  led  to  predict  the 
possibility  of  this  very  wonderful  achievement —absolutdy 
unique  in  character,  so  far  as  I  know,  throughout  the 
whole  range  of  sdence.  Prof.  Klein,  of  Munich,  some 
time  ago  showed,  as  is  wdl  known,  that  knots  cannot 
exist  in  space  of  four  dimensions.  Hence  Pro^.  Z6llner 
was  led  to  condude  that  beings  (not,  of  course,  ThomsotCs 
Ddfnonen  nor  die  Schatten  PlaUfs^  for  these  are  unsden- 
tific,  and  therefore  impossible)  in  space  of  four  dimensions 
could  put  an  irredudble  knot  on  an  earthly  string  of  which 
the  ends  were  fastened  together  !  It  is  some  time  since 
the  Astronomer-Royal  for  Ireland  told  me  hit  jocular 
mode  of  arguing  from  Klein's  discovery : — ^vii.,  that  all  the 
secrets  of  the  spiritualistic  *'  rope-trick"  could  be  at  once 
explained  by  supposing  that  inside  the  mysterious  cabinet 
(in  which  the  tambourines  and  the  musical  boxes  fly 
about)  space  was  of  four  dimensions — so  that  the  well- 
corded  performers  were  at  once  loosed  from  their  bonds 
on  entering  it !  But  Prof.  Zollner  (with  the  assistance  of 
the  spiritualists)  has  tied  knots  by  means  of  bdogs  who 
exist  in  four  dimensional  space ! ! !  Those  who  tied  can 
of  course  loose,  so  that  there  is  now  (thanks  to  Prof. 
Zdllner  and  the  spirits)  no  such  thing  as  an  irreducible 
knot! 

I  need  say  nothing  of  the  treatment  which  Prof.  Zdllner 
bestows  on  other  scientific  men  with  whom  he  has  the 
misfortune  to  disagree  :  such  as  the  imaginary  execution- 
scene  (pp.  377-416)  of  a  distinguished  Physiologist! 
Plain  men  in  this  country,  and  in  Germany  also  I  doubt 
not,  have  uncomfortably  plain  terms  for  such  outbursts. 
But  such  things  are  not  for  a  scientific  journal  I  can 
hardly  divest  myself  of  the  impression  that  Prof.  Zdllner, 
in  spite  of  his  oft-expressed  utter  detestation  of  '^  Jokdets" 
of  all  kinds  (Witze,  Scherze,  &c.)  has  been  led  by  his 
feelings  of  ^  sittlicher  Entriistung  "  to  attempt  the  perpe- 

'  Thb  U  not  Um  place  to  continue  .discusdoos  with  Pix/.  CSausiiw,  \nx 
the  reader  ol  Prof.  ZOllDer't  book  sliould  be  warned  that,  extensive  as  •■  his 


re«ding»  it  does  not  elivays  seem  to  include  the  moyt  cofeat  aixuaent^ 
which  luive  been  presented  on  one  or  other  side  in  several  controversies  of 
wfakh  h«  tmdefftakss  lo  give  an  aoooont. 


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tratioD  of  a  gigantic  joke  upon  his  readers.  For  I  have 
looked  in  vain  through  this  laige  volume  for  anything 
that  can  well  be  called  Sciences  with^e  one  exception  of 
some  remarkable 'experiments  due  to  Fresnel,  to  which  it 
is  well  that  attention  has  been  called. 

In  conclusion,  though  I  cannot  make  pretensions  to 
any  minute  acquaintance  with  the  German  language,  I 
think  I  may  venture  to  suggest  to  Prof.  Z611ner,  for  his 
next  edition,  a  title  which  shall  at  least  more  accurately 
describe  the  contents  of  his  work  than  does  his  present 
one.  I  cannot  allow  that  the  title  "  Scientific  Papers  **  is 
at  all  correctly  descriptive.  But  I  think  that  something 
like  the  following  would  suit  his  book  well : — 

Patriotische 
METAPHYSIK  DER  PHYSIK, 
fiir  modeme  deutsche  Verhaltnisse. 
Mit  spedellem  Bezug  auf  die  vierte   Dimension  und 
den  Socialdemokratismus  bearbeitet 

With  this  little  hint,  which  I  hope  will  betaken,  as  it 
is  meant,  in  good  part,  I  heartily  wish  him  and  his  work 
farewell.  P.  G.  Tait 

A  DICTIONARY  OF  MUSIC 
A   Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.     By  eminent 
writers,  English  and  Foreign.    With  Illustrations  and 
Woodcuts.  Edited  by  George  Grove,  D.C.L.  (London; 
MacmiUan  and  Co.,  1878.) 

NO  better  proof  of  the  spreading  interest  in  musical 
subjects  which  is  now  taking  place  in  England 
could  be  found  than  the  publication  of  this  important 
work.  Although  similar  "Lexicons,*'  some  of  them 
extending  to  the  portentous  dimensions  which  German 
monographs  are  apt  to  assume,  are  not  uncommon  in  that 
country,  there  have,  as  far  as  the  writer  knows,  been 
hitherto  none  in  our  language  which  exactly  occupy  the 
position  aimed  at  by  this.  Those  which  most  nearly 
approach  it^  are  either  somewhat  antiquated,  or,  like  the 
excellent  little  work  of  Dr.  Stainer,  propose  to  themselves 
a  far  more  restricted  object.  Nor  indeed  is  the  reason  of 
the  difference  in  this  respect  between  the  two  countries 
difficult  to  assign.  In  Germany  the  whole  population  is 
more  or  less  musical ;  every  little  town  or  village  has 
abundance  of  practical  musicians,  mostly  playing  stringed 
instruments,  among  its  inhabitants,  who  not  only  can 
take  their  part  efficiently  in  a  quartette,  or  in  a  local 
orchestra,  but  who  are  sufficiently  informed  in  musical 
theory  and  literature  to  furnish  an  intelligent  public 
which  can  support  and  encourage  extensive  undertaking^ 
of  a  scientific  and  historical  character. 

In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  unlike  Germany,  there 
has  been,  until  quite  lately,  as  little  of  representative 
musical  culture  as  there  has  been  of  really  national 
soldiering.  We  had  been  content  to  leave  the  defence 
of  our  country,  no  less  than  the  executive  realisation  of 
great  artistic  master- pieces,  to  a  separate  and  stipendiary 
class  ;  while  the  bulk  of  the  nation  had  merely  '*  assisted,'' 
according  to  the  French  sense  of  the  word,  by  listening 
and  applauding.  In  both  instances  we,  to  a  considerable 
degree,  realised  the  dreams  of  Plato's  Utopia;  and 
though  in  the  one  case  our  f^vXaiccr,  the  army,  in  spite  of 
its  small  size  and  its  professional  leaders,  for  education  and 
gallantry  are  probably  unparalleled,  it  is,  perhaps,  to  be 


feared  that  the  artistic  class,  the  /iovo-ucdI,  have  sonaewhat 
suffered  from  isolation  and  lack  of  responsibility. 

To  this  cause,  and  to  unthinking  prejudice,  must   be 
referred  the  tone  of  depreciation  if  not  of  contempt^  wliich 
in  the  last  century  attached  to  the  name  *'  fiddler."     It  is 
conspicuous   in   the   ''Tweedledum    and    tweedledee" 
epigram  of  Handel's  day,  and  frequently  crops  out  in  the 
Johnsonian,  and  even  in  later  periods.     The    altered 
feeling  of  the  present  day  cannot  be  better  illustrated, 
than  by  the  public  estimation  of  Rubinstein  or^  Joachim, 
or  the  genuine  national  grief  at  the  early  death  of  Titieos. 
But  the  reform  in  the  republic  of  sweet  sounds  must 
come,  and  is  coming,  ab  extra.    Audiences  themselves 
must  be  fairly  proficient  in  an  art  to  esteem  its  higher 
developments  and  manifestations.   The  supply,  according 
to  the  laws  of  political  economy,  must  precede  the  demand ; 
nor  can  true  sestheticism  of  any  kind  fully  prosper  until  the 
bulk  of  the  population  have  been  educated  up  to  its  intel- 
ligent and  critical  comprehension.    For  the  moment  it 
may  be  that  in  this  particular  branch  the  outsiders  have 
distanced  the  regular  executants.    It  would  be  a  severe, 
but  not  altogether  false  statement  to  make,  that  in  modem 
England — which  has  really  become  a  musical  nation — all 
classes  are  musical  except  the  musicians.    It  is  certadn 
that  our  grandest  celebrations,  such  as  those  of  Handel 
and  that  at  Leeds,  are  festivals  where  the  latter  are  only 
secondary  to  the  hearty  and  enthusiastic  willingness  of  a 
voluntary  but  well-disciplined  non-professional  choir.   In- 
deed it  might,  a  priori^  be  anticipated  that  such  would  be 
the  case,  since  the  fondness  for  music,  although  it  may  be 
materially  developed  by  circumstances  and  education,  still 
remains  very  much  of  a  gift ;  and  this  gift,  which  forms 
the  strongest  motive  to  exertion  in  acquiring  it,  is  far  more 
likely  to  exist  in  one  who  turns  to  the  subject  from  love 
than  in  those  who  have  simply  adopted  its  study  by  chance, 
or  as  a  means  of  earning  a  livelihood. 

That  such  is  to  a  certain  extent  the  fact,  receives  ample 
illustration  from  the  very  first  page  of  Mr.  Grove's  initial 
number,  in  which  are  recorded  the  names  of  the  con- 
tributors to  the  work.  Including  the  editor  himself,  who, 
though  not  a  professional  musician,  has  earned,  under  the 
familiar  initial  which  he  here  again  adopts,  a  full  tide  to 
speak  with  knowledge  and  authority  on  musical  subjects, 
a  large  proportion  of  the  writers  are  not  dependent  on  the 
art  or  practice  of  music  for  their  social  status.  Among 
them  will  be  found  clergymen,  a  consul,  a  colonel,  a 
doctor,  an  engineer,  a  Queen's  counsel,  a  schoohnaster, 
and  many  others,  whose  devotion  to  the  cause  of  music 
must  be  purely  voluntary  and  a  labour  of  love.  As  it 
cannot  be^doubted  that  all  alike  have  given  proofs  of  their 
competence  to  undertake  the  task  entrusted  to  them,  it 
is  surely  no  forced  conclusion  to  regard  their  co-operation 
as  evidence  of  the  depth  to  which  educated  English 
society  is  now  penetrated  by  this  subtle  and  once 
neglected  branch  of  aesthetic  culture.  To  the  same  class, 
iporeover,  the  work  appeals  for  support,  a  support  which 
is  more  than  justified  by  the  laborious  care,  the  pains- 
taking and  punctilious  accuracy  displ^ed  by  the  editor 
in  its  compilation. 

The  present  instalment  of  the  work  is  the  first  of  a 
series  of  quarterly  parts,  and  only  contains  the  letter  A, 
with  part  of  letter  B.  On  turning  over  the  pages  the 
articles  whidk  attract  the  eye  ^^«  one  on  Abbreviations 


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423 


'n  music  and  one  on  Arpeggio^  by  Mr.  Franklin  Taylor ; 
an  interesting  account  of  the  Acad£mie  de  Musique, 
by  Mr.  John  HuUah  ;  an  excellent  little  treatise  on 
Accent  in  music^  with  abundant  musical  examples,  by 
Mr.  Ebenezer  Prout ;  another  on  Accents  in  plam  song, 
by  the  Rev.  Thomas  Helmore ;  instructions  as  to  Accom- 
paniment, by  Mr.  Hopkins,  of  the  Temple,  supplemented 
by  another  article  on  Additional  Accompaniments, 
by  Mr.  Prout ;  iCo^AN  Harp  is  from  the  pen  of  Mr. 
Hipkins ;  Anthem  is  given  by  Dr.  Monk,  of  York ; 
Arrangement,  by  Mr.  Hubert  Parry ;  Bagpipe,  by  the 
writer  of  this  notice.  In  the  biographical  department, 
which  is  especially  full,  a  long  and  exhaustive  account  of 
the  Bach  family,  by  Herr  Maczewski  of  Kaiserslautem, 
stands  foremost  There  are  also  interesting  notices  of 
Adolphe  Adam  and  of  Auber,  by  Mr.  Franz  HuefTer ;  of 
many  Italian  composers,  by  Mr.  Edward  H.  Pember,  Q.C., 
of  Dr.  Arne,  and  of  Attwood,  by  Mr.  Husk,  Librarian 
of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society ;  of  Dr.  Arnold,  and 
a  sympathetic  biography  of  Michael  BALFt,by  the  late 
Dr.  Rimbault.  Sir  Frederic  Ouseley  and  the  Editor 
contribute  several  smaller  notices.  The  names  of  English 
musicians  appear  to  have  received  especial  attention. 

Thee  can  be  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the  work 
just  commenced  promises  to  fill  a  gap  in  English  biblio- 
graphy, and  that  it  furnishes  excellent  material  for  refer- 
ence. Besides  this,  it  presents  the  collateral  advantage 
of  offering  a  charming  combination  of  amusement  and 
instruction  for  desultory  reading  in  the  many  hora 
subseciva  which  occur  even  in  the  lives  of  the  most  busy. 

W.  H.  Stone 

OUR  BOOK  SHELF 
Pioneering  in  South  BraziL  Three  Years  of  Forest  and 
Prairie  Life  in  the  Province  of  Parand.  By  Thomas 
P.  Biggs-Wither.  Two  vols.  With  Map  and  Illus- 
trations. (London  :  John  Murray,  1878.) 
Mr.  Biggs- Wither  has  written  two  volumes  of  genuine 
and  varied  interest  and  much  instruction,  as  a  result  of 
his  three  years'  work  in  a  little-known  region  of  South 
BraziL  He  went  out  as  one  of  an  engineering  party  to 
open  up  a  road  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  and  he 
traversed  much  of  the  country  on  the' banks  of  the  rivers 
Ivahy  and  Tibagy,  tributaries  of  the  Parani.  Much  of 
his  time  was  spent  in  the  forests  of  this  region,  virtually 
unexplored,  and  presenting  a  splendid  field  for  any  enter- 
prising naturalist.  Mr.  Wither  is  an  excellent  observer, 
and  his  book  abounds  with  information  on  the  natives, 
tiie  natural  history,  and  physical  geography  of  the  region. 
He  met  with  many  adventures,  and  suffered  much  from 
heat  and  insects,  but  altogether  he  seems  to  have  had  a 
tiioroughly  enjoyable  time  of  it.  He  writes  throughout 
in  an  attractive  and  simple  st^le,  and  his  work  must  be 
regarded  as  an  important  contnbution  to  a  knowledge  of 
the  luxuriant  region  with  which  it  deals. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 
[The  Editor  does  not  hold  himstif  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undertahe  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  wtth  the  writers  of^  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  iahen  of  anonymous  commumcations, 
[ The  Editor  ur^ntly  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  at 
short  eu  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com- 
mumcaHons  containing  interesting  ana  novel  facts.] 

The  Phonograph 
We  shall  be  much  obliged  if  you  will  allow  us  to  draw  the 
attention  of  jour  readers  to  a  curioat  fact  whiph  the  phonograph 


has  allowed  us  to  prove^  and  which  we  annoonoed  last  Monday  a 
a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  We  have  seen  no 
mention  of  the  fact  elsewhere. 

Not  only  are  vowels  unaltered  by  being  spoken  backwards, 
bat  the  same  fact  is  tme  of  consonants.  V^hether  the  pulsations 
of  air  be  made  in  a  given  order  or  in  the  rererM  order  the  ear 
accepts  the  sound  as  indicating  the  tame  letter.  This  is  true  of 
all  the  simple  vowel  sonnds  and  of  all  the  simple  consonant 
sonndf,  inanding  of  course  several  combinations  whidi  in  English 
are  spelt  with  two  letters,  as  M  or  nr^,  but  which  are  i«aUy 
simple  consonants. 

We  tried  the  experiment  on  single  pahrs  of  syllables  separated 
by  a  single  consonant,  as  ada^  aba,  aji,  etc,  A  person  coming 
from  outside  and  ignorant  of  what  consonant  had  been  spoken 
was  able  to  identify  the  consonants  quite  as  well  backwards  as 
forwards.  The  chief  difficulty  was  found  in  distinguishing  ajffa 
from  assa. 

We  find  that  this  peculiarity  is  not  limited  to  consonants 
between  vowels,  but  that  ab  said  backwards  becomes  ba.  We 
have  here  a  standard  as  to  what  does  really  constitute  a  single 
letter  or  element  of  articulate  speech ;  it  is  any  one  reversible 
part.  Your  readers  who  possess  a  phonograph  may  most  easily 
verify  this  observation  by  saying  a  word  backwards,  and 
hearing  the  phonograph  say  it  intelligibly  for  4rards ;  for  instance, 
noshdusossa  produces  association  beauti'ully. 

We  shall  be  glad  to  learn  whether  this  fact  has  been  already 
published,  and  also  whether  it  was  foreseen  as  a  possibility  \3j 
any  writer.  Flbeming  Jen  kin 

Edfaibnrgh,^March  25  J.  A.  EwiNG 

The  Age  of  the  Sun's  Heat  in  Relation  to  Geological 
Evidence 

1.  It  is  an  admitted  fact  that  the  age  of  the  sun's  heat  will 
not  harmonise  with  the  eridence  of  geology,  on  the  supposition 
that  this  heat  was  solely  derived  from  the  approach  of^  matter 
under  the  action  of  grarity.  Dr.  Tames  CroU,  in  dealing  with 
this  question  in  a  recent  number  of  NATuaB,^  has  suggested  the 
existence  of  a  prerious  proper  motion  in  the  colliding  matter  that 
formed  the  sun,  whereby,  m  accordance  with  aocepted  physical 
principles,  a  store  of  heat  adequate  for  any  period  might  have 
been  prorided.  However  a  difficulty  is  raised  here  by  Dr.  Croll, 
in  the  Philosophical  Magaune  (May,  1868),  where  this  question 
is  first  dealt  with,  and  as  this  diffioilty  would  seem  on  examina- 
tion not  to  be  insurmountable,  I  venture  to  call  attention  to  the 
subject  here,  more  especially  as  attendant  questions  of  interest 
wouM  seem  to  attach  to  it 

2.  Of  course  it  is  admitted  that  the  age  of  the  sun's  heat  is  the 
limit  to  conditions  of  life  on  the  earth,  and  the  point  in  question 
is  that  if  the  sun  had  acquired  such  a  store  of  heat  as  geological 
time  would  appear  to  demand,  then  the  sun  must  have  been 
(owing  to  the  excessive  heat)  a  very  extensive  nebula,  probably 
extenmng  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  present  solar  system,  and 
consequently,  that  even  if  such  a  store  of  heat  had  existed  in  the 
sun,  it  would  not  be  available  for  geological  time,  since  the  earth 
could  not  then  have  existed  as  a  separate  planet,  from  the  &ct 
that  the  solar  nd>ttla  would  then  have  extended  bqrond  the  limits 

■■--'-  yj2).    MBut    if 

energy  supposed, 
beyond  our  earth's  orbit, 
and  of  course  our  earth  could  not  at  that  time  have  existed  as  a 
separate  planet. "  This,  therefore,  puu  a  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
the  sun  having  posseMed  such  a  store  of  heat  as  would  be  avail* 
able  for  geological  time.  Tlie  accepted  principles  of  Laplace 
are^  of  course,  admitted  here,  according  to  which  the  earth 
originally  formed  Tpart  of  the  nebulous  masa  of  the  sim,  and 
bcoune  naturally  detached  through  the  rotation  of  the  nebula  at 
its  contraction. 

3.  Here  it  seems  to  have  been  tacitly  assumed  (according  to 
the  quotations  above  given)  that  the  present  orbit  of  the  earth 
was  its  oripnal  orbit  Is  there^  however,  any  necessity  for 
assuming  this?  For  in  this  lies  all  the  difficult.  Are  we  not 
rather  warranted  in  inferring  fire>m  accepted  principles  that  Uie 
present  orbit  of  the  earth  was  not  its  original  orbit.  For  it  is 
an  admitted  heft  that  resisting  media  (the  ether,  &c.)  exist  in 
space,  by  which,  through  fricuon,  the  orbits  of  the  planets  are 
gradually  becoming  contracted,  so  that  they  slowly  approach  the 
sun.  It  is  a  mere  question  of  time^  therefore^  for  the  earth  to 
have  come  in  towards  the  sun  from  any  distance,  or  its  original 

*  Natuke,  vol.  xvii,  p.  9o6 ;  «1«o  Qntirterty  Journnl  0/  Scienet,  July, 
J877 


of  the  earth's  present  orbit    Dr.  CroU  says  (p. 
the  sun  had  onginallv  possessed  the  amount  ot  ei 
then  his  volume  would  have  extended  beyond  01 


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{March  28,  1878 


orbit  might  (for  anything  we  can  tay  to  the  contrary)  have  been 
bcyon'l  the  present  orbit  of  Jui»iter.  How^-ver  slowly  we  mav 
suppose  the  earth  to  be  approaching  the  sun,  yet^  in  the  vast 
epoch  of  time  (which  is  precisely  what  is  necessary  in  order  ro 
harmonise  with  geological  evidence)  it  may  have  approached 
minions  of  miles  towards  the  sun.  There  is  one  point  of  pecu- 
liar harmony  here  i»hich  is  worth  noticing  in  connection  with 
this,  viz.,  as  the  sun  cools  down  or  gives  out  less  heat  to  the  planets, 
so  the  planets  reduce  their  distance  from  the  sun  ;  thus  tending 
to  equsdise  the  heat  conditions  suitable  for  life.  Thus,  although 
the  heat  of  the  sun  when  first  formed  may  have  been  enormou^y 
greater  than  it  is  at  present,  yet  on  account  of  the  distance  of 
the  planets  (including  the  earUi)  from  it  at  that  remote  time,  the 
conditions  for  life  mav  have  been  as  favourable  as  now,  and  thus 
the  first  geological  changes  may  have  commenced  on  the  earth 
at  that  remote  epoch  when  the  sun  was  an  incandescent  nebula 
occupying  a  vai^tly  greater  volume  than  now  (perhaps  even  the 
volume  of  the  earth's  present  urbit),  or  under  these  conditions 
any  interval  of  time  for  life  on  the  earth  that  geological  evidence 
may  require  is  afforded. 

4.  There  is  another  point  that  would  appear  to  be  of  interest 
in  connection  with  this  subject.  The  rate  at  which  a  planet 
approaches  the  sun  through  friction  in  the  media  in  space  would 
depend  (admittedly)  on  its  mass,  or  would  be  greater  when  its 
mass  is  le>s.  It  follows  evidently  from  this  therefore  that  the 
great  planets,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  &c.,  must  have  approached  the 
sun  at  a  dower  rate  than  the  earth  (or  the  smaller  planets  gene- 
rally). It  would  follow  therefore  (more  particularly  in  view  of 
the  vast  epoch  of  time  demanded  by  geology)  that  the  rdative 
position  of  the  planets  must  have  chan^  from  this  cause,  that 
the  esjrth,  for  example,  must  at  one  time  have  been  nearer  Jupiter 
than  at  present ;  more  especially  as  the  greater  velocity  of  the 
earth  in  its  present  contracted  orbit  causes  greater  firiction  (and 
thereby  brings  the  earth  more  rapidly  towards  the  sun).  Indeed 
it  is  an  evident  consequence  of  this  principle  that  it  would  require 
only  a  certain  rdative  difference  in  mass  of  the  planets  (or  in  the 
length  of  the  elapsed  time)  to  have  made  the  small  planets  occupy 
positions  beyond  the  larger  planets  originally,  and  so  the  positions 
of  the  pliuoets  to  have  been  reversed,  i,e,^  the  smaller  planets 
furthest  from  the  sun,  and  the  larger  planets  nearest  The 
tendency  of  the  friction  evidently  is  to  arrange  the  positions  of 
the  pUmets,  so  that  the  larger  are  furthest  from  the  sun.^  This 
it  may  be  noted  is  the  position  at  the  present  time.  We  do  not 
of  course  mean  to  assume  necessarily  that  there  has  been  an 
actual  reversal  in  the  positims  of  the  planets  ;  all  we  adduce  is 
that  friction  mnst  inevitably  tend  to  change  relative  position, 
when  the  masses  of  the  bodies  are  different,  and  whether  the 
positions  are  reversed  depends  therefore  on  the  Hme  during 
which  this  cause  was  in  operation  (and  here  we  are  considering 
especially  the  vast  interval  of  time  required  by  geology) — the 
change  of  relative  position  being  more  rapid  the  greater  the 
relative  differences  of  the  masses.  Thus  it  is  a  known  fact  that 
a  meteorite  approaches  the  sun  or  contracts  its  orbit  at  an  enor- 
mously more  rapid  rate  than  a  planet  It  is  so  far  certain  that 
through  firiction  in  the  medium  known  to  exist  in  space,  the 
planets  (whose  masses  are  different)  must  have  changed  to  some 
degree  their  relative  positions,  or  that  the  earth  (for  example) 
must  have  been  nearer  Jupiter  at  one  time  than  it  is  now.  These 
it  should  be  observed  cannot  be  regarded  as  s[)eculations,  but 
rather  as  deductions  dependent  on  accepted  principles. 

5.  Time  may  evidently  have  as  great  significance  in  physical 
as  in  geological  changes,  or  in  giving  time  its  full  import  great 
results  may  follow ;  and  it  will  b«  admitted  that  it  is  of  interest 
to  trace  the  slow  operation  of  causes  into  their  legitimate  results 
through  lengthened  time  epochs,  not  confining  the  attention  to 
the  infinitesimally  narrow  range  of  human  experience. 

London,  March  2x  S.  Tolveb  Preston 

English  Lake-dwellings  and  Pile-structures 

Gbnrral  Lane  Fox  has  described  the  old,  and,  in  some 
cases,  successive  pile-works  in  the  peat  of  Finsbtury  and  South- 
wark,  outside  Roman  London  {Anthropological  Review^  voL  iv. 
No.  17,  April,  1867,  pp.  Ixxi.  H  seq,).  Another  very  interestizig 
case  was  evidently  under  Sir  C.  Bnnburjr's  observation  in  i85(^ 

'  It  would  seem  a  rather  curious  fact  to  note  that  those  planets  which 
contain  within  themselves  the  neatest  store  of  heat  (<  «.,  the  uuige  planetsX 
and  wbich  therefore  wmld  probably  be  the  lonnst  time  before  they  were 
adapted  to  the  conditions  of  life,  are  those  wnich 


slowest.  It  is  also  evident  that  the  fact  of  die  earth  belL 
would  tend  to  augment  the  difference  between  Uie  range  < 
that  of  its  original,  orbit. 


the  wn  the 
'  a  smaU  planec, 
:  its  present,  and 


near  Wretham  HaU,  six  miles  north  of  Thetford,  where,  in  a 
drained  mere,  "numerous  posts  of  oak-wood,  shaped  and 
pointed  by  human  art,  were  found  standing  erect,  entirely  baried 
in  the  peat"  Red-deer  antlers,  both  shed  and  broken  m>ni  the 
skull,  and  also  sawn  off,  were  found  in  this  peat  (See  Qucurt, 
Joum,  Geol,  Soc.,  vol.  xii,  p.  356,) 

Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  been  informed  that  Mr.  "W. 
M.  Wylie,  F.S.  A.,  referred  to  this  fact  in  «*  Archaeologia,"  woL 
xxxviii.,  in  a  note  to  his  excc'llent  memoir  on  lake-dweUings.  I 
can  add,  however,  that  remains  of  Cennis  elaphus  (red  deer), 
C.  dama  ?  (fallow  deer),  Ovis  (sheep).  Bos  longifrons  (small  ok), 
Sus  scrofa  (hog),  and  Canis  (dog),  were  found  here,  according 
to  information  given  me  by  the  late  C.  B.  Rose,  F.G.S.,  of 
Swaffbam  ;  who  also  stated,  in  a  letter  dated  August  1 1  1856, 
that  in  adjoining  meres  or  s  tes  of  ancient  meres,  as  at  Saham, 
Towey,  Carbrook,  Old  Buckenham,  and  Hargham,  cervine 
r»^  mains  have  been  met  with  :  this  at  Saham  and  Towey,  Certms 
elaphus  (red  deer) ;  at  Buckenham,  Bof  (ox)  and  Cervus  eapredus 
(roebuck) ;  at  Hargham,  Cervus  tarandus  (reindeer). 

The  occurrence  of  flint  implements  and  flakes  io  great  numbers 
in  the  site  of  a  drained  lake  between  Sandhurst  and  Frimlej, 
described  by  Capt.  C.  Cooper  King,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthro- 
pological Institute,  Januaiy,  1873,  p.  365,  &c.,  pouits  also  in  all 
probability  to  some  kind  of  lake-dwelling,  though  timbov  wen 
not  discovered. 

Lastly,  the  late  Dr.  S.  Palmer,  F.S.  A.,  of  Newbury,  reported 
to  the  "  Wiltshire  Archaeolo;!ical  Sodety  "  in  1869,  that  oakea 
piles  and  planks  had  been  dug  out  of  hoggj  ground  on  Cdld  Ash 
Common,  near  Faircross  Pond,  not  far  from  Hermitage,  Baks. 

T.  RUPKRT  JONIS 

Selective  Discrimination  of  Insects 

As  bearing  on  the  question  discussed  bv  *'  S.  B.,"  and  by  Kr. 
Bridgman  and  others,  at  p.  163  ante,  and  in  previous  numbers 
of  NATURE,  the  following  observations  may  have  some  interest. 
One  day  in  the  latter  part  of  July,  1877,  I  took  on  a  flower  of 
red  clover  {T. praiense)  an  humble-bee  (Bombus  Carolmaf), 
haymg  the  hairs  of  its  body  and  legs  densely  dusted  with  pollen* 
grains  of  an  Althaa,  which  was  in  full  blossom  in  the  same 
enclosure,  about  one  hundred  feet  from  the  spot  where  I  took 
the  bee. 

On  the  same  day  and  at  the  same  place  I  attempted  to  ttke 
another  Bomdus,  which  was  ravishing  a  flower  of  the  same  spe- 
cies of  clover.  It  escaped  me,  and,  flying  to  a  distance  of  abont 
twenty  feet,  alighted  on  a  flower  of  a  Canada  thistle  {Cirsium 
arvense),  into  which  it  immediately  plunged  its  tongue.  After 
watching  it  feed  for  a  moment  or  two,  I  again  attempted  to  cap- 
ture it,  when  it  again  escaped,  and,  flying  to  about  the  same  d»- 
tance  as  before,  sdighted  on  a  flower  of  a  larkspur  {Delphinmm 
Consolida),  and  upon  my  third  attempt  to  take  it,  it  flew  away 
and  disappeared. 

As  to  whether  insects  are  attracted  by  odour  or  colour,  I  wish 
to  call  attention  to  an  observation  of  Mr.  Crouch,  as  detailed  by 
Mr.  Gosse  in  **  A  Year  at  the  Shore."  "  realia  crassicornis  u 
as  good  a  mimicry  of  the  great  dahlias  as  the  Sagartia  are  of  the 
daisies."  "  Even  bees  are  occasionally  deceived.  Mr.  Crouch, 
when  once  looking  at  a  fine  specimen  which  was  expanded  so 
dose  to  the  surfiEu:e  that  only  a  thin  film  of  water  coveted  dio 
disc  and  tentacles,  saw  a  roving  bee  alight  on  the  tempting  sur* 
face,  evidently  mistaking  the  anemone  for  a  veritable  blossom." 

Covington,  Ky.,  U.S.A.  V.  T.  C. 

The  Telephone  as  a  Means  of  Measuring  the  Speed 
of  High  Breaks 

In  some  experiments  with  an  induction  coil  and  wheel  break 
which  I  have  lately  been  engaged  on  I  have  found  the  telephone 
useful  in  determinkig  the  number  of  times  per  second  in  which  the 
current  is  broken. 

For  this  purpose  it  may  be  attached  to  the  secondary  terminal 
or  the  whole  or  part  of  the  priaiary  current  may  be  passed 
through  it 

The  telephone  may  also  be  used  generally  for  determining  the 
speed  of  dectro-magnetic  motors  by  tiddng  advantage  of  the 
net  that  the  current  driving  them  is  either  short-drcuited  or 
broken  a  definite  number  of  times  in  each  revolution.  The  tde- 
phone  wires  may  in  this  case  be  attached  at  two  points  some 
distance  apart  on  one  of  the  battery  wires.  The  note  of  the 
tdephone  gives  the  number  of  breaks  per  second. 

Pixholme,  Dorking,  March  17  J.  E.  H.  GoRDOl^ 


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Meteor 

As  meteors  are  rarely  seen  \pg  day,  I  write  to  inform  yoa  that 
I  observed  one  this  morning,  at  exactly  ia20  A.M.,  not  only  in 
broad  daylight,  but  in  bright  sunshine.  I  only  caught  a  hasty 
glance  of  it  as  it  was  disappearing.  It  was  in  the  eastern  side 
of  the  sky,  descending  towards  a  point  in  the  horizon  nearly  due 
north  from  us,  at  an  angle  of  about  40**.  As  we  are  qaite  m  the 
country,  it  could  not  havi-  been  anything  else  than  a  meteor.  I 
found  that  two  of  oar  senraots  had  seea  it  also,  and  described  it 
as  having  a  tail,  which  I  did  not  see.  James  Elliot 

Goldtelapds,  near  Hawick,  March  25 


The  Bermuda  Lixard 

In  his  "Geographical  Distiibution  of  Animals"  (Am.  ed.  ii 
p*  I35)>  Mr.  Wallace  states,  speaking  of  the  Bermudas,  that 

a  common  Americ  in  lizard,  Plestiodon  longirostris^  is  the  only 
lan-l  reptile  found  on  the  inlands." 

PUstiodoH  lon^irostris  is  not  a  common  American  species.  It 
is  peculiar  to  the  larger  islands  of  the  Bermuda  Archipelago. 
It  was  described  by  Pro*".  E.  D.  Cope  {Proceedmgt  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  Philadelphia,  1861,  p.  313)  from 
Bermuda  specimens.  It  has  never  been  found  elsewhere.  Its 
closest  affinities  are  with  a  West  African  spec>es. 

0.  Brown  Goode 

U.S.  National  Mu?eum,  Washington,  January  21 


Landslip  near  Cork 

The  village  of  Coachford,  on  the  River  Lee,  sixteen  miles 
from  Cork,  has  bet n  the  scene  of  a  curious  landslip,  or  sub- 
sidence of  soiL 

On  Wednesday,  the  I3ih  inst.,  a  roan  on  his  way  to  work,  at 
about  eight  o'clock  a.m  ,  on  going  along  a  path  beside  a  dyke  or 
bank  which  separates  t  no  fields  close  to  tne  village,  noticed  a 
breach  in  the  dyk-*  which  had  not  exiAted  before  ;  aid  on  going 
to  examine,  found  a  deep  hole  in  the  earth  about  a  ya^  in 
dianseter,  Uie  depth  of  which  appeared  to  him  to  be  about  a 
hundred  feet,  aid  at  the  bottom  of  which  he  heard  the  sound  of 
runnmg  water.  From  that  time  till  six  o'clock  p.  M.  the  hole 
gradually  increased  in  diameter  by  the  falling  in  of  the  sides, 
until  it  appeared  as  I  saw  it  on  Sunday,  the  17th  inst.,  a  conical 
cavity  fifty  to  sixty  feet  in  diameter  and  thirty  to  forty  in  depth. 

The  soU  is  composed  of  gravel  and  sand,  with  a  substratum 
of  limestone. 

The  same  thing  has  evidently  taken  place  several  times  before 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  above-mentioned  cavity,  as  there 
are  no  less  than  seven  other  similar  depressions  of  various  sizes 
in  the  same  piece  of  ground,  but  the  formation  of  none  of  these 
is  remembered  by  even  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  the  place. 

I  should  mention  that  the  fields  between  which  the  landslip 
ha«  taken  place  lie  pretty  hish,  and  that  the  River  Lee  is  about 
half  a  mile  distant  A  belief  has  long  existed  in  the  village 
that  a  stream,  which  is  suppose  I  to  fl  »w  into  the  Lee,  runs 
beneath  the  place,  at  some  depth  undergroon  I. 

Cork,  March  20  C.  J.  Cooke 


JOACHIM  JOHN  MONTEIRO 

A  FEW  days  ago  (Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  391)  we 
recorded  the  melancholy  fact  of  the  death  of  this 
enterprising  African  traveller.  We  have  since  been 
favoured  with  a  few  particulars  of  his  life  and  labours, 
which  appear  to  us  to  demand  more  than  a  passing  word 
of  recognition.  His  wotk  on  "Angola  and  the  River 
Congo ''  (Macmillan,  1875)  is  srill  fresh  in  the  mind  of  the 
public,  and  has  been  made  doubly  interesting  through  the 
recent  travels  of  Mr.  Stanley.  Mr.  Monteiro  commenced 
his  scientific  education  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines, 
under  the  late  Sir  H.  De  la  Heche,  and  at  the  College  of 
Chemistry  under  Dr.  Hoffmann,  at  both  of  which  places 
he  obtained  first-class  honours.  His  first  visit  to  Angola 
was  in  the  year  1858,  when  he  went  to  work  the  Malachite 
deposits  at  Bembe,  in  that  province,  and  also  the  blue 
carbonate  of  copper.  This  obtained  honourable  mention 
in  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862.  It  was  while 
working  these  deposits  at  Bembe  that  the  King  of  Congo 
came  down  to  pay  a  visit,  and  was  received  with  all 


honours.  A  very  curious  letter  from  this  king,  asking  for 
a  ''  piece  of  soap  to  wash  his  clothes  with,**  is  now  in  the 
possession  of  the  British  Museum. 

It  was  during  his  stay  at  Bembe,  and  while  exploring 
the  country  round,  that  he  discovered  that  the  fibre  of  the 
Adansonia  di^itata  was  so  valuable  for  the  purposes  of 
making  paper,  but  it  was  uot  until  1865  that  he  returned 
to  the  coast  for  the  purpose  of  developing  this  extra- 
ordinary discovery.  He  continued  to  work  this  enter- 
prise for  many  years,  so  as  to  fully  establish  the  claim 
of  this  fibre  to  being  the  most  valuable  natural  pro- 
duct for  paper-making.  Paper  made  exclusively  of  this 
fibre  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  parchment, 
and  it  is  owing  to  this  remarkable  quality  that  a  small 
percentage  of  the  fibre  enables  the  manufacturer  to  utilise 
su  'Stances  whijh  would  be  otherwise  useless.  While 
at  Bembe  Mr.  Monteiro  procured  some  of  the  most 
interesting  birds,  and  although  the  results  of  his  first 
collecting  were  perhaps  not  so  important  in  regard  to 
novelties  as  those  made  later  on,  the  value  of  this,  our 
first  contribution  to  the  avifauna  of  Inner  Angola,  wiU 
never  be  underrated  by  ornithologists.  In  September, 
1866,  he  accompanied  Mr.  A.  A.  Silva,  the  United  States 
Consul,  on  an  ascent  of  the  River  Quanza  for  the  purpose 
of  opening  up  the  country  to  trade,  and  the  natives  were 
griratly  astonished  at  their  first  experience  of  a  ^  smoke- 
vesicL"  In  April,  1873,  he  had  the  brothers  Grandy  as 
his  guests  at  Ambriz,  and  supplied  them  with  beads  and 
goxJs  for  the  arduous  undertaking  assigned  to  them  by 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  of  endeavouring  to  dis- 
cover the  sources  of  the  River  Congo,  and  of  aiding 
Livingstone  should  he  cross  the  continent  and  make  for 
the  West  Coast  Mr.  Monteiro  accompanied  the  brothers 
Grandy  five  days  inland.  He  explored  the  Congo  as  far 
as  Porto  da  Lenho,  in  a  steamer  belonging  to  a  Dutch 
house  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  ;  and  it  was  while  on  this 
expedition  that  he  met  by  appointment,  and  at  their 
desire,  nine  kings  of  Boma,  whosj  curiosiiy  he  greatly 
excited  by  being  the  owner,  as  they  said,  of  the  first 
white  woman,  his  wife,  they  had  ever  seen,  and  from  her 
hand  the  kings  were  greatly  pleased  to  receive  a  *'  dash  ^ 
or  present. 

Mr.  Monteiro  was  honoured  with  the  friendship  of  Dr. 
Livingstone,  who  strongly  desired  him  to  accompany  his 
expedition  as  mineralogist,  but  this  wish  he  could  not 
accede  to,  owing  to  his  engagements  in  working  out  the 
fibre-scheme  on  the  West  Coast.  His  researches  in  the 
natural  history  of  Angola  have  been  of  great  imp  jrtance 
to  science.  Among  the  many  botanical  specimens  which 
he  forwarded  to  England  may  be  mentioned  the  plant 
and  flowers  of  WeiivUschia  mirabilis^  from  which  Sir 
Joseph  Hooker  was  enabled  to  compile  his  splendid 
mono^ph  of  this  extraordinary  plant ;  besides  many 
parasites,  orchids,  &c.,  which  have  been  named  after 
him.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  animal  discovered  by 
him  was  the  beautiful  little  lemur  {Galago  monteiri)^  and 
the  well-known  chimpanzee,  "  Joe,**  ^hich  lived  so  long 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  was  also  brought  to  England 
by  him.  His  second  collection  of  birds  was  described  by 
Dr.  Hartlaub  in  1865,  and  contained  many  new  species, 
the  most  interesting  of  which  were  a  Hurubill  {Tockus 
monteiri)  and  a  Bustard  {Otis  picturcUa),  while  he  also 
procured  a  living  specimen  of  the  splendid  Plantain-eater 
\Corythaix  livingstonii)  discovered  by  Dr.  Livingstone  in 
the  Zambesi  country. 

Mr.  Monteiro's  eighth,  and,  as  it  has  unfortunately 
proved,  his  last,  visit  to  Africa,  was  one  to  Deiagoa  Bay, 
and  here  he  expired,  after  a  severe  illness,  on  the  6th  of 
January  last  In  company  with  his  wife,  who  contributed 
so  largely  to  his  natural  history  collections,  at  which  she 
work^  with  equal  cotuage  and  zeal,  he  had  set  himself  to 
develop  the  mineral  and  natural  products  of  that  Portu- 
guese possession,  and  had  already  sent  to  England  many 
valuable  specimens,  when  hi5  untimely  death  put  an  end 


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{March  2K,  187S 


to  all  his  projects.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Angola, 
to  the  elucidation  of  the  natural  history  of  which  Mr. 
Monteiro  contributed  so  largely,  stiU  presents  a  fine  field 
for  the  collector,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  one  will 
be  found  who  will  continue  the  researches  so  well  insti* 
tuted  by  the  deceased  traveller. 

SOUND  COLOUR-FIGURES 

THE  j^eat  interest  excited  by  Prof.  Bell's  telephone 
and  Mr.  Eddison's  phonograph,  in  which  an  elastic 
disc  or  membrane  faithfully  takes  up  the  highly  complex 
vibrations  due  to  sounds  of  the  human  voice,  has  directed 
renewed  attention  to  the  optical  methods  hitherto  employed 
in  studying  the  motion  of  resonant  media.  These  have, 
in  important  instances,  been  based  on  observations  of  the 
secondary  efifects  produced  by  sonorously  vibrating 
bodies.  Thus  Chladni  watched  the  behaviour  of  sand 
strewn  upon  sounding  plates  and  membranes;  Konig 
that  of  gas  flames  acted  on  by  aerial  vibrations.  The 
present  article  describes  an  analogous  method  depending 
on  the  colours  reflected  from  slightly  viscous  liquid  films 
when  thrown  into  sonorous  vibration. 

The  ordinary  phenomena  called  the  "  colours  of  thin 
plates  ^  are  sufficiently  well  known,  but  a  short  description 
of  them,  taken  from  a  standard  work  on  Physical  Optics, 
may  still  not  be  out  of  place  here  as  a  reminder. 

**  If  the  mouth  of  a  wine-elass  be  dipped  in  water,  which 
has  been  rendered  somewhat  viscid  by  the  mixture  of 
soap,  the  aqueous  film  which  remains  in  contact  with  it 
after  emersion  will  display  the  whole  succession  of  these 
phenomena.  When  held  in  a  vertical  plane,  it  will  at 
first  appear  uniformly  white  over  its  entire  surface  ;  but, 
as  it  grows  thinner  by  the  descent  of  the  fluid  particles, 
colours  begin  to  be  exhibited  at  the  top,  where  it  is 
thinnest  These  colours  arrange  themselves  in  horizontal 
bands,  and  become  more  and  more  brilliant  as  the  thick- 
ness diminishes ;  until  finally,  when  the  thickness  is 
reduced  to  a  certain  limit,  the  upper  part  of  the  film 
becomes  completely  black.  When  the  bubble  has  arrived 
at  this  stage  of  tenuity,  cohesion  is  no  longer  able  to 
resist  the  other  forces  which  are  acting  on  its  particles, 
and  it  bursts."— (Lloyd's  "Wave-Theory  of  Light," 
p.  loa) 

If  the  film,  instead  of  remaining  at  rest,  is  thrown  into 
sonorous  vibration,  totally  distinct  colour- phenomena 
instantly  present  themselves.  A  rough  idea  of  their 
general  character  may  be  obtained  without  the  aid  of  any 
apparatus  as  follows.  Whil^  washing  the  hands,  after 
getting  a  good  lather,  a  film  can  easily  be  formed  between 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  one  hand  held  in  a  horizontal 
plane;  the  other  hand  supplies  an  extemporised  tube 
through  which  a  note  can  be  sung,  and  so  vibrations 
caused  to  impinge  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  film. 

If  this  is  done  the  reflected  colours  will  be  seen  to  be 
in  regular  motion,  and,  in  particular,  a  number  of  small 
eddies  of  colour  will  be  observed  whirling  about  fixed 
centres  of  rotation.  Steady  coloured  bands  may  also  be 
sometimes  recognised,  but  with  much  greater  difficulty. 

Fixed  bands  and  stationary  vortices  form,  in  fact,  the 
constituent  elements  of  all  the  sound  colour-figures  obtain- 
able by  film-reflection. 

In  order  to  study  these  in  detail  a  specially  arranged 
apparatus  is,  of  course,  requisite.  I  have  found  the 
following  give  excellent  results. 

An  L-shaped  cylindrical  brass  tube  is  permanently  fixed 
upon  a  wooden  stand,  mth  its  two  limbs  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal. The  vertical  limb  terminates  in  a  narrow  flat  circular 
ring.  The  open  orifice  of  the  horizontal  limb  is  fitted  into 
a  caoutchouc  tube  of  equal  bore,  ending  in  a  trumpet- 
shaped  mouth- piece.  For  the  puipose  of  supporting  the 
films  operated  on,  I  use  a  series  of  metallic  discs  pierced 
with  apertures  of  various  shapes  and  sizes.  On  covering 
one  of  these,  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  brush,  with  some 


weak  solution  of  soap,  ^  a  film  of  considerable  durability 
will  be  formed  upon  it  The  disc  should  first  be  held 
in  a  vertical  plane  until  the  coloured  bands  have  begun 
to  show  themselves,  and  then  laid  gently  upon  the  hori- 
zontal ring  prepared  for  its  reception.  The  observer 
places  himself  so  as  to  get  a  good  view  of  the  assem- 
blage of  colours  reflected  by  the  film,  and  the  instrument^ 
is  ready  for  use.  Sounds  of  tuning-forks,  whistles,  organ- 
pipes,  &c.,  or  notes  of  the  human  voice  have  only  to  be 
produced  near  its  mouthpiece,  in  order  that  their  vibra- 
tions may  be  conducted  to  the  film,  and  the  resulting 
phenomena  observed. 

The  forms  thus  presented  are  of  endless  variety  and 
great  beauty.  They  almost  invariably  include  both 
motionless  curvilinear  bands  of  colour  very  regularly 
disposed,'  and  also  a  system  of  colour- vortices  revolving 
about  fixed  nuclei.  The  contrast  between  the  steady  and 
moving  portions  of  the  figures  is  always  very  striking,  and 
the  effects  of  changing  tint  which  accompany  the  progres- 
sive thiiming  of  the  film  gorgeous  in  the  extreme.  When 
the  moment  of  its  dissolution  is  close  at  hand,  patches  of 
inky  blackness  invade  the  field,  until  at  last  there  is  some- 
times nothing  left  but  an  ebony  background,  with  here 
and  there  a  few  scraps  of  light,  either  at  rest  or  still  flying 
round  their  former  orbits,  the  remnants  of  fixed  bands 
and  whirling  vortices. 

That  the  results  obtainable  by  the  mode  of  experiment- 
ing above  described  are  likely  to  present  a  practically 
endless  variety  of  form,  will  be  at  once  obvious  from  an 
enumeration  of  the  several  causes  which  may  influence 
the  assemblage  of  colours  reflected  at  a  given  instant 
from  a  given  film  acted  on  by  the  vibrations  of  a  given 
sound.  These  are  :— i.  The  shape  of  the  film  ;  2.  Its 
size ;  3.  Its  consistency  ;  4,  The  intensity  of  the  sound  ;  5. 
Its  pitch  ;  6.  Its  quality  ;  7.  The  direction  in  which  the 
sound- vibrations  take  place  with  reference  to  the  plane  of 
the  film. 

It  thus  appears  that  each  colour- figure  observed  may 
be  a  function  of  not  less  than  seven  ^  independent 
variables  ;  and  on  experiment  this  proves  to  be  the  fact. 
An  alteration  made  in  any  one  of  these  elements,  while 
all  the  rest  are  kept  constant,  produces  a  corresponding 
change  in  the  appearances  observed.  The  intensity  of 
the  sound  does  not,  it  is  true,  affect  the  form  of  the  figure, 
but  controls  the  rate  of  its  vortical  motion  ;  the  louder  the 
sound  the  more  rapid  the  rotation  of  the  colour-whirls. 
All  the  other  elements  act  directly  on  form. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  preceded  that  an  attempt 
at  anything  like  a  general  classiflcation  of  sound  colour- 
figures  would  afford  materials  for  a  considerable  volume. 
All  that  can  be  done  within  the  present  narrow  limits  is 
to  draw  attention  to  a  few  points  of  special  interest. 

Dependence  of  Form  on  Pitch, — This  is  perhaps  most 
distinctly  shown  by  alternately  stroking  with  a  resined 
bow  two  mounted  tuning-forks  of  different  pitch,  the  open 
ends  of  whose  resonance-boxes  are  placed  close  to  the 
mouthpiece  of  the  Phoneidoscope.  As  long  as  the  same 
aperture  is  used,  and  the  film  kept  at  one  degree  of 
consistency  by  frequent  renewal,  each  note  will  instantly 
call  forth  its  own  colour- figure  for  any  number  of  alter- 
nations. This  mode  of  experimenting  has  the  advantage 
of  giving  perfectly  steady  and  sharply  defined  figures. 
But  the  successive  alterations  of  form  due  to  changing 
pitch  are  more  interestingly  shown  by  singing'*  the  diatonic 
or  chromatic  scale,  on  some  single  vowel,  into  the  Phonei- 
doscope.    The  complete  change  of  fi^re  consequent  on 

*  Castile  soap,  I  find,  answers  extremely  well. 

'  It  is  manufactured  and  sold  under  the  title  of  the  "  Phoneidoscope."  by 
S.  C.  Tisley  and  Co.,  Philosophical  Instrument  Makers,  ly*.  Brompton 
Road.  S.W.  .     7  .  t- 

3  A  reader  of  Helmholtz  will  see  that  I  mieht  have  added  an  eighth 
element  by  taking  into  account  differences  of  phase  among  partial  tones, 
which,  though  inoperative  on  quality,  directly  affect  mode  of^  resultant 
vibration. 

4  A  pitch-pipe  with  a  sliding  piston  may  be  substituted  for  the  voice  in 
this  experiment. 


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perhaps  but  a  semitone's  alteration  of  pitch,  is  often  most 
surprising.  It  was  these  sudden  kaleidoscopic  bounds 
from  one  form  to  another  which  suggested  the  name  given 
to  the  observing  instrument.  In  general  the  complexity 
of  the  figure  increases  with  the  acuteness  of  the  exciting 
sound.  With  low  notes  a  comparatively  simple  arrange- 
ment of  a  few  rings  and  pairs  of  vortices  occupies  the  film. 
As  the  pitdi  rises,  the  separate  parts  of  the  figui^  diminish 
in  size  and  increase  in  number,  so  that  the  whole  field  is 
covered  with  a  regular  pattern  which  is  constantly  grow- 
ing more  and  more  minute.  With  very  shrill  sounds  the 
pattern  can  only  be  made  out  by  using  a  magnifying- 
glass. 

Effects  of  Qua/ify.—These  are  easily  observed  by  em- 
ploying unison  organ-pipes  of  different  timbres^  e.g,^ 
treble  Cs  belonging  to  stopped  and  open  diapasons, 
claribella,  and  hautlK>is,  respectively.  By  sounding  them 
consecutivelv  in  the  above  order,  figures  rapidly  increas- 
ing in  complexity  are  obtained. 

Prominent  among  differences  of  quality  are  those  which 
distinguish  vowel- sounds  of  the  human  voice  sung  suc- 
cessively on  one  and  the  same  note.  Marked  corre- 
sponding differences  of  colour-figure  are  recognisable 
in  many  instances,  but  I  have  not  at  present  succeeded 
in  extending  the  observation  to  all  the  European  vowel- 
sounds. 

Effects  due  to  Direction  of  Vibration, — The  best  mode 
of  observing  these  is  to  strike  a  tuninp^-fork,  and  hold  it 
with  one  of  its  prongs  close  to  the  surface  of  the  film. 

By  moving  the  fork  it  is  easy  to  show  that  both  the  axis 
of  symmetry,  and  to  some  extent  also  the  form,  of  the 
colour- figure  thus  produced,  are  dependent  on  the  position 
of  the  fork  with  respect  to  the  film,  and  therefore  on  the 
direction  in  which  the  exciting  vibrations  impinge  upon 
it.  The  steady  bands  of  a  figure  obtained  by  this  method 
shift  to  and  fro  upon  the  film  in  obedience  to  the  fork's 
movements,  almost  as  though  under  a  magnetic  influence 
resident  in  its  prongs. 

Resultant  Figures  due  to  Combined  Sounds, — If  the 
sounds  of  two  tuning-forks  are  separated  by  a  considerable 
interval  of  pitch,  say  an  octave,  they  will  ^^enerate,  when 
alternately  applied  to  the  same  film,  very  different  figures. 
When  both  are  applied  together  there  results  a  figure  dif- 
ferent from  either  of  those  due  to  each  fork  by  itsel£  It 
is  in  fact  a  compromise  between  the  two.  In  order  to  con- 
vince himself  of^this  the  experimentor  should  first  get  the 
forms  of  the  component  figures  well  into  his  memory  by 
repeatedly  producing  them,  and  then  watch  the  effect,  on 
some  0ne  band  in  either  figure^  of  mixing  the  two  sounds 
in  various  degrees  of  relative  intensity.  Let  us  suppose 
that  fork  i  produces  figure  i,  and  fork  2  figure  2,  respec- 
tively, and  that  a  band  in  figure  i  is  select^  for  observa- 
tion. Then  if  fork  i  be  struck  sharply,  and  fork  2 
weakly,  the  band  will  alter  its  form  so  as  to  exhibit  a 
slight  approach  to  the  arrangement  in  the  corresponding 
part  of  bgure  2.  As  the  note  of  fork  2  is  more  loudly  sounded 
thif^proach  will  be  more  decided.  If  fork  2  is  made 
prepKderant  the  result  will  be  the  arrangement  of  Fig.  2 
with  some  modification  towards  that  of  figure  i .  The  same 
thing  holds  good  for  the  rotating  portions  of  the  figures. 
Complex  c(3our-flows  are  seen  to  result  from  a  com- 
promise between  simpler  component  vortices. 

Effect  of  Beats, — When  two  sounds  of  very  nearly  the 
same  pitch  coexist,  slow  fluctuations  of  intensity  called 
*'  beats  "  are  known  to  be  produced.  If  a  film  is  exposed 
to  the  simultaneous  action  of  two  sounds  so  relateo,  the 
fixed  parts  of  the  resulting  figure  take  up  a  swaying 
motion  about  their  mean  position,  each  complete  oscilla- 
tion synchronising  exactly  with  one  entire  beat  The 
vortices  show,  in  general,  an  increased  speed  of  rotation 
during  one  half  of  each  beat,  and  a  diminished  speed 
during  the  other  half.  But  in  patticular  cases  a  bolt 
forwaurd  every  alternate  half-beat  seems  to  be  followed  by 
intermediate  quiescence,  or  the  direction  of  motion  may 


be  actually  reversed,  so  that  a  vortex  rotates  positively 
during  one  half-beat  and  negatively  during  the  next 

Representation  of  Dissonance, — ^When  the  beats  become 
too  rapid  for  separate  recognition,  and  coalesce  into  the 
effect  which  we  call  discord,  the  colour-figure  presents  a 
tremulous  appearance,  like  that  shown  by  the  tip  of  a 
singing  gas  flame.  Prof.  Helmholtz  has  remarked  how 
unpleasant  is  the  impression  which  a  flickering  light 
makes  upon  the  eye,  and  pointed  out  its  analogy  to  the 
efliect  of  rapidly  intermittent  sounds  on  the  ear.  In  the 
present  experiment,  acoustical  and  optical  dissonance  are 
exhibited  in  a  direct  and  interesting  connection. 

As  the  phenomena  described  in  the  above  article  admit 
of  such  facile  reproduction  in  all  their  beauty  of  form  and 
splendour  of  hue,  I  have  thought  it  needless  to  attempt 
illustration  by  diagrams,  which  could  convey  but  an 
inadequate  notion  of  the  former,  and  none  at  all  of  the 
latter.  Sedlev  Taylor 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  March  6 


REFLECTION  OF  LIGHT  ^ 

pLACE  the  heliostat  in  position,  and  bring  a  slender 
A  beam  of  light  into  the  darkened  room.  Then  get  a 
small  looking-glass,  or  hand-mirror,  and  a  carpenter's 
steel  square,  or  a  sheet  of  stiff  paper,  having  perfectly 
square  corners^  Hold  the  mirror  in  the  beam  of  light 
At  once  you  see  there  are  two  beams  of  sunlight,  one  from 
the  heliostat  and  another  from  the  mirror.  Hold  ^e 
glass  toward  the  heliostat,  and  you  will  see  this  second 
beam  going  back  toward  the  window. 

This  is  certainly  a  curious  matter.  Our  beam  of  light 
enters  the  room,  strikes  the  mirror,  and  then  we  appear  to 
have  another.    It  is  the  same  beam,  thrown  back  from 


Fig.  I 

the  glass.    This  turning  back  of  a  beam  of  light  we  call 
the  reflection  of  light. 

Place  a  table  opposite  the  heliostat,  and  place  the 
mirror  uponit,  against  some  books.  Turn  the  mirror  to 
the  right,  and  the  second  or  reflected  beam  of  light  moves 
round  to  the  right  Turn  the  ^lass  still  more,  and  the 
beam  of  light  will  turn  off  at  a  right  angle,  and  there  will 
be  a  spot  of  light  on  the  wall  at  that  side  of  the  room. 
Now  bring  the  carpenter's  square  or  the  piece  of  square 
paper  close  to  the  mirror,  so  that  the  point  or  comer  will 
touch  the  glass  just  where  the  sunlight  falls  upon  it.    Now 

*  From  a  forthcomiog  volume  of  the  "  Nature  Series  "— *'  light :  a  Series 
of  Simple,  Enteruining,  and  loexpensive  RxperiaienU  in  the  Phenomena 
of  Light,  for  the  Use  of  StudenU  of  Brery  Age,"  by  Alfred  M.  Mayer  and 
Charlet  Barnard. 


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one  edge  of  the  square  is  brightly  lighted  by  the  sunbeam, 
and  if  the  mirror  is  placed  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees 
with  the  sunbeam,  the  other  edge  of  the  square  is  lighted 
up  by  the  second  beam. 

In  Fig.  I,  A  is  the  beam  of  light  from  the  heliostat, 
and  B  is  the  beam  reflected  from  the  mirror,  that  is  marked 
M.  To  make  this  more  simple,  we  call  the  first  beam  the 
beam  of  incidence,  and  we  say  that  it  travels  in  the  direc- 
tion of  incidence,  as  shown  by  the  arrow.  The  second 
beam,  marked  A,  we  call  the  beam  of  reflection,  and  the 
course  it  takes  we  call  the  direction  of  reflection.  The 
point  marked  O,  where  the  light  strikes  the  mirror,  is 
called  the  point  of  incidence. 

In  the  diagrani  is  a  dotted  line  representing  a  quarter 
of  a  circle  reaching  from  the  beam  of  incidence  to  the 
beam  of  reflection.  A  quarter  of  a  circle,  as  you  know, 
is  divided  into  ninety  degrees.  Another  dotted  line 
extends  from  o  at  the  mirror  to  x  on  the  quarter-circle, 
and  divides  it  into  two  parts.  Half  of  ninety  is  forty-five, 
and  hence  the  mirror  stands  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees  with  both  beams  of  light.  Now  the  line  A  and 
the  dotted  line  reaching  from  o  to  x  make  the  angle  of 
incidence,  and  the  angle  between  B  and  the  line  from  o  to 
X  is  the  angle  of  reflection ;  and  the  curious  part  of  this 
matter  is,  that  these  two  angles  are  always  equal.  Here 
they  are  both  angles  of  forty-five  degrees. 

Move  the  mirror  about  in  any  directipn,  and  measure 
the  angles  of  incidence  and  the  angles  of  reflection,  and 
these  angles  will  always  be  exactly  eaual 

If  you  look  at  the  diagram  you  will  see  that  the  mirror 
is  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  beam  of  incidence, 
and  that  the  beam  of  reflection  is  at  an  angle  of  ninety 


Fig.  3 

degrees  with  the  incident  beam.  Hence,  if  the  mirror  is 
tilted  through  a  certain  angle,  the  reflected  beam  is  tilted 
through  twice  this  angle.  For  instance,  if  the  mirror  is 
moved  i  degree,  the  beam  of  reflection  moves  2  degrees. 
Place  the  mirror  at  an  angle  of  22 J  with  the  beam  of 
incidence,  and  the  bsam  of  reflection  is  at  angle  of  45. 
Move  the  mirror  to  an  angle  of  67 1,  and  the  beam  of 
reflection  will  move  round  to  an  angle  of  135  degrees. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  two  postal-cards  fitted  on 
blocks  of  wood  that  we  used  in  a  former  exper.inent, 
and  the  three  blocks  of  wood  we  cut  out  at  that  time. 
The  five  blocks  are  placed  close  together  in  a  line,  and 
with  the  postal-cards  at  the  ends.  A  lighted  lamp  is 
placed  near  one  of  the  cards,  and  on  the  middle  b'ock  is 
a  small  piece  of  window-glass  that  has  been  painted  with 
black  varnish.  A  single  coat  of  black  varnish  on  one 
side  of  the  glass  is  all  that  is  required  to  give  us  the 
black  mirror  needed  in  this  experiment.  Place  the  lamp 
close  to  the  card  in  such  a  position  that  the  flame  will 
be  just  on  a  level  with  the  hole  in  the  card.  If  the  lamp 
is  not  convenient  the  blocks  and  cards  may  be  placed 
upon  a  table  facing  a  north  window  in  full  daylight. 

When  everything  is  ready  look  through  in  the  postal- 
card  marked  b,  down  upon  the  black  mirror,  and  on  it 


you  will  see  a  single  spot  of  light,  the  reflection  from  the 
lamplight  or  the  light  from  the  window  shining  through 
the  hole  marked  a  in  the  drawing.  Get  the  needle- 
pointed  awl  and  place  it  so  that  the  point  will  just  touch 
the  spot  of  light  in  the  black  mirror,  and  then  fasten  the 
awl  in  this  position  with  a  piece  of  wax,  as  represented  in 
the  picture. 

You  will  readily  see  that  this  experiment  is  the  same 
as  the  last  Again  we  have  a  beam  of  light  reflected 
from  a  mirror.  The  beam  of  incidence  passes  through 
the  postal-card  at  A  and  finds  its  point  of  incidence  on 
the  mirror,  and  the  beam  of  reflection  extends  from 
the  point  of  incidence  to  the  second  card  at  B. 

Take  a  sheet  of  stiff  paper  10  inches  (25 '4  centimetres) 
long,  and  about  4  inches  (10  centimetres)  wide,  and  hold 
it  upright  between  the  two  cards,  with  the  bottom  resting 
on  the  mirror.  With  a  pencil  make  a  mark  on  the  edge 
of  this  at  the  point  of  incidence  marked  by  the  atvl,  and 
at  the  hole  in  the  card  where  the  beam  of  incidence 
enters,  and  marked  A  in  the  drawing.  Draw  a  line 
between  these  two  points  and  you  have  an  apgle  formed 
by  this  line  and  the  base  of  the  paper.  This  angle  marks 
the  angle  of  incidence.  Put  the  paper  on  the  blocks  with 
the  ruled  line  toward  the  card  B,  and  you  will  find  th.it 
the  line  fits  here  equally  well.  It  now  extends  from  the 
point  of  incidence  to  B,  and  proves  that  this  angle  is  the 
same  as  the  other,  that  both  sides  are  alike,  and  that  the 
angle  of  incidence  and  the  angle  of  reflection  are  equaL 

Take  out  the  block  in  the  middle  and  move  the  others 
nearer  together  till  they  touch.  Repeat  the  experiment : 
make  a  measurement  with  a  piece  of  paper  as  before,  and 
draw  a  line  on  it  from  the  point  of  incidence  to  either  of 
the  holes  on  the  cards,  and  then  compare  the  angles  thus 
found,  and  in  each  case  they  will  be  exactly  alike.  Take 
out  another  block  and  try  it  again,  and  you  will  reach 
the  same  result. 

These  experiments  show  us  that  there  is  a  fixed  law  in 
this  matter,  and  the  more  we  study  it  the  more  we  are 
convinced  that  it  has  no  exceptions. 

Experiment  in  Multiple  Reflection 

Cnoose  a  south  room  on  a  sunny  day  and  close  the 
blinds  and  shutters  at  all  the  windows  save  one,  and  at 
this  window  draw  down  the  curtain  until  only  a  narroiv 
space  is  left  at  the  bottom.  Close  this  space  with  a  strip 
of  thick  wrapping-paper,  and  then  cover  the  rest  of  the 
window  with  a  blanket  or  shawl  so  as  to  mike  the  room 
perfectly  dark.  Then  cut  a  round  hole  the  size  of  a  five- 
cent  piece  in  this  paper,  and  through  this  hole  a  slender 
beam  of  sunlight  will  fall  into  the  darkened  room. 

Bring  a  hand-mirror  into  this  beam  of  light  and  the 
beam  of  reflection  will  make  a  round  spot  of  sunlight  on 
the  wall  above  the  window.  This  spot  of  light  is  a  pic- 
ture ot  the  sun  thrown  by  the  mirror  upon  the  wall 
Hold  the  mirror  at  an  oblique  angle  in  the  sunbeam  and 
direct  the  beam  of  reflection  upon  the  opposite  wall. 
Now  there  are  several  reflections,  brilliant  spots  of  light. 
If  the  spots  of  light  do  not  stand  out  sharp  ana  clear, 
turn  the  mirror  slowly  round  and  you  will  soon  find  a 
position  for  the  glass  that  will  give  six  or  more  reflections. 

How  does  it  happen  that  a  common  looking-glass  can 
thus  split  a  single  sunbeam  into  several  beams?  If  you 
touch  a  pencil  to  a  mirror  you  will  notice  that  while  the 
point  of  the  pencil  touches  the  glass  the  point  of  the 
reflected  pencil  seen  in  the  mirror  does  not  meet  the  point 
of  the  real  pencil,  and  that  there  is  a  little  space  between 
them.  The  reflection  we  see  in  the  glass  is  from  the 
smooth  surface  of  the  quicksilver  at  the  b  ick  of  the  glass, 
and  the  space  between  the  reflection  and  the  pencil  is 
filled  by  the  glass. 

Hold  a  sheet  of  conmion  window-glass  before  a  lighted 
lamp  or  candle,  and  you  will  see  a  faint  reflection  of  the 
flame  in  the  glass,  and  at  the  same  time  you  can  readily 
see  through  the  glass.    This  shows  us  that  the  outside 


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of  any  piece  of  smooth  glass  will  reflect  light,  and  our 
experiment  is  designed  to  show  a  still  more  curious 
matter. 

^  Fig.  3  represents  the  single  beam  reaching  the  point 
of  incidence  on  the  outside  of  the  mirror  at  o,  and 
reflected  to  the  wall  at  i.  Part  of  the  light  goes  through 
the  glass  to  B,  and  here  is  another  point  of  incidence, 
and  a  new  beam  of  reflection  is  thrown  through  the  glass 
to  the  wall  at  2.  If  you  look  at  the  reflections  on  the 
wall,  you  will  see  that  the  second  spot  of  light  is  the 
brightest  This  comes  from  the  cjuicksilver,  for,  as  this 
is  a  better  reflector  than  the  glass,  it  sends  out  a  brighter 
beam  of  reflection.  When  this  second  beam  of  reflection 
passes  through  the  glass,  a  part  of  its  light  is  reflected 
from  the  under  side  of  the  surface,  and  is  turned  back 


/ 


against  the  quicksilver  again.  Once  more  it  is  reflected, 
and  a  new  beam  of  reflection  makes  number  3.  The 
drawing  shows  the  path  these  beams  of  light  take  in 
the  gUss,  and  the  quivering  spots  of  light  on  the  wall 
show  how  one  beam  of  light  may  be  reflected  again  and 
again  in  diflerent  directions.  If  the  reflector  was  perfect 
and  returned  all  the  light,  these  multiple  reflections  might 
be  repeated  many  tunes  over ;  but  every  time  light  is 
reflected  from  any  bright  surface  a  part  of  the  light  is 
lost,  and  thus  each  reflection  grows  fainter  and  fainter 
till  the  light  is  spent.  Look  at  the  multiplied  reflections 
on  the  wall,  and  you  will  see  t^at  the  flrst  reflection  from 
the  glass  is  brighr,  and  that  the  second,  from  the  quick- 
silver at  the  back  of  the  glass,  is  brighter  still ;  and  that 
the  others  grow  fainter  and  fainter  till  all  the  light  is 
spent,  and  the  reflections  disappear. 

Second  Experiment  in  Multiple  Reflection 

Ught  a  lamp  and  place  it  on  a  table,  and  get  the  two 
postal-cards  and  the  blocks  that  we  used  in  the  experi- 
ment in  reflection.  With  a  sharp  knife  cut  a  slit  in  one 
card,  just  at  the  pin-hole,  about  \  inch  (19  millimetres) 
long  and  ^  inch  (i  millimetre)  wide.  Then  place  this 
card  close  to  the  lamp,  as  in  the  other  experiment,  and 
set  up  the  other  card  about  fifteen  inches  away  from  it 
Then  lay  a  looking-glass  on  the  table  between  the  two. 
Look  at  Fig.  2,  and  arrange  the  cards  as  there  repre- 
sented, and  put  the  mirror  in  place  of  the  blackened 
glass  on  the  blocks.  On  looking  through  the  small 
hole  in  the  postal  card  (marked  B  in  the  drawing), 
you  will  see  m  the  mirror  several  bars  of  yellow  light, 
placed  one  over  the  other.  Ag^in  we  have  an  instance 
of  multiplied  reflection.  Instead  of  seeing  the  reflections 
thrown  upon  the  wall,  we  can  look  down  upon  them  and 
see  them,  just  us  they  stand,  each  at  its  point  of  incidence 
OQ  the  glass  and  the  quicksilver.  Study  these  brilliant 
bars  of  light,  examine  the  diagram  carefully,  and  you  will 
readily  see  that  this  experiment  simply  exhibits  in  a 
diflerent  manner  the  san^e  thing  that  we  saw  in  the  last 
experiment 


Experiment  with  Mirror  on  Pulse 

Get  a  small  bit  of  looking-glass,  about  an  inch  (25 
millimetres)  square,  and  some  wax.  Warm  the  wax  in 
the  hand  till  it  is  soft,  and  then  make  three  small  pellets 
about  the  size  of  a  pea.  Put  one  of  these  on  the  back  of 
the  little  mirror,  near  the  edge  and  half-way  between  two 
comers.  Place  one  at  each  of  the  opposite  comers,  so 
that  the  mirror  will  have  three  legs  or  supports  placed  in 
a  triangle.  Put  the  heliostat  in  place,  and  bring  a  small 
beam  of  sunlight  into  the  dark  room.  If  this  is  not  con- 
venient any  b^m  of  sunlight  in  a  dark  room  (as  in  former 
experiments)  will  answer. 

Turn  back  your  coat-sleeve,  and,  while  standing  near 
the  beam  of  light,  place  the  little  mirror  on  the  wrist,  with 
one  of  the  wax  legs  resting  on  the  pulse.  Then  bring  the 
arm  into  the  b^im,  so  that  the  light  will  fall  on  the 
mirror.  Hold  the  arm  steady,  and  watch  the  spot  of 
reflected  light  thrown  upon  the  wall.  See !  It  moves 
backward  and  forward  with  a  curious,  jerking  motion.  It 
is  like  the  ticking  of  a  clock,  or  like  the  bending  of  one's 
pulse.  It  is  the  motion  of  your  pulse.  The  mirror  moves 
with  the  pulse,  and  the  beam  of  reflection  thrown  on  the 
wall  moves  with  it,  and,  though  this  movement  is  very 
slight,  the  reflection  on  the  wall  moves  over  a  space  of 
several  inches,  and  we  can  see  it  plainly.  In  our  flrst 
experiment  in  reflection  we  learned  that  when  a  mirror 
was  moved  to  the  right  or  left,  the  beam  of  light  reflected 
from  it  moved  also  to  the  right  or  left,  and  each  time  through 
twice  as  great  an  angle  as  the  mirror. 

This  experiment  is  a  wonderfully  interesting  one,  and 
may  be  tried  with  a  number  of  boys  or  girls,  and  each 
may  see  the  peculiar  beating  of  his  or  her  pulse  pictured 
on  the  wall  in  the  most  singular  and  startling  manner. 
If  any  of  the  persons  whose  pulse-beats  are  thus  exhibited 
get  excited,  laugh  at  the  exhibition,  or  are  in  any  way 
disturbed,  the  change  in  the  movement  of  their  pulse  will 
be  quickly  repeated  on  the  wall,  where  a  hundred  people 
can  see  it 

Experiment  with  Glass  Tube 

Procure  a  glass  tube,  about  j  inch  (19  millimetres)  in 
diameter  and  12  inches  (305  centimetres)  long,  and  paint 
the  outside  with  black  varnish.  If  this  is  not  convenient, 
cover  the  tube  with  thick  black  cloth,  and  fasten  it  down 
with  mucilage,  taking  care  to  have  the  cloth  square  at 
the  ends.  Punch  a  hole  in  a  postal-card  with  the  sharp 
point  of  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  with  a  knife  make  the 


ragged  edges  of  the  hole  smooth.  Hold  the  card  at  one 
end  of  the  tube  so  that  the  hole  will  come  just  at  the 
centre  of  the  opening,  and  then,  while  facing  a  window  or 
a  bright  lamp,  look  through  the  tube  with  one  eye,  and 
you  will  see  a  spot  pf  light  surrounded  by  a  nomoer  of 
beautiful  rings. 

Here  we  have  another  example  of  multiplied  reflection. 
The  light  entering  the  tube  through  the  hole  in  the  card 
falls  on  the  smooth  surface  of  the  interior  of  the  tube, 
and  appears  to  the  eye  in  the  form  of  rings. 


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Fig.  4  represents  a  section  of  the  .tube,  and  shows  the 
paths  the  different  rays  of  light  take,  and  shows  how  each 
is  reflected  from  side  to  side  till  they  all  meet  in  the  eye. 
The  dotted  lines  and  the  rings  projected  beyond  the  tube 
show  how  they  appear  to  the  eye.  By  studying  this  draw- 
ing careftdly,  and  trving  cross  cuts  and  slits  in  the  card  in 
place  of  the  single  nole,  you  will  get  a  very  correct  idea 
of  repeated  reflection,  and  And  the  tube  a  source  of  con- 
siderable amusement. 

Experiments  in  Dispersed  Reflection 

Get  a  small  piece  of  black  velvet  or  cloth  and  take  it  to 
a  dark  room  where  the  heliostat  will  give  us  a  slender 
beam  of  sunlight  If  this  is  not  convenient  use  a  common 
beam  of  sunlight  in  a  dark  room^  as  in  some  of  our  former 
experiments.  Hold  the  velvet  m  the  hand  between  the 
Angers,  and  so  as  to  leave  the  palm  of  the  hand  clear. 
Turn  back  the  coat- sleeve  so  as  to  expose  part  of  the 
white  cuff,  and  then  bring  the  velvet  into  the  beam  of 
sunl^ht.  You  will  observe  nothing  in  particular,  for  the 
black  rough  cloth  does  not  reflect  the  light  at  all.  Now 
move  the  hand  so  that  the  spot  of  light  will  fall  on  the 
palm.  See  what  a  pretty  rosy  glow  of  light  falls  on  the 
wall !  This  is  the  reflected  li^ht  from  the  hand.  The 
skin  is  rough,  and  the  light  is  diffused  and  scattered 
abMDut,  and  instead  of  a  bright  spot  of  reflected  light,  as 
with  a  mirror,  we  have  this  glow  spread  all  about  on  the 
wall  and  furniture.  Now  move  your  hand  so  that  the 
sunlight  falls  on  your  cuff.  Immediately  there  is  a  bright 
light  shining  on  the  wall  and  lighting  the  room  with  a 
pale  bluish-white  glare.  Move  the  hsmd  quickly  so  that 
the  black  cloth,  the  hand,  and  the  white  cuff  will  pass  in 
succession  the  beam  of  light  Observe  how  the  different 
things  reflect  the  light  in  different  desrees.  The  cuff  is 
the  smoothest  and  whitest,  and  gives  the  brightest  reflec- 
tion ;  the  hand  gives  less  light  because  it  is  less  smooth  ; 
and  the  cloth,  that  has  a  very  datk  and  rough  surface, 
gives  no  reflection  at  all,  and  the  spot  of  sunlight  falling 
upon  it  seems  dull  and  faint. 

This  experiment  shows  us  something  more  in  the 
reflection  of  light.  A  piece  of  glass,  the  surface  of  water, 
polished  metals,  ice,  and  all  substances  having  very 
smooth  surfaces,  reflect  light  in  one  direction.  The  linen 
cuff  also  reflected  h^ht,  but  apparently  in  a  very  different 
manner  from  the  mirrors  we  have  been  using. 

Place  a  lighted  lamp  upon  a  table  and  lay  a  mirror 
before  it,  and  you  can  see  a  clear  and  distinct  reflection 
of  the  lamp  and  the  flame  pictured  on  the  glass.  Put  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  before  the  lamp,  and  you  can  see 
only  a  confused  spot  of  reflected  light  on  the  brightly- 
lighted  paper.  Lay  a  freshly-ironed  napkin  or  handker- 
chief before  the  lamp,  and  even  the  indistinct  spot  of 
light  has  disappeared,  and  the  white  cloth  reflects  light 
equally  from  every  part. 

These  drawings  are  intended  to  show  how  light  is 
reflected  from  diflerent  surfaces.  The  first  represents  a 
smooth  surface,  like  glass,  that  sends  all  the  beams  in  one 
direction,  because  the  points  of  reflection  for  the  beam 
are  in  the  same  plane.    (See  i,  2,  3,  Fig.  5.) 

The  second  drawing  represents  a  slightly-roughened 
surface,  like  paper.  Some  of  the  points  of  reflection  turn 
the  light  one  way,  some  another,  and  the  beam  of  reflec- 
tion is  no  longer  formed  of  parallel  ra^  They  are 
scattered  about,  and  the  image  they  form  is  confused  and 
indistinct  In  the  third  drawing  we  have  a  rough  surface, 
like  cloth,  and  here  the  rays  of  the  beam  of  reflection  are 
scattered  in  every  direction,  and  we  can  see  no  image. 

It  is  in  this  manner  that  we  are  enabled  to  see  the 
people  and  things  about  us.  The  light  of  the  sun  or  a 
lamp  falls  upon  them,  and  is  reflected  into  our  eyes,  and 
we  say  we  see  the  objects.  Very  few  things  reflect  light 
so  brightly  that  we  obtain  from  them  a  reflected  image  of 
the  source  of  the  light,  and  we  generally  see  only  dis- 
persed and  scattered  light,  that  does  not  blind  or  dazzle 


the  eye,  and  enables  us  to  look  upon  these  objects  with  ease, 
and  to  readily  see  all  their  parts. 

The  clouds,  the  water,  the  grass,  rocks,  the  ground, 
buildings,  the  walls  inside,  clothing  and  furniture,  and 
everything  we  can  see,  reflect  light  in  every  direction  again 
and  again,  and  thus  it  is  that  all  spaces,  without  and 
within,  are  fllled  with  light  so  long  as  the  sun  shines.  At 
night  the  sun  sinks  out  of  sight,  and  still  it  is  light   for 


/x- 


Fig.  5. 

some  time  after,  for  the  sunlight  is  reflected  from  the 
sunset- clouds  and  the  sky. 

Sometimes,  upon  a  summer's  day,  when  broken  clouds 
partly  bide  the  sun,  you  will  see  long  bars  of  dusky  light 
streaming  from  openings  in  the  clouds.  These  long  bars 
are  beams  of  sunlight  shining  |upon  dust  and  fine  mist 
floating  in  the  air,  and  we  see  them  because  each  speck 
and  particle  reflects  light  in  every  direction. 

Experiment  with  Jar  of  Smoke 

Fig.  6  represents  a  large,  clean  glass  jar,  such  as  one 
sees  at  the  confectioner's.  It  is  standing  upon  a  black 
cloth  laid  upon  a  table  in  a  dark  room,  and  on  top  of  the 
mouth  is  laid  a  postal-card,  having  a  slit,  one  inch  (25 
millimetres)  long,  and  ^  inch  (i  millimetre)  wide,  cut  in 
it  Above  the  jar  is  a'  hand-mirror,  so  placed  that  the 
beam  of  sunlight  from  the  heliostat  (or  from  a  hole  in  the 
curtain)  will  be  reflected  downward  upon  the  postal-card 
on  top  of  the  jar. 

This  simple  apparatus  is  designed  to  show  how  light  is 
reflected  from  small  particles  floating  in  the  air.  Set  fire 
to  a  small  bit  of  paper  and  drop  it  into  the  jar.  Place 
your  hand  over  the  mouth  of  the  jar,  and  in  a  moment  it 
will  be  filled  with  smoke.  When  the  paper  has  burned 
out,  put  the  postal-card  in  place,  so  that  the  slit  will  be 
in  the  centre  of  the  mouth  of  the«  jar.  Let  the  beam  of 
reflected  light  from  the  mirror  fall  on  this  slit 


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Look  in  the  jar  and  you  will  see  a  slender  ribbon  of 
light  extending  downward  through  the  jar.  Elsewhere  it 
is  quite  dirk  and  black.  Here  we  see  the  light  streaming 
through  the  opening  in  the  card,  and  lighting  up  the 
particles  of  smoke  in  its  path. 

Take  off  the  card,  and  let  the  reflected  beam  fall  freely 
into  the  jar.  The  smoke  is  now  wholly  illuminated,  and 
the  jar  appears  to  be  full  of  light,  and  every  part  of  the 
bottle  shmcs  with  a  pale-white  glow. 


Fut  the  postal'Card  on  again  and  let  the  light  fall 
through  the  slit.  The  smoke  has  nearly  all  disappeared, 
and  the  ribbon  of  light  in  the  jar  is  quite  dim.  Curious 
streaks  and  patches  of  inky  blackness  run  through  it. 
What  is  this  ?  Noihing-^-s imply  nothing.  The  smoke  is 
melting  away,  and  the  beam  of  light  disappears  because 
there  is  nothing  to  reflect  it  and  make  it  visible* 

This  part  of  the  experiment  apiiears  quite  magical  in 
its  effecis,  and  is  exceedingly  interesting. 

The  Milk- a nd- 1  Ft r/c-/    Lit mp 

Take  away  the  jar  and  put  a  clear  glass  tumbler  in  its 
place-  Fill  this  with  water  and  throw  the  beam  of  re- 
flected light  down  ijpon  it|  and  the  water  will  be  lighted 
up  so  that  vve  can  easily  see  the  tumbler  in  itie  dark. 
Now  add  a  leaspoonful  of  milk  to  the  water  and  stir  them 
together.  Throw  the  Vjeam  of  light  down  once  more. 
This  is  indeed  refnarkable*  The  tumbler  of  milk-and- 
water  shines  like  a  lamp,  and  lights  up  the  room  so  that 
we  can  easily  see  to  read  by  its  strange  white  light.  Move 
ihc  mirror  and  turn  aside  the  beam  of  light,  and  instantly 
the  room  bEComes  dark  Turn  the  light  back  again,  and 
once  more  the  glass  ts  full  of  light* 

Here  the  mmuie  particles  of  milk  lloaiing  in  the  water 
catch  and  reflect  the  light  in  every  direction,  so  that  the 
entire  goblet  seems  lilled  with  it,  and  the  room  Is  lighted 
up  by  the  strange  reflections  that  shine  through  the 
glass. 


AMERICAX  GEOLOGICAL  SC'RVEy'S 

MiSSUUKI 

T^HE  State  of  Missouri  boasts  of  abundant  mineral 

^       wealth.     Its  seams  of  coal  and  us  stores  of  iron 

and  lead  mark  it  out  as  one  of  the  great  centres  of  the 

future  industry  of  the  United  States.     Such  a  country 


might  have  been  supposed  only  too  anxious  to  have  its 
mineral  formations  accurately  mapped,  so  as  to  know  ex- 
actly where  and  how  its  subterranean  resources  lie.  Yet 
the  history  of  its  official  action  in  this  matter  is  by  no 
means  a  gratifying  one.  As  far  back  as  the  year  1849  a 
memorial  was  presented  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
State,  praying  for  the  formation  of  a  Geological  Survey, 
with  liberal  appropriations  for  constructing  maps  and 
I  publishing  reports ;  for  investigating  causes  affecting 
I  health,  the  agricultural  capacities  of  different  soils,  the 
'  water  system,  and  the  rocks  and  minerals  of  the  country. 
It  was  not  until  the  early  summer  of  1852  that  the  State 
geologist,  who,  in  response  to  this  memorial,  was  ap- 
pointed, began  operations.  Five  annual  reports,  consist- 
ing for  the  most  part  of  only  a  few  leaves,  appeared  up 
to  the  year  1861,  and,  with  one  exception,  contained 
mere  statements  of  progress.  Perhaps  the  Legislature 
began  to  think  that  the  results  obtained  were  not  worth 
the  expenditure  to  secure  them.  At  all  events,  in  1861 
the  Survey  was  disbanded.  The  authorities,  however, 
seem  to  have  been  unwilling  that  the  fruits  of  the  long 
years  of  work  of  their  geological  staff  should  be  lost  ; 
they  accordingly  arranged  to  have  them  published,  but 
finally  abandoned  this  idea  on  account  of  the  expense. 
For  nine  years  nothing  further  appears  to  have  been  done 
in  the  matter.  At  lasr,  in  1870,  the  Legislature  once  more 
roused  itself  to  consider  the  expediency  of  having  the 
country  properly  explored  and  mapped.  A  "  Mining,  Me- 
tallurgical, and  Geological  Bureau  "  was  now  created,  and 
a  new  State  geologist  was  appointed.  This  arrangement, 
however,  not  proving  satisfactory,  the  act  was  amended 
next  year,  but  soon  thereafter  the  State  geologist  re- 
signed, and  Mr.  R.  Pumpelly  took  his  place.  The  bod/ 
by  which  the  geological  work  of  the  State  was  controlled, 
now  called  the  "  Bureau  of  Geology  and  Mines,"  con- 
sisted of  a  board  of  five  managers,  with  a  staff  formed 
of  a  State  geologist,  an  assistant  palaeontologist  and  geo- 
logist, an  assistant  chemist,  and  such  additional  assist- 
ance as  might  be  possible  within  the  limits  of  an  annual 
appropriation  of  10,000  dollars. 

By  the  spring  of  1 872  a  more  liberal  spit  it  had  appeared 
in  the  assembly.  An  additional  chemical  assistant  was 
allowed,  and  the  annual  vote  was  raised  to  20,000  dollars. 
The  Survey  now  set  to  work  with  prodigious  vigour.  Mr. 
Pumpelly  and  his  associates  undertook  an  extensive 
exploration  of  the  iron  and  coal  districts,  while  the 
chemists  were  busy  analysing  the  minerals  sent  into  them 
from  the  field.  By  the  end  of  the  year  a  large  mass  of 
information  had  been  collected,  and  as  the  liberality  of 
the  Legislature  had  shown  no  sign  of  waning,  a  large 
appropriation  was  asked  for  the  publication  of  the  results 
obtained  in  1872,  and  another  grant  for  the  issue  of  the  still 
unprinted  reports  of  previous  years.  Both  these  appro- 
priations, amounting  to  9,000  dollars  in  the  one  case,  and 
3,000  dollars  in  the  second,  were  voted.  Accordingly  two 
volumes  duly  appeared  next  year.  The  Report  for  1872 
was  sumptuously  printed  and  illustrated.  Moreover,  it 
was  accompanied  by  a  monstrous  atlas  of  chromo-litho- 
graph  maps  and  sections.  Some  parts  of  the  coal-fields 
were  carefully  illustrated  by  sections  to  show  the  structure 
of  the  areas  and  the  relative  positions  of  the  seams  in 
different  districts.  Perhaps  some  of  these  sections  were 
on  a  needlessly  large  scale.  Certainly  the  whole  atlas 
was  issued  in  a  style  so  luxurious  as  to  suggest  that  the 
Legislature  must  not  only  have  become  more  liberal,  but 
must  be  anxious  to  atone  for  former  delinquencies  by  an 
almost  extravagant  expenditure  in  print  and  paper. 

But  this  golden  age  was  not  destined  to  last.  Mr. 
Pumpelly  resigned,  very  shortly  after  the  appearance  of 
his  meritorious  though  costly  volumes.  His  successor, 
Mr.  G.  C.  Broadhead,  who  had  previously  acted  as  chiei 
assistant-geologist,  found  the  fund  at  his  disposal  so 
depleted  bv  the  heavy  expenses  of  the  winter  and  spring  of 
1873,  that  he  had  to  reduce  his  field-staff.    The  Board  of 


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Management  likewise  determined  that  the  cost  o(  the 
Annual  Reports  should  in  future  be  paid  out  of  the  yearly 
appropriation,  thereby  of  course,  considerably  narrowing 
the  possible  amount  of  work  to  be  done  in  the  field.  In 
spite  of  these  drawbacks,  however,  the  State-geologist 
succeeded,  during  his  first  year  of  office,  in  doing  some 
useful  work,  and  yet  kept  a  sufficient  balance  to  publish  a 
bulky  report  with  a  quarto  atlas  of  plates.  His  plan  was 
to  attack  first  of  all  those  branches  of  inquiry  which  pre- 
sented the  ipratest  interest  or  had  the  closest  bearing  upon 
the  industnal  resource?  of  the  State.  The  ground  was  sur- 
veyed by  counties,  Mr.  Broadhead  himself  taking  a  lion's 
share  of  the  hard  work.  The  two  lead  regions  of  South- 
west and  Central  Missouri  were  likewise  examined.  Many 
analyses  were  aho  made  of  the  ore?,  slags,  coals,  and 
other  mineral  substances  sent  up  to  the  office.  The 
Report  which  gave  an  account  of  these  labours  cannot 
fail  to  be  of  great  service  in  the  development  of  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  State.  Mr.  Broadhead  is  evi- 
dently exactly  the  kind  of  director  needed  to  keep  the 
Missouri  Geological  Survey  in  full  activity  and  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  a  utilitarian  legislature. 

The  oldest  rocks  in  Missouri  appear  to  be  certain 
granites  and  other  crystalline  masses,  on  which  lie  some- 
where about  3,000  feet  of  Lower  Silurian  strata,  including 
representatives  of  the  Potsdam,  Black  River,  Birdseye, 
Trenton,  and  Cincinnati  groups  of  other  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Upper  Silurian  rocks  are  much  more 
feebly  represented,  but  Dr.  Shumard  his  recognised  beds 
probably  equivalent  to  the  lower  Helderberg  and  Niagara 
groups.  The  Devonian  groups  of  Hamilton  and  Onon- 
dago  are  still  more  sparingly  developed,  only  about  100 
feet  of  strata  being  referable  to  those  horizons.  The  Car- 
boniferous system,  however,  is  well  displayed,  and  contains 
the  following  groups  : — 

{  upper  coal-measures  (poor  in  coat) 
LowiR.J  Middle  "-•-  -'      ' 


I  Lower 


iwith  7  ft.  of  coal)  „.     ... 
(with  13  ft.  6  in.  of  coal) 


I  Chester  grouo  (fand^tone)  from  a  few  feet  to 
St.  Louis  „  (lirnestone),  maximum  
Keokuk  ,,  (shale  and  chert),  perhaps  exceeding 
Encrinital  or  Butliogton  group 
Chouteau  iimefrtone  
Vermicular  sandstone  and  shales  ...  ^  ...  — 
Lithographic  limestone 


1,307  feet. 

324  ». 

050-300  ,, 

too  ,, 

BtO  „ 

60  ,. 

too  „ 

7S  M 

55  » 


No  later  formations  occur  until  we  reach  the  "  Drift. 
This  consists  of  two  divisions  ;  the  lower,  formed  of  dark 
blue  clay,  overlaid  and  interstratified  with  beds  and 
pockets  of  sand  sometimes  inclosing  remains  of  terres- 
trial vegetation  ;  the  upper  composed  of  stiff,  tenacious, 
brown,  drab,  and  blue  clays,  often  mottled,  and  contain- 
ing rounded  granitic  pebbles.  Large  boulders  of  crystal- 
line rocks  from  a  northern  source  occur  in  the  lower 
division,  up  even  to  a  height  of  1,050  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  C^ulf  of  Mexico.  Most  of  the  observed  boulders 
occur  in  the  valleys.  They  diminish  in  numbers  and  size 
as  they  are  traced  southwards,  the  Missouri  River  seem- 
ing to  limit  their  extension  in  that  direction.  Above 
these  clays  lies  the  "  bluff,"  or  loess,  a  very  fine  light 
brown  siliceous  mar),  with  occasional  concretions  of  lime- 
stone. With  sufficient  consistency  to  weather  out  into 
perpendicular  escarpments,  this  deposit  forms  a  belt  of 
hilly  country  receding  ten  miles  from  the  river,  and  then 
changing  into  a  stiff  clay  which  may  be  part  of  the 
**  drift.**  The  low  alluvial  lands  lie  on  what  is  termed  the 
'*  bottom  prairie,"  generally  a  dark  tenacious  clay,  often 
containing  concretions  of  bog-iron,  and  rarely  bf  ds  of 
sand. 

From  the  early  part  of  last  century  lead  and  iron  have 
been  worked  in  Missouri.  The  mining  industry  of  the 
Staie  has  gradually  developed,  and  is  now  making  rapid 
progress.  In  the  year  1872,  135 50, 135  pounds  of  lead 
wtre  produced  in  the  State.  During  the  first  six  months 
of  1874,  5,050  tons  oi  pig-lead  were  sent  by  railway  into 
St.  Louis.     The  yield  of  iron  and  zinc  is  likewise  steadily 


increasing.  Vast  quantities  of  sulphate  of  baryta  are 
said  to  be  raised,  and  to  be  used  in  the  improvement 
(that  is,  the  adulteration)  of  white  lead.  A  territory  so 
richly  stored  with  mineral  wealth  ought  to  be  able  to 
equip  and  maintain  a  sufficient  staff  for  the  thorough 
exploration  of  the  geological  and  mineialogical  structure 
of  the  ground,  and  for  the  formation  of  a  museum  where 
the  rocks,  minerals,  fossiU,  and  manufactured  mineral 
products  may  be  displayed,  and  made  practically  useful 
and  instructive.  Arch.  Geikie 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Dun  Echt  Observatory  Publications,  Vol.  I L — 
In  this  handsomely-printed  volume  of  two  hundred  pa^^es 
we  have  the  first  portion  of  results  of  observations  made 
during  Lord  Lindsay's  expedition  to  the  Mauritius  on  the 
occasion  of  the  late  transit  of  Venus,  an  expedition  which 
for  the  care  and  forethought  bestowed  upon  the  arrange- 
ments and  the  excellence  and  completeness  of  the  equip- 
ment, compares  favourably  with  any  of  those  fitted  out  by 
the  various  Governments  which  took  part  in  the  observa- 
tion of  this  rare  phenomenon. 

It  was  upon  the  strong  recommendation  of  the  eminent 
Secretary  of  the  German  Transit  of  Venus  Commission , 
Prof.  Auwers,  that  Lord  Lindsay  was  induced  to  take  out 
a  heliometer,  and  an  instrument  of  this  class,  similar  to 
those  intended  to  be  used  in  the  Russian  expeditions,  was 
ordered  in  the  spring  of  1872  and  completed  in  due  time 
by  the  joint  exertions  of  Messrs.  Repsold,  of  Hamburg, 
and  Messrs.  Cooke  and  Sons  of  York.  In  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  constants  of  the  instrument  previous  to  the 
expedition,  experience  was  obtained  of  the  great  precisi  m 
to  be  attained  in  the  measurement  of  angular  distance 
between  two  stars  by  its  meins,  and  this  experience  led 
to  a  determination  to  take  advantage  of  a  near  opposition 
of  the  minor  planet  Juno,  occurring  during  the  anticipated 
period  of  residence  at  the  Mauritius,  to  investigate  the 
solar  parallax,  from  the  diurnal  parallax  of  the  planet,  by 
measuring  its  distance  and  angle  of  position  with  respect 
to  a  star,  both  morning  and  evening.     On  November  4 

iuno  in  perigee  was  distant  1*029,  and  though  the  paral- 
lel ic  displacement  in  such  case  is  considerably  less  than 
in  a  transit  of  Venus,  or  an  opposition  of  Mars,  it  was 
believed  that  the  great  accuracy  attained  in  measures 
with  the  heliometer  would  more  than  compensate  for  this 
disadvantage. 

Vol.  ii.  of  die  publications  of  Lord  Lindsay's  Observa- 
tory is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  observations  of 
Juno,  preceded  by  a  very  detailed  account  of  the  instru- 
ment and  its  adjustments  and  of  the  methods  adopted  in 
determining  its  instrumental  errors,  as  errors  of  scale 
divisions  and  errors  of  screw  and  of  the  method  of  obser- 
vation and  calculation  of  instrumental  results.  And  in 
the  event  of  criticism  of  any  of  the  processes  it  must  be 
stated  that  the  whole  of  the  work  is  so  presented  as  to 
admit  of  future  discussion,  with  any  modification  of  plan 
that  may  be  deemed  advisable.  It  was  originally  intended 
that  the  observations  should  commence  on  October  10 
and  continue  to  the  end  of  November.  Circumstances, 
however,  prevented  so  long  a  series  of  measures  ;  Lord 
Lindsay's  yacht  with  the  instruments  did  not  arrive  at  the 
Mauritius  until  November  2,  and  it  was  not  till  November 
10  that  the  first  heliometric  observations  could  be  made. 
The  first  reliable  series  was  obtained  two  evenings  later, 
and  from  this  time  to  November  30,  observations  were 
secured  on  twelve  evenings  and  eleven  mornings,  some  of 
them  not  being  so  complete  as  was  desirable.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  Juno  was  past  opposition  before  work 
could  be  commenced,  and  this  first  attempt  to  determire 
the  solar  parallax,  throuo^h  measuring  the  diurnal  parallax 
of  a  minor  planet  wich  the  aid  of  the  heliometer,  was  con- 
sequently made  under  less  favourable  conditions  than  may 


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be  secured  in  future  investigations  of  the  same  kind; 
nevertheless,  it  is  certain  that  Lord  Lindsay  and  Mr.  Gill 
have  been  amply  justified  by  the  result  in  the  confidence 
they  placed  upon  the  proposed  methods  of  observation, 
and  have  proved  that  one  means  of  determining  the  solar 
parallax,  admiuing  comparatively  of  very  frequent  repeti- 
tion, is  comparable  in  point  of  accuracy  with  methods 
involving  far  greater  difficulty  and  expense  and  chance  of 
failure.  In  the  correction  of  the  equations  of  condition 
for  errors  in  the  tabular  places  of  Juno,  derived  from 
observations  at  Greenwich,  Washington,  and  Cambridge, 
U.S.,  it  was  found  desirable  to  work  upon  two  systems, 
the  probabilities  being  rather  in  favour  of  the  second. 
The  definitive  result  for  the  mean  solar  parallax  is  8"77, 
according  to  the  first  system,  and  8^76  according  to  the 
second.  To  these  values  and  their  probable  errors 
(±  o''*o4)  the  authors  do  not  attach  high  importance, 
indeed,  a  discordant  value  from  observations  on  November 
15  being  included,  they  say,  "  if  we  were  asked  what  we 
believe  to  be  the  most  probable  value  resulting  from  the 
determination,  we  shoidd  reject  this  result ;  the  values 
then  become  8"  82  —  first  system ;  and  8"-8i  -  second 
system.  At  the  same  time  we  are  aware  that  the  rejection 
of  any  observation  is  quite  unsound.*'  In  a  longer  series, 
however,  it  is  probable,  as  they  observe,  that  the  single 
discordant  value  would  have  been  counterbalanced  by 
another. 

So  far  as  we  know,  this  is'the  first  application  of  the 
heUometer  to  observation  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
We  think  it  must  be  generally  conceded  by  astronomers 
that  Lord  Lindsay  and  Mr.  Gill  have  rendered  an  im- 
portant scientific  service  in  this  introduction  of  the  most 
accurate  of  measuring  instruments  in  the  investigation  of 
Uie  sun's  distance,  by  a  method  admitting  of  such 
repeated  confirmation.  Three  of  the  minor  planets 
approach  the  earth  in  the  present  year  within  the  distance 
at  which  Juno  was  observed  at  the  Mauritius  in  1874. 

The  Satellites  of  Mars.— Prof.  Asaph  Hall,  to 
whom,  as  the  discoverer  of  these  bodies,  the  right  of 
selection  of  names  appertains  has  definitively  decided  for 
Deimus  for  the  outer  moon  and  Phobus  for  the  inner 
one,  i^reeably  as  he  mentions  to  the  suggestion  of  Mr. 
Madan  in  these  columns,  founded  on  the  lines  in  the 
"  Iliad,''  which  Pope  thus  renders  :— 

**  With  that  he  gives  command  to  Fear  and  Flighty 
To  join  his  rapid  conrsers  for  the  fight ; 
Then  grim  in  arms,  with  hasty  vengeance  fl'es, 
Arms  that  reflect  a  radiance  through  the  skies." 

The  Dait:  of  Easter.— Easter  Sunday  falling  on 
April  31,  is  considered  late  this  year,  and  it  is  thirteen 
days  after  the  mean  d&te,  but  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  in 
no  year  since  the  introduction  of  the  Gregorian  calendar 
into  England  has  the  festival  occurred  on  the  latest  possi- 
ble date,  April  35,  though  in  two  years,  1761  and  1 818,  it  fell 
on  March  22,  which  is  the  other  limit  In  1886,  Easter 
Sunday  will  fall  on  April  25,  in  the  new  or  Gregorian 
style,  for  the  first  time  since  the  year  1734,  or  eighteen 
years  before  this  style  was  accepted  in  England.  The 
only  other  occasion  since  the  reformation  of  the  Calendar 
by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  upon  which  E^ter  has  fallen  on 
the  latest  possible  date  was  in  1666,  and  after  1886  this 
will  not  again  occur  till  1943. 


BIOLOGICAL   NOTES 

The  Agricultural  Ants  of  Texas.— Mr.  H.  C. 
McCook  has  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia  a  memoir  on  the  habits  of  these  most 
curkms  and  interesting  ants  {Afyrmica  moUfaciens^  Buckley 
»  M,  barbaia^  Smith).  An  abstract  of  the  memoir  will  be 
found  in  Sheet  20  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  above  Academy 


(p.  299).  The  author  encamped  in  the  midst  of  a  large 
number  of  the  ant  hills  during  the  summer  of  1877,  and 
carefully  studied  the  habits  of  the  inmates ;  the  spot 
selected  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Austin,  Texas,  upon 
the  tableland  to  the  south-west  of  the  Colorado  River  and 
its  affluent,  Barton  Creek.  The  limestone  rock  here  and 
there  cropped  up,  the  soil  was  black  and  tenacious,  vary- 
ing in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  three  feet  The  formi- 
caries were  very  numerous,  and  were  to  be  found  along 
roads,  in  open  fields,  and  in  the  very  streets,  paths, 
p;ardens,  and  yards  of  Austin ;  indeed,  one  was  even  seen 
in  the  stone-paved  courtyard  of  an  hotel.  They  are 
commonly  flat  circular  clearings,  hard  and  smooth  ; 
a  few  have  low  mounds  in  the  centre,  composed  of  bits 
of  gravel  of  one  or  two  grains*  weight ;  the  clearings 
vary  in  width  from  twelve  to  two  or  three  feet.  From 
each,  roads  three  to  seven  in  number,  diverge  into 
the  surrounding  herbage.  These  are  often  of  great 
length,  and  during  the  working  hours  are  thronged  by  the 
ants  going  and  returning.  The  ants  take  their  siesta 
during  the  meridian  heat  of  the  sun,  generally  stopping 
work  about  twelve,  and  not  returning  to  it  until  two  or  three 
o'clock.  The  seeds  collected  were  always  taken  from  off  the 
ground,  they  were  chiefly  seeds  of  small  Euphorbiaceous 
and  Rubiaceous  plants,  and  of  grasses.  The  ants 
proved  to  be  true  harvesters.  The  seeds  were  carried 
into  the  granaries  through  the  central  gates.  They  were 
shelled,  and  the  hulls  were  carried  out  and  deposited  in 
refuse  heaps,  which,  when  carefully  searched,  yielded  no 
perfect  fruits.  They  seemed  to  be  most  fond  of  the  grass 
called  Artstida  stricta^  and  it  even  seems  possible  that 
they  sow  this  for  themselves,  though  the  author  does  not 
commit  himself  to  this  as  a  fact  The  interior  economy 
of  the  ant-hill  is  fully  described.  Here  it  may  be  noted 
that  the  ants  are  clever  in  attack,  that  their  "  sting  **  is  as 
bad  as  a  wasp's,  and  that  they  are  so  well  versed  in  the 
science  of  war,  that  they  would  have  been  more  than  a 
match  for  Mr.  McCook,  had  he  not  himself  employed  a 
small  army  (of  two  men)  to  fight  with  those  ants  that 
would  fight  with  him  while  he  was  pulling  their  granaries, 
their  nurseries,  and  their  queen's  palace  to  pieces,  in 
order  to  let  us  know  all  about  them.  Prof.  Leidy  made 
some  remarks  on  this  paper,  adding  that  he  had  studied 
the  habits  of  an  allied  species  (J/,  occidentalis)  which  he 
had  met  with  during  a  summer  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  habits  of  this  species  were  very  like  those  of  the 
species  described  by  Mr.  McCook,  but  in  addition  Prof. 
Leidy  mentioned  that  his  species  fostered  a  fine  large 
Coccus  for  its  saccharine  production. 

The  First  Stages  of  Development  in  Plants.— 
Great  interest  attaches  to  the  earliest  changes  occurring 
after  the  fertilisation  of  the  germinal  cell  or  odsphere  in 
plants ;  and  the  difficulty  of  the  subject  has  taxed  the 
ability  of  the  best  histological  botanists.  To  satisfy  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  many  students  think  it  necessary  to 
be  able  to  trace  homologies  in  the  development  of  all  stem- 
bearing  plants.  The  latest  investigation,  which  appears  to 
carry  the  comparison  further  than  has  yet  been  attempted, 
is  that  of  Mr.  S.  H.  Vmes,  of  Cambridge,  who  has  dili- 
gently sought  out  and  compared  all  the  embryological 
evidence,  derived  from  the  writings  of  Hofmeister,  Han- 
stein,  Fleischer,  Mettenius,  Pringsheim,  and  many  others. 
He  shows  that  in  all  stem-bearing  plants  the  germinal  cell 
(that  which  is  fertilised)  divides  into  two  portions,  one  of 
which  gives  rise  to  an  embryonic  tissue  called  suspensor, 
in  higher  forms,  while  the  remainder  alone  produces  the 
true  embryo.  This  comparison  is  of  especial  interest  in 
relation  to  mosses.  In  these  plants  it  is  the  spore-capsule 
which  is  the  product  of  the  fertilisation  of  the  germ-cell, 
and  it  is  this  capsule  which  corresponds  to  the  whole 
leafy  plant  of  a  fern.  Following  out  the  analogy,  the  seta 
or  stalk  of  the  capsule  in  a  moss  corresponds  with  the  part 
called  "  foot "  in  an  embryo  fern,  and  with  the  suspensor 
in  flowering  plants.    Mr.  Vines's  paper  is  conuined  in  the 


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[March  28,  1878 


Jamiary  number  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Micro* 
scopUal  Scunci. 

Rhizopods  in  an  Apple  Tree.— Freshwater  rhizo- 
pods  are  beginning  to  be  well  known,  but  Prof.  Leidy  has 
lately  discovered  a  number  in  an  apple-tree.  While  wait- 
ing for  a  railway  train,  last  December,  his  attention  was 
attracted  to  a  large-apple  tree  which  had  then  quite 
recently  been  thrown  down  by  a  storm,  and  from  the  fork 
of  its  tmnk  he  collected  a  small  bunch  of  moss,  which, 
on  examining  it  carefully,  he  found  to  contain  a  number 
of  rhizopods.  Of  these  one  was  Difflugia  cassis;  it  was 
abundant  Another,  which  occurred  in  smaller  number, 
was  D.  globularis^  and  in  addition,  some  specimens  of 
Trinema  acinus^  Euglypha  alveolata^  and  E,  brunnea^ 
were  met  with.  The  moss  from  which  they  were  washed 
with  filtered  water  was  found  at  a  distance  of  about  eight 
feet  from  the  ground  (Proceedings^  Acad.  Nat.  Scien. 
Plnladdphia,  1877,  p.  321).  We  hope  this  hint  will  not 
be  lost  by  the  investigators  of  our  British  or  Irish 
rhizopods. 

The  Aeronautic  Fught  of  Spiders.— Many  ob- 
servations have  been  made  on  this  singular  phenomenon, 
but  the  Rev.  H.  C.  McCook  is  pursuing  his  mquiries  with 
a  perseverance  that  succeeds  in  detecting  many  new 
details  in  the  performance.  Recently  (October,  1877)  he 
paid  attention  to  groups  of  voung  wolf-spiders  (Lycosidae), 
which  crowded  the  tops  of  railings  in  a  meadow.  Their 
faces  were  turned  in  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  was 
blowing ;  the  abdomen  in  each  was  elevated  at  an  angle 
of  45'',  the  claws  brought  in,  and  the  legs  stiffened,  thus 
raismg  the  body.  From  the  spinnerets  at  the  apex  of  the 
abdomen  a  single  thread  was  exuded,  and  rapidly  drawn 
out  to  several  ^et  by  the  breeze.  Gradually  the  foremost 
pair  of  legs  sank  to  the  level  of  the  post,  and  the  entire 
attitude  became  that  of  intense  resistance.  Then  suddenly 
and  simultaneously  the  eight  claws  were  unloosed,  and 
the  spider  mounted  with  a  sharp  bound  into  the  air,  and 
went  careering  across  the  meadow.  As  far  as  could  be 
observed,  it  appeared  that  the  spider  took  a  voluntary 
leap  at  the  moment  of  loosing  its  hold.  One  spider,  by 
good  hap,  was  followed  through  its  flight.  The  position  of 
the  body  was  soon  reversed,  the  head  being  turned  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  wind.  The  legs  were  spread  out, 
and  were  united  at  the  claws  by  delicate  filaments  of  silk. 
After  flying  a  distance  of  about  eighty  feet,  the  spider 
gradually  settled  down  upon  the  meadow.  The  difficulty 
of  this  observation  will  be  understood  by  entomologists,  for 
it  required  exact  suitability  of  position  as  to  light,  the 
limitation  of  the  flight  to  a  moderate  height,  and  a  .com- 
parative moderation  of  its  speed.  {jProc.^  Acad.  Nat  Set 
Philadelphia,  1877,  p.  308.) 

Turkoman  Greyhounds.— The  Jardin  d'Acdimata- 
tion  has  lately  been  enriched  (we  learn  from  La  Nature) 
with  three  Turkoman  greyhounds  of  great  beauty,  the 
first  specimens  imported  into  Europe.  The  animals 
are  known  in  the  country  under  the  name  of  Tazi,  and 
are  employed  in  catching  hares,  like  the  Sloughi  in 
Algeria  and  the  greyhounds  in  Persia.  They  are  of  noble 
aspect,  and  have  great  strength  of  muscle  ;  their  head  is 
remarkaUy  long  and  delicate  in  form.  The  hair  on  the 
body  is  short ;  but  the  ears  (which  are  very  large)  are 
covered  with  long  silken  hair.  Their  legs  are  also  covered 
with  well-developed  hair,  and  the  contrast  of  this  with  the 
upper  smooth  part  of  the  body  is  surprising  at  first  sight ; 
the  do^s  appearing  as  if  they  had  laige  waving  pantaloons, 
or  reminding  one  of  some  kinds  of  fowl  One  of  the  three 
dogs  was  obtained  from  the  Kirghises  of  Emba,  the  two 
others  at  Samarkand  (and  by  M.  de  Ujfalyy).  We  believe 
that  it  is  among  this  breed  that,  as  mentioned  by  Hamil- 
ton Smith,  Uie  stop  greyhound  is  found  so  trained,  that 
when  a  whole  pack  of  them  is  in  pursuit  of  a  doubling 
hare,  a  stick  thrown  before  it  instantly  produces  a  general 
halt,  and  one  only  is  then  signalled  out  to  pursue  the 
game. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

China.— Mr.  E.  C  Saber's  long-deferred  Report  on 
the  journey  of  the  Grosvenor  Mission  through  Western 
Yiinnan,  from  Tali-fu  to  T^ng-yiieb,  contains  much  matter 
which  is  of  interest  from  more  than  one  point  of  view. 
The  most  important  of  his  surveys  is  that  of  the  route  from 
Tali-fu  to  T£og-yiieh,  as  it  connects  Gamier's  explorations 
with  the  work  of  Bladen's  expedition,  and  thus  puts  Bhamo 
in   topographical  communication    with    Shanghai    and 
Saigon.    The  survey  next,  but  not  much  inferior,  in  im- 
portance, is  the  route  from  Yiionan-fu  to  Tali>fu,  in  which 
the  track  followed  was  different  to  Gamier's.    Mr.  Baber 
has  also  prepared  a  running  survey  of  his  route  across 
China  from  Hankow  to  T^ng-yiieh.    His  remarks  on  the 
native  races  are  interesting,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
Kutung  people.    What  or  where  Kutung  is  he  was  unable 
to  ascertain ;  he  describes  the  men  as  of  a  dark  reddish 
complexion,  with  rather  prominent  features,  above  the 
average  height  and  well-proportioned,  dressed  in  close- 
fitting  woollen  garments^  which  in  some  cases  were  neatly 
cut  and  handsomely  embroidered.     The  women  seen 
would  have  been  considered  handsome  anywhere ;  paler 
in  colour  than  the  men,  their  oval  intelligent  faces  re* 
minded  the  observer  of  the  so-called  Caucasian  type, 
and  in  every  step  and  movement  there  was  a  decision 
and  exactness   very   different  from  the  motion    of   a 
Chinese.  One  of  the  women,  too,  was  particularly  remark- 
able for  a  peculiarity   of  her   long  hair,  which   was 
naturally  wavy,  a   feature  never   met  with  among  the 
Chinese.  Mr.  Baber  was  fortunate  in  seeing  the  quarterly 
fair  at  Tali-fu,  at  which  some  5,000  people  were  present, 
many  of  them  being  Lolos,  Shans,  Thibetans,  &c.    At 
this  stage  of  his  journey  he  propounds  a  not  improbable 
explanation  of  the  term  '*  golden  teeth,**  as  applied  to 
the  inhabitants,  viz.,  that  it  arose  from  the  disccMoration 
of  the  teeth  produced  by  chewing  betel  with  lime.    Mr. 
Baber^s  observations  on  the  extent  of  the  poppy  cuUiva-      -4 
tion  will  hardly  be  found  encouraging  by  those  who  desire 
to  see  the  consumption  of  opium  put  an  end  to,  for  he 
says  that  his   party  walked   some  hundreds   of  miles 
through  poppies ;  and  a  similar  remark  applies  to  his 
account  of  the  trade-route  into  Yiinnan  from  Bunnah. 
The  valleys,  or  rather  abysses,  he  says,  of  the  Salwen 
and  Mekong  must  long  remain  insuperable  difficulties, 
not  to  mention  other  obstacles  between  Yiinnan-fu  and 
T6ng-yiieh.    The  members  of  Col.  Sladen's  expedition 
appear  to  have  assumed  that,  when  the  Utter  place  is 
reached,  the  obstacles  to  a  highway  into  Yiinnan  have 
been  surmounted,  whereas  the  fact  is  that  the  difficulties 
begin  at  that  place.    Loth  as  most  Englishmen  are  to 
admit  it,  Mr.  Baber  adds,  the  simple  and  evident  ap- 
proach to  Eastern  Yiinnan  is  from  the  Gulf  of  Tonqoin, 
but  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  same  holds  true  of 
the  western  part  of  the  province.     In  conclusion  we  may 
mention  that  an  interestmg  feature  in  Mr.  Baber's  report 
is  his  comparison  of  Marco  Polo's  narrative  with  his  ovm 
experiences,  and  his  verification  in  many  respects  of  the 
Venetian's   information    respecting   a   country   almost 
entirely  unknown  to  Europeans.  . 

Prjwalsky'sTournby  to  Lob-Nor.— In  the Isvestia  \ 
of  the  Russian  Geographical  Society,  and  as  Supi^ement 
53  to  Petermann's  Mittheilungen^  the  narrative  of 
Priwalsk/s  journey  from  Kuldja  to  Lob-Nor  and  the 
Altyn-Dagh,  is  now  published,  with  maps  showing  the 
route  and  the  discoveries  made.  We  have  already 
referred  to  the  results  of  this  important  journey  between 
August,  1876,  and  July,  1877,  a  journey  which  the  enthu- 
siastic Dr.  Petermann  re^^aunds  as  the  crown  of  Central 
Asiatic  exploration,  and  as  equal  in  importance  to  Stan- 
le/s Journey  down  the  Congo,  or  even  the  attainment  of 
the  role.  Prjwalsky  gives  ample  details  as  to  what  he 
saw  along  the  route,  and  his  observations  will  be  of 
special  value  to  the  ethnologist  as  containing  important 


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details  concerning  the  various  peoples  he  met  with.  The 
zoologist  and  botanist  will  also  find  much  to  interest 
them.  Not  only  does  he  bring  certain  information  on 
the  Lob-Nor,  which  is  little  better  than  a  marsh,  appa- 
rently drying  up,  but  also  makes  an  important  contri- 
bution to  our  knowledge  of  the  great  mountain  plateau 
which  separates  India  from  Central  Asia.  The  Lob-Nor 
basin  forms  the  foot  of  the  Kuen-luen  and  of  the  great 
plateau  which  stretches  from  the  plains  of  India  over  the 
Himalayas,  the  Karakorura,  the  highlands  of  Khor,  in 
an  unbroken  sweep  to  the  basin  mentioned.  Close  by 
the  Lob-Nor  this  mountain  rises  like  a  wall  out  of  the 
low  plain,  some  of  the  lowest  valleys  having  a  height  of 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea.  From  this  northern  slope  on 
the  Lob-Nor,  at  about  60°  W.  long.,  the  plateau  stretches 
away  south,  for  13*  (850  miles)  to  its  southern  slope  on 
the  Indian  plain.  At  the  meeting,  on  February  20,  of  the 
Russian  Geographical  Society  the  Secretary  read  a  letter 
from  Col  Prjwalsky,  dated  Fort  Zaisan,  January  11. 
The  traveller  said  that,  after  having  seen  the  impossi- 
bility of  penetrating  into  Tibet  vid  Lob-Nor,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  try  the  indirect  route  vid  Guchen  and  Hami, 
whence  he  proposed  to  go  south  to  Tsandam  and  to 
Hlassa,  crossing  the  sources  of  the  Blue  River.  '  Thus, 
he  left  Kuldja  on  September  9,  and  reached  Guchen.  As 
along  the  whole  of  the  route  to  Guchen,  which  passes 
through  the  towns  Sbikho  and  Manas,  there  were  Chinese 
troops,  as  also  many  champans  (convicts  condenmed  to 
hard  labour),  CoL  Prjwalsky  followed  another  route^  viz., 
to  Lake  £bi-nor,  thence  north  to  the  Saur  Mountains,  and 
thence  to  Guchen,  along  the  route  followed  in  1875  by 
CoL  Sosnovsky.  Thus,  he  reached  Guchen  about  the 
beginning  of  November,  but  here  a  serious  illness  com- 
pelled him  to  return  to  Zaisan,  which  he  reached  on 
January  13.  A  later  telegram  announced  that  the  inde- 
fatigable traveller  had  recovered  and  that  he  was  again 
on  his  way  to  Tibet. 

Mongolia  and  Siberia.— At  the  same  meeting  a 
letter  from  the  traveller  Potanin  dated  Bjisk,  January  14, 
stating  that  he  had  arrived  at  the  end  of  his  MongoUan 
journey,  after  obtaining  many  hypsometrical  and  topo- 
graphical data,  as  well  as  making  rich  botanical,  zoolo- 
gidd,  and  mineralogical  collections.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Society  gave  a  review  of  the  activity  of  the  Siberian 
department  Two  expeditions  were  sent  out  by  this 
department  during  the  past  year,  one,  which  will  be 
absent  for  several  years,  under  Uie  leadership  of  M. 
Czerski  to  investigate  the  shores  of  Lake  Baikal  geo- 
logically, the  other  conducted  by  M.  Agapidin,  to  ex- 
amine the  flora  of  the  district  of  Balagansk  in  the 
government  of  Irkutsl^ 

New  Guinea.— The  Rev.  S.  Macfarlane  has  just  sent 
home  a  report  of  a  voyage  which  he  made  tomrds  the 
close  of  last  year  from  Murray  Island  to  the  east  end  of 
New  Guinea,  and  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  several 
places  previously  unknown.  He  mentions  having  gone 
on  shore  near  Killerton  Point,  not  far  from  East  Cape, 
where  he  found  himself  unable  to  communicate  with  the 
people  except  by  signs,  for  they  could  not  understand  any 
of  the  dialects  spoken  at  Teste  Island,  Port  Moresby, 
and  Murray  Island,  nor  the  Eastern  and  Western  Poly- 
nesian languages,  though  upon  inquiring  the  names  of 
things,  Mr.  Macfarlane's  companion  thought  he  detected 
a  resemblance  to  the  Raratongan.  The  locality  visited 
not  suiting  their  pturposes,  the  party  went  six  or  seven  miles 
further  to  the  eastward,  and  landed  at  the  mouth  of  a 
river  or  mountain  stream,  where  the  hills  slope  down  to 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  beach,  and  behmd  the  vil- 
lage there  is  a  well-wooded,  fertile,  and  lovely  valley.  Mr. 
Macfarlane  describes  the  neighbourhood  as  thickly  popu- 
lated, though  the  people  are  scattered  in  small  villages 
within  hailing  distance  of  each  other.  Speaking  gene- 
rally, he  says,  that  the  country  about  the  east-end  of  New 
Guinea  has  a  totally  different  appearance  frpm  that  in 


the  vicinity  of  Port  Moresby,  and  the  contrast  was  very 
striking.  The  former  looked  lovely  and  luxuriant,  like 
the  South  Sea  Islands,  whilst  the  latter  had  a  barren, 
brown,  parched  appearance,  as  if  two  days'  sail  had 
brought  the  party  into  a  new  country  in  quite  a  different 
latitude.  We  hear  that  Mr.  Andrew  Goldie,  to  whose 
gold  discoveries  in  New  Guinea  we  have  before  alluded, 
has  sent  home  to  the  Earl  of  Glasgow  an  account  of  his 
recent  explorations,  accompanied  by  a  sketch  map  and 
several  drawings.  At  Mr.  Goldie's  request,  his  Lordship 
has  handed  the  papers  to  the  Geographical  Society,  and 
they  will  probably  be  read  at  one  of  the  meetings  during 
the  present  session. 

Lake  Nvassa  Region. — A  paper  was  read  at  Monday' 
meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  by  Mr.  H.  B. 
Cotterill,  "On  the  Nyassa,  and  a  Journey  from  the 
North-East  to  Zanzibar."  Jn  August  last  he  met  Capt. 
Elton  and  some  friends  at  the  south  end  of  the  bdce,  and 
ran  up  the  west  coast.  They  were  detained  some  days 
under  Mount  Chombi,  which  he  ascended,  and  foimd  to 
be  about  4,000  feet  above  the  lake.  The  high  land  on  the 
west  of  the  lake  was  found  to  trend  off  in  a  north-westerly 
direction.  They  at  last  made  a  start  with  about  fifty 
men.  Their  route  crossed  the  Chombaka  River.  The 
whole  of  the  cotmtry  was  covered  with  groves  of  banana 
They  procured  other  carriers  and  crossed  the  Chombaka 
Valley,  crossing  the  river  several  times  andpassine  two 
very  beautiful  little  lakes.  In  crossing  the  Cnombaka  for 
the  third  time  at  a  point  where  it  flowed  through  a  very 
deep  ravine,  they  struck  more  towards  the  north.  They 
found  stretching  away  to  the  east  and  south-east  a  great 
plain  bounded  in  the  far  distance  by  a  towering  range  of 
mountains  that  evidently  ran  up  from  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Nyassa  towards  the  north-west  The  native  name 
for  these  mountains  and  the  surrounding  country  is  Kondi. 
They  had  been  gradually  ascending  since  they  left  Nyassa, 
and  when  they  reached  Mazote's,  they  were  at  an  elevation 
of  about  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  was  decided  that 
some  of  them  should  push  on  to  Mereri*s  Town.  So  Capt 
Elton  and  he  and  another  started  off,  and  having  crossed 
the  Kondi  Range,  they  found  themselves  on  a  great 
plateau,  7,000  feet  high,  called  Uwanji,  a  splendid  cattle 
country,  watered  by  many  streams.  Crossing  the 
Makesumbi  River,  they  found  themselves  in  an  imdu- 
lating  country,  covered  with  thick  bush.  There  Capt 
Elton  began  to  break  down,  and  at  South  UshekJie 
breathed  his  last.  They  then  had  to  traverse  some  350 
miles  of  the  Ujiji  caravan  route,  and  on  the  last  day  of 
February  reached  Zanzibar. 

Indo-China. — Dr.  G.  Barrioxi,  a  French  naval  surgeon 
is  about  to  undertake  an  exploring  journey  to  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula. 

Mr.  Stanley  has  announced  to  the  Paris  Geographical 
Society  that  he  will  visit  Paris  in  Jtme,  before  his 
departure  for  America,  to  receive  the  medal  the  Society 
has  awarded  him. 

NOTES 

Robert  Juuus  v.  Maybr,  whose  name  is  so  intimately 
associated  with  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  died  at  his  native 
town,  Heilbronn,  on  the  21st  inst,  in  his  sixty-fourth  year. 
We  can  only  intimate  the  event  this  week,  but  hope  next  week 
to  be  able  to  speak  in  detail  of  Mayer's  lift  and  work. 

In  connection  with  our  article  on  Harvey  in  this  number,  we 
may  remind  our  readers  that  for  some  time  a  movement  has  been 
on  foot  for  the  erection  of  a  statue  to  Harvey  in  his  native  town, 
Folkestone.  Only  800/.,  half  the  sum  requisite,  has  been  obtained, 
and  we  are  sore  many  of  our  readers,  on  being  made  aware  of 
the  deficiency,  will  be  glad  to  help  to  fill  it  up.  Donations  may 
be  sent  to  the  hon.  treasurers  of  the  fund.  Sir  George  Borrows 
and  Mr.  Prescott  Hewttt,  or  to  the  hon.  secretary,  Mr.  Geoige 
Bastes,  BLB.,  ^  Coniiiui«^t  Street,  Hyde  Park  Square^  W* 


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{March  a8,  1878 


A  great  banqaet,  under  the  auspices  of  the  College  of  Phyncians, 
to  be  held  on  the  day  of  the  Harveian  oration,  is  also  talked  of, 
but  judging  by  the  apathy  shown  generally  on  the  subject  o^ 
Harvey's  tercentenary,  it  is  not  very  probable  it  will  come  off. 
liow  is  it  that  we  take  so  little  trouble  here  to  keep  alive  the 
memory  of  our  great  dead  ?. 

We  notice  the  death  of  Prof.  A.  Lamy  at  Paris  on  the  20th 
inst  For  a  number*of  years  he  has  occupied  the  Chair  of  Indus* 
trial  Chemistry  at  the  &ole  Centrale.  As  an  investigator  his 
name  is  chiefly  known  in  connection  with  the  metal  thallium. 
Very  shortly  after  the  detection  of  its  spectrum  by  Mr.  Crookes 
in  1861,  he  observed  the  same  phenomenon  in  the  lead  works  at 
lille ;  and  his  isolation  of  the  metal  and  descriptions  of  its  pro- 
perties followed  so  closely  on  the  announcements  of  the  English 
chemist  that  the  question  of  priority  was  vigorously  discussed  for 
some  time^  until  finally  dedded  a^nst  him.  Contemporaneously 
with  Mr.  Crookes  he  submitted  the  new  element  to  a  careful 
examination,  and  it  is  to  him  we  owe  the  first  determination  of 
the  atomic  weight  204,  the  discoveries  of  the  poisonous  proper- 
ties, of  the  dose  relations  with  the  alkaline  group,  of  the  remark- 
able thallium  alcohols,  and  the  preparation  of  thallium  glass.  In 
1869  Lamy  invented  the  two  valuable  pyrometers  associated  with 
his  ntroe,  the  one  based  on  the  dissociation-tension  of  calcium- 
carbonate  for  temperatures  above  Soo°,  and  the  second  containing 
instead  of  carbonate  the  compound  CaCl^SNHs  for  temperatures 
below  42^  In  physics  he  studied  the  electric  properties  of 
sodium  and  potas^um,  and  was  the  first  to  produce  induction 
currents  by  means  of  terrestrial  magnetism. 

The  death  is  announced  of  Michel*Charles  Durieu  de 
Maissonneuve,  on  February  20,  aged  eighty-two.  He  was 
honorary  director  of  the  Gsirdens  of  Bordeaux.  As  member  of 
the  Scientific  Commission  of  Algeria  he  was  known  to  botanists 
for  his  researches  in  the  flora  of  that  country. 

Wk  regret  to  announce  the  death  of  Prof.  Gustav  Will- 
manns  of  Strassburg  University,  well  known' through  his  African 
explorations  and  discoveries.  Prof.  WiUmanns  was  only  thirty- 
two*years  of  age. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  a  festival  will  be  held  in  the  city 
of  Li^,  to  celebrate  the  fortieth  year  of  the  professorship  of 
Theodore  Schwann,  the  author  of  the  cell-theory.  To  some  of 
our  readers  it  will  be  a  startling  piece  of  inteUigenoe  that  the 
founder  of  modem  histology  is  actually  at  this  moment  alive, 
and  teaching  as  Professor  of  Physiology  in  the  Belgian 
University.  The  committee  charged  with  the  management  of 
the  celebration  desire  the  co-operation  of  scientific  bodies  and  of 
individuals  in  this  country.  We  are  authorised  to  draw  the 
attention  of  officials  of  the  learned  societies  and  other  corpora- 
tions to  the  approaching  event,  and  to  beg  them  to  obtain  some 
expression  of  sympathy  with  the  object  of  the  celebration— vis., 
the  doing  homage  to  the  genius  of  Theodore  Schwann.  It  is 
requested  that  letters  intended  to  be  read  at  the  celebration  may 
be  forwarded  either  direct  to  the  secretary.  Prof.  Edouard  van 
Beneden,  Li^e,  or  to  Mr.  Ray  Lankester,  Exeter  College, 
Oxford.  All  Englishmen  of  science  who  have  specially  occupied 
themselves  in  the  field  of  work  opened  up  by  Schwann,  are 
begged  to  communicate  individually  with  either  of  the  above- 
named  gentlemen,  and  to  forward  their  photographs  for  inseition 
in  an  album  which  is  to  be  presented  to  the  founder  of  the 
cell-theory. 

M.  Raoul  Pictet,  at  Geneva,  in  consideration  of  the  im- 
portance of  his  discoveries  with  r^:ard  to  the  liquefaction  of 
gases,  has  had  the  honorary  title  of  Doctor  of  ^Medicine  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  University  of  Jena. 

It  was  stated  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society 
that  a  new  explosive  agent  has  been  discovered  by  Prof.  Emerson 
Reynolds,  in  the  Laboratory  of  Trinity  College^  Dublin.  It  is 
a  mixture  of  75  per  cent,  of  chlorate  of  potassium  with  25  per 


cent  of  a  body  ctlled  sulphurea.  It  is  a  white  powder,  wlndi 
is  very  easily  prqMuned  by  the  mixture  of  the  materials  in  the 
above-named  proportions.  The  new  powder  can  be  ignited  at  a. 
rather  lower  temperature  than  ordinary  gunpowder,  while  the 
effects  it  produces  are  even  more  remarkable  than  those  caused 
by  the  usual  mixture.  Dr.  Reynolds  states  that  his  powder 
leaves  only  45  per  cent  of  solid  residue,  whereas  common  gun- 
powder l^ves  about  57  per  cent  It  had  been  used  with  soccesa 
in  small  cannon,  but  its  discoverer  considered  that  its  chief  use 
would  be  for  blasting,  for  shells,  for  torpedoes  and  for  similar 
purposes.  Dr.  Reynolds  pointed  out  that  one  of  the  advantages 
this  powder  possesses  b  that  it  can  be  produced  at  a  momeot's 
notice  by  a  comparatively  rough  mixture  of  the  materials,  wfaidi 
can  be  stored  and  carried  without  risk  so  long  as  they  are 
separate.  The  sulphurea,  the  chief  component  of  the  new 
expkisive,  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Reynolds  about  ten  years  ago^ 
and  could  be  easily  procured  in  laige  quantities  from  a  product 
of  gas  manufacture  which  is  at  present  wasted. 

The  annual  meeting  in  London  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Insti- 
tute commenced  yesterday,  and  will  be  continued  to-day  and  to- 
morrow. Discussions  will  take  p^ace  on  papers  read  at  the 
Newcastle  meeting,  and  several  papers  will  be  read  on  subjects 
of  technical  interest. 

The  great  foige  of  Creufot  has  just  despatched  for  an  Italian 
ironclad  two  steel  plates,  weighing  respectively  23,000  and 
31,000  kilogrammes.  They  required  a  special  railway  traia 
constructed  for  the  purpose.  The  recent  experiments  at  Spezia 
show  that  vessels  protected  by  these  plates  are  absolutely  imper- 
forable  by  any  missiles  so  hx  known. 

THS^rare  phenomenon  of  St  Elmo's  fire  was  observed  at 
several  localities  in  the  Harz  Mountahu  during  the  past  month. 
At  Blaalcenburg  it  occurred  at  a  temperature  of  -I-  0^5  C.  and 
pressure  of  721*5  mm.,  after  a  series  of  storms.  The  air  wus 
so  laden  with  electricity,  that  canes  held  aloft  emitted  from  thetr 
points  light  blue  flames  five  inches  in  length  and  three  in 
breadth.  In  Doblitz  the  phenomenon  occurred  in  the  midst  of 
a  storm,  half  snow  and  half  rain,  when  the  ends  of  the  bnmdies 
in  an  entire  grove  were  surmounted  by  flames  from  four  to  five 
inches  in  length. 

A  THEORY  of  the  chemical  action  of  light  recently  propounded 
by  M.  Chastaing  is  controverted  by  M.  Vogd  (in  the  reports  of 
the  German  Chemical  Society),  who  dtes  various  f^cts  to  show 
that  rays  of  any  kind  are  capable  of  producing  either  an  oxidising 
or  a  reducing  action  on  inorganic  substances,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  substance  by  which  they  are  absocbed ;  there  is  no 
ground  for  attributing  to  the  less  refrangible  rays  in  all  cases  an 
oxidising^  and  to  the  more  refrangible  a  redudng^  power.  M. 
Chastaing's  second  proposition,  that  light  has  an  oxidising  action 
on  organic  substances,  which  is  strongest  in  the  violet  and 
weakest  in  the  red,  is  also  opposed  by  M.  VogcL 

Cape  Colony,  INew  Guinea,  the  'Australian  Colonies,  the 
South  Seas,  and,  it  would  appear,  almost  every  known  portion 
of  the  southern  hemisphere,  have  been  suffering  from  a  severe 
and  protracted  drought  Shade  temperatures  of  124*  and  127* 
are  reported  from  the  interior  of  Australia,  the  heat  being  mudi 
less  intense  near  the  coast,  owing  to  the  strong  sea-breezes  which 
prevail  in  connectkm  with  the  great  heat  of  the  interior.  Sheep^ 
cattle,  horses,  and  the  wild  animals  of  these  regions  are  dying 
off*  in  thousands.  In  Cape  Colony,  in  particular,  complete  ruin 
has  overtaken  large  numbers  of  the  settlers,  many  of  the  homes 
of  hitherto  well-to-do  colonists  having  been  broken  up,  and  the 
several  members  gone  into  menial  service  in  exchange  for  the 
barest  necessaries  of  life.  We  have  received  several  letters  on 
this  subject  already,  and  shall  be  glad  if  our  readers  in  the  regions 
named  will  favour  us  with  any  information  of  which  they  may 
be  in  possession,  suggesting  or  disproving  the  cyclical  cbatact^ 
f)f  these  droughts, 


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A  Paris  correspondent  sends  us  the  following :— On  March  | 
15  a  parridde  was  gufllotined  at  Evrenx  (Eore),  and  a  (rater-  ; 
nity  for  bnrying  the  dead'  existing  in  the  place,  the  body  was 
not,  as  usual,  thrown  into  a  large  basket  and  sent  hurriedly  to  its 
grave.  An  ordinary  coffin  was  prepared,  and  as  soon  as  the  exe- 
cution was  completed  the  corpse  was  laid  in  it  To  the  horror 
of  the  spectators  the  body  was  seen  to  be  agitated  by  spasms 
so  poweriful  that  it  almost  jumped  twice  out  of  the  coffin,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  use  force  in  order  to  control  its  motions.  These 
contractions  were,  of  course,  unaccompanied  by  consciousness. 

In  connection  with  the  lamentable  catastrophe  to  the  EurydUe 
Sir  George  Airy  sends  to  the  Daily ^  News  some  valuable  infor- 
mation as  to  the  meteorological  condition  on  Sunday : — On 
Sunday,  March  24,  between  ih.  30tn.  and  3h.  om.,  the  wind, 
which  had  previouily  been  almost  imperceptible,  had  four  times 
risen  to  a  pressure  of  l)  lb.  per  square  foot ;  but  from  3h.  om. 
to  about  3h.  55m.  it  was  nearly  calm,  the  pressure  scarcely  ex- 
ceeding \  lb.  per  square  foot.  During  the  former  of  these  two 
periods  the  direction  of  the  wind  had  been  fluctuating  on  both 
sides  of  west,  but  during  the  latter  it  was  for  the  most  part  west- 
south-west.  At  3h.  56m.  nearly  the  direction  changed  very 
suddenly  to  north-north-west,  and  the  force  changed  with  most 
unusual  suddenness  to  4  lb.,  from  which  it  rose  at  4h.  3m.  to 
91b.  per  square  foot  It  declined  for  a  time,  but  rose  at 
4h.  40m.  to  10  lb.  It  fell  and  rose  once  more,  and  finally  sank 
at  5h.  30m.  to  almost  perfect  calm.  The  fluctuations  of  the 
barometer  were  very  inconsiderable.  At  ah.  30m.  it  stood  at 
39*35  inches ;  at  3h.  56m.  it  was  29*28 ;  and  at  5h.  30m.  was 
again  29*33.  '^^^  temperature  about  2h.  om.  had  been  as  high 
ai  49°,  diminishing  with  fluctuations  (probably  produced  by 
clouds)  to  45<*  just  before  the  sqnalL  With  the  squall  it  sank 
most  rapidly  to  38**,  and  continued  to  fall,  till  at  5h.  on.  it  was 
about  32'." 

From  an  inquiry  on  the  electromotive  force  and  internal 
resistance  of  some  |thermopiles,  those  of  Noe,  and  of  Clamond, 
modified  by  Koch,  M.  Beetz  concludes  {Ann,  der  Phys,^  No.  i) 
that  the  latter,  from  its  great  solidity,  is  preferable  for  technical 
purposes.  That  it  requires  to  be  heated  long  before  use  is  of 
little  consequence,  and  once  in  action,  it  works  00  with  great 
constancy,  both  as  regards  electromotive  force  and  ;resi8tance. 
Though,  with  an  equal  number  of  elements,  the  electromotive 
force  is  under  that  of  the  Noe  pile,  its  utility  is  not  less,  as  the 
elements  can  be  easily  increased.  Only  the  burner  must  be 
improved  in  construction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Noe  pQe 
offers  the  great  advantage  for  laboratory  purposes,  that  (by 
coupling  several  cylindrical  piles)  a  productive  current-source  is 
readily  obtained  with  very  constant  electromotive  force; 
the  duration  has  been  connderably  improved  in]  the  new 
construction. 

According  to  La  Nature  the  telephone  is  finding  great  iavou 
in  Spain ;  a  goodly  number  are  being  produced  in  Barcelona, 
and  numerous  applio^tions  made  of  them.  Telephonic  chambers 
are  being  constructed  designed  to  isolate  the  hearer  from  external 
noises  and  render  communication  more  easy  and  sure.  These 
chambers  are  of  small  sise  and  have  glass  windows  for  light ; 
the  doors  are  closed  with  pads  of  caoutchouc.  Telephony  was 
lately  tried  between  Barcelona  and  Saragoesa,  which  are  about 
364  kilometres  apart  The  communication  was  satisfactory  at 
the  former  place  (notwithstanding  bad  weather) ;  at  Saragossa  it 
was  somewhat  imperfect,  which  is  accounted  for  by  the  tele- 
phonic chamber  having  been  used  at  one  place  but  not  at  the 
other. 

As  the  latest  instance  of  coDectioos  of  personal  contributions 
to  scientific  literature^  we  notice  the  appearance  in  Paris  of 
a  handtome    volume    containing   Prof.  Kuhlmann's    various 


researches  during  the  past  half-century.  The  work  affords  not 
only  an  interesting  glimpse  into  the  lines  of  investigation  fol- 
lowed out  by  a  single  mind,  but  also  into  the  general  progress 
of  applied  diemistry  since  1830;  for  there  is  probably  no 
chemist  alive  who  has  done  more  for  the  practical  application  of 
his  science  than  this  Lille  professor.  The  present  volume  con- 
tains detailed  accounts  of  the  baryta  industry,  which  he  created, 
of  the  general  introduction  of  crystallisation  into  technical 
operations,  of  the  phenomena  accompanying  the  use  of  cements 
and  the  formation  of  stone^  as  well  as  the  minute  studies  on  the 
formation  of  nitrates  and  artificial  manures,  on  the  crystallisation 
of  insoluble  bodies,  on  the  madder  dyes,  as  well  as  a  great 
variety  of  other  technical  and  purely  scientific  subjects.  Prof. 
Kuhlmaim  is  now  in  his  seventy-fifth  year,  but  is  still  able  to 
contribute  occasionally  the  results  of  new  investigations. 

Under  the  editorship  of  Heinrich  and  Gerhard  Rohlfs^ 
assisted  by  a  numerous  staff,  Hirschfeld,  of  Leipzig,  is  publish- 
ing a  new  quarterly  journal  under  the  title  Deutches  Archivfur 
Geschkhle  der  Medizin  und  medtzinische  Ceop-aphie, 

Thb  French  Academy  has  publisbed  the  seventh  edition  of  its 
"  Dictionnaire  de  la  Langue  Fran^aise."  Scientific  terms  have 
not  been  admitted  into  the  general  vocabulary  except  such  as 
are  now  in  common  use  and  cannot  be  ignored  even  by 
unscientific  persons. 

Mr.  Stab,  corresponding  member  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  at 
Smyrna,  reports  that  the  plague  of  field-mice,  or  rats,  has  again 
broken  loose,  and  that  they  are  wasting  the  fields  far  and  wide, 
digging  up  the  seed-corn,  and  devouring  all  they  can.  This  is 
the  plague  from  which  Homer  records  that  Apollo  Smynthins 
delivered  the  Greeks.  As  the  Smynthian  Apollo  no  longer  has 
believers,  Mr.  Stab  wishes  to  know  what  remedy  can  be  recom- 
mended. The  western  states  of  America  suffer  much  from  this 
pest. 

Dr.  a.  B.  Mbyer,  of  the  Royal  Zoological  Museum, 
Dresden,  writes,  in  answer  to  Mr.  Boulger's  inquiry  (vol.  xvii. 
p.  392),  that  the  reason  why  Mr.  W.  W.  Wood  did  not  send 
specimens  of  Navicnla  (Nature,  voL  xil  p.  514)  is,  that  he  died 
a  short  time  after  he  wrote  that  letter.  Dr,  Meyer  heard  this 
from  a  Manila  friend. 

A  Botanical  Exchange  Society  has  been  established  at 
Buda-Pesth  for  the  purpose  of  exchanging  specimens  of  the 
native  plants  of  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Croatia,  Sdavonia, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  of  Turkey  and  Russia,  for  those  of  other 
parts  of  the  world.  During  the  last  two  years  upwards  of  300 
botanists  have  joined  the  Association,  and  more  than  120,000 
specimens  have  been  distributed.  All  communications  and 
Applications  for  further  information  should  be  addressed  to  Herr 
Richter  Lajos,  Erzherzogin  Marie  Valerie  Gasse,  Nro.  i,  Buda- 
Pesth,  Hungary,  accompanied  by  a  subscription  of  4  marks,  or 
5  francs,  for  which  sum  an  exchange  of  100  specimens  will  be 
effected. 

A  lecture  will  be  delivered  in  the  Theatre  of  the  Royal 
Engineer  Institute,  Chatham,  at  five  p.m.,  en  April  3,  by  Prof. 
Huxley,  F.R.S.,  on  '*  The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals|; 
and  on  Collecting  and  Observing  in  Aid  of  the  Investigation  of 
the  Problems  connected  therewith." 

Electric  lights  are  becoming  very  common  in  Paris.  The 
Lontain  system  is  now  working  daily  at  the  Lyoiu  railway 
terminus  at  the  expense  of  the  Company.  M.  Jamin  has  pub- 
lished an  elaborate  article  on  the  subject  in  the  last  number  of 
the  Pevue  des  Deux  Afondes, 

The  tel^hooic  signal  invented  by  MM.  Henry  Brothers  was 

exhibited  at  a  lecture  ddivered  at  Montrouge  under  the  auspices 

of  the  Paris  municipal  authorities.    One  apparatus  was  placed 

at  the  Mansion  House  and  another  at  the  Public  School,  at  a 

istance  of  500  metres.    When  each  apparatus  was  used  as  a 


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NATURE 


\March  28,  187S 


signal  giver  and  connected  with  an  ordinary  telephone  as  receiver 
an  air  played  at  one  end  of  the  line  could  be  heard  by  the  whole 
audience  at  the  other  end.  The  Henry  signal  is  constmcted  to 
work  with  a  dry  element,  and  reqtdres  no  other  wires  than  those 
of  the  telephone. 

The  Midland  Naturalist  continues  to  keep  up  the  promise  of 
its  first  number.  No.  3,  for  March,  has  the  first  part  of  a  lecture 
by  Dr.  Cobbold  on  the  Parasites  of  Man,  and  among  other  inte- 
resting papers  we  may  note  those  of  Mr.  Robert  Gamer  on 
Edward  Forbes  and  his  Country,  and  the  Ray  and  Polseonto- 
graphical  Societies  :  An  Appeal,  by  Mr.  W.  R.  Hughes. 

Photographic  Rays  of  Light  is  the  somewhat  unhandy  title  of 
a  new  photographic  quarterly  publbhed  in  Baltimore,  U.S.A. 
The  contents  are  varied,  and  the  journal  seems  likely  to  prove 
useful  to  photographers.  The  first  number  contains  a  photo- 
graphic plate,  "  A  Study  in  Artistic  Photography." 

In  the  February  session  of  the  Berlin  Anthropologische 
Gesellschaft,  Dr.  Rahl-Riickhard  delivered  an  elaborate  address 
on  the  anthropology  and  ethnology  of  South  Tyrol,  a  subject 
which  has  hitherto  been  untouched.  This  region  has  been  swept 
over  by  so  many  tidal  waves  of  invasion  that  the  character  of  the 
original  inhabitants  has  hitherto  been  entirely  unknown.  In 
order  to  solve  the  problem  a  large  collection  of  skulls  was 
obtained  from  an  ancient  charnel-house  at  Meran,  and  submitted 
to  careful  measurements.  The  results  showed  that  they  belonged 
to  two  sharply-defined  classes.  The  first,  a  brachycephalic 
type,  was  evidently  identical  with  that  of  the  ancient  Rhxtians 
who  formed  the  aboriginal  population  at  the  advent  of  the 
Teutonic  tribes.  The  second  variety,  an  orthocephalic  type  with 
dolichocephalic  tendencies,  cannot  easily  be  classified.  It  is, 
however,  certain  that  it  does  not  coincide  with  the  cranial  type 
of  the  andent  Helvetians  in  the  neighbouring  parts  of 
Switzerland. 

At  the  vrorkshops  of  the  Michigan  Central  Railway  at  Jack- 
son, Michigan,  an  interesting  experiment  was  recently  made,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  very  shortest  time  in  which  a  locomotive 
engine  could  be  mounted  ready  for  use  from  the  finished  com- 
ponent parts.  Up  to  the  present  this  work  had  been  generally 
done  by  about  five  or  six  workmen  in  the  space  of  from  nine  to 
fourteen  days.  When  the  foct  became  known  that  a  Mr. 
Stewart  of  Jackson  had  done  the  work  with  fourteen  workmen 
in  twenty-five  hours,  and  a  Mr.  Edington,  with  the  same  num- 
ber of  workmen,  in  16)-  hours,  a  bet  between  these  two  gentle- 
men was  the  result ;  and  before  a  number  of  spectators  they 
eventually  both  proceeded  to  mount  a  locomotive  engine,  each 
being  assisted  by  fourteen  workmen,  and  having  all  the  parts  of 
which  the  engine  consbts  ready  at  hand.  They  accomplished 
the  task  in  the  remarkably  short  period  of  two  hours  and  fifty- 
five  minutes.  The  bet  was  won  by  Mr.  Edington,  who  finished 
one  minute  sooner  than  his  antagonist. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  a  Rhesus  Monkey  {Macacus  erythram)  from 
India,  presented  by  Mrs.  Baxter ;  a  Green  Monkey  {Cercopithe- 
cm  callitrichus)  from  West  Africa,  a  Vervet  Monkey  (Cercopithe- 
cus  lalandO)  from  South*Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  Jas.  Bennett ; 
a  Malayan  Bear  {Ursus  malayanus)  from  Malacca,  presented  by 
Mr.  S.  Palmer ;  a  Short-toed  Eagle  {Circaetus  gailicus).  South 
European,  presented  by  Mr.  H.  M.  Upcher  ;  a  Savigny*s  Eagle 
Owl  (Budo  escalaphus)  from  Persia,  presented  by  Dr.  J.  Huntly  ; 
two  Reindeer  [Rangifer  tarandus)  from  Lapland,  deposited ;  a 
Beccari's  Cassowary  (Casuaritis  beccarii)  from  South- East  New 
Guinea,  a  Plantain  Squirrel  (Sciurus  plantani)  from  Java,  a 
Spotted  Eagle  Owl  (Bubo  maculosus)  from  South  Africa,  a  One- 
streaked  Hawk  (Melierax  mono^ammicus)  from  West  Africa, 
two  Matamata  Terrapins  (Chelys  matamata)  from  the  Upper 
Anuizons,  an  Anaconda  (Eunectes  murinus)  from  South  America, 
received  in  exchange. 


MIMICRY  IN  BIRDS 


VX7E  have  received  two  interesting  contributions  to  tliis 
'•  subject  One  is  contained  in  The  New  Moon^  or 
Crichton  Royal  Institution  Literary  Register  for  November, 
iS73t  being  the  observation  on  a  starling  by  Dr.  Ciiditon^  the 
Medical  Superintendent. 

"Two  or  three  years  ago^"  he  states,  *'  in  accordance  with  our 
principle  of  encouraging  birds  to  become  denizens  of  the  grounds, 
we  put  up  a  few  boxes  tor  starlings.  One  of  these  was  (Saced  on 
the  window  sill  of  the  writer's  bedroom.  Two  years  ago  one  of 
these  birds  took  possession  of  the  aforesaid  box.  Evesjr 
morning,  for  two  or  three  hours,  he  perched  himself  on  an  iron 
railing,  erected  to  protect  flowers,  within  two  feet  of  the  window, 
and  there  executed  a  comic  medley  with  all  the  precision  and 
effect  of  a  finished  artiste.  The  attention  of  the  writer  was  first 
called  to  this  extraordinary  performsmce  by  having  his  window 
every  morning  surrounded  oy  what  appeared  to  be  a  general 
assembly  of  the  whole  tribe  of  Aves^  wild  and  tome.  The 
quacking  of  the  duck,  the  screech  of  the  lapwing,  the  eerie  notes 
of  the  moorland  plover,  and  many  others,  were  imiUted  with  a 
precision  worthy  of  Mimos  himself.  He  failed,  however,  to 
secure  a  mate  for  that  year.  Last  year  he  was  more  soccessfoL 
He  revisited  in  spring  his  former  cottage,  and  brou£ht  a  mate 
with  him.  The  usual  family  arrangements  were  made  with  the 
greatest  care  and  despatch,  when,  in  due  time,  a  brood  of  youn^ 
linguists  made  their  appearance.  During  the  hatching  season 
our  linguistic  friend,  every  morning  at  dawn,  resumed  Ins  per^ 
within  three  feet  of  my  bed,  and  for  two  or  three  hours,  he 
repeated  his  extraordinary  performance.  The  birds  imitated 
always  with  the  greatest  precision  are  the  hen,  duck,  goose,  lap> 
wiuK,  plover,  heron,  and  guU.  The  song  or  whbtle  of  many 
small  birds  are  also  imitated.  Tlie  only  human  note  imitated  is 
the  whistle  of  the  boy.  This  is  frequently  heard.  It  always 
begins  on  the  same  pitch,  and  passes  downward  through  a  major 
third,  forming  a  beautiful  musical  curve.  He  is  gradually  addmg 
to  his  vocabulary.  During  twelve  months  he  has  certainly 
added  the  cry  of  the  heron,  the  gabble  of  the  goosey  and  the 
cackle  of  the  hen. 

Mr.  H.  O.  Forbes  sends  us  the  following  instance  : — 
In  the  grounds  of  a  friend  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  a  t* 
colony  of  starlings  had  for  many  years  built  their  nests  in  Uie 
trees  in  boxes  placed  here  and  there  for  their  accommodatioo. 
The  children  of  the  house — all  quite  young  then — a  few  years 
ago — at  whose  presence  the  binis  showed  not  the  slightest 
alarm,  were  constantly  playing  about  close  to  the  nests,  and  of 
course  constantly  calling  each  other  by  name.  There  was  only 
one  girl  in  the  family,  called  Maggie^  and  as  she  was  a  great  pet, 
perhaps  her  name  was  oftener  mentioned  than  those  of  the  others. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  her  father  was  one  day  greatly  astonished  t^ 
hearing  his  daughter's  name  pronounced  in  exact  imitation  ot  the 
voice  of  one  of  her  brothers,  whom  he  knew  could  not  tie  near. 
For  a  moment  he  was  puzzled,  but  close  at  hand,  on  the  bough 
of  an  acacia  tree,  he  detected  the  mockiug-bird— a  common 
starhng— in  the  act  of  deception,  which  he  continued  to  practice 
often  uierwards. 

AMERICAN  SCIENCE 
HTHE  comparison  of  the  intensities  of  light  of  different 
*-  colours  has  long  been  considered  one  of  the  most  difficult 
of  photometric  problems.  In  the  February  number  of  the 
American  yournal  of  Science  and  Arts  Mr.  Rood  describes  a 
simple  method  of  making  this  comparison.     The  luminosity  of  « 

cardboard  painted  with  vermilion,  e.g,^  was  determined  tiins :—  ^ 
A  disc  of  the  cardboard  is  attached  to  the  axis  of  a  rotation 
apparatus,  and  smaller  discs  of  black  and  white  (in  sectors)  are 
fixed  on  the  same  axis,  so  that  by  varying  the  relative  proportions 
of  black  and  white  a  series  of  grays  can  be  produced  at  wilL 
The  compound  black  and  white  disc  is  first  arranged  to  give  a 
gray  decidedly  darker  than  the  vermilion;  this  tint  is  now 
graduallv  lightened  till  the  observer  becomes  doubtful  as  to  the 
relative  luminosities  of  the  red  and  gray  discs  ;  the  angle  of  the 
white  sector  is  then  measured.  Next  a  gray  decidedly  more 
luminous  than  the  vermilion  is  compared  wiUi  it,  and  diminished 
in  brightness  till  the  observer  again  becomes  doubtful,  when  a 
second  measurement  is  taken.  (The  manipulation  is  done  by  an 
assistant  without  the  experimenter  knowing  the  exact  black  and 
white  discs  chosen.)  From  a  numt)er  of  such  expenments  a 
mean  is  obtained,  which  (it  is  proved)  expresses  the  luminosity 
very  correctly. 


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In  an  interesdog  paper  on  the  glycogenic  function  of  the  liyer 
Mr.  Leconte,  after  stating  that  "  the  sole  object  of  this  function 
is  to  prepare  food  and  waste  tissue  for  final  elimination  by  longs 
and  kidnejrs  ;  to  prepare  an  easily  combostible  fuel,  liver-sugar, 
for  the  generation  of  vital  force  and  vital  heat  by  combustion, 
and  at  the  same  time  a  residuum  suitable  for  elimination  as 
urea/'  points  out  that  the  function  is  ntA  sugar-makings  as  usually 
supposed,  and  which  is  a  pure  chemical  process  and  dacensive 
metamorphosis,  but  glycogen-makiMg,  a  vital  function^  and  ascen- 
sive  metamorphosis.  In  diabetes  the  true  organ  directly  in  fault  is 
not  the  kidn^s  nor  the  lungSi  but  the  liver,  which  fails  to  arrest  the 
stigar  as  glycogen.  The  starch-making  (unction  in  plants  offers 
a  striking  analogy  to  the  function  under  consideration ;  for 
plants  change  soluble  forms  of  amyloids  (dextrin  and  sugar),  into 
the  insoluble  form  of  starch  (corresponding  to  glycogen,  which 
is  animal  starch),  and  store  it  away  for  future  use.  This  analogy 
is  more  remarkable  in  the  lower  animals  and  in  embryouic  con- 
ditions ;  the  function  often  residing  in  all  parts  in  such  cases  (as 
plants),  while  in  higher  animals  it  is  confined  to  the  liver.  And 
it  is  sluggish  animieds  that  accumulate  most  glycogen  in  their 
tissues.  Plants,  however,  store  away  the  starch  as  btulding 
materials ;  animals,  as  fuel  for  force-making.  Further  attention 
is  called  to  the  dose  relation  between  the  fimctions  of  the  liver 
and  kidneys.  As  we  descend  the  animal  scale,  we  find  cases 
{e,g,  insects)  in  which  the  same  organ  performs  both  functions. 
The  fact  of  a  large  percentage  of  glycogen  being  found  in  the 
tissues  of  entozoa,  which  do  not  ne^  any  internal  source  of  heat, 
is  regarded  by  Mr.  Leconte  as  a  striking  proof  (if  any  were  stiil 
needed)  that  the  prime  object  of  respiration  is  not  Acat-maJking^ 
hoXforcC'inctking,  Heat  is  only  a  concomitant,  often  useful,  but 
sometimes  useless,  and  even  distressing. 

Bir.  Trouvelot,  of  Cambridge,  furnishes  accounts  of  three 
celestial  phenomena  observed  by  him,  viz.,  undulations  in  the 
train  of  Coggia's  comet,  sudden  extinction  of  the  light  of  a  solar 
protuberance,  and  the  zodiacal  light  of  the  moon. 

The  atomic  weight  of  antimony  having  been  variously  given'.by 
MM.  Schneider,  Dexter,  and  Dumas  (using  different  methods), 
as  iao*3,  122*3,  and  122  severally,  Mr.  Jpsiah  P.  Cooke,  jun., 
was  led  to  a  fresh  study  of  the  subject  The  general  conclusion 
whidi  he  reaches,  after  a  very  patient  and  laborious  investigation 
(which  the  diemist  will  find  highly  instructive)  is  that  the  most 
probable  value  is  S^  =  120  when  S  =  32. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Linnean  Society,  March  7.— Dr.  Gwyn  Jeffreys,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  Thos.  Christy  exhibited  a 
series  of  fruits,  among  which  were  Chinese  quinces,  chayottes, 
and  a  remarkable  dtron  known  in  China  as  the  "claw  of 
Buddha."— Prof.  Ray  Lankester  also  brought  forward  and  made 
remarks  on  a  collection  of  fossil  walrus  tusks  {Trichecocbn 
Huxleyip] )  firom  the  Suffolk  crag,  and  sent  him  for  examination 
by  Mr.  J.  £.  Taylor,  of  the  Ipswich  Museum. — Examples  of  a 
variety  of  Helbc  virgata  were  likewise  shown  by  Mr.  Rich.— -On 
nndibrandiiate  mollv^ca  firom  the  eastern  seas,  by  Dr.  C.Colling- 
wood,  was  the  first  pa^  read.  He  remarks  that  residents 
searching  carefully  within  limited  areas  have  more  chance  of 
obtaining  new  and  interesting  forms  than  have  zoologists  or 
extensivdy  equipped  expeditions  who  but  pay  hurried  visits  to 
tropical  coasts.  Season  and  other  influences  nave  much  to  do 
witn  abundance  or  paud^  of  spedes  in  given  localities.  He  gives 
curious  instances  of  spedmens  of  nudibranchs,  isolated  in  a  dish 
of  sea-water  spontaneously  and  uncommonly  neatly  amputating 
the  region  of  their  own  mouth.  With  other  informaUon  the 
author  further  describes  sixteen  new  spedes,  illustrating  the 
same  with  coloured  drawings  from  nature.  Mr.  Thos.  Meelian's 
paper,  on  the  laws  governing  the  production  of  seed  in  Wistaria 
sinensis,  was  communicated  by  the  Rev.  G.  Henslow  in  the 
absence  of  the  author.  The  latter  alludes  to  the  fact  that  the 
Wistaria,  when  supported,  grows  amazingly,  but  is  seedless  $  on 
the  contrary,  the  self-supporting  so-called  "  tree- wistarias  "  pro- 
duce seeds  abundantly.  These  cases  illustrate  the  difference 
between  v^etative  and  reproductive  force ;  they  are  not  antago- 
nistic, but  supplement  each  other.  While  Wistaria  floweri 
freely  without  seedmg,  it  has  been  suppose  this  arises  from  the 
bees  not  cross-fertilising.  Mr.  Meehan  s:;bmits  data,  however, 
in  which  he  thinks  the  question  lies  rather  in  the  har* 
monious  relation  between  the  two  above  nutritive  powers  than 


with  insect  polleniKation. — ^The  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley  in  an 
examination  of  the  fungi  collected  during  the  Arctic  Expedition 
1875-76,  mentions  twenty-six  spedes  were  obtained,  all  deter- 
mined save  two.  Seven  are  new  spedes,  and  seventeen  already 
known  widely  distributed  forms.  The  Agariais  Fetldem  and 
Umula  Hartii  are  unusually  interesting. — A  paper  on  the  deve- 
lopment of  Filaria  sanguinis  hominis,  and  on  the  mosquito  con- 
sider^ as  a  nurse,  by  Dr.  P.  Manson,  was  read  by  Dr.  Cobbold. 
Dircussing  general  questions,  he  proceeds  to  show  that  the  female 
mosquito,  after  gorging  with  human  blood,  repairs  to  stagnant 
water  and  semi-torpiHly  digests  the  blood.  Eggs  are  deposited 
which  fltiat  on  the  water  and  become  the  familiar  "jumpers'*  of 
pools.  The  filariae  thus  enter  the  human  system  along  with  the 
drinking  water.  Dr.  Manson  got  a  Chinaman  whose  blood  was 
previously  ascertained  to  abound  with  filariae  to  sleep  in  a 
••mosquito  house."  In  the  morning  the  gorged  insects  were 
captured  and  duly  examined  under  the  microscope.  A  drop  of 
blood  from  the  mosquito  was  thus  found  to  contain  120  filarise, 
though  a  drop  from  a  prick  of  the  man*s  finger  yielded  only 
some  thirty.  The  embryo  once  taken  into  the  human  body  by 
fltdd  medium  pierces  the  tissues  of  the  alimentary  canal.  Deve- 
lopment and  fecundation  proceed  apace,  and  finally  the  filarial 
met  with  in  the  human  blood  are  discharged  in  successive  and 
countless  swarms,  the  genetic  cycle  being  thus  completed. — Dr. 
Cobbold,  on  his  own  behalf,  further  contributed  a  paper  on  the 
life  history  of  Filaria  bancro/tif  as  explained  by  the  discoveries 
of  Wucherer,  Lewis,  Bancroft,  Manson,  Sonsino,  and  others. — 
Mr.  Charles  C.  B.  Hobkirk,  of  Huddersfield,  was  duly  dected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Sodety. 

Chemical  Society,  March  7. — Dr.  Gilbert,  vice-president, 
in  the  chair. — The  following  papers  were  read  :---0n  some  new 
derivatives  of  anisoll,  bv  W.  H.  Perkin.  The  author  has 
obtained  (nthovinylanisoil  boiling  1 95^-200°  C,  sp.  gr.  at  15, 
I XX395  ;  orthoallylanisoll,  boiling  222-225*'  C.  sp.  gr.  at  15, 
'9972  ;  and  orthobutenylanisoil,  boiling  232^234^  C.  sp.  gr.  at 
15*  '9^17*  The  author  compares  the  physical  properties  of  the 
ortho-  and  para-  compounds ;  the  formeriboil  about  10''  lower, 
have  a  slightly  higher  specific  gravity,  and  crystallise  with  much 
greater  di^culty. — Note  on  the  action  of  ammonia  on  anthra- 
purpuiin,  by  W.  H.  Perkin.  The  author  has  investigated  the 
colouring  matters  produced  by  the  action  of  heat  on  an  ammo- 
niacal  solution  of^  anthrapurpurin  in  sealed  tubes  at  100^  and 
180°  C.  At  the  former  temperature  an  unstable  substapce  was 
obtained  dyeing  alumina  mordants  purple  and  weak,  iron 
mordants  indigo  blue.  At  180^  a  new  substance,  anthrapur- 
puramide,  was  formed,  which  does  not  dye  mordants.--On 
certain  polyiodides,  by  G.  S.  Johnson.  The  author  attempted 
without  success  to  prepare  a  compound  having  the  composition 
AgRIg,  or  a  similar  substance  having  thallium  in  place  of  silver; 
various  compounds  of  silver  and  potassium,  thallium  and  potas- 
sium, and  espedally  a  very  complicated  substance  containing 
lead,  acetic  add,  potassium,  and  iodine  were  formed  and 
analysed.  The  latter  substance  crystallises  in  square  prisms ; 
of  the  six  phases  two  have  a  dark  purple  and  four  a  greenish 
golden  reflection. — On  an  improved  form  of  wash-bottle,  by  T. 
Bayley.  The  object  of  this  contrivance  is  to  prevent  the  reflux 
of  steam  or  other  gases,  such  as  ammonia,  into  the  mouth  of  the 
operator,  without  losing  the  advantages  of  the  ordinary  wash- 
bottle.— On  the  preparation  of  glycolUc  add,  by  R.  T.  Plimpton. 
The  author  oideavoured  to  prepare  this  substance  by  the  method 
recommended  bv  Prof.  Church,  but  only  obtained  quantities  too 
small  for  analysl ,  using  two  ounces  of  oxalic  add. 

Edinburgh 
Royal  Society,  February  18. — Sir  William  Thomson  in  the 
chair.— -Prof.  Fleeming  Jenlun  read  a  paper  on  the  application 
of  the  graphic  method  to  the  determination  of  the  efficiency  of  a 
direct  acting  steam-engine.  His  results  show  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  determine  by  empirical  laws  the  efficiency  of  an  engine 
as  it  varies  with  every  change  in  the  rate  of  action,  the  point  at 
which  the  steam  is  cut  off,  &c.— Prof.  Tait  communicated  a  paper 
b^  Mr.  Alexander  Macfiurlane,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  on  the  disruptive 
discharge  of  dectridty.  The  difference  of  potential  required  to 
produce  a  spark  between  spheres  for  distances  up  to  15  centi- 
metres is  proportional  to  the  sqtiare  root  of  the  distance  between 
their  centres  and  between  parallel  plates  ;  it  is  a  hyperbolic  func- 
tion of  the  distance  between  them ;  for  a  constant  distance  it  is  a 
similar  fimction  of  the  pressure  of  the  gaseous  medium  for  a 
range  of  pressures  of  from  one  atmosphere  to  20  mm. — Mr.  j[. 
Y.  Buchanan*  of  the  Challenger^  read  a  paper  on  the  compressi- 


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NATURE 


[March  28,  1878 


bilitus  of  diitilled  water,  lea-watcr,  solatioa  of  chloride  of 
sodiom,  uid  mercury.  They  were  determined  by  instrumenti 
resembling  piezometen  immersed  in  the  sea  when  free  from 
currents,  the  approximate  pressure  being  ascertained  by  the 
soundio^-Une.  The  compressibilities  at  various  temperatures 
relative  to  that  of  distilled  water  were  ascertained  by  compres- 
sion in  a  powerful  Bramah  press.  The  compressibilities  being 
found,  these  same  instruments  were  used  for  measuring  depths 
of  the  sea  accurately  when  currents,  &a,  affected  the  indications 
of  the  sounding-line.  A  water  piezometer  was  found  to  be 
much  more  sensitive  to  pressure  than  to  temperature,  a  mer- 
cury one  very  sensitive  to  temperature  and  not  so  to  pressure. 
The  approximate  depth  was  ascertained  by  the  sounding-line,  to 
which  were  attached  the  two  puezometen.  From  the  indications 
of  the  line  and  of  the  mercurial  instrument  the  temperature  of 
the  bottom  was  approximately  determined.  This,  applied  to 
the  indication  of  the  water  instrument,  gave  the  depth  accurately, 
and  hence  the  true  temperature  was  found  from  the  mercurial. 
He  described  a  new  method  of  getting  the  compressibility  of 
glass. — Prof.  Crum  Brown  and  Mr.  A.  Blaikie  gave  a  paper  on 
the  decomposition  of  the  salu  of  trimethyl  sulphine  by  heat— 
Sir  Wm.  Thomson  communicated  extracts  from  letters  of  Prof. 
Quincke,  who  has  found  that  the  suHaces  of  glass  and  quartz 
which  have  been  for  some  time  cut,  change  very  much  in  their 
indices  of  refraction. — Prof.  Jenkin  mentioned  some  experiments 
by  Mr.  Gott  on  the  telephone,  which,  he  maintained,  completely 
confirm  ProC  Graham  Bell's  theory  of  the  telephone. 

Scottiah  Meteorological  Society,  Februaiy  i.— It  was 
stated  in  the  report  from  the  Council  that  the  Government  had 
paid  1,000/.  to  the  Society  for  past  services  rendered  by  it  to  a 
public  department ;  that  the  Society  has  102  regularly  observing 
stations,  in  addition  to  the  sixty  lighthouse  stations  on  the 
Scottish  coast,  and  a  large  number  <?  rain-observing  stations  ; 
and  that  during  tiie  past  four  months  seventy-five  new  members 
had  been  added  to  the  Society.— Mr.  Buchan  read  a  paper  on 
the  weather  of  1877,  more  special  attention  being  given  to  the 
rainfall,  the  paper  beinp  illustrated  by  thirteen  maps  coloured 
according  to  the  quantity  of  rain  wluch  fell  in  each  month  in 
different  parts  of  the  country.  The  maps  represented  in  a  strong 
light  the  mfluence  of  the  physical  configuration  of  the  land  on  the 
rainfrdi  in  relation  to  difilerent  winds,  both  as  regards  their 
direction  ai^  their  height  in  the  atmosphere. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  March  18.— M.  Fizean  in  the  chair. 
^The  following  papers  were  read :— Motion  of  translation  of 
cyclones ;  theory  of  a  "rain  motor,"  by  M.  Faye.  He  cites 
with  satisfaction  Prof.  Loomis's  recent  conclusion  from  observa- 
tions of  the  U.S.  Signal  Office,  that  "rainfrdl  is  not  esiential  to 
the  formation  of  areas  of  low  barometer,  and  b  not  the  principal 
cause  of  their  formation  or  of  their  progressive  motion"  ;  and  he 
regrets  that  the  theory  to  which  the  "  rain  motor  "  belongs  dies 
so  hard. — On  a  trombe  observed  at  sea,  in  December  last,  in  the 
StraiU  of  Mabuxa,  by  M.  Faye.  This  was  seen  to  descend  from 
the  clouds  and  penetrate  the  sea ;  the  water  rose  round  and  ex- 
teriorly to  the  trombe. — M.  Tisserand  was  elected  member  for 
the  section  of  astronomy  in  place  of  the  late  M.  Leverrier. — On 
the  measurement  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  by  MM. 
Comn  and  Bailie.  They  have  improved  their  apparatus  by  using 
four  (instead  of  two)  attracting  spheres  of  mercury,  and  dimi- 
nishing the  distance  of  attraction.  From  an  analysis  of  Baily's 
experiments,  and  with  regard  to  resistance  of  the  air,  they  show 
that  the  result  was  to  assign  too  high  a  vahie  for  the  mean  density 
of  the  earth.— On  the  marine  mollusca  of  Stewart  Island  (New 
Zealand),  by  M.  FilhoL  The  number  of  these  is  179. —Influence 
of  rest  and  of  motion  on  the  phenomena  of  life,  by  M.  Horvath. 
He  placed  in  gkss  tubes  a  liquid  favourable  to  multiplication  of 
bacteria,  and  containing  some  alive.  Some  of  the  tubes  were 
then  continually  agiuted,  while  others,  with  the  same  quantity 
and  at  the  same  temperature,  were  left  at  rest  There  was 
abundant  multiplication  in  the  latter,  none  in  the  former. — On 
interstitial  fibromas  of  the  uterus,  by  M.  Abeille. — On  improve- 
ments in  the  telephone,  by  M.  Navez.  He  daims  oriority  in 
use  of  the  Ruhmkorff  coil  (which  use,  however,  M.  du  Moncel 
carries  back  to  Gray).  For  transmitter  in  Edison's  system,  he  uses 
a  battery  of  ten  or  twelve  rundles  of  carbon.  In  the  transmitter  he 
uses  a  ^brating  plate  of  copper  covered  with  silver ;  in  the  receiver 
one  of  iron  doubled  on  one  of  brui,  and  the  two  soldered 
together.  Two  magnets  are  employed  in  the  receiver,  with  core 
and  bobbin  between,  &c— M.  Vulpian  presented  M.  Bernard's 


last  volume,  "  Le90iis  sur  let  Phenomteet  de  la  Vie  *^rwi-*«fi^ 
aux  Animanx  et  aux  V^^taux,  £utes  aux  Museum  d'Histoire 
Natnrelle." — Researches  on  absorption  of  ultra-violet  rays  by 
various  substances,  by  M.  Soret.  Inter  alia,  distilled  water,  with 
a  thickness  of  10  mm.,  is  considerably  less  transparent  than 
quartz,  and  stops  the  last  line  of  aluminium,  bnt  with  greater 
thickness  it  takes  the  first  rank,  and  it  may  be  considered  a 
solvent  of  almost  perfect  transparence.  Absorption  in  the  alti»- 
violet  is  subject  to  the  same  general  laws  as  in  the  visible 
spectrum.  Several  substances  are  mentioned  which  give  absorp- 
tion l>ands  in  the  uhra-violet. — On  a  new  telephone  caHed  the 
mercury  telephone,  by  M.  Breguet  This  is  on  the  principle  of  a 
Lippmann  electrometer.  Suppose  two  vessds  oontaining  mcrGary 
with  acidulated  water  above,  and,  dipping  in  the  latter  in  each 
a  tube  partly  filled  with  mercury  and  endmg  bdow  in  a  ctpiUary 
point  The  mercury  in  the  two  vesseb  is  connected  by  wire ; 
likewise  that  in  the  two  tubes.  On  speaking  over  one  tube  the 
air  vibra«ioiis  in  it  are  communicated  to  the  mercury,  wfaidi 
translates  them  into  variations  of  electromotive  force,  said  these 
variations  generate  oonesponding  vibrations  in  the  air-maus  of 
the  receiver.  The  practical  form  of  the  instrument  is  an  improve- 
ment on  this. — On  the  daily  oscillation  of  the  barometer,  hj  M. 
Renon. — Investigation  of  oxide  of  lead  in  the  hyponitrate  of 
bismuth  of  druggists,  by  M.  Camot  llie  hyponitrate  is  sooie- 
times  given  to  the  extent  of  10  to  20  grammes  per  daj,  and 
this  might  include  one  or  two  dedgnunmes  of  oxide  of 
lead. — Researches  on  gallium,  by  M.  Dupr^ — ^Action  of  oxone 
on  iodine,  by  M.  Ogier. — Researches  on  suspension  of  pheno- 
mena of  life  m  the  embryo  of  the  hen,  by  M.  Dareste.  An  egg 
taken  from  a  hatching  apparatus  after  two  days  and  rephced 
after  two  days  (the  heart  beats  having  quite  stopped)  devdope  a 
chick  as  usnat — Proofsof  the  parasitic  nature  of  anthrax;  idcnriry 
of  lesions  in  the  rabbit,  the  puinea-pig,  and  the  sheep^  by  M. 
Toussaint. — On  a  new  bioxide  of  manganese  ooaple^  by  M. 
Gaiffe.  This  consists  of  a  cartx>n  cyhnder  with  holes  parallel 
to  its  axis  filled  with  grains  of  biosddeof  manganese;  itis  placed 
in  a  glass  containing  water  and  about  20  per  cent  of  dilonde  of 
zinc. — On  three  boUdes  observed  in  January  and  Februsry  at 
Damblain  (Vosgcs)  and  Chanmont  (Elaute  Mame)«  by  M. 
Guyot 


CONTBNT8  Pags 

•«  SciBNTiric  WoaTHWS,"  XII.— WiLUAM  HASvav.  By  Proi;  T.  H. 

HUXLKY,  P.R.S. 4'7 

ZOllnbe's  SciBNTiPic  Papsrs.    By  Prot  P.  G.  Tait 4*0 

A  DicTioNASY  OP  Music    By  Dr.  W.  H.  Stome 4** 

Oua  BooKSaBLr:— 

Biffg»*Witlier'i  ''Pioneering  in  South  Bmiil     Three  Yeen  of 

Forest  and  Prairie  life  in  die  Prorinoe  of  Parani  " 4*J 

Larraas  to  thb  Editor  >— 

The   Phoooffiaph.— ProC    Flexming  Jamcm,    F.ItS  ;  J.  A. 

Swing 4*3 

The  Age  of  the  Sun's  Heat  in  Relataon  to  Geological  Evidence.— 

S.  IbLVBR  Preston 4«l 

English  Lake>d«reUings  and   Pile-stmctures  — Prof.  T.  Rupsar 

Tones.  P.R.S 4*4 

Selective  Dtscriminatioa  of  Insects.~V.  T.  C 4M 

The  Telephioe  as  a  Means  of  Measuring  the  Speed  of  High 

Breaks.— J.  E.  H.  Gordon 4*4 

Meteor.— James  Eluot -    .  4'S 

The  Bemuda  Liiard  — G.  Brown  Goode 4^ 

Landslip  near  Corfc.—C.  J.  Cooke 4*5 

Joachim  John  Monteiro # 4*5 

Sound  Colour-Figures.    By  Sbdlev  Taylor 4*0 

Replection  op  Light.     By  Alpred  M.    Mavee   and  Charles 

Bamhamd  {IVitk  Jlhuirmtimu) 4*7 

American    Geological    Surveys -Missouri.     By    Prof.   Arch. 

Geikie,  F.R.S. 43<- 

Our  Astronomical  Counnt :« 

Dun  Echt  Observatory  Publications,  Vot  II 43a 

The  Satellites  of  Mars 433 

The  Date  of  Easter 433 

Biological  Notes  : 

The  Agricultursl  Ants  of  Texas 433 

The  First  Stages  of  Development  in  Plants 4)3 

Rhiiopods  in  an  Apple  Tree 433 

llie  Aeronautic  Flight  of  Spiders 434 

Turcoman  Greyhounds 434 

GaOGEAPHlCAL  NoTBs:— 

China •    •             •        ...  434 

Pijwalsky's  Journey  to  Lob-Nor 434 

Mongoha  and  Siberia 435 

New  Guinea 435 

Lake  Nyassa  Region •  43S 

Indo-China 435 

Mr.  Stanley 435 

Noras 435 

Mimicry  in  Birds •  43* 

Amebican  Science •  438 

SocsETiBs  AND  Academies        ...  39 


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THURSDAY,  APRIL   4,   1878 


THE  SCOTTISH  UNIVERSITIES  COMMISSION 

THE  Report  of  the  Royal  Commissioners  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  Universities  of  Scotland,  together 
with  Evidence  and  Appendix,  has  just  been  issued.  We 
will  begin  our  reference  to  this  impoitant  document  with 
an  extract  (p.  49}  :—- 

''It  would,  we  consider,  be  a  misfortune  if  the  separate 
individuality  which  has  long  characterised  the  Scottish 
Universities  were  impaired,  and  if  the  spontaneous  and 
healthy  development  of  different  schools  of  thought  were 
rendered  impossible  by  laying  an  obligation  on  men 
of  original  genius  to  make  their  teaching  subservient  in 
all  its  details  to  the  requirements  of  an  extraneous  ex- 
amining authority.  The  admirable  influence  which  the 
Scottish  Universities  have  hitherto  exerted  upon  the 
people  of  the  country  has  been  due  not  only  to  the  pro- 
loDgtd  and  systematic  course  of  mental  discipline  to 
which  their  students  have  been  subjected,  but  to  the 
stimulus  and  encouragement  given  to  inquiring  minds  by 
distinguished  men  who  have  made  the  professorial  chairs 
centres  of  intellectual  life  ;  and  we  cannot  think  it  desir- 
able that  any  such  changes  should  be  made  as  would 
tend  to  lower  the  Universities  into  mere  preparatory 
schools  for  some  central  examining  board." 
.  These  words  are  peculiarly  noteworthy  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  when  attempts  at  centralisation  are  becom- 
ing more  rampant  than  ever:— and  when  the  general 
tendency  of  so-called  ^  Educational  Reform  "  is  to  substi- 
tute for  teaching  in  the  highest  sense,  an  almost  Chinese 
system  of  examinations,  with  their  inevitable  attendant 
Cram,  For  the  true  definition  of  Cram  is  ^  preparation 
for  examination,  and  for  examination  alone  " : — and  its 
varieties  are  infinite,  ranging  as  they  do  from  processes 
closely  resembling  the  manufacture  of  foie  gras  in  the 
live  bird,  to  those  which  are  adopted  in  dressing  diseased 
meat  for  the  market.  The  Scottish  Universities  have,  it 
seems,  been  hitherto  singularly  free  from  this  monstrous 
evil ;  and,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  remain  so.  The  Com- 
missioners who  are  now  dealing  with  our  great  English 
Universities  would  do  well  to  pay  particular  attention  to 
this  point,  for  Cram,  in  its  worst  forms,  is  by  no  means 
a  stranger  to  them.  The  true  cure  for  this  evil  is  very 
well  suted  in  the  Report  (p.  49)  :— 

"  The  examination  of  the  students  of  a  University  for 
their  degrees  by  the  Professors  who  have  taught  them  is 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  an  obvious  mistake,  il  not  abuse ; 
but  those  who  are  practically  acquainted  with  University 
wotk  will  probably  agree  with  us  that  the  converse  pro- 
position is  nearer  the  truth.  In  fact,  it  is  hard  to  conceive 
that  an  examination  in  any  of  the  higher  and  more  ex- 
tensive departments  of  literature  or  science  can  be  con- 
ducted with  fairness  to  the  student,  unless  the  examiners 
are  guided  by  that  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  extent 
and  the  method  of  the  teaching  to  which  the  learner  has 
had  access,  which  is  possessed  only  by  the  teachers 
themselves." 

Nothing  could  be  more  true,  or  more  happily  put. 
Let  all  University  instruction  (in  England  as  well  as  in 
Scotland)  be  real  teachinq^  such  as  is  (or  at  least  ought 
to  be)  given  by  Professors  or  Lecturers  and  their 
specially  chosen  Assistants,  and  let  the  teachers  be  in 
the  main  the  examiners.  Mere  speed  of  writing,  and 
other  similar  qualifications,  are  tmworthy  the  notice  of 
Vol  xvix.— Na  440 


scientific  men  or  scholars — and  certainly  ought  to  have 
no  influence  in  a  University  Examination,  at  least  until 
Universities  are  furnished  with  Professors  of  Caligraphy, 
Maintien,  &c,  attendance  upon  whose  lectures  shall  be 
made  compulsory.  It  is  right  and  proper  that  such 
things  should  be  looked  to  in  Civil  Service  Examinations 
and  the  like-  just  as  it  is  right  that  the  candidates  in 
some  of  these  should  be  submitted  to  medical  inspec- 
tion. But  who  ever  heard  of  medical  inspection  in  a 
University  examination  ? 

But  we  now  come  to  the  one  true  difficulty  in  this  part 
of  the  question : — How  to  choose  Professors.  On  this 
point  there  are  several  very  useful  hints,  both  in  the 
Report  itself  and  in  the  Evidence  appended.^  The  Com- 
missioners do  not  seem  very  decided  in  their  recommen- 
dations, so  many  widely  differing  and  yet  individually 
plausible  schemes  have  been  submitted  to  them.  But 
practically  the  patronage  seems  from  the  evidence  to  be 
very  fairly  bestowed  (/.^.,  in  very  good  hands)  in  the 
majority  of  the  Scottish  Universities.  The  main  exception 
is  that  of  Edinburgh,  where  several  of  the  most  important 
chairs  were  left  by  the  Universities  (Scotland)  Act,  1858, 
virtually  in  the  gift  of  the  Town  Council,  which  had  been 
up; to  that  date  the  supreme  authority  in  the  metropolitan 
University.  Such  a  state  of  things  is  barely  credible  to 
us  in  England.  For,  though  custom  has  familiarised  us 
with  great  schools  under  the  management  of  City  Com- 
panies, we  could  hardly  imagine  the  Mayor  and  Aldermen 
of  Cambridge  electing  to  the  Lowndean  or  Lucasian 
Professorship..  Yet  the  chairs  once  held  by  Madaurin, 
Black,  Leslie,  Dugald  Stewart,  &c.,  are  at  the  disposal  of 
a  Board  of  seven,  four  of  whom  are  nominated  by  the 
Edinburgh  Town  Council !  Instead  of  the  heroic  treat- 
ment which  such  malformation  demands,  and  which  would 
probably  have  made  opposition  impossible  ;  the  Commis- 
sioners propose  merely  to  create  two  additional  members 
of  this  Board,  so  as  to  place  the  Town  Council  represen- 
tatives in  a  minority ;  a  step  whose  timidity  may  only 
ensure  a  violent,  and  too  probably  a  successful,  resistance. 

It  appears  clearly  from  these  volumes  that  the  one 
great  want  of  the  Scottish  Universities  is  money.  Over 
and  over  again,  throughout  the  evidence,  this  is  painfully 
brought  out  Yet,  with  their  few  thousands  these  Uni- 
versities are  at  present  educating  many  more  students 
than.Oxford  andJCambridge  together,  each  of  them  with 
its  annual  hundreds  of  thousands.  And  the  education 
given  to  each  and  all  is  generally  of  the  highest  order, 
because  it  is  given  by  the  Professors  themselves.  How  many 
Cambridge  men  go  for  instruction  to  Cayley  or  Stokes— to 
Munro  or  Kennedy  ?  Of  names  like  these  Cambridge  is 
justly  proud.  But  unfortunately  such  teaching  as  these 
men  could  give  doestit  pay^  so  the  "  coach  "  is  resorted 
to  !  In  Scotland  the  Professors  are  the  teachers,  hourly 
accessible  to  all,  and  among  the  latest  additions  to  their 
ranks  we  find  the  names  of  Jebb  and  Chrystal  They 
will  do  more  good  to  students  now  in  one  year  than  they 
could  have  done  in  a  lifetime  spent  in  Cambridge! 
Comment  on  such  a  statement  is  needless. 

After  what  we  have  just  said,  the  reader  will  scarcely  be 

>  The  Analyus  or  Abstract  of  the  Evidence,  which  is  contained  along  iriih 
the  Report  it«elf  in  the  first  of  these  four  Volumes^  seems  to  be  exceeaiDgly 
well  executed  throughout.  This  is  one  of  the  specially  good  features  of  the 
woik,  and  Prof.  Berry,  the  Secretary  to  the  Commission,  deserras  high  credit 
for  it. 

A  A 


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{April  /^,  1878 


prepared  to  hear  that  one  great  reproach  to  the  Scottish 
University  system  is  commonly  thought  to  lie  in  the 
shortness  of  Uie  session,  as  it  is  called.  This  is  a  great 
point  with  would-be  University  reformers — "Go  to,  ye 
are  idle/  But  it  will  be  found,  on  examination,  that  the 
compulsory  working-time  per  annum  is  longer  at  the 
Scottish  than  atjthe  English  Universities  : — ^^ence  men 
go  down  regularly  whenever  term  divides.  In  Scotland 
the  majority  of  the  lectures  continue  uninterrupted  (except 
by  the  week  from  Christmas  to  New  Year)  from  the  end 
of  October  to  the  middle  of  April ;  and  by  that  time  both 
students  and  professors  require  some  relaxation,  especially 
those  who  have  to  teach  or  attend  the  summer  classes, 
which  occupy  the  whole  of  the  months  of  May,  June,  and 
July.  The  Commissioners  have  no  hesitation  on  these 
points,  and  meet  the  gnunblers  very  sharply.  They 
say  : — 

**  Without  saying  that  the  present  arrangement  of  the' 
academical  year  is  the  best  that  could  be  devised,  it  is 
that  which  long  experience  has  shown  to  be  the  most 
suitable  to  the  circumstances  of  Scotland.  Nor  is  it 
without  its  advantages  for  the  purposes  of  study.  To 
the  well-advanced  and  intelligent  the  vacation  affords  an 
opporttmity  for  reflection  and  self-culture,  so  as  to  prevent 
his  University  education  from  degenerating  into  a  mere 
acceptance  of  facts  and  conclusions  from  the  mouth  of 
his  teacher.  For  a  student,  indeed,  who  is  backward  or 
indolent,  the  leisure  afforded  by  the  long  vacation  may 
be  useless  and  hurtful  But  to  meet  the  case  of  such 
students  the  fitting  remedy  is  that  which  we  have  already 
stated,  the  institution  of  summer  tutorial  classes  whert 
these  do  not  now  exist,  and  their  extension,  if  necessary, 
where  they  do.** 

Our  readers  are  already  acquainted  with  the  Report  of 
the  Devonshire  Commission.  A  good  deal  of  the  evi- 
dence which  that  body  collected  has  been  taken  as 
repeated  before  the  present  Conmiissioners,  and  they 
adopt,  and  strongly  urge  the  carrying  out  of,  several  of 
the  recommendations  of  their  predecessors: — especially 
those  which  concern  grants  of  public  money  for  the  exten- 
sion of  buildings  and  appliances  for  Science  teaching  in 
the  Scottish  Universities.  It  is  well  that  this  has  been 
done,  for  attention  has  thus  been  recalled  to  one  of  the 
most  important  documents  connected  with  education 
which  has  ever  been  laid  before  Parliament,  and  which 
(probably  because  of  the  moneys  it  recommended  to  be 
granted)  has  been  practically  shelved  for  some  years. 

So  far  we  have  been  dealing  with  the  Report  as  a 
whole.  We  must  now  more  particularly  examine  it  as 
regards  Science,  And  this,  we  fancy,  will  be  allowed  to 
be  its  weakest  point.  The  Commission  was  exceedingly 
strong  on  the  literary, legal,  and  general-culture  side  :— but 
very  weak— numerically  at  least— K)n  the  scientific.  It  is 
no  disparagement  to  such  men  as  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair  and 
Prof.  Huxley  (who  were  \}xttwo  representatives  of  Science 
among  twelve  Commissioners)  to  say  that  they  cannot 
adequately  represent  all  science.  For  there  are  three 
great  divisions  of  Science,  the  Observational,  the  Experi- 
mental, and  the  Mathematical,  and  the  third  and  greatest 
of  these  was  altogether  unrepresented  on  the  Commission. 
This  was  a  very  grave  defect,  and  the  value  of  the  Report 
is  considerably  reduced  in  consequence. 

So  strong,  in  fact  overwhelming,  was  the  general  cul- 
ture side — including  Members  (or  ex-Members)  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  Scottish  (and  Indian)  Judges  and 


Advocates,  &C.— that  the  Report  cannot  fail  to  surprise  all 
readers  by  its  general  tenor.  For  there  can  be  no  question 
that  in  it  Science  has  managed  to  carry  the  day  against 
all  comers :— the  greater  the  pity  that  it  was  not  fully 
represented,  if  but  by  the  addition  of  a  single  mathe* 
matician.  To  make  room  for  him,  a  lawyer  might  ea^y 
have  been  spared. 

We  cannot  spare  space  for  more  than  one  instance 
of  the  proposed  revolution : — but  we  choose  an  important 
and  typical  one,  the  modifications  to  be  made  in  the 
mode  of  attaining  the  degree  of  M.A.  This  degree  has 
hitherto,  in  Scotland,  involved  a  certain  amount  of  know-  . 
ledge  of  each  of  the  following  seven  subjects  :~Latin, 
Greek,  Mathematics,  Logic,  English  Literature,  and 
Moral  and  Natural  Philosophy :— and  has  not  been  at  aU 
nearly  so  easy  to  attain  as  the  ordinary  (or  Poll)  d^ree  in 
the  English  Universities — which,  though  at  first  styled 
only  B. A.,  becomes  M.A.  by  mere  lapse  of  time  and  pay- 
ment of  additional  fees,  and  is  therefore  practically  the 
same  thing.  In  Scotland  it  is  now  proposed  that  there  shall 
be  five  distinct  avenues  (several  with  alternative  branches) 
to  this  degree  in  addition  to  the  present  one  : —  (p.  25) 

''  Moved  by  these  considerations,  we  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  to  secure  a  basis  of  general  culture  every 
student  proposing  to  proceed  to  the  degree  of  M.A.  should 
be  required  to  pass  a  '  First  Examination '  in  Latin, 
Greek,  Mathematics,  English,  and,  when  the  state  of 
education  in  the  schools  renders  it  practicable,  in  Ele- 
mentary, Physical  and  Natural,  Science.  This  examination 
should  be  passed  at  the  beginning  of  the  University  ses- 
sion,— either  the  winter  or  the  summer  session, — every 
student  proposing  to  graduate  being  required  to  pass  it, 
whether  he  may  have  been  previously  a  student  in  the 
University  or  not  With  some  modification,  the  examina-  ^ 
tion  might  be  so  adapted  as  to  apply  not  only  to  students  ' 
proceeding  to  a  degree  in  Arts,  but  to  those  also  intending 
to  graduate  in  Law^  Science,  or  Medicine.  In  the  case 
of  persons  proceedmg  in  Law,  we  think  that  an  examina- 
tion in  translating  from  French  or  German  should  be 
allowed  as  an  option  for  Greek.  Again,  in  the  case  of 
students  proposing  to  graduate  in  Science  or  Medicine, 
we  think  that,  as  some  knowledge  of  modem  languages 
is  most  important  to  them,  they  should  be  examined  either 
in  translatmg  from  French  and  German,  or  in  translating 
from  one  of  the  languages  and  in  Greek.  In  this  way,  it 
would  be  necessary  for  them  to  show  ability  to  translate 
from  at  least  one  modem  language. 

"  As  we  shall  explain  afterwards,  we  regard  this  as  the 
best  equivalent  for  an  entrance  examination.  Through  its 
application  to  all  proposing  to  graduate,  whether  pre- 
viously students  at  the  University  or  having  come  direct 
from  school,  a  salutary  refiex  action  on  the  schools  wiH 
be  secured  by  the  encouragement  given  to  them  to  send 
their  pupils  to  the  University  in  an  advanced  state  of  pre- 
paration. In  a  different  shape,  and  if  accompanied  by 
the  condition  of  exclusion  from  the  University  should  the 
candidate  fail  to  pass,  an  entrance  examination  would,  in 
our  opinion,  be  attended  with  injury  rather  than  benefit 

"Alter  passing  the  *  First  Examination,'  the  candidate 
for  a  degree  in  Arts  should  be  allowed  to  proceed  in  the 
present  course,  if  he  please,  and  as,  no  doubt,  many  will 
still  do.  If,  however,  he  prefer  to  take  a  different  course, 
we  propose  that  he  shoidd  be  allowed  to  take  an^  one  of 
the  five  following  departments  or  lines  of  study,  viz. : — 

"  I.  Literature  and  Philology. 
^  ^.         II.  Philosophy. 

III.  Law  and  History. 

IV.  Mathematical  Science. 
V.  Natural  Science. 


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'^The  branches  to  be  included  under  these  different 
departments  we  propose  should  be  as  follows : — 

"  I.  Literature  and  Philology  should  comprise  the  sub- 
jects of  Latin ;  Greek  ;  and  English  Literature  ;  together 
with  one  of  the  following  subjects,  viz. :  Comparative 
Philology ;  Sanskrit ;  Hebrew  ;  a  Modem  Language  ; 
Gaelic,  with  Celtic  Philology.  Questions  on  history  and 
geography  incidental  to  each  subject  should  form  part  of 
the  examination. 

'Ml.  Philosophy  should  include  Logic  and  Metaphysics ; 
Ethics  and  Psychology ;  and  the  Physiology  of  the  Ner- 
vous System.  The  first  two  subjects  are  understood  to 
embrace  the  History  of  Philosophy. 

'MIL  Law  and  History  should  include  Civil  Law; 
either  Constitutional  Law  or  International  Law;  and 
Political  Economy;  together  with  the  history  of  any 
one  of  the  following  groups,  viz. :  Greece  and  Rome  ; 
Modem  Europe ;  Eg^pt,  Syria,  Palestine^  and  Arabia ; 
India  ;  Ancient  and  Modem  America. 

'MV.  Mathematical  Science  should  embrace  Mathe- 
matics, pure  and  applied ;  Natural  Philosophy ;  and 
Physical  Astronomy. 

"  V.  Natural  Science  should  comprehend  four  groups, 
viz. : — (i)  Applied  Mathematics,  Natural  Philosophy, 
and  Chemistiy  ;  (2)  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry  and 
Physiology ;  (3)  Physiology,  Botany,  and  Zoology  ;  (4) 
Natural  Philosophv,  Chemistry,  and  Geology.  A  candi- 
date should  be  allowed  to  take  any  two  of  these  four 
groups ;  and  the  practical  working  of  the  arrangement 
would  be  that  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  would 
be  compulsory,  while  any  option  would  be  given  between 
the  matnematical  and  the  morphological  sciences. 

''  It  may  be  explained  that  the  subjects  of  examination 
in  the  sciences  comprehended  in  Department  V.  are 
such  as  are  required  in  the  first  Bachelor  of  Science  exa- 
mination as  detailed  in  the  Calendars  of  the  Universities  of 
Edinburgh  and  London  (1877).  The  purpose  we  have  had 
in  subdividing  the  subjects  of  Department  V.  into  groups 
has  been,  in  Uie  Rrst  place,  to  ensure  a  sound  acquaint- 
ance with  Physics  and  Chemistry,  which  lie  at  the  foun- 
dation of  all  natural  science ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  so 
much  being  secured,  to  give  fair  play  to  individual  intel- 
lectual tastes  and  peculiarities.  It  is  rare  to  find  a  man 
equally  capable  of  dealing  with  long  chains  of  abstract 
reasoning,  or  with  experimental  research,  and  of  observ- 
ing and  remembering  the  analogies  and  differences  of 
form.  The  scientific  aptitude,  when  strongly  marked,  is 
either  for  mathematics,  for  experimental  investigation,  or 
for  morphology,  rarely  for  all  three. 

"In  reg^d  to  the  scientific  subjects,  mere  book  know- 
ledge should  not  suffice ;  practical  work  in  the  laboratory 
should  be  essential" 

We  are  much  mistaken  if  this  Report  does  not  produce 
great  irritation,  amounting  in  many  quarters  to  white  heat 
at  least,  and  determined  opposition.  The  dry  husks  of 
speculative  "  philosophy  "  which,  feebly  existent  even  in 
the  present  day  (like  Bunyan's  Pope  and  Pai^an)^  formed 
so  large  an  ingredient  in  the  mental  pabulum  of  Scottish 
students  in  the  past,  are  doomed  to  '*  cease  from  troub- 
ling*:— ^but  they  will  die  hard.  In  their  place  will 
come  the  still  oppressed  truths  of  modern  science,  and 
the  legitimate  speculations  which  Experience  and  mathe- 
matical power  alone  can  enable  the  human  mind  to 
originate  and  develop. 

SUN-SPOTS  AND  RAINFALL 

THE  paper  which  we  print  from  Mr.  Meldrum  this 
week,  appearing  as  it  does  within  a  few  days  of  the 
debate  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  Indian  Famine 
expenditure,  is  one  which  should  be  interesting  to  many 


besides  professed  meteorologists.  It  w'dl,  for  one  thing, 
enable  even  the  most  unscientific  among  us  to  see  the 
manner  in  which  men  of  science  are  striving  to  arrive  at 
the  truths  of  nature  the  while  the  average  Member  of 
Parliament  only  refers  to  their  labours  in  order  to  sneer 
at  them  even  when  their  results  may  elucidate  a  question 
of  high  national  importance. 

Granting  that  the  Member  for  Cambridge  comes  up  to  the 
average  of  our  legislators,  let  us  see  how  he  distinguished 
himself  on  Tuesday.  In  his  indictment  of  the  policy  of  Sir 
John  Strachey,  he  was  unwise  enough  to  touch  on  the  ques- 
tion of  the  connection  between  sun-spots  and  the  Indian 
rainfall.  'Mt  appeared  that,  according  to  the  astronomer 
to  the  government  at  Madras,  the  absence  of  several 
important  spots  {sic)  on  the  sun's  disc  was  connected  with 
the  retarded  rainfall."  It  is  clear  from  this,  we  think,  that 
Mr.  Smollett,  in  his  ignorance  of  aU  things  solar,  instead 
of  taking  a  little  trouble  to  inform  himself,  has  built 
up  a  mental  image  of  the  physics  of  our  central 
luminary,  by  likening  it  to  the  house  of  which  we  will 
grant  again  he  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  units.  The 
cause  of  the  sun-spot  minimum  appears  to  him  to  be  that 
at  this  time  ''several  important  spots'' — let  us  say  the 
SmoUetts  of  the  sun— are  in  the  tea-room  or  at  dinner, 
anyhow  they  are  absent  from  the  division,  and  the  opposi- 
tion carries  the  day — that  is,  if  Mr.  Pogson  is  right,  but  he 
proceeds  to  show  that  Mr.  Pogson  is  wrong. 

Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  as  was  to  be  expected,  put  this 
matter  right  before  the  house.  He  stated  that  '^it  was 
established  that  famines  in  India  came  at  periods  when 
sun-spots  were  not  visible.  Out  of  twenty-two  great 
observatories  of  the  world  it  had  been  shown  in  eighteen 
that  the  minimum  rainfall  was  at  times  when  there  were 
no  spots  on  the  sun.  That  was  as  true  in  Edinburgh  as 
in  Madras,  in  St  Petersburg  as  in  Australia.  It  was 
therefore  essential  for  the  Government  of  India  to  take 
that  into  consideration  in  calculating  as  to  when  famines 
were  likely  to  occur.  The  Secretary  of  State  for  India 
had  acted  wisely  in  sending  out  photographers  to  the 
Himalayas  to  take  photographs  of  the  sun,  and  having 
seen  some  of  those,  he  was  sorry  to  say  that  on  none 
which  he  had  seen  were  spots  to  be  detected."  As  Dr. 
Playfair  is  not  in  the  habit  of  making  statements  without 
getting  up  his  case,  we  may  be  thankful  to  Mr.  Smollett 
for  the  sneer  which  called  Dr.  Playfair  up. 

Mr.  Meldrum's  communication  contains  a  very  con- 
densed reference  to  his  memoir  on  Sun-spots  and  Rain- 
fall recently  presented  by  him  to  the  Meteorological 
Society  of  the  Mauritius,  a  memoir  which  goes  far  to 
complete  one  portion  of  that  magnificent  edifice,  the 
erection  of  which  was  foreseen  by  Sir  Wm.  Herschel  at 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

In  this  important  paper  Mr.  Meldrum,  than  whom 
there  exists  no  higher  authority,  states  that  the  result  of 
his  seven  years'  work  has  been  to  convince  him  that  the 
connection  between  sun-spots  and  rainfall  is  as  intimate 
as  that  between  stm-spots  and  terrestrial  magnetism ;  and 
that  having  regard  to  the  number  of  cycles  at  our  disposal 
we  should  be  as  justified  in  rejecting  the  diurnal  oscilla- 
tion of  the  barometer  as  the  curve  along  the  hills  and 
hollows  of  which  the  maximum  and  minimum  rainfalls 
of  the  world  lie. 

This  result  of  course  will  be  received  with  incredulity 


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{April  \,  1878 


by  many — and  for  many  reasons.  In  the  first  place  the 
enormous  variation  in  the  solar  activity  is  a  fact  only 
fiiUy  realised  by  very  few.  Men  grown  old  in  the  service 
of  science  are  as  a  rule  as  little  anxious  to  receive  new 
ideas  as  men  grown  old  in  any  other  of  the  world's  activi- 
ties, and  further  and  more  than  this,  in  the  case  of  many 
there  is  what  has  recently  been  happily  termed  "a 
paralysis  of  the  imagination  "—a  thing  far  removed  from 
scientific  caution — ^which  may  and  indeed  certainly  would 
do  much  harm  to  scientific  progress  if  those  afflicted  with 
it  had  any  chance  of  having  the  exclusive  say  in  the 
matter. 

Now  that  things  have  arrived  at  this  stage  it  is  well  to 
bring  to  the  front  some  extracts  from  those  papers  of  Sir 
Wm.  Herschel's  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made, 
to  show  the  wonderful  prescience  of  the  man,  and  also  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  valuable  time  which  has  been  lost  by 
the  neglect,  during  three-quarters  of  a  century,  to  take  in 
hand  the  work  from  which  he  predicted  such  a  rich  harvest 
of  benefits  would  follow. 

His  first  reference  to  the  changes  going  on  in  the  sun 
was  made  in  x8oi.*     He  writes  : — 

'*  On  a  former  occasion  I  have  shown  that  we  have  great 
reason  to  look  upon  the  sun  as  a  most  magnificent  habit- 
able globe ;  and,  from  the  observations  which  will  be 
related  in  this  paper,  it  will  now  be  seen  that  all  argu- 
ments we  have  used  before  are  not  only  confirmed,  but 
that  we  are  encouraged  to  go  a  considerable  step  further 
in  the  investigation  of  the  physical  and  planetary  con- 
struction of  the  sun.  The  influence  of  this  eminent  body 
on  the  globe  we  inhabit  is  so  great  and  so  widely  diffused 
that  it  becomes  almost  a  duty  for  us  to  study  the  opera- 
tions which  are  carried  on  upon  the  solar  surface.  Since 
light  and  heat  are  so  essential  to  our  well-being,  it  must 
certainly  be  right  of  us  to  look  into  the  source  from 
whence  they  are  derived,  in  order  to  see  whether  some 
material  advantage  may  not  be  drawn  from  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  the  causes  from  which  they  originate. 

•*  A  similar  motive  engaged  the  E^ptians  formerly  to 
study  and  watch  the  motions  of  the  Nile  and  to  construct 
instruments  for  measuring  its  rise  with  accuracy.  They 
knew  very  well  that  it  was  not  in  their  power  to  add  one 
single  indi  to  the  flowing  waters  of  that  wonderful  river ; 
and  so,  in  the  case  of  the  sun's  influence,  we  are  likewise 
fully  aware  that  we  shall  never  be  able  to  occasion  the 
least  alteration  in  the  operations  which  are  carried  on  in 
the  solar  atmosphere.  But  if  the  Egyptians  could  avail 
themselves  of  the  indications  of  a  good  Nilometer,  what 
should  hinder  us  from  drawing  as  profitable  consequences 
from  solar  observations  f  We -are  90t  only  in  possession 
of  photometers  and  thermometers,  by  which  we  can 
measure  from  time  to  time  the  light  and  heat  actually 
received  from  the  sun,  but  have  more  especially  tele- 
scopes, that  may  lead  us  to  a  discovery  of  the  causes  which 
dispose  the  sun  to  emit  more  or  less  copiously  the  rays 
which  occasion  either  of  them  ,•  and  if  we  should  even 
fail  in  this  respect,  we  may  at  least  succeed  in  becoming 
acc|uainted  with  certain  symptoms  or  indications,  from 
which  some  judgment  might  be  formed  of  the  temperature 
of  the  seasons  we  are  likely  to  have. 

"Perhaps  our  confidence  in  solar  observations  made 
with  this  view,  might  not  exceed  that  which  we  now  place 
on  the  indications  of  a  good  barometer  with  regard  to  rain 
or  fair  weather;  but  even  then  a  probability  of  a  hot 
summer,  or  its  contrary,  would  always  be  of  greater 
consequence  than  the  expectation  of  a  few  fair  or  rainy 
days. 

'  *  Obcervatlons  tending  to  investiKate  the  Nature  of  the  Sun  in  order  to 
find  the  Causes  or  Symptonu  of  its  Variable  Emission  of  Light  and  Heat ; 
with  Remarks  on  the  Use  that  maypossibly  be  drawn  from  Solar  Observa* 
tioni."    By  William  Herschd,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  read  April  16^  iSox. 


''  It  will  be  easily  perceived  that  in  order  to  obtain  such 
an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  sun  as  that  which  is  required 
for  the  purpose  here  pointed  out,  a  true  information  must 
be  first  procured  of^  all  the  phenomena  which  usoally 
appear  on  its  surface.** 

He  then  gives  those  wonderful  observations  which 
make  this  paper  the  basis  of  our  knowledge  of  the  smaller 
units  of  the  sun's  surface,  and  then  sums  up  as  follows  : — 

*'  From  these  tiro  last  sets  of  observations,  one  of  which 
establishes  the  scarcity  of  the  luminous  clouds,  while  the 
other  shows  their  great  abundance,  /  think  we  may 
reasonably  conclude  that  there  must  be  a  manifest  dif- 
ference in  the  emission  of  light  and  heat  from  the  sun,  ^ 
It  appears  to  me,  if  I  may  be  permitted  the  metaphor, 
that  our  sun  has  for  some  time  past  been  labouring  under 
an  indisposition,  from  which  it  is  now  on  a  fair  way  df 
recovering. 

"An  application  of  the  foregoing  method,  however, 
even  if  we  were  perfectly  assured  of  its  being  weil 
founded^  will  still  remain  attended  with  considerable  dif- 
ficulties. We  see  how,  in  that  simple  instrument  the 
barometer,  our  expectations  of  rain  and  fair  weather  are 
only  to  be  had  bv  a  consideration  of  many  circumstances 
besides  its  actual  elevation  at  the  moment  of  inspection. 
The  tides  also  present  us  with  the  most  complicated 
varieties  in  their  greatest  elevation,  as  well  as  in  the  time 
when  they  happen  on  the  coasts  of  different  parts  of  the 
globe.  The  simplicity  of  their  cause,  the  solar  and  lunar 
attractions  we  might  have  expected,  would  have  precluded 
every  extraordinary  and  seemingly  discordant  resulcs. 

"  In  a  much  higher  degree  may  the  influefice  of  more  or 
less  light  from  the  sun  be  liable  to  produce  a  great  variety 
in  the  severity  or  mildness  of  the  seasons  of  different 
climates  and  under  different  local  circumstances^  yet  when 
many  things  which  are  already  known  to  affect  the  tem- 
perature of  different  countries  and  others  which  future 
attention  may  still  discover,  come  to  be  properly  com*  n 
bined  with  the  results  we  propose  to  draw  from  solar  i 
observations,  we  may  possibly  find  this  subject  less 
intricate  than  we  might  apprehend  on  a  first  view  of  it 

"If for  instance  we  should  have  a  warm  summer  in 
this  country  when  phenomena  observed  in  the  sun  indicate 
the  expectation  of  it,  I  should  by  no  means  consider  it  as 
an  unsurmountable  objection,  if  it  were  shown  that  in 
another  country  the  weather  had  not  been  so  favourable. 

*'  And  if  it  were  generally  found  that  our  prognostication 
from  solar  observations  held  good  in  any  one  given  place 
I  should  be  ready  to  say  that  with  proper  modifications 
they  would  equally  succeed  in  every  other  situation. 

"Before  we  can  generalise  the  influence  of  a  certain 
cause  we  ought  to  confine  our  experiment  to  one  per- 
manent situation,  where  local  circumstances  may  be 
supposed  to  act  nearly  alike  at  all  times  which  will 
remove  a  number  of  difnculties." 

This  was  in  April ;  in  May  he  read  another  paper.' 

"  Having  brought  the  solar  observations  relating  to  the 
symptoms  of  copious  emission  of  the  light  and  heat  of  the 
sun  to  the  2nd  of  March  I  gave  them  continued  in  this 
paper  to  the  3rd  of  May.  It  will  be  seen  that  my  expecta- 
tions of  the  continuance  of  the  symptoms  which  1  supposed 
favourable  to  such  emissions,  have  hitherto  been  sufH- 
ciently  verified ;  and  by  comparing  the  phenomena  I  have 
reported  with  the  corresponding  mildness  of  the  season, 
my  arguments  will  receive  a  considerable  support. 

"  I  have  given  the  following  observations  without  delay 
as  containing  an  outline  of  the  method  we  ought  to  pursue 
in  order  to  establish  the  principles  which  have  been  pointed 
out  in  my  former  paper.    But  we  need  not  in  future  be  at  a 

I  *'  Addidonal  Observations  tending  to  Investigate  the  Symptoou  of  the 
Variable  Emissions  of  the  Light  and  Heat  of  the  Sua  ;  with  Trials  to  set 
aside  darkening  Glasstt  by  rnmsmitting  the  Solar  Rayi  through  Liquids, 
and  a  few  Remarks  to  Remove  Objections  that  might  be  made  against  some 
of  the  Argumenu  contained  in  the  f(mn«r  Paper,"  by  ?^iam  Her^el 
LL.D. ,  F.  R.  S.    Read  May  X4,  i8ox. 


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loss  how  to  come  at  the  truth  of  the  current  temperature 
of  this  climate  as  the  thermometrical  observations  which 
'        are  now  regularly  published  in  the  Philosophical  Transac- 
^        tions  can  furnish  us  with  a  proper  standard  with  which 
the  solar  phenomena  may  be  compared.    This  leads  me 
\       to  remark  that  although  I  have  in  my  first  paper  suffi- 
[        ciently  noticed  the  want  of  proper  criterion  for  ascer- 
,        taining  the  temperature  of  the  early  periods  where  the 
sun  has  been  recorded  to  have  been  without  spots,  and 
'        have  also  referred  to  future  observations  for  showing 
whether  a  due  distribution  of  dry  and  wet  weather  with 
other  circumstances   which    are   known    to  favour  the 
vegetation  of  corn,  do  or  do  not  require  a  certain  regular 
'       'emission  of  the  solar  beams,  yet  I  might  still  have  added 
that  the  actual  object  we  have  in  view  is  perfecdy  inde- 
pendent of  the  result  of  any  observations  that  may  here- 
after be  made  on  xht  favourable  or  defective  vegetation  of 
grain  in  this  or  in  any  other  climate    ....  It  may  be 
hoped  that  some  advantage  may  be  derived   even  in 
agricultural  economy,  from  an  improved  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  the  sun  and  of  the  causes  or  symptoms  of 
its  emitting  light  or  heat  more  or  less  copiously." 
It  perhaps  will  be  news  to  many  that  the  idea  of  a 
\        possible   connecttion    between    sun-spots    and    rainfall 
I        which  has  been  represented  as  a  modem  idea,  may  really 
,        be  credited  to  a  man  whose  chief  work  was  done  in  the 
last  century. 

DARWIN'S  ''DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF 
FLOWERS'* 

The  Different  Forms  of  Flowers  on  Plants  of  the  same 
Species,  By  Charles  Darwin,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  (London: 
John  Murray,  1877.) 

THIS  is  another  of  the  remarkable  series  of  volumes 
in  which  Mr.  Darwin  has  given  us  the  extremely 
valuable  results  of  his  researches  in  the  vegetable  side  of 
biology.  Mr.  Darwin's  method  of  investigation  would 
in  itself  be  a  very  interesting  subject  for  consideration. 
It  is,  however,  sufficient  to  point  out  that  its  characteristic 
feature  is  the  combined  attack  upon  a  given  problem 
from  both  its  morphological  and  physiological  aspects, 
\        This  method  Mr.  Darwin  employs  with  consummate  st;c- 

>  cess,  and  in  turning  over  the  pages  of  the  present  book— 
'        a  considerable  part  of  which  has  been  before  the  world 
'        for  more  than  a  decade  without  being  materially  im- 
pugned—one is  almost  distracted  from  the  intrinsic  in- 

[        terest  of  the  facts  and  spectilations  by  the  sagacity  with 
r        which  the  research  is  carried  on,  and  the  skill  with  which 

>  the  results  are  marshalled  for  our  information.  It  is 
peculiarly  worthy  of  notice  in  the  present  volume  how  the 
reader  is  allowed,  in  studying  Mr.  Darwin's  pages,  to  form 
his  own  hypotheses  in  explanation  of  the  facts,  only  to  be 
compelled  in  due  course,  as  the  narrative  proceeds,  to 
admit  that  such  hypotheses  are  utterly  untenable.  There 
is  no  impression  so  curious  as  to  find  oneself  so  distinctly 
under  the  hands  of  a  master,  and  to  realise  that  the  calm 
flow  of  the  argument  proceeds  over  the  dibris  of  objec- 
tions and  difficulties  which  are  found  to  be  already  com- 
minuted as  soon  as  one  attempts  to  give  them  any  definite 
form. 

It  would  be  quite  impossible  to  treat,  in  the  short  space 
at  our  disposal,  all  that  calls  for  notice  in  the  present 
volume.  Commencing  with  a  short  introduction,  the 
body  of  the  book  falls  into  three  divisions.  The  first 
treats  of  heterostyled  plants,  and  contains  in  a  connected 
form  the  substance  of  Mr.  Darwin's  various  papers  com- 


municated to  the  Linnean  Society.  The  second  and 
third  divisions  are  much  shorter,  and  treat  respectively  of 
the  passage  of  hermaphrodite  into  dioecious  plants,  and  of 
cleistogamic  flowers. 

As  has  been  already  remarked,  Mr.  Darwin's  researches 
on  what  are  now  termed  heterostyled  plants  have  been 
common  scientific  property  for  many  years,  and  have 
filtered  down  into  the  current  text-books.  The  seventh 
and  eighth  chapters  are  therefore  the  essentially  new  part 
of  the  book,  and  these  we  shall  more  particularly  con- 
sider. 

The  vast  majority  of  flowering  plants  are,  as  is  well 
known,  hermaphrodite,  that  is  to  say,  they  contain  within 
the  same  florsd  envelopes  both  male  and  female  organs* 
The  governing  principle  in  the  morphological  adaptations 
of  flowers  is  apparendy  to  escape  the  obvious  consequences 
of  such  juxtaposition  and  evade  self- fertilisation.  This  is 
eflected  either  by  theirbeingdichogamic— that  is  the  sexual 
organs  in  any  one  flower  maturing  at  different  times,  or 
by  their  bemg  entomophilous— that  is  calling  in  the  inter- 
vention of  insects  to  carry  the  pollen  of  one  flower  to  the 
stigma  of  another,  or  by  their  being  heterostyled — that  is 
by  the  flower  being  modified  in  two  or  three  ways, 
admitting  of  a  certain  nunber  of  reciprocal  modes  of 
fertilisation  which  are  legitimate,  and  of  others  which  are 
distinguished  as  illegitimate,  and  are  more  or  less  sterile. 

Each  of  these  modes  of  avoiding  self-fertilisation  prac- 
tically sets  up  a  functional  separation  of  the  sexes,  and  it 
might  seem  that  the  cases  in  which  this  separation  is 
structurally  accomplished  are  its  natural  sequence.  Mr. 
Darwin  points  out,  however,  very  conclusively  that  this 
is  by  no  means  the  case. 

"  There  is  much  difficulty  in  understanding  why  her- 
maphrodite plants  should  ever  have  been  rendered 
dioecious.  There  would  be  no  such  conversion  unless 
pollen  was  already  carried  regularly  by  insects  or  by  the 
wind  from  one  individual  to  the  other,  for  otherwise  every 
step  towards  dioeciousness  would  lead  towards  sterility. 
As  we  must  assume  that  cross-fertilisation  was  assured 
before  an  hermaphrodite  could  be  changed  into  a  dios- 
cious  plant,  we  may  conclude  that  the  conversion  has  not 
been  eflected  for  the  sake  of  gaining  the  great  benefits 
which  follow  from  cross-fertilisation." 

Mr.  Darwin  is  led  to  find  an  explanation  in  the  advan- 
tage to  the  plant  in  the  diminished  strain  of  producing 
sexual  organs  of  only  one  kind  instead  of  both.  And 
the  process  of  manufacturing  dioecious  plants  is  one 
which  can  be  actually  seen  in  process.  The  cultivated 
strawberry  under  the  influence  of  the  American  climate 
is  a  marked  instance.  In  such  cases  the  hermaphrodite 
state  can  be  traced  into  the  dioecious  with  every  inter- 
mediate grade.  The  ultimate  fate  of  heterostyled  plants 
is  perhaps  to  be  converted  into  dioecious  ones,  and  in  this 
instance  the  change  would  be  more  immediate  and  with 
fewer  connecting  links.  The  functional  diversity  abready 
exists  and  the  corresponding  suppression  of  the  sexusd 
organs  is  all  that  is  needed  to  render  it  complete. 

The  concluding  chapter  on  cleistogamic  flowers  cer- 
tainly does  not  yield  in  interest  to  any  preceding  portion 
of  the  book.  The  existence  of  these  curiously-modified 
structures  has  long  been  known,  but  it  is  only  within  the 
last  twenty  years  that  they  have  been  attentively  studied, 
and  Mr.  Darwin's  account.is  a  very  masterly  discussion  of 
all  that  has  been  written  on  a  very  puzzling  subject,  tested 


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and  enriched  by  his  own  observations  and  experiments. 
As  their  name  implies,  these  flowers  never  open,  and  in 
some  cases  they  have  been  passed  over  as  abortive  bud- 
conditions  of  flowers  of  the  normal  conspicuous  type. 
Their  petals  are,  of  course,  superfluous,  and  are  usually 
completely  suppressed,  or  nearly  so,  the  stamens  and 
pistil  are  also  much  reduced  in  size,  but  though  morpho- 
logically reduced,  are  physiologically  fully  developed,  and 
such  flowers  are  very  fertile.  In  fact,  in  some  instances, 
as  in  Viola  canina^  the  production  of  seed  is  principally 
dependent  upon  them,  the  ordinary  flowers,  from  want  of 
pollen,  or  the  absence  of  the  visits  of  bees,  rarely  producing 
capsules. 

At  first  sight  the  suggestion  seems  a  tempting  one,  that 
in  these  curiously  degraded  flowers,  in  which  all  the 
laboriously-acquired  adaptations  for  cross-fertilisation  are 
entirely  discarded,  we  have  a*  reversion  to  a  less  highly 
organised  ancestral  type.  And  this  may  still  to  some 
extent  be  true,  though  Mr.  Darwin  shows  that  they  "  owe 
their  structure  primarily  to  the  arrested  development  of 
perfect  ones."  In  some  cases,  as  Oliver  has  shown  in 
Campanula  colorata,  and  Scott  in  Eranihemum  am- 
biguum,  the  same  plant  bears  as  well  as  cleistogamic  and 
perfect  flowers,  intermediate  forms  between  the  two. 
What  is,  however,  still  more  significant,  is  that  the 
cleistogamic  flowers  are  themselves  sometimes  the 
starting  point  of  structural  adaptations,  to  efiect  more 
perfectly  the  self-fertilisation  which  ordinary  flowers 
have  been  so  marvellously  modified  to  avoid.  Thus,  in 
Specularia  perfoliata  the  rudimentary  corolla  is  modified 
into  a  perfectly  closed  tympanum,  and  in  Viola  canina 
the  pistil  is  much  modified.  Mr.  Darwin,  however,  has 
shown  that  cleistogamic  flowers  do  not  invalidate  the 
general  principle  as  to  the  disadvantage  in  the  long  run 
of  self-fertilisation.  After  two  years'  growth,  crossed 
seedlings  of  Ononis  minutissima  beat  those  produced 
from  cleistogamic  flowers  in  mean  height  in  the  ratio  of 
100  to  88. 

It  seems  that  the  end  really  gained  by  cleistogamic 
flowers  is  the  production  of  a  large  supply  of  seeds  with 
little  expenditure  ;  the  plant  does  the  work  more  cheaply 
and  makes  the  numbers  pay.  It  is  curious  to  reflect  what, 
relatively  speaking,  an  enormous  expense  a  plant  puts 
itself  to  in  such  a  case  as  Viola  in  producing  in  the  spring 
a  large  number  of  conspicuous  flowers  furnished  with 
nectaries  and  all  the  complicated  apparatus  needed  to 
insure  cross-fertilisation,  with  the  result,  perhaps,  of  se- 
curing a  very  few  cross-fertilised  capsules.  Having  made 
these  sacrifices,  it  proceeds  during  the  summer  to  insure 
the  production  of  a  sufficient  crop  of  less  [costly  seeds  by 
the  inconspicuous  aid  of  cleistogamic  flowers. 

Mr.  Darwin,  with  characteristic  ingenuity,  adduces 
another  instance  of  this  balancing  of  conflicting  advan- 
tages in  the  eflbrt  to  secure  before  all  things  the  perpetua- 
tion of  the  race.  A  seed  in  the  ground—to  parody  a 
common  proverb— is  worth  a  good  many  exposed  to  de- 
predation above  it ;  and  though  dissemination  is  a  gain, 
secure  sowing  is  no  less  important  Many  cleistogamic 
plants,  therefore,  having  deliberately  given  up  the  advan- 
tage of  cross-fertilisation,  give  up  those  attaching  to 
change  in  the  place  of  growth,  and  bury  their  fruits  even 
before  they  are  mature.  This  is  the  case  with  Viola 
odoraia  and  hirta  and  Oxalis  Acetosella,    In  other  in- 


stances— and  Mr.  Darwin  will  pardon  the  remark  that  he 
has  scarcely  dwelt  on  the  distinction — the  buried  fruit  is 
the  product  of  subterranean  flowers.    This  is  the  case 
with  Vandellia  sessiflora^  Linaria  spuria^   Vicia  ampki- 
carpoSj  Lathy rus  amphicarpus^  and  Amphicarpcta^  the 
three  last  cases  belonging  to  Leguminosce,    The  distinc- 
tion is  important  because,  while  flowers  produced  under 
such  abnormal  circumstances  as  on  subterranean  branches 
must  be  necessarily  cleistogamic,  it  by  no  means  follows 
that  aerial  flowers  which  subsequently  bury  their  fruits 
should  also  be  cleistogamic,  and  Mr.  Darwin  very  properly 
excludes  the  well-known  earth-nut  (Arachis  hypogcBo)  from  ' 
his  list,  as,  though  the  ovaries  are  buried,  the  flowers  are 
conspicuous.    In  such  cases  it  is  possible  that  the  com- 
parative humidity  of  the  soil  favours  the  maturation  of  the 
capsules,  and  especially  so  with  small  herbaceous  plants  in 
dry  climates.    Mr.  Bentham  in  fact  has  pointed  out  in  the 
case  oi  Helianthemum  that  a  prostrate  habit  which  brings 
the  capsules  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  ground  post- 
pones their  maturity,  and  so  favours  the  seeds  attaining  a 
larger  size.    Cyclamen  (in  every  species  except   C.  per- 
sicum\  by 'the  spiral  contraction  cf  its  peduncle,  bringi 
its  capsules  down  to  the  surface  of  the  soU,  though  it  does 
not  appear  to  actually  bury  them,  as  some  authors  have 
supposed  to  be  the  case.    If  this  is  advantageous  we  need 
not  wonder  that  the  local  amphicarpic  races  of  Lathyrus 
saliva  (of  which  there  seem  to  be  several)  found  in  such 
dry  countries  as  Portugal  on  the  one  hand,  and  Ssrria  on 
the  other,  should  acquire  the  habit  of  bearing  actually 
subterranean  fruit 

The  steps,  however,  by  which  such  a  specialised  mode 
of  burying  the  fruit  has  been  attained  as  exists  io  d 
Arachis^  are  not  easy  to  follow.  Of  few  plants  have  • 
the  structure  and  habit  been  more  misimderstood. 
Descriptive  writers,  from  Rumphius  to  Endlicher,  have 
represented  it  as  having  two  kinds  of  flowers — and 
as  being  in  fact  what  Mr.  Darwin  would  call  andro- 
monoecious.  It  really,  however,  appears  according  to 
the  careful  examination  of  Poiteau  and  Bentham  to 
have  only  flowers  of  one  kind.  These  are  apparoatly 
stalked,  but  the  long  stalk  is  in  reality  the  attenuated 
calyx  tube,  which  is  a  very  peculiar  feature  for  a  legu- 
minous plant.  At  the  bottom  of  the  calyx  tube  is  the 
ovary  which,  after  fertilisation,  is  gradually  carried  away 
by  the  development  of  a  gynophore  or  subovarian  stalk. 
It  is  the  elongation  of  this  gynophore — and  not  as  Mr. 
Darwin  states,  by  an  oversight,  the  flower-stems  draw- 
ing the  flower  beneath  the  ground— which  buries  the 
ovary.  The  careful  observations  of  Correa  de  Mello 
show  that  though  the  gynophore  may  become  three  to  four 
inches  long,  the  ovary  does  not  enlarge  till  it  is  buried, 
which  confiirms  what  has  been  said  above  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  habit  generally.  The  details  of  the  process  by 
which  the  gynophore  manages  to  bury  the  ovary  would 
be  a  most  interesting  subject  for  investigation. 

The  obscurity  which  has  attached  to  Arachis  has  also 
extended  to  Voandseia^  another  leguminous  plant  culti* 
vated  like  Arachis  in  hot  countries  for  its  subterranean 
pods.  Mr.  Darwin  remarks  that  the  perfect  flowers  are 
said  never  to  produce  fruit  (pp.  327  and  341}.  Correa  de 
Mello,  however,  never  succeeded  in  detecting  the  cleisto- 
gamic flowers,  and  declares  that  it  is  '*  placed  bey<md  all 
doubt  that  the  hermaphrodite  petaliferous  flowers   da 


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produce  fruit''  ^  Perhaps  therefore  Voandzeia  may  have 
to  be  expunged  from  the  list  of  cleistogamic  plants,  while 
on  the  other  hand  Krascheninikowia^  according  to  a 
thoughtful  criticism  of  Mr.  Darinn's  book  in  the  Journal 
of  Botany y  must  be  restored  to  it 

It  may  also  be  noted  that  according  to  Bentham  Mar- 
tinsia  was  a  genus  founded  on  a  deistog^amic  state  of 
Clitoria  glycinoidis ;  Cologania  also  should  possibly  be 
added  to  the  list  since  Zuccarini*s  Martia  mexicana 
appears  to  be  an  apetalous  condition  of  some  species  of 
the  genus. 

Although  the  habit  of  producing  cleistogamic  flowers  is 
pretty  widely  diffused  amongst  flowering  plants  it  is 
locally  concentrated  in  particular  groups.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  in  the  case,  as  Mr.  Darwin  has  pointed  out, 
of  Maipighiacect  and  Acanthacea^  and  amongst  Legu- 
minosce  in  the  Glycinea,  The  genus  Viola  is  remarkable 
in  this  respect ;  it  is  rich  in  cleistogamic  species  except 
in  the  section  Melanium,  to  which  V,  tricolor  belongs. 
In  this  species,  besides  conspicuous  flowers  adapted  for 
self-fertilisation,  smaller  and  less  conspicuous  flowers 
adapted  for  self-fertilisation  are  produced.  These  are  not 
closed,  but,  as  Mr.  Darwin  points  out,  "  they  approach  in 
nature  cleistogamic  flowers,"  and  though  they  difler  in 
being  produced  on  distinct  plants  they  are  perhaps  des- 
tined to  be  as  completely  modified  as  the  self-fertilising 
flowers  of  other  sections  of  the  genus. 

The  question  as  to  the  causes  predisposing  to  the  pro- 
duction of  cleistogamic  flowers  is  one  of  very  great  inte- 
rest In  the  first  place  Mr.  Darwin  points  out  that  the 
larger  proportion  of  known  cases  belong  to  plants  with 
irregular  flowers,  that  is,  to  plants  whose  flowers  have 
been  adapted  for  insect  cross-fertilisation.  Cleistogamy 
in  this  light  is  a  resource  to  fall  back  upon  when  the 
elaborate  adaptations  for  making  insects  do  their  work 
fail,  as  they  seem  to  do  more  or  less  in  Viola,  It  is  a 
remarkable  contrast  that  in  heterostyled  flowers,  which 
are  absolutely  dependent  upon  insects  for  their  legitimate 
fertilisation,  irregular  flowers  are  extremely  exceptional, 
the  adaptation,  as  far  as  it  goes,  being  so  complete  that 
anything  further  in  that  direction  is  superfluous. 

Four  cleistogamic  genera  are  normally  wind-fertilised, 
and  this  shows  that  the  cause  alluded  to  above  must  be 
a  subordinate  one.  Mr.  Darwin  urges  with  much  force  as 
the  most  potent  agency,  the  unfavourable  influence  of 
climatic  changes.  From  the  time  of  Linnaeus,  it  has  been 
observed  that  exotic  plants  may  be  fertile,  though  their 
flowers  have  never  attained  proper  expansion,  that  is  to 
say,  for  the  nonce  they  have  become  cleistogamic  and 
self-fertile.  The  same  thing  occurs  on  a  large  scale  with 
Juncus  bufonius,  in  Russia,  which  in  some  districts  never 
bears  perfect  flowers,  while  in  Liguria,  Viola  odorata  never 
bears  cleistogamic  ones.  It  is  perhaps,  however,  doubtful 
whether  winter-flowering  plants  are  absolutely  sterile, 
since  the  well-kno?m  Chimonantkus^  whose  name  re- 
cords its  habit,  is  known  to  fruit,  though  sparingly,  in 
this  country.  The  evidence  is,  however,  strong  enough 
to  render  it  highly  probable  that  plants  which  are  normally 
cross-fertilised,- are  driven  into  the  abasement  of  cleisto- 
gamy when  their  geographical  limits  are  extended  beyond 
the  limits  not  favourable  to  their  receiving  visits  from  ap- 
propriate insects,  or  to  theirproperlyexpandingtheir  flowers. 

'  ycur::.  Lin.  SoC.,  Bot  xi.  p.  as6. 


Here  our  conmients  must  cease,  content  for  our  part  if 
they  attract  a  few  more  readers  to  a  most  fascinating 
research. 

LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 
[  The  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspondents.  Neither  can  he  undtrtake  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of^  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications. 
[  The  Editor  urgefttly  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  letters  ai 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com^ 
munications  containing-  interesting  and  novel  facts ^ 

Elements  of  Articulate  Speech 

As  a  corollary  to  the  interesting  obsenration  with  the  phono- 
CTaph  recorded  by  Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin  and  Mr.  Ewing  in  the 
mst  number  of  Nature,  will  you  allow  me  to  point  out  that 
every  capital  letter  of  the  Greek  alphabet  except  r  and  P  is 
actually  (either  as  written  or  when  turned  through  an  angle  of 
90°)  a  reversible  or  a  reduplicate  symbol. 

With  reeard  to  gamma,  although  the  capital  is  not,  the  small 
letter  (7)  tt  reversible ;  and  as  to  P  (or  R,  which  is  another 
ancient  Greek  form  of  it),  many  facts  seem  to  show  that  by 
itself  it  does  not  as  a  rule  represent  a  complete  part  of  articu- 
late speech;  witness  its  frequent  reduplication  m  Greek,  the 
aspirate  so  often  employed  with  it  both  in  Greek  and  LAtin,  and 
the  way  in  which  it  is  frequently  omitted,  as  if  of  no  importance, 
from  LAtin  words  ordinarily  spelt  with  it  The  French  or  Italian 
pronunciation  of  this  letter  amounts  to  a  reduplication  in  the 
English  ear,  while  the  English  pronunciation  cm  it  amounts  to 
its  omission  altogether  in  the  ear  of  a  Frenchaum,  an  Italian,  or 
a  Scotchman. 

In  the  Roman  alphabet  F,  G,  L,  P,  and  R,  are  the  excep- 
tions ;  much  might  be  said  about  each  of  these,  but  I  will  con- 
tent myself  by  saying  that  L  b  obviously  only  an  apparent 
exception,  as  it  is  easify  derived  from  A.        W.  H.  CoR field 

10^  Bolton  Row,  Mayfair,  March  30 

Phoneidotcopic  Representation  of  Vowels  and 
Diphthongs 

I  HAVE  just  obtained  the  two  following  results  with  the 
phoneidoscope ' : — 

1.  If  a  vowel  be  steadily  sung  on  a  single  note,  a  constant 
colour-figure  is  produced  ;  but  if  the  vowel  be  spoken  in  the 
ordinary  conversational  tone,  a  change  of  figure  occurs  before 
the  sound  ceases.  The  slurring  alteration  of  pitch  which  takes 
place  in  pronouncing  a  single  vowel  is  thus  rendered  perceptible 
by  the  eye. 

2.  When  a  diphthong  is  slowly  intoned,  two  distinct  figures 
successively  present  themselves,  which  are  found  on  trial  to  be 
those  correspondiog  to  its  constituent  vowel-sounds.  The  two- 
fold nature  asserted  in  the  word  *' diphthong"  receives  by  this 
experiment  a  visible  illustration.  Sedley  Taylor 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  April  i 


The  Southern  Drought 

You  ask  in  last  week's  Nature  (p.  436)  for  information 
respecting  the  drought  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  A  few  days 
ago  I  received  letters  from  Samoa  and  the  Gilbert  Islands  telling 
rae  of  its  severity  there.  Droughts  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
the  Gilbert  Islands,  but  my  correspondent  (a  native  of  Samoa) 
tells  me  they  have  had  an  extraordinary  one  there,  which  com- 
menced in  1876,  and  which  continued  up  to  the  date  of  his 
letter— December  4,  1877.  He  sajrs  many  of  the  people  have 
died  from  starvation  in  consequence. 

A  letter  from  a  missionary  who  has  been  forty  years  in  Samoa 
contains  the  following :— '*  We  have  had  the  greatest  drought  I 
have  ever  known."  The  Samoan  Islands  are  wonderfully  fertile, 
and  even  during  what  is  called  the  dry  season  it  is  rarely  that 
more  than  a  fortnight  passes  without  rain.  The  atmosphere  is 
always  full  of  moisture,  and  there  are  very  heavy  dews  at  night, 
so  that  the  vegetation  never  gets  burnt  up,  except  the  drought 
be  very  extrao^inary.  Now,  however,  my  correspondents  speik 
of  scarcity  of  food  in  those  most  fertile  islands. 

Blackheath,  March  29  S.  J.  Wuitmeb 

[Can  our  correspondent  favour  us  with  the  date  of  the  last 
droughts  or  series  of  droughts? — Ed.] 


«  See  Nature,  vol.  xvU.  p.  4*6,  note  a. 


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{April  ^,   1878 


Cumulative  Temperatures 

In  reference  to  my  letter  upon  the  above  snbject,  which  was 
publi^ed  in  your  columns  of  February  21  last,  I  have  received 
ftom  Prot  de  CcndoUe,  of  Geneva,  a  communication  dated 
March  11,  in  which,  he  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  his 
"  Geographic  Botaniqne  nusonne,"  which  was  published  as  far 
back  as  the  year  1855,  he  recorded  the  suggestion  (made  by  him- 
self some  (en  years -previously)  of  the  employment  of  an  uncom- 
pensated pendulum  fitted  wiUi  a  suitable  roistering  apparatus 
for  the  determination  of  cumulative  temperatures  in  connection 
with  the  application  of  meteorology  to  agriculture  and  to  the 
geography  of  plants. 

In  the  above  work  (vol  i.  pp.  58  and  59)  the  following  pas- 
sage occurs: — 

**  Les  chiffires  les  plus  importants  ^  connattre  pour  les  applica- 
tions de  la  m^^rologie  \  ragricultttre  et  ^  la  e^ograi^e  bo- 
tanique  sont,  pour  chaqne  loadit^,  les  sommes  de  temperature 
au  dessus  de  +  i%  +  2°,  de  •!-  3<*,  etc.,  par  ann^  saison,  mois 
on  fraction  de  mois. 

"  Pourrait-on  obtenir  ces  valeurs  directement  par  un  instru- 
ment spiral,  qui  dispenserait  At.  recourir  \  des  calcuk  oom- 
pliqu^,  souvent  impracticablcs,  dans  le  syst^me  actnel  des 
observations  m^teorologiques  ?  C'est  une  question  que  je 
soumets  aux  physiciens.  EUe  m'a  pr^ccup^  depuis  longtemps, 
mais  je  suis  loin  de  poss^er  les  connaissances  thc^retiques  et 
pratiques  n^essaires  pour  arrivir  \  une  solution.  J'entrevois  la 
possibility  de  construire  deux  sortes  d'instraments  qui  rdpon- 
draient  aux  conditions  d^r^ ;  je  les  mentionne  'sans  pouvoir 
indiquer  les  details  d'ex^cution. 

**  L'un  de  ces  instruments  serait  la  pendule-thermom^tre  de 
M.  Edmond  Becquerel,  modifi^  de  telle  sorte  que  les  battements 

rr  une  temperature  inf^rieure  ^  0°,  ou  ceux  infer ieures  ^  +  1% 
+  2*,  etc,  ne  seraient  pas  comptes." 

'*  Un  autre  syst^me  serait  celui  de  thermom^trographes  mar- 
quant  les  temperatures  supericures  ^  td  ou  tel  d^e,  et  settle- 
ment celles-]^." 

To  this  the  following  foot-note  was  added  : — **  II  y  a  plus  de 
dixans  je  fit  des  demarches  aupr^  de  deux  astronomes,  M. 
Gautier,  i  Geneve,  et  M.  Arago,  ^  Paris,  pour  appliquer  la 
pendule  ^  la  mesure  des  temperatures.  Je  proposals  une  piendule 
aussi  dilatable  que  possible  sous  Taction  de  la  temperature  et  un 
xmipteur  adapte  a  Tinstrument  .  .  .  Les  honorables  savants 
.jixquels  je  m  etais  adresse  penserent  qu*il  serait  trop  difficile  de 
soustraire  Tinstrument  ^  diverses  causes  d'erreurs.'* 

From  the  above^  which  was  written  twenty-three  years  ago,  it 
is  clear  that  to  the  eminent  botanist  must  be  accorded  the  merit 
of  priority  not  only  of  the  suggestion  but  also  of  the  publication 
of^tbe  idea  of  the  method  of  averaging  temperatures  by  observa- 
tions of  the  pendulum,  while  to  Mr.  Stanley  must  be  given  the 
credit  of  embodying  that  idea  in  a  practical  form  and  constructing 
an  instrument  bas^  upon  the  principle. 

St.  Lconard£-on-Sea,  March  16  Conrad  W.  Cookb 


The  Wasp  and  the^Spider 

I  HAD  anticipated  in  my  own  mind  Mrs.  Hubbard's  suggestion, 
and  only  the  great  pressure  on  your  space  prevented  my  meeting  it 
in  my  previous  letter.  In  the  first  place,  my  recollection  is  that 
the  spider  was  of  a  kind  that  spins  no  web  ;  like  our  own  grey 
hunting  spider,  familiar  in  the  summer  on  walls  and  palings.  In 
the  next  place  no  species  of  spider,  except  the  gossamers, 
habitually  leaves  this  fine  line  behind  it.  It  is  in  all  cases  a 
voluntary  act,  preceded  by  a  perceptible  pause,  and  pressure 
downwards  of  the  extremity  of  the  body  to  attach  the  end, 
whether  for  suspension,  or  in  the  process  of  forming  the  web. 
Even  the  gossamers  are  no  exception  to  this  rule ;  only  in  their 
case  the  line,  in  summer  and  autumn,  is  more  continuously  run 
out  as  a  point  of  departure  for  their  mysterious  aerial  flights.  A 
house-spider,  for  instance,  as  he  runs  across  the  floor  or  across 
your  hand,  leaves  no  fine  line  behind  him.  The  tiny  gossamer 
has  an  amazing  command  of  the  material,  but  in  the  larger,  web- 
spinning  kinds  it  is  far  from  inexhaustible,  and,  at  all  events,  an 
apparently  useless  waste  is  not  in  the  ordinary  economy  of 
nature.  Moreover,  in  the  case  in  question  the  spider  was  keenly 
aware  he  was  pursued,  and  would  not  willingly  leave  so  fatal  a 
clue  on  his  track.  Mr.  Merlin,  who  is  on  the  list  for  1878  as 
our  consul  for  the  Piraeus,  is,  however,  a  competent  observer, 
and  could  settle  the  question.  Henry  Cecil 

Brpf^ner,  Bournemouth,  March  23 


SUN-SPOTS  AND  RAINFALL 

BY  the  overland  mail  which  arrived  here  0|i ,  January 
12, 1  received,  through  the  courtesy  of  Dr.  W,  W. 
Hunter,  two  copies  of  a  pamphlet  on  "  The  Cydc  of 
Drought  and  Famine  in  Southern  India,**  a  copy  of  the 
Nineteenth  Century  for  November,  and  a  copy  of  a  letter 
on  '*  The  Rainfall  in  the  Temperate  Zone  in  CoanectioQ 
with  the  Sunspot  Cycle,**  published  in  Nature  (voL  -xm^ 

Having  previously  read  notices  of  the  pamphlet  and 
being  desirous  to  see  it,  I  reauested  its  author  to  favonr 
me  with  a  copy.    His  rainfall  cycle  for  Madras  was,  so  ^ 
far  as  I  could  learn  from  newspaper  reports,  identical 
with  a  cycle  which  I  had  discovered  long  before.      In 
my  official  report  for  1875,  which  was  printed  and  cir- 
culated in  1876,  I  gave  a  risumi  of  the  results  at  which  I 
had  arrived  from  1872  down  to  the  close  of  1875,  and 
stated  Uiat  an  examination  of  returns  from  144  stations  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  as  well  as  of  the  variations  in 
the  levels  of  European  rivers,  had  led  me  to  the  con- 
clusion that  there  was  a  rainfall  cycle  of  the  same  dora- 
tion  as  the  sunspot  cycle  and  nearly  coincident  with  it, 
both  the  sunspots  and  the  rainfall  attaining  a  minimam 
in  the  eleventh,  first,  and  second  years  of  the  cycle,  and 
a  maximum  in  the  fifth  year.   Hence  when  I  learned  from 
an  abstract  of  Dr.  Hunter's  results  for  Madras  that  in  his 
"  cycle  of  eleven  years  both  the  sunspots  and  the  rainfall 
I  each  their  minimum  in  the  group  consisting  of  the 
eleventh,  first,  and  second  years,  and  that  both  the  rain- 
fall and  the  sunspots  there  increase  till  they  both  reach 
their  maximum  in  the  fifth  year,**  I  was  curious  to  know 
how  his  cycle  had  been  made  out ;  for  although  I  had  not 
the  Madras  rainfall  for  each  year  from  18 13  to  1872,  yet 
from  the  falls  in  the  years  of  maximum  and  minimum 
sunspots  which  I  got  in  the  Proceedings  and  TroHsacttons 
of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  (vol  xxxii.),  I  in- 
ferred that  the  Madras  rainfall  was  not  quite  so  favour- 
able to  my  hypothesis  as  the  rainfalls  of  some  other 
places.    As,  however,  I  might  be  wrong,  I  applied  for  a 
complete  table   of  the    Madras    rainfidl,    but   without 
success. 

A  remarkable  rainfall  cycle  for  Bombay,  nearly  coin- 
cident with  the  sun-spot  cycle,  had  been  previously  ascer- 
tained, and  a  similar  cycle,  though  not  so  well  marked, 
had  also  been  found  by  comparing  the  yearly  mean  rain- 
falls of  Anjarakandy,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  and  Nagpnr 
with  Wolf's  relative  sun-spot  numbers. 

I  have  now  the  whole  history  of  the  Madras  cycle 
before  me.  The  author  of  the  pamphlet  says  that  sifter 
many  experiments  he  hit  upon  a  method  of  working  out 
a  cycle.  This  method  consisted  in  commencing  with 
1876,  taking  backwards,  as  far  as  the  register  extended, 
periods  of  eleven  years  each,  and  then  finding  the  mean 
rainfall  for  each  series  of  years  in  the  common  period 

The  results  obtained  for  Madras  by  this  method  are  to 
a  considerable  extent  in  conformity  with  those  which  I 
had  found  for  different  countries  ;  but  there  are  discre- 
pancies, one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  that  the 
rainfall  in  the  second  year  of  Dr.  Hunter's  cycle  is  greater, 
instead  of  less,  than  the  mean  rainfall  Still  there  is  a 
certain  amount  of  coincidence.  But  as  the  meUiod  used 
by  Dr.  Hunter— and  I  would  call  special  attention  to  this 
point — is  different  from  the  one  by  which  I  foimd  my 
cycle,  his  results  and  mine  are  not  comparable. 

The  sim-spot  cycle  being  one  of  about  eleven  years, 
and  the  maximiun  epoch  occurring,  on  an  average,  37 
years  after  the  previous  minimum,  and  the  next  minimum 
7*4  years  after  the  maximiun,  I  found  by  experience  that 
the  best  way  of  comparing  the  rainfall  and  the  sim-spots 
was  to  start  either  from  a  maximum  or  a  minimum  year, 
and  then  to  take  the  proper  number  of  years  before  and 
after  the  epochal  year.  Commencing  with  a  maximum 
year,  for  instance,  I  took  five  years  before  it  and  seven 


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years  after  it,  or  thirteen  years  in  alL  Then,  with 
the  view  of  reducing  the  effects  of  the  so-called  non- 
periodic  variations,  I  took  a  mean  of  the  rainfall 
iQ  the  first  and  third  of  the  thirteen  series,  and  a 
mean  of  that  mean  and  of  the  rainfall  in  the  second  series, 
and  so  on.  This  gave  me  eleven  new  means,  which 
I  called  the  ''  mean  cycle.''  Again,  starting  with  a  mini- 
nimum  year,  I  took  eight  years  before  it  and  four  years 
after  it,  and  found  eleven  other  new  means  in  the  same 
way.    To  each  set  of  results,  or  to  a  combination  of  both 


of  them,  I  then  applied  interpolation  formulae,  and  found 
a  well-marked  coincidence  between  the  sun-spot  and  rain- 
fall variations. 

As  the  sun-spot  cycles  are  not  all  of  the  same  length, 
it  is  evident  that  by  starting  from  any  one  year  and  going 
backwards  over  a  long  period,  always  using  the  same  fixed 
number,  a  maximum  and  a  minimum  year  might  fall  into 
the  same  gproup. 

Let  me,  by  an  example,  explain  my  method  more  fully. 
I  take  the  Madras  raimall : — 


• 

Table  I 

. — Rainfall  Cycfe  at  Midi  a*. 

Years. 

I.             a.             3. 

4- 

5- 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9- 

lo.    :    II. 

ta. 

la- 

lSll-2?       

182^-36      

1832-44      

'843-55      

1855-67      

in. 

3372 
18-45 
50-28 

3232 

in. 

5605 

65-36 
4699 

in. 

60  71 
39 -oo 
3805 
5295 

in. 

41*47 
79*81 
4850 

in. 

5600 

37-89 
4476 

80-99 

55U 

in. 
mix. 
year». 
41*16 
36-87 
49*26 
54*76 
27-64 

in. 

63*56 
32-43 
52*33 
39-8« 
37*19 

in. 
7625 

44-35 

'^ 

3818 

in. 
3633 

18-45 
58*65 
64-32 
5461 

in. 
70-01 

37-" 

58*32 
7269 
4723 

in. 

47*13 
39W 
3648 
35*82 
41  64 

in. 

59-61 

5028 
43*20 
51*39 

in. 

26-62 
44*76 
65-36 
32-32 
24-37 

Means       

33-69     51-38 

4717 

5812 

54-96 

4194 

45-06 

49*75 

46*47 

57-07 

40X>i 

49*19 

3869 

Mean  Cycle      

—     ,4612 

5096 

54^59 

+ 
5*99 

52*49 

45*97 

45*55 

47*75 

49*94 

50*15 

46-57 

44-52 

— 

Raiufill  Variation    

-        2"48 

+ 
2-36 

+ 

389 

2-63 

yo5 

085 

1*34 

4- 

>55 

2-03 

4"o8 

— 

San-spot  Variation 

—       323      '9-2        II 

302 

40-0 

+ 
29-8 

"•3 

1-2 

-     1     - 
1^*8     21  I 

23"^ 

Years  of  Cycle 

— 

I 

2          3 

4 

' 

6 

7 

8 

9    j     10 

II 

— 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  individual  years  of  maxi- 
mum sunspots,  1816,  1829,  1837,  1848,  and  1860^  are 
all  in  the  same  vertical  column,  and  that  all  the  years  of 
minimum  sun-spots,  except  iSio^  contribute  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  cycle.  No  doubt  it 
would  have  been  ^tter  to  have  placed  1836  farther  in 
advance,  but  this  would  have  altered  the  position  of  the 
maximum  year  1829^ 

The  results  given  by  the  above  method  show  a  double 
oscillation  of  the  Madras  rainfall  during  the  sun-spot 
period,  and  I  see  (Nature,  voL  xvi  p.  333)  that  Mr.  J. 
Allan  Broun  has  found  such  an  oscillation  for  Trevandrum 
as  well  as  for  Madras,  and  this  may  be  a  characteristic  of 
the  rainfall  of  the  whole  of  Southern  India.     We  have, 


however,  evidence  of  a  single  rainfaM  oscillation  for  other 
parts  of  India.  Even  Mr.  Blanford  now  admits  that  there 
IS  a  periodic  variation  underlying  all  irregularities  and 
more  or  less  coincident  with  the  sun-spot  variation. 

In  conseauence  of  the  method  adopted  by  Dr.  Hunter 
the  years  of  maximum  sun-spots,  in  place  of  being  all  in 
the  same  group,  are  spread  over  three  or  four  of  the 
groups  from  which  he  derived  his  mean  cycle,  and  it  is 
probably  owing  to  this  that  he  missed  what,  I  think,  it  the 
real  character  of  the  rainfall  cycle  at  Madras,  as  shown  in 
Table  I.  The  annual  average  rainfall  for  each  year  of  his 
cycle,  together  with  the  deviations  from  the  mean,  is  as 
follows,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  his  cycle  is  very  diflferent 
from  the  one  given  by  my  method : — 


Yean  of  Cycle. 

J. 

a. 

3. 

4- 

5- 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

It. 

Average  Rainfall     ... 

in. 

49*15 

in. 

35*00 
I3*3i 

in. 
4908 

in. 
49  17 

in. 
58*33 

in. 
50*95 

in. 
5037 

in. 

54*35 

in. 
52-88 

in. 
4516 

in. 
3703 

Rtinfall  VariaUon   ... 

084 

+ 
077 

086 

+ 
1002 

+ 
2  64 

2 -06 

604 

+ 

4*57 

315 

11-28 

According  to  Dr.  Hunter's  cycle,  the  rainfall  of  Madras 
was  in  excess  in  the  fifth  year  to  the  extent  of  ten  inches, 
whereas,  according  to  naine,  it  was  nearly  three  inches  in 
defect.  He  takes,  it  is  true,  the  years  1868-76,  which  I 
do  not  take,  preferring  to  wait  till  I  get  the  rainfall  of 
1877  ;  but  although  1870^  which  he  puts  down  in  his  fifth 
group,  was  a  very  wet  one,  the  double  oscillation  still 
exists,  one  of  the  minima  occurring  soon  after  the  sun- 
spot  maximum. 

1  must  now  come  to  Dr.  Hunter's  letter  in  Nature 
(vol  xvii,  p.  59).  But,  first  of  all,  I  may  be  excused  for 
saying  that  I  do  not  think  some  remarks  he  made  about 
a  periodicky  of  cyclones  in  a  former  letter  (vol  xvi.  p.  4^5) 


were  altogether  calculated  to  put  the  matter  in  its  proper 
light.  He  says  (p.  456) :— "  M.  Po«y  called  the  attention 
of  the  French  Acaddmie  des  Sciences  to  the  subject  five 
years  ago,  and  published,  as  far  back  as  1873,  a  list  of 
hurricanes  in  the  West  Indies  from  1750  to  1873,  in  sup- 
port of  his  views.  Dr.  Meldrum  has  worked  the  same 
question  as  regards  the  [East]  Indian  Ocean."  Now 
if  these  words  are  meant  to  convey  the  impression 
that  M.  Po^y  preceded  me,  and  that  I  followed  with 
the  cyclones  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  all  I  can  say  is 
that  M«  Po^y  himself  gave  a  different  version  of  the 
matter. 
In  his  second  letter  (vol.  rrii.  p.  59)  Dr.  Hunter  states 


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{April  \,  1S7S 


(1)  that  the  evidence  with  respect  to  the  European  rain- 
tall  may  be  considered  as  "  against  a  well-marked  period- 
icity," and  (2)  that  the  result  of  a  "  systematic  inquiry  (by 
himselQ  into  the  American  rain-returns  altogether  fails  to 
establish  the  existence  of  a  common  cycle,  so  far  as  con- 
cerns the  temperate  zone.**  On  each  of  these  points  I 
begr  to  make  a  few  remarks. 

The  evidence  on  which  Dr.  Hunter  bases  his  statement 
as  to  the  European  rainfall  is  derived  (i)  from  an  examin- 
ation by  Mr.  Baxendell,  for  a  short  period,  of  the  rainfall 
at  one  English  station,  (2)  from  an  examination  by  the 
late  Dr.  Jelinek  of  fourteen  stations  on  the  Continent, 
from  1833  to  1869,  and  (3)  from  a  comparison  of  the 
levels  of  the  Elbe,  Rhine,  Oder,  Danube,  and  Vistula, 
with  the  sun-spots  for  six  cycles,  a  comparison  which  Dr. 
Hunter  ascribes  to  Herr  Gustav  Wex,  but  which  I  believe 
is  due  to  another. 

Now,  the  evidence  is  much  more  extensive.  Instead  of 
being  based  on  one  British  station  and  fourteen  stations 


on  the  Continent,  it  is  based  on  more  than  fifty  Britisli 
stations  and  more  fhan  forty  stations  on  the  Contineot, 
and,  taken  with  the  evidence  burnished  by  Uie  rivers,  it  is« 
in  my  opinion,  conclusive. 

As  to  the  American  rainfaU^  an  examination  of  thirty- 
four  returns  has  given  me  much  more  favourable  results 
than  those  Dr.  Hunter  has  got  from  twenty-two  stations, 
and  I  have  little  doubt  that  he  will,  as  he  extends  his 
investigations,  also  find  favourable  results  ;  but  I  think 
he  must  first ,adopt  a  method  different  from  the  one  lie 
used  for  Madras. 

In  support  of  my  conclusion  that  the  rainfalls  of  Europe 
and  America  are  subject  to  a  periodicity  which  closely 
corresponds  with  the  sunspot  periodicity,  I  will  for  the  pre- 
sent only  submit  to  your  readers  two  tables,  the  one  show- 
ing the  general  results  for  Great  Britain,  the  Continent 
of  Europe  and  America,  and  the  other  the  results  for  one 
station  in  each  of  these  countries,  namely  Edinhurgh, 
Paris,  and  New  Bedford. 


Table  W.—Cemparison  of  the  Variation  in  the  Sunspot  Area  with  the  Variations  in  the  Rainfalls  of  Great  Britain^  Conti^tn/ 

of  Europe^  and  America,  fiom  1824  to  1867  imlutive. 


Years  of  Cycle. 


Sun-spots  ... 
Rainfall      of 

Britain  ... 
Rainfall  of  Continent 

of  Europe     


Great 


Rainfall  of  America... 


Mean  Rainfall  Varia- 
tion         


317 
2  22 
076 


1*90 


19-5 

173 
088 


1*43 


3  5 
+ 
004 

1*22 

4- 
.091 


0-09 


288 

+ 
116 

+ 
044 

+ 
0-53 


071 


5. 

6. 

7- 

+ 

+ 

+ 

39  5 

295 

104 

+ 

+ 

-f 

105 

146 

1  28 

+ 

+ 

+ 

118 

0-97 

108 

+ 

+ 

+ 

024 

134 

203 

+ 

+ 

-f 

082 

I  26 

,•46 

49 

+ 
089 

+ 
0'6o 

+ 
084 


078 


14*8 

043 
045 
0*27 


21*2 

073 
036 
066 


0-65 


194 
I  03 
062 
I  24 


055 


The  above  results  have  been  obtained  in  the  manner  in  I  Great  Britain  the  number  of  stations  is  54,  for  the  Con- 
which  I  obtained  the  rainfall  variation  in  Table  I.    For  |  tinent  of  Europe,  42,  and  for  America,  32. 

Table  III. — Comparison  of  Variation  in  Sun-spot  Area  with  Variations  in  Rainfalls  of  Edinburgh^  Paris,  and  New  Bedford, 

from  1824  to  1F67  inclusive. 


V««r«ofCycl«f. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4- 

5- 

6. 

+ 

7. 

6. 

9- 

10. 

XI. 

+ 

+ 

+ 

, 

Sun-spots 

317 

19-5 

3"5 

288 

39*5 

295 

104 

49 

148 

21  2 

194 

— 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Rainfall  of  Edinbuigh 

302 

166 

064 

250 

3-45 

2-86 

0*64 

027 

0-91 

236 

056 

_ 

_ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

— 

— 

— 

-f 

Rainfall  of  Paris      ... 

025 

061 

030 

127 

2-22 

1  90 

149 

084 

142 

094 

04S 

RainfaU  of  New  Bed. 

- 

- 

+ 

-f- 

+ 

_ 

fold       

307 

103 

069 

032 

0*19 

138 

3-47 

2^87 

032 

1-42 

0-6S 

Mean    Variation     of 

+ 

4- 

-f 

+ 

4- 

Rainfall 

2-II 

.-,0 

054 

.-.s 

r83 

3-05 

1^7 

059 

0-88 

1-57 

025 

It  will  be  observed  (see  Table  L)  that  the  variation  in  the 
Madras  rainfall  is  not  nearly  so  favourable  as  the  varia- 
tions for  Edinburgh,  Paris,  and  New  Bedford. 

What  I  have  given  here  is  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
evidence  in  favour  of  a  rainfall  cycle.     Having  worked  at 


the  subject  for  six  years,  I  have  concluded  that  the  whole 
evidence  is  as  satisfactory  as  the  evidence  of  a  connection 
between  sun-spots  and  terrestrial  magnetism. 

C.  Meldrum 
Mauritius,  February  i 


JULIUS  ROBERT  VON  MAYER 
CEVERAL  years  ago  (vol.  v.  p.  117)  we  published  a 
^    paper  by  Prof.  TyndaU  on  the  nature  and  value  of 
Mayer's  researches,  in  which  they  were  so  fully  detailed 
that  now,  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  the  man  whose 


labours  have  won  for  him  an  undying  renown,  we  need 
only  briefly  remind  our  readers  of  the  chief  events  in  his 
scientific  career  without  entering  into  or  attempting  to 
renew  a  painful  controversy  of  which  it  may  be  said  that 
the  truth  lay  neither  wholly  with  one  side  nor  the  other. 
Julius  Robert  Mayer  was  bom  at  Heilbronn,  November 


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2^,  1814.  In  the  neighbouring  University  of  Tiibingenf 
he  underwent  the  usual  course  of  studies  in  the  medical 
faculty;  and  after  obtaining  his  degree  as  physician, 
passed  some  time  in  the  hospitals  of  Miinich  and  Paris. 
His  entrance  into  professional  lifie  was  as  ship's  surgeon 
on  an  East  India  vessel.  While  thus  engaged  he  made 
an  observation  apparently  unconnected  with,  but  really 
the  origin  of,  all  his  subsequent  investigations.  To  quote 
from  Prof.  Tyndall's  paper  referred  to  : — 

'*  In  the  summer' of  1840,  he  was  at  Java,  and  there 
observed  that  the  venous  blood  of  some  of  his  patients 
had  a  singularly  bright  red  colour.  The  observation 
riveted  his  attention  ;  he  reasoned  upon  it,  and  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  brightness  of  the  colour  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  less  amount  of  oxidation  sufficed  to 
keep  up  the  temperature  of  the  body  in  a  hot  climate 
than  in  a  cold  one.  The  darkness  of  the  venous  blood 
he  regarded  as  the  visible  sign  of  the  energy  of  the 
oxidation.  It  would  be  trivial  to  remark  that  accidents 
such  as  this,  appealing  to  minds  prepared  for  them,  have 
often  led  to  great  discoveries.  Mayer's  attention  was 
thereby  drawn  to  the  whole  question  of  animal  heat.  .  .  ." 

It  was  the  idea  thus  suggested  which  he  worked  out  to  its 
issue  in  his  great  generalisation.  In  184 1  he  returned  from 
Batavia,  and  settled  in  his  native  town.  Here  he  devoted 
the  spare  hours  from  his  professional  duties  to  the  con- 
sideration of  various  unsolved  physical  problems.  Although 
almost  entirely  isolated  from  scientific  companionship, 
with  next  to  no  opportunity  ibr  experimental  research,  and 
limited  in  time^  he  evolved  in  a  short  period  a  succession 
of  theoretical  views,  which  in  point  of  originality,  boldness, 
and  comprehensive  grasp  of  facts,  stand  among  the  fore- 
most in  the  history  of  physics.  Mayer's  first  contribution  to 
scientific  literature—**  Ueber  die  Krafte  der  unbelebten 
Natur" — appeared  in  Liebig*s  AnnaUn  in  1842,  and  con- 
tained within  the  space  of  eleven  pages  the  forecast  of 
the  mechanical  theory  of  heat,  as  accepted  at  present 
At  this  time  the  caloric  theory  still  found  numerous  advo- 
cates, despite  the  classic  experiments  of  Rumford,  of 
Davy,  and  of  others  ;  and  but  a  small  minority  ventured 
to  defend,  from  one  standpoint  or  another,  the  idea  of  an 
intimate  connection  between  he^t  and  motion.  It  was 
reserved  for  Mayer  to  sum  together  tl\e  scattered 
facts,  and  to  mould  from  them  definite  views  on  the 
nature  of  heat  With  his  introduction  of  the  expression 
**  the  mechanical  equivalent  of  heat,"  and  the  clear  expo- 
sition of  the  mutual  interchangeability  of  heat  and 
mechanical  energy,  he  dealt  the  last  blow  to  the  old 
theory,  and  thus  largely  helped  to  place  on  a  firm  founda- 
tion the  new  doctrines  of  the  conservation  and  transfor- 
mation of  energy.  But  in  this  Mayer  did  not  stand 
alone,  nor  was  he  the  only  one  who  had  a  firm  hold  of 
the  conceptions  which  have  been  so  fruitful  of  result 
The  quiet  sap  of  experiment  was  going  on  side  by  side 
with  these  daring  reconnaissances  beyond  the  borders  of 
the  known  and  proved,  and  our  own  Joule,  whose  work 
does  not  suffer  because  he  was  not  the  sole  worker  and 
thinker  in  the  field,  was  conducting  those  researches 
which  have  earned  for  him  also  an  undying  name  and 
f'ime. 

Three  years  elapsed  before  the  appearance  of  Mayer's 
next  work  in  1845,  on  "  Organic  Movement  in  Connection 
with  the  Transformation  of  Matter."  In  this  brochure  of 
100  pages,  he  details  at  greater  length  the  new  theory, 
and  wiiJi  a  most  exienstve,  varied,  iind  novel  scries  of 
illustrations  from  every  branch  of  natural  science  and 
natural  history,  establishes  the  principles  that  all  the  so* 
called  forces  are  interchangeable  forms  of  energy — the 
one  sole  force-- thai  energy  is  never  created  or  destroyed, 
iind  that  all  natural  phenomena  are  accompanied  by  a 
change  of  the  form  of  energy.  The  logical  consequences 
of  llic  mcchanioJ  Uieory  ot  heat  were  foilnwed  to  their 
uttermost  HmUs  in  M^yer^«  work  ^'On  CelcstUi  Dyna- 
mj^"  ia  l$48.    Here  h«  tccki  10  solve  th«  dilicult  prob- 


lems  of  determining  the  thermal  effects  of  the  movements 
in  the  universe,  the  maintenance  of  the  supply  of  solar 
heat,  &c  One  chief  source  of  the  latter  he  considers  to 
be  the  heat  evolved  by  the  fall  of  innumerable  meteorites 
&c,  into  the  sun. 

His  "Remarks  on  the  Mechanical  Equivalent  of 
Heat,"  in  1851,  was  his  last  notable  contribution  to 
the  development  of  this  subject  It  possesses  the 
same  fulness  of  original  ideas  as  its  predecessors,  and 
in  point  of  vividness  and  clearness  of  conception  and 
definition,  can  only  be  rivalled  by  Tyndall's  "  Heat  as  a 
Form  of  Motion."  A  collected  edition  of  his  writings, 
imder  the  title  of  ^  Die  Mechanik  der  Warme,"  appeared 
at  Stuttgart,  1867,  and  a  second  edition  in  1874  ;  this  was 
followed  by  '*  Naturwissenschafthche  Vortrage**  (Stutt- 
gart, 1 871),  and  two  papers  under  the  title  of  '*  Die  Torri- 
celh'sche  Leere*'  and  **  Ober  Auslosung"  (Stuttgart,  1876). 
The  controversy  on  the  priority  of  his  discoveries  led  to 
disturbances  in  the  mental  health  of  the  great  tav/vitj 
which,  however,  was  in  time  completely  restored.  Dr. 
Mayer  was  of  an  original  and  witty  turn  of  mind,  unre- 
strained in  a  small  company,  but  otherwise  modestly 
retiring  within  himself. 

In  measuring  the  value  of  Mayer's  scientific  achieve- 
ments it  m,ust  not  be  forgotten  that  he  published  his  theory 
at  an  epoch  when  physicists  were  directing  their  attention 
especially  to  this  very  s^bject,  and  that  in  Denmark  and 
England  the  experiments  were  well  advanced,  which  led 
to  the  complete  establishment  of  our  present  knowledge 
of  the  character  of  heat  and  energy.  It  is,  however,  dife- 
cult  to  believe  that  any  of  his  rivals  in  this  province  could 
have  developed  and  amplified  the  theory  in  the  masterly 
manner  shown  by  this  obscure  German  physician.  In 
perusing  his  works,  one  scarcely  knows  which  to  admire 
most,  the  wonderful  powers  of  classification  and  breadth 
of  knowledge  exhibited  in  every  page,  or  the  charming 
simplicity^  clearness,  and  aptness  of  illustration  with 
which  abstruse  theoretical  questions  are  put  within  the 
comprehension  of  a  tyro  in  science.  Certainly  in  view  of 
his  life  and  surroundings,  the  contributions  of  Mayer  to 
the  progress  of  physics  occupy  a  unique  position  in  the 
history  of  science.    To  quote  Dr.  Tyndall  again — 

"  Mayer  grasped  the  mechanical  theory  of  heat  with 
commanding  power,  illustrating  it  and  applying  it  in  the 
most  diverse  domains.     He  began,  as  we  have  seen,  with 

Ehysical  principles ;  he  determined  the  numerical  relation 
etween  heat  and  work ;  he  revealed  the  source  of  the 
energies  of  the  vegetable  world,  and  showed  the  relation- 
ship of  the  heat  ot  our  fires  to  solar  heat.  He  followed 
the  energies  which  were  potential  in  the  vegetable  up  to 
their  local  exhaustion  m  the  animal.  But  in  1845 
a  new  thought  was  forced  upon  him  by  his  calculations. 
He  then  for  the  first  time  drew  attention  to  the  astound- 
ing ampunt  of  heat  generated  by  gravity  where  the  force 
has  sufficient  distance  to  act  through.  He  proved,  as  I 
have  before  stated,  the  heat  of  collision  of  a  body  falling 
from  an  infinite  distance  to  the  earth,  to  be  sufficient  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  a  quantity  of  water  equal  to  the 
falling  body  in  weight  17,356''  C.  He  also  found  in  1845 
that  the  gravitating  force  between  the  earth  and  sun 
was  competent  to  generate  an  amount  of  heat  equal 
to  that  obtainable  from  the  combustion  of  6,000  timet  the 
weight  of  the  earth  of  solid  coal  With  the  quickness  of 
genius  he  saw  that  we  had  here  a  power  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce the  enormous  temperature  of  the  sun,  and  also  to 
account  for  the  primal  molten  condition  of  our  own  planet. 
Mayer  shows  the  utter  inadequacy  of  chemical  forces,  as 
we  know  them,  to  produce  or  maintain  the  solar  tempera- 
ture. He  shows  that  were  the  sun  a  lump  of  coal,  it  would 
be  utterly  consumed  in  5,000  years.  He  shows  the  diffi- 
culties attending  the  assumption  that  the  sun  is  a  cooling 
body  I  for  supposing  it  to  possess  the  high  specific  heat 
of  water,  its  temperature  would  fall  15,000^  in  5,000  years. 
He  finally  concludes  that  the  light  ai.d  heat  of  the  sun 


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are  maintained  by  the  constant  impact  of  meteoric  matter. 
I  never  ventured  an  opinion  as  to  the  accuracy  of  this 
theory ;  that  is  a  question  which  may  still  have  to  be 
fought  out.  But  I  refer  to  it  as  an  illustration  of  the 
force  of  genius  with  which  Mayer  followed  the  mechanical 
theory  of  heat  through  all  its  applications.  Whether  the 
meteoric  theory  be  a  matter  of  fact  or  not,  with  him  abides 
the  honour  of  proving  to  demonstration  that  the  light  and 
heat  of  suns  and  stars  may  be  originated  and  maintained 
by  the  collisions  of  cold  planetary  matter." 

H  is  services  were  recognised  by  election  to  membership 
in  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences  and  other  foreign 
societies,  and  two  years  before  his  death  the  King  of 
Wurtemberg  elevated  him  to  the  nobility.  Mayer  received 
the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1871. 

OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

Total  Solar  Eclipses.— The  eclipse  of  the  sun  on 
July  29,  in  which  the  belt  of  totality  traverses  ttie  North 
American  continent  from  Behring's  Strait  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  is  a  return  of  the  eclipse  of  June  16,  1806, 
which  was  observed  in  the  United  States  by  Bow- 
ditch  and  the  well-known  Spanish  astronomer,  Ferrer; 
in  this  year  it  was  central,  with  the  sun  on  the 
meridian  in  65**  30*  W.,  and  42°  23'  N.,  and  the  duration 
of  total  eclipse  exceeded  five  minutes.  At  its  next 
return  on  June  27,  1824,  it  was  total  at  apparent  noon 
in  170"*  4'  W.,  and  44*  42'  N.,  but  the  course  of  the 
central  eclipse  was  almost  entirely  an  ocean-track.  In 
1842,  on  July  8,  the  total  phase  passed  over  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  was  observed  by  a  great  number  of  astro- 
nomers, amongst  them  by  the  Astronomer-Royal  at  the 
Superga,near  Turin, and  byBaily,at  Pavia,and  Arago,  who 
was  stationed  at  Perpignan,  gave  a  graphic  account  of 
the  circumstances  attending  the  extinction  of  sunlight, 
which  has  been  often  quoted.  At  the  ensuing  return 
of  the  eclipse  in  i860,  the  ''Himalaya"  expedition  was 
organised,  and  numerous  descriptions  of  the  phenomenon 
are  upon  record  ;  one  of  the  best  of  them  is  that  given  before 
the  Royal  Society,  as  the  Bakerian  Lecture,  by  Mr.  de  la 
Rue.  American  observers  will  doubtless  render  good 
account  of  the  eclipse  in  July  next.  Its  last  return  in 
the  present  century  will  take  place  on  August  9,  1896, 
when  it  will  be  total  soon  after  sunrise  in  the  north  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  central  at  apparent  noon  in  112**  21' 
E.  and  65*  38'  N.  between  Nova  Zemlia  and  the  main- 
land of  Asia,  ending  in  179°  3'  W.  and  18°  35'  N.  in  the 
North  Pacific 

We  have  already  given  in  this  column  some  particulars 
of  the  total  phase  as  it  will  occur  in  the  present  year  in 
the  United  States.  The  last  total  eclipse  visible  in  that 
country  took  place  on  August  7,  1869,  and  is  the  subject 
of  detailed  description  in  a  very  interesting  appendix  to  the 
Washington  Obseri'ations.  The  line  of  totality  in  the 
eclipse  of  January  1 1, 1880,  will  just  reach  American  ground 
before  sunset ;  some  fifty  miles  south  of  Monterey,  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  eclipse  will  be  total  for  about  forty  seconds,  but 
the  sun  will  be  at  less  than  7^  altitude,  thus  affording  a 
similar  case  to  that  which  some  interpreters  of  Herodotus 
have  supposed  to  have  occurred  in  the  eclipse  of  Tbales 
at  the  site  of  the  battle  between  the  Medes  and  Lydians 
when  "  day  was  suddenly  turned  into  night ; "  though  of 
course  a  characteristic  of  every  total  ecbpse,  it  does  not 
frequently  happen  that  after  a  long  ocean  track  the  total 
phase  is  just  landed  on  the  coast  of  a  continent  at  sunset. 
But  although  January,  1880,  will  witness  what  is  strictiy 
the  next  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  the  soil  of  the  United 
States,  it  does  not  appear  that  there  will  be  one  favourably 
circumstanced  for  observation  until  the  year  1923,  on 
September  10.  As  it  is  possible  some  readers  may  be 
interested  in  seeing  the  particulars  of  this  eclipse,  in  con- 
nection with  the  phenomenon  in  July  next,  or  as  the  next 
following  eclipse  in  which  totality  can  be  well  observed  in 


any  part  of  the  North  American  continent,  we  give 
elements,  &c^  here,  derived  upon  a  similar  system  o{ 
calculation  to  what  has  been  applied  to  other  eclipses  in 
these  columns. 

G.M.T.  of  conjunction  in  R.A.  1923,  Sept  10, 'at  8I1.  28m.  42  s. 

Right  Ascension         168    6  55*4 

Modi's  hourly  motion  in  R.  A          ...  34  53*8 

Sun's        „            „            „             ...  2  14-9 

Moon's  declination      5  38  34*0  N. 

Sun's            „              5    6  14-5  N. 

Moon's  hourly  motion  in  decL          ...  11     5*1  S. 

Sun's          „          „             „           ...  o  56  8  S. 

Moon's  horizontal  parallax    59  55'3 

Sun's           „             „          8-8 

Moon^s  senu-diameter            16  19*7 

Sun's      „           „                 IS  53-7 

Hence  the  central  and  total  eclipse  commences  at 
7h.  I5*6m.  in  long.  154**  58'  E.,lat.  48^  24'  N. ;  it  falls  with 
the  sun  on  the  meridian  in  127^  54'  W.,  and  38^  5'  N.,  and 
ends  at  loh.  15  7m.  in  63°  25'  W.,  and  13°  50'  N.  The 
following   are    also   points   upon   the   line   of  central 


eclipse  : — 

LwR. 

Lat      Zen.  Dbt 

Long. 

Lat.        Zen.  Dist. 

120  13  W. . 
ir6  52 
112  25 

..34    oN....3ri 
.32  18      ...33*1 
.  29  47        .347 

I<^   12  W.  . 

94  33       . 
81  14 

..  26  22  N 40  7 

.20  55       ...54*9 

..1641         ...711 

Calculating  directly  for  the  first  of  these  positions 
which  is  near  the  N.W.  point  of  the  island  of  Santa 
Crus,  off  the  Cakfomian  Coast,  we  find 

Tot^tr  b^»  .t  Ob.  46m.  ^^  |  ^  „^  ^^^^ 

The  duration  of  the  total  eclipse  on  this  coast  will 
therefore  be  about  3I  minutes,  with  the  sun  at  an  altitude 
of  nearly  60®. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

China.— Lieut.  Gill,  R.E.,  who,  a  short  time  back, 
arrived  in  British  Burmah,  after  succeeding  in  traversing 
China  from  Shanghai  to  the  Yiinnan  frontier,  has  fur- 
nished a  Rangoon  paper  with  an  account  of  his  journey. 
Lieut.  Gill,  in  the  first  instance,  proceeded,  vid  Hankow, 
to  Chung-king,  in  Szechuen,  whence  he  made  a  trip  to 
the  northwards,  visiting  the  fire-wells  of  Tsi-liu,  at  which 
place  are  also  found  brine-wells,  from  which  ^ood  salt  is 
made.  Mr.  Gill  made  his  way  to  Sung-pao-tmg,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Koko  Nor,  and  to  Liang-ngan-foo,  returning 
by  a  different  route  to  Ch6ng-tu.  Being  joined  by  Mr. 
Mesney,  the  two  began  their  long,  perilous,  and  aiduous 
journey  to  Burmah  overland,  in  the  course  of  which  they 
passed  Bathang,  on  the  borders  of  Thibet,  in  about  N. 
fat  30^.  Near  Bathang  ranges  were  crossed  which 
were  some  15,600  feet  in  height  The  most  common  tree 
near  Bathang  is  the  pine,  which  in  some  places  was  seen 
in  magnificent  forests,  and  many  of  the  trees  were  found 
to  be  about  three  feet  in  diameter. 

A  correspondent  of  the  North  China  Herald,  writing 
from  Chefoo,  says  that  a  scheme  is  under  consider- 
ation for  working  the  coal-mines  of  the  province  of 
Shantung,  which  is  well  known  to  be  rich  in  mineral 
wealth.  Some  120  miles  to  the  west  of  Chefoo  there  is  a 
fine  level  plain,  under  which  at  no  great  depth  is  a  bed  of 
coal  twenty  feet  thick.  The  natives  have  from  time 
immemorial  been  digging  holes  and  getting  a  little  out 
here  and  there,  but  as  they  have  no  means  of  drainage, 
the  pits  have  filled  with  water  as  soon  as  they  reached 
the  good  coal.  The  Chinese  Superintendent  of  Customs 
at  Chefoo,  has  obtained  permission  to  form  a  native 
company  to  carry  out  the  work,  with  the  aid  of  modem 
appliances.  The  scheme  referred  to  is  understood  to 
include  a  tramway  to  the  port  of  Chefoo.  Another  project 
on  a  larger  scale  has  been  formed  under  the  auspices  of 


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the  famous  Li  Hung-chang,  for  developing  the  coal  and 
iron  districts  to  the  north-west  of  Tientsin,  in  the  Chihli 
province.  Shoidd  the  enterprises  we  have  alluded  to  be  suc- 
cesfiilly  carried  out,  some  nopes  may  be  entertained  of  a 
gradual  development  of  the  hidden  resources  of  the 
Chinese  Empire. 

Angola.— We  learn  that  a  young  and  energetic  col- 
lector, Mr.  Alfred  Heath,  started  on  board  the  Biafra^ 
which  sailed  from  Liverpool  last  Saturday,  for  the 
purpose  of  exploring  the  interior  of  Angola,  and  obtaining 
objects  of  natural  history.  Mr.  Heath  will  stay  at 
Ambriz  for  a  short  time,  and  make  collections  on  the 
River  Loge  and  on  the  coast,  after  which  he  will  proceed 
inland  to  Bembe,  a  place  recommended  by  the  late 
Mr.  Monteiro  as  presenting  an  excellent  field  for  the 
naturalist. 


AN  ORGAN-PIANO 

WHEN  recently  in  Paris  I  was  shown— I  believe  at 
the  pianoforte  factory  of  M.  Herz— a  piano  with 
appliances  for  producing  prolonged  sounds  like  those  of 
an  organ,  which  appeared  to  me  to  be  based  on  thoroughly 
sound  scientific  principles,  and  which  was  so  great  a 
success  that,  although  the  invention  had  only  been  per- 
fected a  very  few  weeks  before,  the  firm  were  receiving 
orders  for  the  new  instruments  much  faster  than  they 
could  execute  them.  The  attempt  to  combine  organ 
sounds  with  those  of  a  piano  has  often  before,  I  believe, 
been  made,  but  usually,  if  not  always,  I  am  told,  by 
combination  with  the  piano  arrangements  of  real  organ 
appliances,  the  result  being,  of  course,  extreme  difficulty 
in  obtaining  perfect  harmony  between  notes  produced  by 
two  such  totally  distinct  methods.  In  the  present  in- 
stance the  organ  as  well  as  the  piano  notes  are  pro- 
duced by  precisely  the  same  means,  the  principle 
consisting  in  producing  the  organ  or  prolonged  sound 
by  a  succession  of  ex^emely  rapid  blows  of  a  hammer 
upon  the  same  strings  as  produce  the  piano  note.  It  will 
not  be  difficult,  I  think  (notwithstanding  my  want  of  fami- 
liarity with  such  subjects), to  make  your  readers  understand 
exactly  how  this  is  accomplished.  They  will  observe 
that  if  the  pianist  were  able,  instead  of  merely  holding 
down  a  key,  to  produce  upon  it  an  extremely  rapid  suc- 
cession of  blows,  far  exceeding  in  rapidity  anvthing 
which  the  finger  can  possibly  eflfect,  a  prolonged  note 
would  be  produced,  and  especially  so  if  the  number 
of  blows  given  was  so  great  as  to  be  practically  inse- 
parable by  the  ear.  Now  in  the  instrument  of  which 
I  am  speaking  this  object  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a 
series  of  additional  hammers  (one  to  each  string)  mounted 
upon  watch-spring  levers,  all  of  which  are  carried  by  a 
bar  of  brass  lying  across,  but  above  and  clear  of  the 
strings.  To  this  bar  is  attached  a  rocking  lever  which 
is  set  in  very  rapid  motion  by  means  of  an  apparatus 
worked  easily  by  a  pedal.  I  was  not  shown  the  exact 
nature  of  this  apparatus,  but  there  are  so  many  forms 
of  small  engines  worked  with  inunense  rapidity  by 
compressed  air,  any  one  of  which  would  answer  the 
purpose,  that  no  great  importance  attaches  to  this  point 
The  modus  operandi  is  simple  enough  :  the  pianist  works 
the  pedal,  and  thus  sets  the  transverse  bar  with  its  series 
of  hammers  into  excessively  rapid  vibration.  By  holding 
down  any  key  of  the  instrument,  the  string  belonging  to 
it  is  brought  within  range  of  its  corresponding  hammer, 
and  is  struck  with  corresponding  rapidity,  giving  out  what 
sounds  at  a  short  distance  like  one  prolonged  note,  which 
lasts  as  long  as  the  pedal  is  worked  and  the  key  is  kept 
down.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  by  this  means  it  is  in  the 
poorer  of  the  pianist  to  produce  either  piano  or  organ 
notes  at  wilL  and  although  while  standing  close  to  the 
instrumentnie  mode  of  production  of  the  note  could  be 
detected,  at  a  short  distance  the  effect  was  precisely  that 


of  combined  piano  and  organ  sounds  with  the  immense 
advantage  of^  absolute  concordance  and  harmony  between 
the  two.  E.  J.  Reed 

THE  COMING  TOTAL  SOLAR  ECLIPSE 

WE  have  received  from  Admiral  Rodgers,the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  U.S.  Naval  Observatory,  the  official 
circular  which  we  were  enabled  to  anticipate  some  little 
timeaga  Owing  to  the  endeavours  ot  the  American 
astronomers,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  have 
made  arrangements  for  a  reduced  rate  of  fare  to  and  from 
the  East  to  Denver,  Colorado,  which  is  near  the  central 
line.  These  arrangements  refer  only  to  persons  going 
in  a  private  capacity,  and  not  to  members  of  expeditions 
sent  out  by  foreign  Governments. 

Upon  the  order  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  U.S. 
Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  the  Company  will  furnish 
transportation  to  Denver  and  return  vid  Pittsburg, 
Indianapolis,  St.  Louis,  and  Kansas  City,  or  vid  Pitts- 
burg, Chicago,  and  Omaha,  at  the  following  rates  for  the 
round  trip  : — From  New  York,  73.00  dols.  ;  from  Phila- 
delphia, 71.00  dols. ;  from  Baltimore  or  Washington, 
62.50  dols. 

The  round  trip  ticket  includes  transportation  (about 
2,000  miles  according  to  route)  from  New  York  to 
Denver  and  back  again  to  point  of  starting ;  or  in  all, 
4,000  miles  of  travel. 

These  arrangements  allow  the  journey  to  Denver  to  be 
made  by  one  route,  and  the  return  by  another.  The  routes 
available  are — 

No.  I,  vit  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Omaha,  Denver. 

No.  2,  vi6.  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Omaha,  Denver. 

Na  3,  vi^  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Omaha,  Denver.  (Dif- 
ferent routes  from  Chicago  to  Omaha.) 

No.  4,  vi^  Pittsburg,  Chicago,  Leavenworth,  Denver. 

No.  5,  vi^  Pittsburg, Chicago,  Atchison,  Pueblo,  Denver. 

No.  6,  vi6.  Pittsburg,  Indianapolis,  St  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  Denver. 

No.  7,  vi6L  Pittsburg,  Indianapolis,  St  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  Denver.  (Different  routes  from  St  Louis  to  Kansas 
City.) 

No.  8,  vi^  Pittsburg,  Indianapolis,  St  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  Pueblo,  Denver. 

No.  9,  viA  Pittsburg,  Indianapolis,  St.  Louis,  Kansas 
City,  Pueblo,  Denver.  (Different  routes  from  Kansas  City 
to  Pueblo.) 

Those  intending  to  make  observations  of  the  eclipse, 
and  desiring  to  take  advantage  of  the  courtesy  extended 
by  the  Pennsylvanian  Railroad  Company,  are  requested 
to  notify  their  intention  by  letter  to  the  Superintendent  of 
the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory,  asking  that  a  letter  certi- 
fying to  their  identity  be  forwarded  to  their  consuls  at  the 
port  they  may  select  for  arrival  in  the  United  States. 
This  letter  must,  upon  delivery,  be  countersigned  by  the 
consul  of  the  applicant  to  prevent  mistakes. 

The  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  notified  the 
collector  of  customs  of  the  ports  of  Boston,  Portland, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  of  the  probable 
arrival  of  European  observers,  who  will  be  identified  by 
exhibiting  the  above  letter,  so  signed  and  countersigned, 
to  the  collectors  named.  Orders  have  been  issued  to 
them  as  follows  : — 

"  Upon  the  arrival  at  your  port  of  any  of  the  gentlemen 
mentioned,  you  will  extend  all  proper  facilities  for  the 
speedy  delivery  to  them  of  the  professional  instruments  in 
question  free  of  duty  and  charges." 

On  presenting  the  same  letter,  so  countersigned,  to  the 
agent  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  in  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  Washington,  a  round- 
trip  ticket  to  Denver  and  return,  will  be  issued  to  them 
by  the  Railroad  Company  at  the  rates  before  named. 

From  Denver  railroad  lines  extend  to  points  likely  to 
be  chosen  for  observing  stations. 


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\April  4,     1 87! 


NOTES 

Dr.  Waulen  Dk  la  Rue,  F.R.S.,  has  jast  nude  a  second 
donation  of  100/.  to  the  Research  Fund  of  the  Chemical 
Society,  stiptdatiog  that  the  whole  sum  be  deroted  to  a  single 
object 

Mr.  Romanes  being  prevented,  by  domestic  affliction,  deliver, 
iog  his  lecture  at  the  Royal  Institution,  on  Friday,  the  5th  inst, 
as  announced,  the  Hon.  Sec,  Mr.  W.  Spottitwoode,  Treasurer 
of  the  Royal  Society,  has  undertaken  to  lecture  in  his  stead, 
on  "  Quartz ;  an  old  Chapter  Re-written." 

Prof.  A.  Agassiz  has  returned  from  his  cruise  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  in  spite  of  bad  weather  and  the  grounding  of  the 
Blake^  he  has  done  fully  as  much  as  antidptted.  As  we  have 
already  stated,  he  made  use  of  steel  rope  for  dredging  ;  the  rope, 
however,  was  only  i|  inch  circumference,  not  i^V  ii^ch  in  diameter 
as  wc  were  led  to  believe.  This  steel  rope  came  up  fully  to  his 
expectations,  and  he  is  of  opinion  that  hemp  rope  is  not  likely 
to  be  again  used  for  deep-sea  work  by  any  one  who  has  no  time 
to  spare.  Prof.  Agassiz  is  preparing  a  preliminary  report  to  the 
Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey  of  his  trip. 

The  Iceland  mail  brings  intelligence  of  a  great  eruption  of 
Mount  Hecla.  On  February  27,  at  5  P.M.,  several  smart  shocks 
of  earthquake  were  felt  at  Reykjavik,  and  in  the  same  evening 
flames  were  visible  behind  the  mountains,  in  the  direction  of 
lleda.  The  Rev.  Gudmund  Jonsson,  who  lives  close  to  Mount 
Heda,  states  that  at  4.30  p.m.  of  that  day,  slight  shocks  of  earth- 
quake began  to  be  felt,  these  gradually  increased  till  about  5  p.m., 
when  two  severe  shocks  occurred,  creating  a  good  deal  of  alarm, 
but  doing  no  real  damage.  At  8  p.m.  a  tremendo-is  eruption  of 
flames  appeared  on  the  northern  side  of  Heda,  the  flames 
gradually  increasing  in  size  till  they  appeared  like  gigantic 
columns,  double  the  height  of  the  mountain.  When  the  mail 
left  Iceland  on  March  22,  the  eruption  still  continued,  but 
apparently  with  diminished  violence. 

Copious  rains  have  fallen  in  the  eastern  districts  of  Cape 
Colony,  and  hopes  are  now  entertained  of  the  speedy  termina- 
tion of  the  disastrous  drought  referred  to  in  Nature,  vol  xvii. 
p.  436.  The  heat  in  the  east  of  the  colony  during  January  last 
is  described  as  the  most  intense  ever  knoim  in  even  that  region 
of  recurring  scorching  droughts. 

The  correspondent  of  the  Scotsman  at  Ottawa  describes  'a 
curious  phenomenon  which  occurred  in  the  end  of  February  at 
Niagara  Falls.  In  the  vicinity  of  Table  Rock  the  river-bed  was 
dry  for  hundreds  of  yards  towardi  the  centre  of  the  Horse  -shoe 
Falls,  whilst  the  river  below  the  falls  was  about  twenty-four  feet 
below  high- water  mark.  For  three  days  the  appearance  of  the 
liver  both  above  and  below  the  falls  led  to  the  idea  that 
the  falls  would  entirely  cease  for  a  time.  This  extraor- 
dinary circumstance  was  attributed  to  incessant  high  winds 
from  N.E.  and  an  ice-gorge  at  the  rapids  above  damming 
the  waters  of  the  river  till  its  bed  was  nearly  dry.  The 
iddes  which  hung  from  the  rocks  over  which  the  fidls  are  wont 
to  pour,  added  to  the  remarkable  character  of  the  scene. 

A  note  sent  by  the  Portuguese  Government  to  the  French 
papers  states  that  a  recent  law  has  established  in  Mozambique 
and  Angola  a  central  council  of  agriculture,  a  station  for  con- 
ducting experiments,  and  a  professorship  of  agriculture.  In  each 
capital  public  lectures  will  be  given  by  the  Govenunent  professor 
on  zDOtechny  and  sdentific  agriculture. 

The  educational  authorities  of  Berlin  possess  an  enormous 
garden  in  one  of  the  suburbs  of  the  dty  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  all  the  schools  with  fresh  botanical  specimens.  The 
distribution  takes  place  regularly  after  April  i,  and  over 
4,000,000  plants  are  required  for  botanical  instruction  during 
the  course  of  the  year. 


Prof.  Ossian-Bonnbt  has  been  appointed  to  the  Ohmir  a 
Astronomical  Physics  in  the  Paris  Faculty  of  Science  av^ 
Letters. 

A  NUMBER  of  Algerian  Arab  chieftains  have  decided  to  viajt 
the  Paris  Exhibition,  and  establish  there  a  complete  cmmp. 
They  will  bring  with  them  a  variety  of  Arab  coursers. 

Some  time  since  we  called  attention  to  the  opening  of  a  village 
museum  at  Castleton,  Derbyshire.  The  mode  of  its  njTmiige> 
ment  has  attracted  a  good  dad  of  attention,  and  we  SLre  glad  tc 
hear  that  it  is  doing  g(X)d  work  in  the  neighbourhood.  A.  series 
of  sdtntific  lectures  in  connection  with  it  has  been  very 
sucoessfoL 

The  construction  of  the  Tuileries  captive  balloon  is  attract- 
ing much  attention  in  Paris.     The  necessary  excavations  for  the 
rope- winding  roller,  the  steam-engines,  pulley,  &c.y  &c.,  have 
modified  the  appearance  of  the  old  Tuileries  yard.     A  la^ 
wooden  saloon  has  been  erected  for  the  sewing  of  the  canvas, 
which  is  quite  teady ;  not  less  than  100  girls  will  be  reqnired 
for  about  a  month.     The  work  of  making  the  rope,  which  k 
almost  finished,  has  been  immense.    The  weight  of  the  nettiic 
will  be  3,000  kilograms  more  than  the  displacement  of   the 
largest  balloon  in  use.     Besides  the  netting,  the  other  ropes 
connecting  the  car,  &c.,  will  weigh  2,000  kilograms,  and  the 
large  rope  'or  mooring  the  balloon*  to  the  steam  winding  ap[»- 
ratns  will  be  3,000  kilograms.      Experiments  will  be  made  to 
show  that  the  rope  can  bear  a  traction  of  50,000  kilograms 
although  it  is  not  intended  to  ascend  when  the  effort  to  move  the 
balloon  will  exceed  12,000  kilograms.    The  real  steam  power 
required  will  be  300  horse-power.     The  displacement  of  the 
balloon  will  vary  according  to  its  station ;  cm  the  gronnd  it  wiU 
be  24,430  cubic  metres,  but^,  floating  at  600  metres  in  the  air,  it 
it  will  be  25,000. 

Sir  Geoege  Airy  sends  Ito  the  Times  of  Saturday  a  paper 
giving  an  account  of  the  public  standards  of  length  now  moonted, 
by  authority  of  the  Corporation  of  the  City  of  London,  ia  the 
Guildhall,  and  of  the  care  that  has  been  taken  to  insure  their 
accuracy.  The  standards  consist  of  a  line  of  100  feet  divided 
into  tens  of  feet,  and  a  line  of  66  f  .et  divided  into  tens  of  links 
with  some  smaller  divisions,  on  the  floor  of  the  Guildhall ;  and 
measures  of  three  feet,  two  feet,  and  one  foot,  with  snbordinite 
divisions,  on  the  north  wall  of  the  Guildhall.  The  lengths  luve 
been  verified  with  the  most  scrupulous  care  by  the  officers  of  the 
Standards  Department  of  the  Board  of  Tnde^  and  there  is 
reasoa  to  believe  that  even  the  longeit  is  not  in  error  to  the 
amount  of  one-hundredth  of  an  inch.  Sir  George  Airy  has 
imp;cted  these  standard-*,  and  is  satisfied  with  the  general 
excellence  of  their  construction. 

The  meteor  which  was  observed  by  Mr.  Elliot  at  Hawick 
(p.  425)  on  March  25,  at  10*20  A.  m.,  was  observed  in  various  parts 
of  Scotiand,  at  Dunbar,  Dundee,  Cupar-Angus,  and  difTerent 
parts  of  Fife.  It  is  described  as  "apparently''  several  feet  in 
circumference,  cone-shaped,  and  at  Dundee  was  observed  to 
burst  into  a  thousand  fragments  when  near  the  earth. 

M.  Krantz,  the  Director- General  of  the  Paris  Exhibition, 
has  been  elected  the  president  of  a  society  for  scientific  excursions 
and  demonstrations  at  the  Champ  de  M%rs.  A  drculir  has  been 
isiued  by  this  organisation,  which  contains  among  its  meoabers  a 
large  number  of  influential  scientific,  industiia),  and  literary  men. 
It  is  intended  to  organise  a  number  of  tours  in  the  several 
sections  under  the  guidance  of  experienced  and  competent 
teachers,  the  number  of  auditors  admitted  to  each  tour  being 
limited  to  thirty.  The  charges  wUl  be  very  low,  the  society 
expecting  to  obtain  for  its  professors  and  tourists  a  diminution  of 
the  entrance  fee.  Any  communication  may  be  sent  to  M.  La 
Motte,  editor,  the  score' ary  of  the  Association  d'Excorsions 
Sdentifiques,  Quai  des  August'ns,  Paris.    This  society  has  been 


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April  ^,  1878] 


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455 


sanctioned  by  the  Ministry  of  Public  InstriicttoD,  and  these 
excnrsions  are  quite  distinct  from  the  lectures  which  will  be 
organised  on  a  large  scale,  as  we  mentioned^  few  weeks  ago. 

Ths  tnuseam  in  the  Paris  Jardin  des  Plantes  has  ately  been 
enriched  by  two  ?ery  valoable  collections.  The  first  indodes  a 
▼ast  variety  of  anthropological  and  ethnographical  objects 
gathered  by  M.  Pinart  during  his  voyages  in  Polynesia,  among 
which  might  be  mentioned  more  eapedally  the  ancient  stone 
statues  from  Easter  Island,  executed  by  a  race  unknown  to  the 
present  inhabitants.  The  second  consists  of  over  40,000  speci- 
mens in  natural  history,  collected  by  M.  Raffray  in  New  Guinea, 
chiefly  birds  and  insects. 

M.  SoLSiL,  the  well-known  optician  of  Paris,  who  invented 
and  patented  the  optical  saccharimeter,  patronised  by  Arago, 
has  died  at  St  Gratian.  He  was  eighty  years  of  age,  and 
had  retired  for  the  last  twenty  years. 

One  of  the  newly-opened  streets  in  the  Luxembourg  Gardens, 
Paris,  dose  to  the  Observatory,  has  been  called  "Rue 
Herschd,''  as  a  compliment  to  English  astronomy. 

In  the  February  session  of  the  Deutsche  anthropologische  Ge- 
sellschaft.  Prof.  Bas/dan  gave  an  interesting  address  on  the  occur- 
rence of  similar  weapons  among  widdy*separated  African  tribes, 
describing  more  particularly  a  peculiar  kind  of  javelin,  found 
by  Schweinfurth  on  the  eastern  coast,  by  Pogge  in  the  Gaboon 
region,  and  by  other  explorers  in  the  Fan  tribe  of  the  interior. 
On  the  Gaboon  coast  it  is  preserved  at  present  as  a  fetish,  being 
no  longer  used.  This,  as  well  as  other  examples,  tends  to  show 
the  common  origin  of  all  the  African  races.  The  remains  of  an 
art  closely  allied  to  that  of  ancient  Egypt  even,  have  been  dis- 
covered on  the  western  coast  by  Dr.  Pogge,  who  has  brought 
back  images,  on  which  the  beard  and  coi£fure  were  the  counter- 
parts of  those  decorating  the  Egyptian  statues  3,000  years  ago. 

It  has  been  stated  by  Mr.  Rodwell  (Nature,  vol.  ix.  p.  8), 
that  the  andent  Egyptians  were.acquainted  with  the  principle  of 
the  "rider"  in  the  balance.  According  to  M.  Wiedemann 
(AmhoUh  der  Physik)  who  has  examined  over  ico  representations 
of  Egyptian  balances,  this  is  based  on  a  mistake.  The  Egyptian 
balance  is  a  simple  equal-armed  one ;  a  hook  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  stand  [supports  a  cord  with  terminal  wdght,  or  a  plumb- 
line.  In  representation  (perspective  being  unknown  to  the 
Egyptians),  the  hook  and  weight,  as  seen  from  the  side,  were 
drawn  in  the  plane  of  the  balance,  so  that  the  weight,  in  badly 
made  figures,  seems  to  hang,  not  from  the  hook,  but  from  the 
balance-beam. 

We  have  received  the  Report  of  the  Registrar-Genend  of  the 
province  of  Ontario  for  i  S76.  To  the  usual  tables  with  the  Report  b 
added  an  interesting  appendix  by  Mr.  T.  H.  Monk,  on  the  influence 
of  the  weather  on  the  mortality  of  Toronto.  The  results  show,  so 
far  as  can  be  looked  for,  from  one  year's  [mortality  numbering 
only  1,664  deaths,  a  general  correspondence  with  .those  obtained 
by  Mr.  Buchan  and  Dr.  Arthur  Mitchell  in  their  large  inquiry 
into  the  influence  of  weather  on  the  mortality  of  London.  We 
hope  Mr.  Monk's  suggestions  will  be  carried  out  and  that  the 
inquiry  will  be  extended  so  as  to  embrace  the  whole  province, 
the  health  as  well  as  the  mortality  of  the  people,  and  the  regis- 
trations of  the  more  prominent,  if  not  of  all  the  diseases,  be 
printed  for  each  week,  in  order  to  test  more  decisivdy  the  con- 
nection between  weather  and  health  and  how  fax  changes  in  the 
health  and  mortality  of  the  people  and  the  spread  of  epidemici 
may  be  foretold,  as  well  as  chax^ges  of  weather,  now  so  efficiently 
carried  on  in  North  America. 

Since  Mr.  Darwin  demonstrated  proeesscs  similar  to  digestion 
in  the  plant  orgaidsm,  attention  has  been  largdy  given  to  the 
discovery  of  substances  of  the  nature  of  ferment  in  plants.  M« 
van  der  Harst,  of  Utrtoht,  has  latdy  examined^  the  seeds  of 


the  garden  bean  (PAaseoius  vulgaris)  in  this  respect,  lie  finds 
in  these,  when  in  germination,  a  ferment  which  can  be  extracted 
by  means  of  glycerine.  It  has  the  power  of  transforming 
albuminous  matter  into  peptones,  and,  starch  meal  into  glucose. 
It  occurs  exdusively  in  the  seed  lobes. 

A  CORRESPONDENT  scuds  US  the  following  extract  Irom  a 
letter  of  one  of  the  officers  of  the  ship  Newcastle,  of  London.  It 
is  dated  Brisbane,  Sunday,  30th  December,  1877.  "Last 
Friday  (28th)  in  the  afternoon,  it  came  over  very  black,  so  we 
expected  a  thunderstorm.  Well,  it  came  on  to  blow  from  the 
south,  and  then  to  hail.  At  first  the  hailstones  were  about  the 
size  of  a  marble,  but  they  continued  to  increase^  untd  they 
became  as  large  and  exactly  the  sliape  of  a  tomato.  The 
captain  weighed  three  and  found  that  the  three  together  weighed 
one  pound.  I  was  on  the  poop,  under  the  awning,  but  the 
awning  was  blown  adrift,  which  compelled  me  to  beat  a  hasty 
retreat.  Nearly  all  the  glass  in  our  large  saloon  ports  on  the 
starboard  side  is  broken.  To-day,  when  I  was  on  shore,  the 
houses  in  QueenlStreet,  facing  the  south,  looked  as  though  there 
had  been  a  great  fire,  not  a  pane  of  glass  left,  and  in  many  cases 
the  frames  gone  altogether.  Of  course,  the  backs  of  the  houses 
on  the  other  side  of  the  street  must  have  suffered  to  the  same 
extent.  During  the  squall,  which  lasted  about  three-quarters  of 
an  hour,  the  river  was  one  mass  of  foam,  caused  by  the  hail- 
stones raining  upon  its  surface  in  such  numbers." 

An  interesting  archaeological  discovery  has  been  made  at 
Cancello  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Naples,  by  the  uncovering  of 
the  cemetery  of  the  andent  city  of  Luessula.  The  excavations 
made  thus  :far  have  brought  to  light  an  immense  number  of 
interesting  objects  of  [andent  Greek  dvilisation.  At  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  also,  in  Southern  France,  an  old  Roooan  villa  has  been 
laid  bare  and  found  to  possess  a  rich  treasure  in  the  way  of 
ornaments,  &c. 

An  interesting  geological  discovery  has  recently  been  made 
at  Donaueschingen  (Baden).  A  complete  and  very  well-pre- 
served skdeton  of  the  prdiistoric  musk-deer  {Cervus  elaphus 
muscosus)  has  been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  little 
town.  The  horns  are  of  gigantic  size  and  show  over  forty  ends ; 
it  is  aserted  that  this  skeleton  is  the  first  complete  one  known. 

M.  LuiGi  Ponci  describes,  in  V Elettricista,  a  new  electric 
battery  of  great  simplicity.  It  consists  of  the  usual  glass  jar  and 
porous  cylinder ;  the  latter,  however,  is  filled  with  a  solution  of 
ferrous  chloride  (35°  Beaum^),  and  has  for  a  pole  an  iron  plate, 
while  the  external  solution  is  of  ferric  chloride  (also  35^  B.),  and 
contains  a  carbon  pole.  The  dectro>motive  power  is  09  of  that 
of  a  Danid  celL 

A  St.  Petersburg  correspondent,  "C.  S.,"  desiring  to 
purchase  a  dictionary  of  diemistry,  writes  that  he  would  gladly 
avail  himself  of  a  critical  comparison  of  existing  works  of  the 
kind.  He  suggests  that  a  comparative  estimate  might  be 
given  through  the  pages  of  this  journal.  At  the  same  time 
one  of  our  Paris  correspondents  writes  us  on  the  appear- 
ance in  Paris  of  the  astk  number  of  the  French  ''Dic- 
tionnaire  de  Chimie  pure  et  appliqu^"  edited  by  Prof. 
Wurtz ;  dosing  with  the  article  on  Vanadium.  This  important 
work  was  commenced  by  Prof.  Wilrtz  in  1869,  assisted  by  a 
corps  of  twenty-five  leading  French  chemists,  and  although  de- 
layed materially  by  the  war  and  its  results,  has  been  pushed 
forward  vigorously,  until  it  is  now  on  the  eve  of  completion.  It 
will  form  altogether  five  t^umes,  numbering  neariy  5,000  pages, 
and  will  be  the  first  record  of  chemistry  approaching  com- 
pleteness in  the^  French  language.  The  chemist  is  still  depen- 
dent in  a  great  measure  on  the  English  language,  for  the  seven 
bulky  volumes  of  Watts's  "  Dictionary,"  including  its  two 
supplements,  form  the  most  extensive  as  well  as  most  recent 


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{Aprils,  1878 


compendiam  of  chemical  knowledge.  Although  Germany  takes 
the  lead  fai  regard  to  chemical  discovery,  she  is  far  behindhand  in 
this  respect.  The  newedition  of  the  "  Handworterbach,*'t>ased  on 
the  well-known  work  of  Liebig,  Wohler,  and  Kolber,  now  edited 
by  Prof.  Fehling,  was  commenced  in  1871,  but  has  progressed 
at  a  snail's  pace,  being  only  half  way  through  the  letter  £,  and 
the  second  of  the  six  volumes  which  it  will  compose,  not  being 
yet  completed.  The  Italian  chemists  have  recently  issued  a 
dictionary  of  chemistry  on  a  somewhat  smaller  scale  than  those 
alluded  to  above,  but  well  edited  and  written. 

Thb  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  two  Pudua  Deer  [Ctrvus  humilis)  from  Chili, 
a  Black-fiiced  Spider^M^onkey  {Atdes  dUr)  from  East  Peni, 
deposited;  an  Arabian  Gazelle  (Ga%^la  arabica)  from  Arabia, 
presented  by  Mr.  W.  W.  Webb. 


FOG  SIGNALS^ 

"PVURING  the  long,  laborious,  and,  I  venture  to  think,  memor- 
^^  able  series  of  observations  conducted  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Elder  Brethren  of  the  Trinity  House  at  the  South  Foreland 
in  1872  and  1873,  it  was  proved  that  a  short  5^  inch  howitier, 
firing  3  lbs.  of  powder,  yielded  a  louder  report  than  a  long 
i8-pounder  firing  the  same  charge.  Here  was  a  hint  to  be 
acted  on  by  the  Elder  Brethren.  The  efTectiveness  of  the  sound 
depended  on  [the  shape  of  the  gun,  and  as  it  could  not  be 
assumed  that  in  the  howitzer  we  had  hit  accidentally  upon  the 
best  posiible  shape,  arrangements  were  made  with  the  War 
Office  for  the  construction  of  a  gun  specially  calculated  to  pro- 
duce the  loudest  sound  attainable  from  the  combustion  of  3  Ite. 
of  powder.  To  prevent  the  unnecessary  landward  waste  of  the 
sound*  the  gun  viras  furnished  widi  a  parabolic  muzzle,  intended 
to  project  the  sound  over  the  sea,  wnere  ic  was  most  needed. 
The  construction  of  this  gun  was  based  on  a  searching  series  of 
experiments  executed  at  Woolwich  with  small  models,  provid«l 
with  muzzles  of  various  kinds.     The  gun  was  constructed  on  the 

Erinciple  of  the  revolver,  its  various  chambers  being  loaded  and 
rought  in  rapid  succession  into  the  firing  position.  The 
performance  of^the  gun  proved  the  correctness  of  the  principles 
on  which  its  construction  was  based. 

Coincident  with  these  trials  of  guns  at  Woolwich  gun-cotton 
was  thought  of  as  a  possibly  effective  sound-producer.  From 
the  first,  indeed,  theoretic  considerations  caused  me  to  fix  my 
attention  persistently  on  this  substance;  for  the  remarkable 
experiments  of  Mr.  Abel,  whereby  its  rapidity  of  combustion  and 
violently  explosive  energy  are  demonstrated,  seemed  to  single  it 
out  as  a  substance  eminently  calculated  to  fulfil  the  conditions 
necessary  to  the  production  of  an  intense  wave  of  sound.  What 
those  conditions  are  we  shall  now  more  particularly  inauire, 
calling  to  our  aid  a  brief  but  very  remarkable  paper,  published 
by  Prof.  Stokes  in  the  Philosophical  Magazine  for  1868. 

A  sound  wave  consists  essentially  of  two  parts — a  condensa- 
tion and  a  rarefaction.  Now  air  is  a  very  mobile  fluid,  and  if 
the  shock  imparted  to  it  lack  due  promptness,  the  wave  is  not 
produced.  Consider  the  case  of  a  common  clock  pendulum, 
which  oscillates  to  and  fro,  and  which  therefore  might  be  ex- 
pected to  generate  corresponding  pulses  in  the  air.  When,  for 
example,  Uie  bob  moves  to  the  right,  the  air  to  the  right  of  it 
might  be  supposed  to  be  condei^ed,  while  a  partial  vacuum 
might  be  supposed  to  follow  the  bob.  As  a  matter  of  (act,  we 
have  nothing  of  this  kind.  The  air  particles  in  front  of  the  bob 
retreat  so  rapidly,  and  those  behind  it  close  so  rapidly  in,  that 
no  sound-pulse  is  formed. 

The  more  rapid  the  shock  imparted  to  the  air,  the  greater  is 
the  fractional  part  of  the  energy  of  the  shock  converted  into 
wave  motion.  And  as  difTerent  kinds  of  gunpowder  vary  con- 
siderably in  their  rapidity  of  combustion,  it  may  be  expected 
that  they  will  also  vary  as  producers  of  sound.  This  theoretic 
inference  is  completely  verified  by  experiment.  In  a  series  of 
preliminary  trials  conducted  at  Woolwich  on  the  4th  of  June, 
1875,  ^c  sound-producing  powers  of  four  different  kinds  of 
powder  were  determined.  In  the  order  of  their  sizes  thev  bear 
the  names  respectively  of  Fine-grain  (F.G.),  Large-grain  (L.G.), 

«  •*  Recent  Experiments  on  Fc«  Signals."    Abstract  of  paper  read  at  the 
Rn^l  Society,  March  ai.     By  Dr.  Tytdall,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Natural  \ 
Phibsophy  in  the  Royal  Institution.  ( 


Rifle  Laige-grain  (R.L.G.),  and  Pebble-powder  (P.).  The 
char^  in  each  case  amounted  to  4}  lbs.,  four  24-paaiicl 
homtzersbeingemployed  to  fire  the  respective  charges.  nThere 
were  eleven  oMervers,  all  of  whom,  without  a  single  distentieiit, 
pronounced  the  sound  of  the  fine-grain  powder  loudest  of  alL 
In  the  opinion  of  seven  of  the  eleven  tne  laige-gram  powder 
came  next ;  seven  also  of  the  eleven  placed  the  rifle  tange-grmm 
third  on  the  list ;  while  thev  were  again  nnanimoos  in  pro* 
nonndng  the  pebble-powder  the  worst  soond-producer.  Xneae 
differences  are  entirely  due  to  differences  in  the  rapidity  of 
combustion. 

These  are  some  of  the  phvncal  reasons  why  gun-cotton  might 
be  regarded  as  a  promising  /og-sigoal.  Firing  it  as  we  have  bcco 
taught  to  do  by  Mr.  Abel,  its  explosion  is  more  rapid  than  that 
of  gunpowder.  In  its  case  the  air-particles,  alert  as  they  arc^  will 
not,  it  may  be  presumed,  be  able  to  slip  from  places  of  con- 
densation to  places  of  rarefaction  with  a  rapidity  sufficient  to 
forestall  the  formation  of  the  wave. 

As  regards  explosive  material,  and  zealous  and  accomplislied 
help  in  the  use  of  it,  the  resources  of  Woolwidi  Arsenal  have 
beat  freely  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Elder  Brethren.  Gen. 
Campbell,  Gen.  Younghusband,  CoL  Fraser,  CoL  Maitland,  and 
other  officers,  have  ts3cen  an  active  personal  part  in  the  inves- 
tigation, and  in  most  cases  have  incurred  the  labour  of  reducing 
and  reporting  on  the  observations.  Guns^of  various  forms  and 
sizes  have  Men  invoked  for  gunpowder,' while  gun-cotton  Ya^ 
been  fired  in  free  air,  and  in  the  fod  of  parabolic  reflectors 

On  February  22,  1875,  a  number  of  small  guns,  cast  specially 
for  the  purpose — some  with  plain,  some  with  conical,  and  some 
with  parabDlic  muzzles,  firing  4  oz.  of  fine-grain  powder,  were 
pitted  against  4  oz.  of  gun-cotton,  detonated  both  in  the  open 
and  in  me  focus  of  a  parabolic  reflector.  The  sound  prodnoed 
by  the  gun-cotton,  reinforced  by  the  reflector,  was  nnanimoosly 
pronounced  loudest  of  alL  With  equal  unanimity,  the  gnu- 
cotton  detonated  in  free  air  was  placed  second  in  intensity. 
Though  the  same  charge  was  used  throughout,  the  guns  diflfezed 
considerably  among  themselves,  but  none  of  them  came  np  to 
the  gun-cotton  either  with  or  without  the  reflector.  A  second 
series,  observed  from  a  different  distance  on  the  same  day,  coo- 
firmed  to  the  letter  the  fore^ing  result 

Meanwhile,  the  parabolic  muzzle-gun,  expressly  intended 
for  fog-signallings  was  pushed  rapidly  forward,  and  on  March 
22  and  23,  iStC^  its  power  was  tested  at  Shoeburynessw  Pit- 
ted against  it  were  a  i6-pounder,  a  5i-inch  howitzer,  i|lb.  of 
gun-cotton  detonated  in  the  focus  of  a  reflector,  and  i^  lb.  of 
gun-cotton  detonated  in  free  air.  Oa  this  occasion,  nineteen 
different  series  of  experiments  were  made,  when  the  new  experi- 
mental gun,  firing  a  3-lb.  charge,  demonstrated  its  superiority 
over  all  guns  previous  *y  employed  to  fire  the  same  chaiqge.  As 
regards  the  comparative  merits  of  the  gun-cotton  fired  in  the 
open,  and  the  gunpowder  fired  from  the  best  constructed  gnn, 
the  mean  values  of  their  sounds  were  found  to  be  the  same. 
Fired  in  the  focus  of  the  reflector,  the  gun-cotton  deariy  domi- 
nated over  all  the  other  sound-producers.^ 

The  whole  of  the  observations  here  referred  to  were  em- 
braced by  an  angle  of  about  70^,  of  fwhich  jo^  lay  on  the 
one  side  and  20*  on  the  other  side  of  the  line  of  nre.  The  shots 
were  heard  by  eleven  observers  on  board  the  GahUa^  which  took 
up  positions  varving  from  2  miles  to  13^  miles  firom  the  firing- 
point  In  all  these  observations,  the  reinforcing  power  of  the 
reflector,  and  of  the  parabolic  muzzle  .of  the  gun,  came  into 
play.  But  the  reinforcement  of  the  sound  in  one  direction  im- 
plies its  withdrawal  from  some  other  direction,  and  accordingly 
we  find  that  at  a  distance  of  5^  miles  from  the  firing-point,  and 
on  a  line,  including  nearly  an  angle  of  90^,  with  the  line  of  fire, 
the  guU'COtton  in  the  open  beat  the  new  gun ;  while  behiod 
the  station,  at  distances  of  84  miles  and  13^  miles  respectively, 
the  gun-cotton  in  the  open  boa  both  the  gnn  and  the  gun-cotton 
in  the  reflector.  This  result  is  rendered  more  important  by  the 
fact  that  the  sound  reached  the  Mucking  Light,  a  distance  of 
I3i  miles,  against  a  light  wind  which  was  blowing  at  the  time. 

Theoretic  considerations  render  it  probable  that  the  shape  of 
the  exploding  mass  would  affect  the  constitution  of  the  wave  of 
sound.  I  did  not  think  large  rectangular  slabs  the  most  favour- 
able shape,  and  accordingly  proposed  cutting  ,a  large  slab  into 
firagments  of  different  sizes,  and  pitting  them  against  each  other. 
The  differences  between  the  sounds  were  by  no  means  so  great 
as  the  differences  in  the  quantities  of  explosive  material  might 
lead  one  to  expect.     The  mean  values  of  eighteen  series  of 

'  In  this  cmM  the  reflector  was  fractured  by  the  explosioiw 


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obsenrations'made  on  board  the  Galaiea  at  distances  varying  froai 
\\  mile  to  4'8  miles,  were  as  follows : — 


Weights 
Valne  of  sound 


4-oz. 
312 


6-02. 
3'34 


9-oz. 
40 


I2-OZ. 
4*03 


These  charges  were  cut  from  a  slab  of  dry  gun-cotton  about 
1 1  inqh  thick ;  they  were  squares  and  rectangles  of  the  following 
dimensions : — 4  oz. ,  2  inches  by  2  inches  ;  6  oz.,  2  inches  by 
3  inches ;  9  oz.,  3  inches  by  3  inches ;  12  oz.,  2  inches  by  6 
inches. 

It  is  an  obvious  corollary  from  the  foregoing  experiments  that 
on  our  "  nesses  "  and  promontories,  where  the  land  is  clasped  on 
both  sides  for  a  considerable  distance  by  the  sea, — where,  there- 
fore, the  sound  has  to  propagate  itself  rearward  as  well  as  for- 
ward— the  use  of  the  parabolic  gun,  or  of  the  parabolic  reflector 
might  be  a  disadvantage  rather  than  an  advantage.     Here  gun- 
cotton,  exploded  in  the  open,  forms  the  most  appropriate  source 
of  sound.     This  remark  u  especially  applicable  to  such  light- 
ships as  are  intended  to  spread  the  sound  all  round  them  as  from 
central  foci.  As  a  signal  in  rock  lighthouses,  where  neither  syren, 
steam-whistle,  nor  gun  could  be  mounted,  and  as  a  haodv  fleet- 
signal,  which  dispenses  with  the  lumber  of  special  signal-guns, 
the  gun-cotton  will  prove  invaluable.    But  in  most  of  these  cases 
we  have  the  drawback  that  local  damage  may  be  done  by  the 
explosion.     The  lantern  of  the  rock-lighthouse  might  suffer  firom 
concussion  near  at  hand,  and  thouph  mechanical  arrangements 
might  be  devised,  both  in  the  case  of  the  lighthouse  and  of  the 
ship,   to  place  the  firing-point  of  the  gun-cotton  at  a  safe 
distance,  no  such  arrangement  could  compete,  as  regards  sim- 
plicity and  effectiveness,  with  the  expedient    of   a  gun-cotton 
rocket.     Had  such  a  means  of  signalling  existed  at  the  Bishop's 
Rock  Lighthouse,  the  ill-fated  Schiller  might  have  been  warned 
of  her  approach  to  danger  ten,  or  it  may  be  twenty,  miles  before 
she  reached  the  rock  which  wrecked  her.     Had  the  fleet  pos- 
sessed such  a  signal,  instead  of  the  ubiquitous  but  ineffectual 
steam-whistle,  the  Iron  Duke  and  Vanguard  need  never  have 
come  into  collision. 

It  was  the  necessity  of  providing  a  suitable  signal  for  rock 
lighthouses,  and  of  clearing  obstacles  which  cast  an  acoustic 
shadow,  that  suggested  the  idea  of  the  gun-cotton  rocket  to  Sir 
Richard  Collinson,  Deputy  Master  of  the  Trinity  House.  That 
idea  was  to  place  a  disk  or  short  cylinder  of  the  gun*  cotton, 
which  had  proved  so  effectual  at  low  levels,  ia  the  head  of  a 
rocket,  the  ascensional  force  of  which  should  be  employed  to 
carry  the  disk  to  an  elevation  of  i,cooJ  feet  or  thereabouts, 
where  by  the  ignition  of  a  fuse  associated  with  a  detonator,  the 
gun-cotton  should  be  fired,  sending  its  sotmd  in  all  directions 
vertically  and  obliquely  down  upon  earth  and  sea.  The  first 
attempt  to  realise  this  idea  was  made  on  July  18,  1876,  at  the 
firework  manufactory  of  the  Messrs.  Brock,  at  Nunhead.  Eight 
rockets  were  then  fired,  four  being  charged  with  5  oz.  and  four 
with  7i  oz.  of  gun-cotton.  They  ascended  to  a  great  height, 
and  exploded  with  a  very  loud  report  in  the  air.  On  July  27,  the 
rockets  were  tried  at  Shoeburyness.  The  most  noteworthy  result 
on  this  occasion  was  the  hearing  of  the  rockets  at  the  Mouse 
Lighthouse,  8^  miles  £.  by  S.,  and  at  the  Chapman  Lighthouse, 
8)  miles  W.  by  N.  ;  that  is  to  say,  at  opposite  sides  of  Sie  firing- 
point. 

On  December  13,  1876,  and  agahi  on  March  8,  1877,  com- 
parative experiments  of  firing  at  high  and  low  elevations  were 
executed.  The  gun-cotton  near  the  ground  consisted  of  4 -lb. 
disks  suspended  from  a  horizontal  iron  bar  about  4^  feet  above 
the  ground.  The  rockets  carried  the  same  quantity  of  gun- 
cotton  in  their  heads,  and  the  height  to  which  they  attained,  as 
determined  by  a  theodolite,  was  from  800  to  900  feet  The  day 
last-mentioned  was  cold,  with  occasional  squalls  of  snow  and 
hail,  the  direction  of  the  sound  l>eingat  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
wind.  Five  series  of  observation  were  made  on  board  the  Vestal 
at  distances  varying  from  three  to  six  miles.  The  mean  value 
of  the  explosions  in  the  air  exceeded  that  of  the  explosions  near 
the  ground  by  a  small  but  sensible  quantity.  At  Windmill  Hill, 
Gravesend,  however,  which  was  nearly  to  leeward,  and  5i  miles 
from  the  firing- poin^  in  nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty-lour  the 
disk  fired  near  the  ground  was  loudest ;  while  in  the  remaining 
five  the  rocket  had  the  advantage. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  dly  the  atmosphere  became  very 
serene.  A  few  distant  cumuli  sailed  near  the  horizon,  but 
the  zenith  and  a  vast  angular  space  all  round  it  were  abso- 
lutely free  from  cloud.  From  ^  the  deck  of  the  Galatea  a 
rocket  was  discharged,  which  reached  a  great  elevation,  and 
exploded  with  a  loud  report.    Following  uis  solid  nudeos  of 


soimd  was  a  continuous  train  of  echoes,  which  retreated  to  a 
continually  greater  distance,  dying  gradually  off  into  silence  after 
seven  seconds'  duration.  These  echoes  were  of  the  same  cha- 
racter as  those  so  frequently  noticed  at  the  South  Foreland  in 
1872-73,  and  called  by  me  "  aerial  echoes." 

On  March  23,  the  experiments  were  resumed,  the  most  note- 
worthy results  of  this  day's  observations  being  that  the  soands 
were  heard  at  Tillingham,  10  miles  to  the  N.£. ;  at  West 
Mersea,  15 {  miles  to  the  N.E.  by  E.;  at  Brightlingsea,  17^ 
miles  to  the  N.E.  ;  and  at  Clacton  Wash,  2o|  miles  to  the 
N.  E.  by  i  E.  The  wind  was  blowing  at  the  time  from  the  S.E. 
Some  of  these  sounds  were  produced  by  rockets,  some  by  a 
24-lb.  howitzer,  and  some  by  an  8 -inch  M  aroon. 

In  December,  1876,  Mr.  Gardiner,  the  managing  director  of 
the  Cotton-powder  Company,  had  proposed  a  trial  of  this 
material  agunst  the  gun-cotton.  The  density  of  the  cotton,  he 
urged,  was  only  1*03,  while  that  of  the  powder  was  170.  A 
greater  quantity  of  explosive  material  being  thus  compressed 
into  the  same  volume,  Mr.  Gardiner  thought  that  a  greater 
sonorous  effect  must  be  produced  by  the  powder.  At  the  in- 
stance of  Mr.  Mackie,  who  had  previously  gone  very  thoroughly 
into  the  subject,  a  Committee  of  the  Elder  Brethren  visited  the 
cotton  powder  manufactory,  on  the  banks  of  the  Swale,  near 
Faversham,  on  June  16,  1877.  '^^^  weights  of  cotton  powder 
employed  were  2  oz.,  8  oz.,  i  lb.,  and  2  lbs.,  in  the  form  of 
rockets  and  of  signals  fired  a  few  feet  above  the  ground.  The 
experiments  throughout  were  arranged  and  conducted  by  Mr. 
Mackie.  Our  desire  on  this  occasion  was  to  get  as  near  to 
windward  as  possible,  but  the  Swale  and  other  obstacles 
limited  our  distance  to  i^  mile.  We  stood  here  E.S.E. 
from  the  firing-point  while  tne  wind  blew  firesh  from  the  N.  E. 
The  cotton-powder  yielded  a  very  effective  report.  The 
rockets  in  general  had  a  slight  advantage  over  the  same  quantities 
of  material  fired  near  the  ground.  The  loudness  of  the  sound 
was  by  no  means  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  the  material 
exploded,  8  oz.  yielding  very  nearly  as  loud  a  report  as  i  lb. 
The  ''aerial  echoes,"  which  invariably  followed  the  explosion 
of  the  rockets,  were  loud  and  long-continued. 

On  October  17,  1877,  another  series  of  experiments  with 
howitzers  and  rockets  was  carried  out  at  Shoeburyness.  The 
charge  of  the  howitzer  was  3  lbs.  of  L.G.  powder.  The  charges 
of  the  rockets  were  12  oz,  8  oz.,  4  oz.,  and  2  oz.  of  gun-cotton 
respectively.  The  gun  and  the  four  rockeU  constituted  a  series, 
and  eight  series  were  fired  during  the  afternoon  of  the  17th. 
The  observations  were  made  from  the  Vestal  and  the  GcUeUea, 
positions  being  assumed  which  permitted  the  sound  to  reach  the 
obbervers  with  the  wind,  against  the  wind,  and  across  the  wind. 
The  distance  of  the  Galatea  vailed  from  three  to  seven  miles, 
that  of  the  Vestal,  which  was  more  restricted  in  her  movements, 
being  from  two  to  three  miles.  Briefly  summed  up,  the  result  is 
that  the  howitzer,  firing  a  3-lb.  charge^  which  it  will  be  remem- 
bered was  our  best  gun  at  the  South  Foreland,  was  beaten  by 
the  I2-0Z.  rocket,  by  the  8-oz.  rocket,  and  by  the  4-oz.  rocket. 
The  2-oz.  rocket  alone  fell  bihini  the  howitzer. 

On  the  following  day,  viz.,  October  18,  we  proceeded  to 
Dungeness  with  the  view  of  making  a  series  of  strict  comparative 
experiments  with  gun-cotton  and  cotton- powder.  Rockets  con- 
taining 8  oz.,  4  oz.,  and  2  oz.  of  gtm-cotton  had  beoi  prepared 
at  the  Royal  Arsenal ;  while  others,  containing  a  similar  quantity 
of  cotton-powder,  luui  been  suppUed  by  the  Cotton-powder 
Company  at  Faversham.  With  these  were  compared  the  ordinary 
i8-pouiider  gun,  which  happened  to  be  mounted  at  Dungeness, 
firing  the  usual  charge  of  3  lbs.  of  powder,  and  a  syren. 

From  these  experiments  it  appeared  that  the  gun-cotton  and 
cotton-powder  were  practically  equal  as  producers  of  sound. 

The  effectiveness  of  small  charges  was  Ulustrated  in  a  very 
striking  manner,  only  a  single  unit  separating  the  numerical 
value  of  the  8-oz.  rocket  from  that  of  the  2-oz.  rocket  The 
former  was  recorded  as  69  and  the  latter  as  5*9,  the  value  of 
the  4-0Z.  charge  being  intermediate  between  them.  These  results 
were  recorded  by  a  number  of  very  practised  observers  on  board 
the  Galatea,  They  were  completely  borne  out  by  the  observa- 
tions of  the  Coastguard,  who  marked  the  value  of  the  8-oz. 
rocket  6*1,  and  that  of  the  2-oz  rocket  5*2.  The  i8-potmder 
gun  fell  far  behind  all  the  rockets,  a  result  probably  to  be 
m  part  ascribed  to  the  imperfection  of  the  powder.  The 
performance  of  the  sjren  was,  on  the  whole^  less  satisfac- 
tory than  that  of  the  rocket  The  ixutrument  was  worked,  not 
by  steam  of  70  lbs.  pressure,  as  at  the  Soutih  Foreland,  but  by 
compressed  air,  begmning  with  40 11^.  and  ending  with  30  lbs. 
pressure.    The  trumpet  was  pointed  to  windwa^  and  in  the 


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axis  of  the  iiutniment  the  sound  was  about  as  effective  as  that 
of  the  8-oz.  rocket  Bat  In  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis,  and  still  more  in  the  i«ar  of  this  direction,  the  syren  fell 
▼erf  sensibly  bdiind  even  the  2-oz.  rocket. 

These  are  the  principal  comparative  trials  made  between  the 
gun-cotton  rocket  and  other  fog-signah ;  but  they  are  not  the 
only  ones.  On  August  2,  1877,  for  example,  experiments  were 
made  at  Lundy  Ishmd  with  the  following  results*  At  two  miles 
distant  from  the  firing  point,  with  laud  intervening,  the  i8- 
pounder,  firing  a  31b.  charge,  was  quite  unheard.  Both  the 
4.0Z.  rocket  and  the  8-oz.  rodcet,  however,  reached  an  elevation 
which  commanded  the  acoustic  shadow,  and  yielded  loud  reports. 
When  both  were  in  view,  the  rockets  were  still  superior  to  the 
gun.  On  August  6,  at  St.  Ann's,  the  4-02.  and  8-oz.  rockets 
proved  superior  to  the  syren.  On  the  Shambles  Light-vessel, 
when  a  pressure  of  13  lbs.  was  employed  to  sound  the  syren,  the 
rockets  proved  greatly  superior  to  that  instrument  Proceeding 
along  the  sea-margin  at  Flamboro'  Head,  Mr.  Edwards  states 
that  at  a  distance  of  i^  mile,  with  the  18-pounder  gun  hidden 
behind  the  diffs,  its  report  was  quite  unheard,  while  the  4-oz. 
rocket,  rising  to  an  elevation  which  btought  it  clearly  into  view, 
yielded  a  powerful  sound  in  the  face  of  an  opposing  wind. 

On  the  evening  of  February  9,  1877,  a  remarkable  series  of 
experiments  was  made,  by  Mr.  Prentice,  at  Stowmarket,  with 
the  gun-cotton  rocket.  From  the  report  with  which  he  has 
kindly  furnished  me  I  extract  the  following  particulars.  The 
first  column  in  the  annexed  statement  contains  the  name  of  the 
place  of  observation,  the  second  its  distance  firom  the  firing-point, 
and  the  third  the  result  observed  : — 


Stoke  Hill,  Ipswich 


Melton 


Framliogfaam  ... 


Slratrord.    St  Andrews..  19 

Tuddenfcam.    St  Martin  xo 

Christ  Church  Park       ...  ix 

Kculestead  Hall    6 

Bildestonc—    ... 6 


xo  mUes  Rockets  clearlv  seen  and  sounds  dis- 
tinctly heard  53  seconds  after  the 
flash. 

Sifi;nals  distinctly  heard.  Thought  at 
Srst  that  sounds  were  reverberated 
from  the  sea. 

Signals  very  distinctly  heard,  both  in 
the  open  air  and  in  a  dosed  room. 
Wind  in  favour  of  sound. 

Reports  loud  ;  startled  pheasants  in  a 


IS 


18 


Nicton 
Aldboro 


Otpel  MUls      ^ 


Lawford 


M 


X5l.. 


cover  close  by. 
Reports  very  loud ;  rolled  away  like 

thunder. 
Report  arrived  a  little  more  than  a 

minute  after  flash. 
Distinct  in  every  part  of  observer's 

house.    Very  loud  in  the  open  air. 
Explo&ion   very  loud,    wind    against 

sound. 
Reports   quite  distinct— mbtaken  by 

inhabitants  for  daps  of  dumder. 
Rockeu  seen  throogh   a   very  hazy 

atmosphere;  a  rumbling  detonation 

heard. 
Reports  heard  within  and  without  the 

observer's  house.    Wind  opposed  to 


Reports  distinct :  attributed  to'distant 
thunder. 

It  is  needless  to  dwell  for  a  moment  on  the  advantage  of  pos* 
sessing  a  signal  commanding  ranges  such  as  these. 

The  explosion  of  substances  in  the  air,  after  having  been  carried 
to  a  considerable  elevation  by  rockets,  is  a  familiar  perfonnance. 
In  1873,  moreover,  the  Board  of  Trade  proposed  a  light-and- 
sound  rocket  as  a  signal  of  distress,  which  proposal  was  subse- 
quently realised,  but  in  a  form  too  daborate  and  expensive  for 
practical  use.  The  idea  of  the  gun-cotton  rocket  with  a  view  to 
signalling  in  fogs  is,  I  believe,  whoUy  due  to  the  Deputy  Master 
ol  the  Trinity  House.  ^  Thanks  to  the  skilful  aid  given  by  the 
authorities  of  Woolwich,  by  Mr.  Prentice,  and  Mr.  Brock,  that 
idea  is  now  an  accomplished  fact,  a  signal  of  great  power, 
handiness,  and  economy,  being  thus  placed  at  the  service  of  our 
mariners.  Not  only  may  the  rocket  be  applied  in  asiodation 
with  lighthouses  and  lightships,  but  in  the  Navv  also  it  may  be 
turned  to  important  account.  Soon  after  the  loss  of  the  Piift' 
guard  I  ventured  to  urge  upon  an  eminent  naval  officer  the 
desirability  of  having  an  orguiised  code  of  fog-signals  for  the 
fleet.  He  shook  his  head  doubtingly,  and  referred  to  the  diffi- 
cult of  finding  room  for  signal-guns.  The  gun-cotton  rocket 
completely  surmounts  this  difficulty  It  is  mampulatai  with  ease 
and  rapidity,  while  its  discharges  maybe  so  grouped  and  combined 
as  to  give  a  most  important  extension  to  the  voice  of  the  admiral 

I  have  referred  more  than  once  to  the  tndn  of  echoes  which 
Aocompaiyed  the  explosion  of  gun  cotton  in  free  air,  speaking  of 
them  as  similar  in  ail  respecti  to  those  which  were  described  for 
*  I  have  proposed  that  it  shoold  be  called  the  "  CoOinson  Rocket." 


the  first  time  in  my  report  on  fog^signals,  addiessed  to  the  Oor- 
poration  of  Trinity  House  in  1874.^    To  these  echoes  I  attached 
a  fundamental  significance.     There  was  no  visible    reflecting 
surface  from  which  they  could  come.  On  some  days,  with  hardly 
a  cloud  in  the  air,  and  hardly  a  ripple  on  the  sea,  they  re&ched 
us  with  magical  intensity.     As  far  as  the  sense  of  hea"»*g  coakl 
judge,  they  came  firom  the  body  of  air  in  front  of  the  great 
trumpet  which  produced  them.     The  trumpet-blasts  were  frre 
seconds  in  duration,  but  long  before  the  blast  had  ceased   the 
echoes  struck  in,  addmg  their  strength  to  the  primitive  note  ot 
the  trumpet    After  the  blast  had  ended  the  echoes  oontintied, 
retreating  further  and  further  from  the  point  of  obtervatkm, 
and  finaUy  dying  away  at  great  distances.     The  echoes  were 
perfectly  continuous  as   long  as  the  sea  was  dear  of   ships, 
' '  tapering  "  by  imperceptible  gte^ations  to  absolute  silence.     Bat 
when  a  ship  happened  to  throw  itself  athwart  the  course  of  the 
sound,  the  echo  from  the  broadside  of  the  vessd  was  retanted 
as  a  shock  which  rudely  interrupted  tiie  continuity  of  the  dying 
atmospheric  music. 

The  day  on  which  our  latest  observations  were  made  was  par- 
ticularly fine.  Before  reaching  Dungeness  the  smoothness  or  the 
sea  and  the  serenity  of  the  air  caused  me  to  test  the  echoing 
power  of  the  atmosphere.  A  single  ship  lay  about  half  a  mile 
distant  between  us  and  the  land.  The  result  of  the  proposed 
experiment  was  clearly  foreseen.  It  was  this.  The  rocket  being 
sent  up,  it  exploded  at  a  great  height ;  the  echoes  retreated  in 
their  usual  fietshion,  beoommg  less  and  less  intense  as  the  distance 
of  die  surfaces  of  reflection  from  the  observers  increased.  Aboot 
five  seconds  after  the  explosion,  a  single  loud  shock  was  sent 
back  to  us  from  the  side  of  the  vessel  lying  between  us  and  the 
land.  Obliterated  for  a  moment  by  this  more  intense  echo,  the 
aerial  reverberation  continued  its  retreat,  dying  away  into 
silence  in  two  or  three  seconds  afcowards. 

I  have  referred  to  the  firing  of  an  8-oz.  rocket  firom  the  deck 
of  the  Galatea,  on  March  8,  1877,  stating  the  duration  of  its 
echoes  to  be  seven  seconds.  Mr.  Prentice,  who  was  present  at 
the  time,  assured  me  that,  in  his  experiments  with  rockets, 
similar  echoes  had  been  firequently  heard  of  more  than  twice 
this  duration.  The  ranges  of  his  sounds  alone  would  render 
this  result  in  the  highest  degree  probable. 

There  is  not  a  feature  connected  witii  the  aerial  echoes  whtdi 
cannot  be  brought  out  b}|r  experiments  in  the  laboratory.  I  have 
recently  made  the  following  experiment : — A  rectan^  22  inches 
bv  12,  is  crossed  by  twenty- three  brass  tubes,  each  having  a  slit 
along  it  firom  which  gas  can  issue.  In  this  waj,  twenty- three  low, 
flat  flames  are  obtamed.  A  sounding  reed,  nxed  in  a  short  tnbe, 
is  placed  at  one  end  of  the  rectangle,  and  a  *'  sensitive  flame  **  at 
some  distance  beyond  the  other  end.  When  the  reed  sounds^  the 
flame  in  front  of  it  is  violently  agitated,  and  roars  boisterooriy. 
Turning  on  the  gas,  and  lighting  it  as  it  issues  from  the  shts,  the 
air  above  the  flames  becomes  so  heterogeneous  that  the  sensitive 
flame  is  instantly  stilled  by  the  aerial  reflection,  rising  from  a 
height  of  6  inches  to  a  height  ot  18  inches.  Here  we  nave  the 
acoustic  opacity  of  the  aur  in  front  of  the  South  Foreland 
strikingly  imitated.  Turning  ofl*  the  gas,  and  removing  the  sen- 
.<dtive  flame  to  some  distance  behind  the  reed,  it  bums  there 
tranquilly,  though  the  reed  may  be  sounding.  Again  lighting 
the  gas  as  it  issues  from  the  brass  tubes,  the  sound  reflected  from 
the  heterogeneous  air  throws  the  sensitive  flame  into  violent 
agitation.  Here  we  have  imitated  the  aerial  echoes  heard  when 
standing  behind  the  syren-trumpets  at  South  Foreland.  The 
experiment  is  extremely  simple  and  in  the  highest  degree  im- 
presssive. 

THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INSTITUTE 

n^HE  ninth  annual  meeting  of  the  members  of  the  Iron  and 
^  Steel  Institute  was  commenced  on  Thursday  in  the  rooms 
of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Ei^glneers  in  Westminster.  The  chair 
was  occupied  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Siemens,  F.R.S.,  Uie  President  of 
the  Institute,  and  the  proceedings  were  commenced  by  the  read- 
ing of  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Council,  which  stated  that  the 
total  number  of  members  now  exceeds  900,  while  a  steady 
accession  of  new  members  continues,  there  being  47  proposed 
for  election  at  the  present  meeting.  The  Council  referred  to 
the  increase  of  foreign  members,  which  shows  the  faiterest  taken 
in  the  institute  by  Continental  and  American  metallurgists.  An 
invitation  received  firom  M.  Tresca  on  behalf  of  the  Sod^  des 
Ing^iieurB  Civils,  to  visit  Paris  in  the  ensuing  summer  and  the 
concurrent  holding  of  the  International  .Exhibition  in  that  city, 
I  See  also  Pkilctophkal  TnmutcUmt  for  1874,   .  183. 


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have  icdaced  the  Council  to  recommend  that  the  next  autumn 
meeting  should  be  held  in  Paris.  A  sum  of  2,318/.  has  been 
raised  by  the  Institute  for  the  widow  and  family  of  Mr.  Jones, 
the  late  general  secretary, 

The  President  stated  that  the  Bessemer  medal  had  been 
aw  arded  to  Prof.  Tunner,  of  Leoben,  Austria,  in  conse<juence  of 
the  great  distinction  that  gentleman  had  earned  for  hmiself  in 
his  researches  in  that  branch  of  science  which  the  Institute  so 
specially  represented. 

One  of  the  most  important  papers  read  was  by  Mr.  I.  Lowthlan 
Bell,  M.P.,  F.R.S.,  on  the  separation  of  phosphorus  from 
pig  iron.  In  this  paper  Mr.  Bell  detailed  nis  further  expe- 
riences in  his  endeavours  to  eliminate  the  phosphorus  from  the 
iron,  its  presence  having  a  weakening  effect  on  the  metal.  Fully 
five-sixths  of  the  pig  iron  manufactured  in  Great  Britain  is  made 
from  ores  which,  wnen  smelted,  give  a  product  containing  from 
three-tenths  of  a  unit  to  nearly  2  per  cent  of  phosphorus.  When, 
however,  this  element  exists  in  pig  iron  to  the  extent  of  much 
more  than  one-tenth  of  a  unit  per  cent  it  is  unfit  for  the  Bes- 
semer converter — at  all  events  when  ordinary  Spiegel  iron,  con- 
taining 10  or  12  per  cent  of  manganese,  is  used  for  its  final 
purification.  Bessemer  steel  rail-makers  are,  therefore,  obliged 
to  reject  iron  which  formerly  sufficed  for  the  manufacture  of  iron 
railf,  an  iron  comparatively  free  from  phosphorus  being  neces- 
sary. That,  therefore,  affected  the  i}rosperity  of  the  mines  which 
formerly  supplied  the  rail  makers  with  ore,  as  well  as  the  blast 
furnaces  which  produced  the  pig  iron  from  that  ore.  Mr.  Bell 
explained  that  at  the  high  temperature  of  the  Bessemer  converter, 
while  the  carbon  was  removed  by  the  air  during  its  passage 
through  the  metal,  the  phosphorus  was  not  affected.  This  he 
stated  was  also  the  case  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  ordinary 
refinery  furnaces ;  with  a  more  moderate  temperature,  however, 
the  conditions  which  bound  carbon  and  phosphorus  with  iron 
were  materially  changed.  The  iron  was  more  or  less  oxidised, 
and  the  oxide  of  iron  so  formed  acted  on  the  carbon  and  phos- 
phorus. When  the  phosphorus  is  removed  its  loss  is  accom- 
panied by  a  separation  of  the  carbon  contained  in  the  pig  iron. 
Loss  of  carbon,  however,  deprives  the  metal  of  its  susceptibility 
of  fusion  at  the  temperatures  at  which  the  operation  of  refining 
and  puddlmg  are  carried  on,  and  when  once  the  metal  is  solid 
the  further  elimination  of  phosphorus  is  very  difficult,  if  not  im- 
posi^ible.  Mr,  Bell  expressed  the  opinion  that  a  lower  tempera- 
ture probably  weakenea  the  affinity  of  phosphorus  for  iron,  as 
they  existed  in  the  crude  metal,  or  strengthened  the  affinity 
between  oxide  of  iron  and  phosphoric  acid.  A  third  condition 
involved  in  die  mere  condition  of  heat  might  be  a  diminution  of 
the  power  possessed  by  oxide  of  iron  in  attacking  the  carbon, 
that  element  which  enabled  the  crude  metal  to  maintain  fluidity 
when  moderately  heated.  The  author  said  that  whichever  one 
or  more  than  one  of  the  three  conditions  ^as  required,  the  fact 
remained  that  melted  crude  iron  might  be  maintained  in  contact 
with  melted  oxide  of  iron,  and  still  retain  carbon  enough  to  pre- 
vent it  solidifying,  while  the  phosphorus  rapidly  di^ppeared. 
Instance^  were  given  of  95  per  cent  of  phosphorus  being 
removed,  while  only  10  per  cent  of  the  carbon  had  been  dissi- 
pated. The  process  consists  in  the  more  rapid  agitation  of  the 
two  substances  while  in  a  liquid  condition.  The  iron  so  heated 
may  be  puddled  for  the  production  of  malleable  iron,  or  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  steel.  Specimens  of  steel  of  the  highest 
quality  which  had  been  so  prc^lucedat  the  Royal  Arsenal,  Wool- 
wich, were  exhibited. 

Dr.  Percy,  F.R.S.,  gave  some  particulars  as  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  Japanese  copper.  Bars  of  this  metal  present  a  beautiful 
rose- coloured  tint  on  thek  surface,  which  is  due  to  an  extremely 
thin  and  pertinaciously  adherent  film  of  red  oxide  of  copper  or 
cuprous  oxide.  This  tmt  is  not  in  the  least  d^ree  affected  by 
free  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  Tr.  Percy  placed  before  the 
meeting  bars  which  he  had  possessed  for  thirty  years,  and  which 
had  undergone  no  change,  althouc^h  freely  exposed  to  the  atmo- 
sphere. ■  The  secret  of  this  result  lies  in  casting  the  copper  under 
water,  the  metal  beiog  very  highly  heated  and  the  water  being 
also  made  hot  Dr.  Percy  stated  that  he  had  succeeded  in 
casting  copper  in  this  way,  and  bad  produced  similar  results  to 
those  shown  in  the  Japanese  metal. 

Other  papers  read  were  : — **  On  some  Recent  Improvements 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  Sponge  by  the  BJair  Process,"  by 
Mr.  J.  Ireland  ;  "  Statistics  on  the  Production  and  Depreciation 
of  Rails,"  by  Mr.  Charles  Wood;  "On  Steel-casting  Appa- 
ratus,"  by  Mr.  Michael  Scott ;  **  On  Railway  Joints,"  by  Mr. 
C.  H.  Halcomb ;  and  '*On  the  Manufacture  of  Bessemer  Steel 
and  Steel  RaUs,"  by  Mr.  C.  B.  Holland. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge,— The  Council  of  the  Senate  recommend  that  the 
application  of  Prof.  C.  C.  Babington  for  skilled  assistance  at  the 
Botanical  Museum  be  granted,  and  that  an  assistant  curator  of 
the  Herbarium  be  appointed  at  a  salarv  of  100/.  per  annum, 
the  appointment  to  be  made  by  the  Professor  with  tne  consent 
of  the  Vice- Chancellor,  and  to  be  for  a  period  of  four  years.  It 
is  in  contemplation  to  appoint  a  non-collegiate  student. 

Baltimore. — The  Anniversary  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity was  celebrated  on  February  22,  when  addresses  were  given 
by  some  of  the  professors  and  others.  3o  far  the  progress  of  the 
University  has  been  thoroughly  satisfactory.  One  of  its  principal 
aims  is  to  encourage  original  research,  both  among  professors 
and  students,  and  fellowships  are  granted  to  those  who  show 
aptitude  for  such  work.  Pro£  Remsen,  in  his  address,  showed 
that  a  loft^  idea  of  what  original  research  really  is,  is  entertained 
at  the  Umversity ;  it  is  not  merely  the  establishing  of  an  isolated 
fiict,  the  devising  of  a  new  piece  of  apparatus,  the  simple  analysis 
of  a  new  mineral,  the  discovery  or  on  extra  tooth  in  some 
abnormal  animal ;  it  is,  rather,  a  systematic  attempt  to  solve  a 
definite  problem,  involving  the  use  of  a  variety  of  methods 
peculiar  to  the  special  brandi  in  which  the  attempt  is  made.  In 
the  three  laboratories,  biological,  physical,  and  ^emical,  a 
variety  of  important  work  is  ^ing  carried  on,  and  altogetiber, 
both  in  the  kind  and  amount  of  work  which  is  being  done  under 
the  auspices  of  the  university,  the  trustees  and  professors  show 
that  they  have  a  thorough  appreciation  of  the  spirit  of  the 
founder's.legacy. 

SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Mathematical  Society,  March  14.— Lord  Rayleijgh,  F.R.S., 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Artemas  Martin,  Erie,  Pa.,  was 
proposed  for  dection. — The  Secretary  communicated  a  paper  by 
Pro£  J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  on  the  electrical  capacity  ot  a  long 
narrow  cylinder  and  of  a  disc  of  sensible  thickness.  Prot 
Cayley,  Mr.  J.  W.  L.  Glaisher,  Mr.  Roberts,  and  the  President 
made  short*communications. 

Royal  Astronomical' Society,  March  8. — Lord  Lindsay, 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Neison  read  a  paper  on  Hansen's 
terms  of  long  period  in  the  lunar  theory.  Mr.  Proctor  drew 
some  diagrams  referring  to  the  position  of  the  axis  of  Mars,  and 
spoke  upon  Mr.  Stone's  paper  of  last  January.  Mr.  Neison 
made  some  illustrative  remarks  thereon. — A  paper  by  Mr. 
Plummer  was  read  on  the  supposed  influence  of  a  mass  of  brick- 
work  upon  the  errors  of^a  transit  instrument  in  its  neighbour- 
hood. Several  Fellows  commented  upon  this  paper  and 
described  the  lively  behaviour  of  their  transit-piers:  Mr. 
Dunk  in  said  there  was  nothing  new  about  it. — A  paper  by  Mr. 
Stone  was  read  on  telescopic  observations  of  the  Transit  of 
Venus.  Mr.  Gill  spoke  on  the  difficulties  concerning  contacts, 
and  some  discussion  followed. — A  paper  was  announced  by 
Prof.  Sedley  Taylor  on  Galileo's  trial  before  the  Inquisition  in 
the  light  of  recent  researches  ;  likewise  an  atlas  of  the  ecliptic, 
by  Heiss,  of  stars  down  to  the  fifth  magnitude  on  Mercator's 
projection,  made  in  order  to  get  people  to  lay  down  the  zodiacal 
light — There  were  several  other  papers. 

Entomological  Society,  March  6.— H.  W.  Bates,  F.L.S., 
F.Z.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  John  Woodgate  was  elected 
a  Meml)cr  of  the  Society. — Mr.  F.  Moore,  at  the  request  of  Sir 
W.  H.  Gregory,  late  governor  of  Ceylon,  exhibited  a  large  series 
of  drawings,  executed  by  native  artists,  of  the  transformations  of 
the  lepidoptera  of  the  island.  These  drawings  were  made  under 
the  direction  of  Dr.  Thwaites,  and  represented,  for  the  first  time, 
the  life- history  of  many  species. — Mr.  McLachlan  exhibited 
some  entomological  parts  of  the  great  Russian  work  "  Fedtschen- 
kos' Travels  in  Turkestan." -Mr.  H.  Goss  exhibited  a  small 
collection  of  fossil  insects  obtained  by  Mr.  Gardner  from  the 
Bournemouth  leaf  beds  (middle  eocene).  The  collection  com- 
prised numerous  elytra  of  coleoptera,  and  wings  of  neuroptera, 
&c. — Mr.  J.  ilansel  Weale  read  some  notes  on  South  African 
insects.  These  referred  to  variation  in  Pirns  severina  and  Pieris 
nusentina  ;  to  the  secretion  of  formic  acid  in  Termes  triniverius, 
and  th^  probable  localisation  of  the  same  in  a  cephalic  process, 
and  also  to  the  larvae  of  some  Hesperidae  In  relation  to  the  subject 
of  protective  resemblance.— Mr.  Ed.  Saunders  read  a  paper 
entitled  **  Remarks  on  the  Hairs  of  some  of  our  British  Hymen- 


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NATURE 


{April  \^  1878 


optenu"  From  a  microscopical  examination  the  author  fomid 
that  the  presence  of  branched  or  plumose  hairs  is  characteristic  of 
the  Anthophila,  whilst  the  hairs  of  the  Fossores,  of  Heterogyoa, 
and  of  the  Diploptera,  are  all  simple,  or  in  some  cases  twisted. — 
Mr.  A.  G.  Butler  communicated  a  paper  on  the  natural  affinities 
of  the  lepldopterous  family  MgtrmsR,  From  an  examination  of 
structural  characters,  Mr.  Butler  considered  that  these  insects 
presented  no  resemblance  to  the  Sphingidse,  with  which  they  had 
hitherto  been  allied,  but  were  more  related  to  the  Pyrales  and 
the  Gelediiidx.  The  president,  in  favour  of  this  view,  remarked 
that  the  whole  of  the  JEgaudds  had  been  made  to  depart  from 
their  congeners  in  appearance,  through  the  action  of  mimicry. — 
The  Secretary  read  a  paper,  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Swinton,  on  the 
biology  of  insecta,  as  determined  by  the  emotions.  The  paper 
dealt  chiefly  with  cases  of  ^mple  muscular  contractions  and 
secretions. — M^  Ftter  Cameron  communicated  a  paper  on  some 
new  genera  and  species  of  Tenthredinidae. 

Zoological  Society,  March  5.— Prof.  Newton,  F.R.S., 
vice-president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  Sclater  exhibited  and  made 
remarks  on  a  second  collection  of  birds  from  Duke  of  York 
Island,  New  Britain  and  New  Ireland,  which  he  had  received 
from  the  Rev.  George  Brown,  C.M.Z.S. — Mr.  Sclater  exhibited 
and  made  remarks  upon  a  specimen  of  Aihene  variegaUi,  and 
upon  the  type-specimen  of  Fuiica  gallinuloides  of  King,  belong- 
ing to  the  Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  Edinburgh. — Prof. 
NewtoD,  F.R.S.,  drew  attention  to  the  sutement  of  I^aut  that 
every  Solitaire  {Pezophaps  soOtaria)  carried  a  stone  in  its  gizzard, 
and  exhibitol  one  of  three  stones  found  by  Mr.  Caldwell, 
CM.Z.S.,  associated  with  the  remains  of  as  many  birds  of  that 
species  in  the  caves  of  Rodriguez.— Mr.  T.  J.  Parker  described 
the  stridulating  apparatus  of  Palinurus  vulgaris^  which  consisted 
in  a  peculiar  modification  of  the  second  joint  of  the  antennae 
working  against  the  lateral  surface  of  the  antennulary  sternum. — 
A  communication  was  read  from  Mr.  C.  Spence  Bate,  C.M.Z.S., 
containing  an  account  of  the  crustaceans  of  the  Coast  of  Coro- 
mandel,  collected  by  Sir  Walter  Elliot,  K.C.S.L— Mr.  A. 
Boucard,  C.M.Z.S.,  read  notes  on  some  coleoptera  of  the  genus 
Plusiotis,  and  gave  descriptions  of  three  new  species  from  Mexico 
and  Central  America. — A  communication  was  read  from  Mr. 
Arthur  G.  Butler,  F.Z.S.,  containing  an  account  of  a  small  col- 
lection of  lepidoptera,  obtained  by  me  Rev.  J.  S.  Whitmee^  at 
the  EUice  IsUnds. — A  communication  was  read  from  Mr.  Edward 
J.  Miers,  F.Z.S.,  on  the  Penaidta  in  the  collection  of  the  British 
Museum. — Mr.  George  French  Aogas  read  the  description  of  a 
new  genus  of  land  shells  belonging  to  the  family  Cjfclopharida^ 
for  wLich  he  proposed  the  name  of  Mascaria, — Mr.  Angas  also 
read  descriptions  of  nine  new  species  of  land  and  marine  shells  from 
various  localities,  amongst  which  was  a  new  Rostellaria^  proposed 
to  be  named  R,  luteostoma^  and  a  new  Bulimus  from  Madagascir, 
proposed  to  be  called  B,  waUrsi, — A  communication  was  read 
from  Dr.  G.  E.  Dobson,  C.M.Z.S.,  containiDg  additional  notes 
on  the  chiroptera  of  Duke  of  York  Island  and  the  adjacent  parts 
of  New  Ireland  and  New  Britain. — A  communication  was  read 
from  Mr.  Robert  Collett,  C.M.Z.S.,  containing  an  account  of 
Latrunculus  and  Crystallogobius^  two  remarkable  forms  of 
gobioid  fishes  found  in  Scandinavia. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  March  26. — Mr.  Bateman, 
president,  in  the  chsur. — The  paper  read  was  on  direct  acting  or 
non-rotative  pumping  engines  and  pumps,  by  Mr.  Henry  Davey, 
Assoc.  Inst  C.E. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  March  25.— M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair. 
— The  following  papers  were  read :— Experiments  designed  to 
imiUte  various  forms  of  foldings,  distortions,  and  ruptures  pre- 
sented by  stratified  rodcs,  by  M.  Daubr^e.  He  used  an  appara- 
tus in  which  vertical  and  horizontal  pressure  could  be  produced, 
with  screws,  on  sheets  of  metal  of  various  thickness  (especially 
1^),  alK>  sheets  of  wax  mixed  with  plaster,  resin,  turf>entine, 
&C.  Various  effects  of  a  geological  character  were  obtained. — 
Craniology :  the  Tasmanian  race,  by  MM.  de  Quatrefages  and 
Hamy.  This  relates  to  the  sixth  volume  of  the  author's 
"  Crania  Ethnica."  The  Tasmanians  formed  a  race  by  them- 
selves, and  remarkably  homogeneous.  Their  cranial  capacity 
is  considerably  over  that  of  the  Nubian  negroes,  yet  the  latter 
are  socially  much  above  the  former.  On  the  whole,  the 
Tasmanian  cranium  does  not  present  marked  signs  of  inferiority. 
M.  Hamy's  measurements  were  made  on  at  least  fifty-four 
osseous  heads  and  sue  skeletons.— On  the  treatment  of  wounds  by 
occlusion,  by  M.  Ravaisson-MoUien.    In  the  winter  of  1869, 


suffering  greatly  from  diapped  hands,  he  filled  the  woimds  vrith. 
filaments  of  wadding  and  then  covered  them  with  collodion..    "Fhis 
gave  relief  and  speedy  cure.    He  communicated  the  fact  to  M. 
Nelaton,  who»  with  M.  Guerin,  was  then  studying  the  treatment 
of  wotmds  with  occlusion  of  air. — Observations  on  the  natixre  of 
the  plants  nnited  in  the  group  of  Nagerrathia  ;  generalities  mnd 
type  of  Nctgerrathia  foliosa^  Sternb.,  by  M.  De  Saporta. — On  the 
origin  of  the  Phylloxera  discovered  at  Bades  (Eastern  Pyrenees), 
by  M.  Planchon.    This  outbreak  is  shown  to  be  due  to  intio- 
duction  of  some  500  vine-stocks  from  Gard,  in  France,   ^l^w^ 
years  aga    It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  American  vines  as 
alone  p^tiferous.     M.  Duval  Jouve  was  elected  correspondent 
for  the  Section  of  Botany,  in  room  of  the  late  M.  Hofmeister. 
— On  a  map  of  the  erratic  blocks  of  the  valley  of  the  Arboost, 
ancient  glacier  of  Oo  (environs  of  Lachon,  Haute  Garonne),  by 
MM.  Trutat  and  Gourdon. — M  Dumas  presented  fascicle  A  oi 
Measurements  of  the  photographic  negatives  of  the  Transit  of 
Venus. — M.  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudran  stated  that  he  had  prepared 
several  anhydrous  chlorides,  bromides,  and  iodides  of  gaUrnm. 
The  atomic  vreight  of  gallium  (according  to  two  experiments)  was 
69  9.— Results  of  observations  in  1877  on  the  sun  s  limb  on  the 
lines  b  and  1474  i,  by  M.  TacchinL     The  mean  number  of  poEi> 
tions  daily  of  these  lines  shows  a  minimum  in  agreement  with 
that  of  the  sun-spots.     From  maximum  to  minimum  the  dimlnn- 
tion  of  visibility  of  b  is  greater  than  for  1474  k.    Iron  has  an 
enormous  preponderance  at  the  base  of  the  chromosphere  ;  mag- 
nesium comes  next     The  other  substances  are  of  comparatively 
slight  frequency,  and  they  nearly  disappear  at  the  minimum  of 
spots. — New  considerations  on  the  observation  and  redaction  of 
luoar  distances  at  sea,  by  MM.  Beuf  and  Perrin. — On  the  effects 
of  the  rheostatic  machine,  by  M.  Plantd    Inter  a/tOf  the  differ- 
ence in  character  of  the  electricity  from  the  positive  pole  and 
that  from  the  negative  is  more  marked  than  with  the  electric 
machine  or  induction  coiL     (The  forms  of  the  sparks  are  de- 
scribed. )^3n  a  camera  lucida^  by  M.  Pellerin.    This  describes 
an  arrangement  (copying  M.  Comu's  polariser)  which  give* 
two  images  of  the  same  intensity  visible  at  the  tame  time 
bv  the  whole  pupil. — On  a  hydrate  of  ether,  by  M.  Tanret.     In 
filtering  an  etherised  solution  in  free  air,  a  crystallisation  oocars 
at  Ae  upper  part  of  the  filter.     This,  got  otherwise  in  larger 
quantity,   was  what  the  author  examined,  and  found  a  true 
combination  of  ether  and  water  of  the  nature  of  cryo-hydrate^ 
— On  the  constitution  of  wool  and  some  similar  products^  by 
M.  Schutzenberger.     Wool  gives  a  fixed  residue  presenting  the 
same  elementary  and  immediate  composition  as  that  of  albumen ; 
the  proportions  of  ammonia,  carbonic  acid,  and  oxalic  add  are 
considerably  higher  than  with  albumen ;  acetic  acid  and  pyrrol 
are  in  similar  proportions.— On  the  formation  of  partitions  in 
the  stylospores  of  Hendersonias  and  Pestalozzias,  by  M.  Grid. — 
On  some  new  facts  of  perlitism  of  rocks,  and  on  the  artificial 
reproduction  of  perlitic  fissures,  by  MM.  Fouqu^  and  L^vy. 
This  reproduction  is  by  treating  hydrofluosilicic  add  with  excess 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  filtering  the  mixture  (slightly  dilated  with 
water),  receiving  a  drop  of  the  liquid  which  passes  on  a  piece  of 
glass  covered  with  Canada  balsam,  and  letting  dry. — Oa  the 
period  of  rotation  of  solar  spots,  by  Mr.  Brown. — M.  Gaiffe 
presented  an  apparatus  which  etiables  one  to  determine  imme- 
diatdy,   by  a  simple  reading,  the  electromotive  force  of  any 
electric  generator. 


CONTENTS  Page 

Thb  Scottish  Univbrsitibs  Commission •    •   .  441 

Sun-spots  AMD  Rainfall 443 

Darwin's  **DiFF««BNT  Forms  OF  Flowers  •• 445 

LsTTBRS  TO  THE  EDITOR  :— 

Elements  of  Articulate  Speech.— D.  W.  H.  Corfixld     ....  447 
Phooeidoscopic   Representatioa  Co£  Vowels  jkdA    Diphthongs.— 

SbDLBY  TAYLOR 447 

The  Southern  Drought.— S.  J.  Whitmbb 447 

CumuUttve  Temperatures  —Conrad  W.  Cooicb .440 

The  Wasp  aod  the  Spider.— Hbnry  Cbcil 44 

Sun-spots  and  Rainfall.    By  C.  Mblorum,  F.R.S       448 

Julius  Robbrt  von  Maybr 450 

Our  Astbonomical  Column  :— 

Total  Solar  Eclipses 45* 

Gbograpkical  Notbs:— 

China 4S> 

Angola 453 

An  Organ-Piano.    By  E.  J.  Rbb».  CB..  M.P.,  F.R.S 453 

Tkb  Coming  Total  Solab  Ecupsb 454 

Notbs 454 

Fog  Signals.    By  Dr.  Ttneall,  F  R.S 45© 

Thb  Iboh  AND  Stbbl  Institute 458 

Univbbsitv  and  Educational  Inteluobmce 459 

SoaBTiEs  and  Academies 459 


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THURSDAY,   APRIL    11,   1878 


THE  APPUCATION  OF  ELECTRICITY  TO 
RAILWAY   WORKING 

The  Application  of  Electricity  to  Railway  Working. 
By  William  Edward  Langdon,  Member  of  the  Society 
of  Telegraph  Engineers  ;  Superintendent  (Engineering 
Department)  Post-Office  Telegraphs  ;  and  late  Super- 
intendent of  Telegraphs  on  the  London  and  South- 
western Railway.  (London :  Macmillan  and  Co.| 
1877.) 

IF  any  proof  were  needed  of  the  vast  and  important 
services  that  science  has  conferred  upon  man,  no 
more  eloquent  example  could  be  instanced  than  that 
great  combination  of  the  conceptions  of  Stephenson  and 
of  Volta— the  locomotive  and  the  voltaic  battery — which 
combination  in  its  elaborated  form  is  known  as  the  rail- 
way system  of  the  present  time. 

Living  as  we  do  in  the  midst  of  conveniences  of  transit, 
the  mere  belief  in  the  possibility  of  which  would,  fifty 
years  ago,  have  made*  a  man  a  fit  inmate  for  a  lunatic 
asylum,  we  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  complexity  of  the 
problem  that  has  been  solved  and  to  forget  the  all-im- 
portant part  which  science  has  played  in  rendering  such 
a  state  of  things  not  only  possible,  but  an  accomplished 
fact  of  so  familiar  a  nature  as  to  have  become  a  necessary 
part  of  our  very  existence.  But  when  it  is  remembered 
that  upon  most  of  the  lines  of  railway  in  and  around 
London  several  hundred  trains  are  running^daily  *  at  inter- 
vals varying  from  three  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  that  each 
of  those  trains  requires  a  separate  series  of  signals  only 
to  protect  it  from  coUision,  and  that  interspersed  with  the 
regular  traffic  ''specials,"  "light  engines,"  and  trains  out 
of  time  have  to  be  provided  for  and  protected  against  (to 
say  nothing  of  the  goods  traffic,  or,  of  shunting,  crossing 
and  junction  operations),  it  will  be  readily  understood 
that  traffic  management,  holding  in  its  hands  the  power 
of  life  and  death,  is  no  easy  task  ;  and  that  without  some 
very  elaborate  combination  of  sound  administrative 
organisation  with  scientific  instrumental  aid,  the  traffic 
of  a  single  hour  would  soon  become  an  inextricable 
tangle  of  confusion. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  importance  of  the  subject, 
involving  as  it  does  the  safety  of  millions  of  human  lives, 
it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  technical  literature  should 
hitherto  have  been  devoid  of  a  work  upon  the  very 
essence  of  safety  in  railway  working— the  application  of 
the  electric  telegraph  and  of  electric  signalling  to  traffic 
management  This  need  has  now  been  very  ably  sup- 
plied by  the  work  before  us,  every  page  of  which  bears 
upon  its  face  the  evidence  of  being  written  by  a  thoroughly 
practical  master  of  the  subject  in  all  its  details  and  rami- 
fications, and  at  the  same  time  by  one  who  possesses  an 
exceptional  power  of  making  the  subject  clear  to  his 
readers. 

In  a  handbook  of  a  particular  application  of  electricity 
it  is  refreshing  to  find  that  no  valuable  space  is  occupied 
by  matter  to  be  found  in  every  elementary  text-book  of 
physics,  that  neither  Thales  with  his  amber  nor  Galvani 

'  Daring  some  portioas  of  the  day  as  many  as  sevenly-fi¥e  trains  ruo 
through  Ciapham  Junction  Station  in  an  hour,  and  between  900  and  i^ooo 
is  the  daily  aggregate  average. 

Vol.  XVII.— Na  441 


with  his  frogs  are  even  mentioned,  and  that  description^ 
of  the  various  forms  of  the  voltaic  battery  find  no  place 
in  the  book.  The  author  presupposes  that  the  necessary 
elementary  knowledge  is  possessed  or  can  be  obtained 
by  his  readers,  and  disposing  in  one  page  of  a  few  neces- 
sary introductory  definitions  plunges  at  once  into  his 
subject. 

The  work  is  arranged  in  three  principal  divisions  : — 
(i)  Speaking  telegraphs  ;  (2)  Block  signalling ;  and  (3) 
Miscellaneous  appliances.  Under  the  first  division  a 
chapter  is  devoted  to  descriptions  of  the  various  speaking 
instruments  and  of  the  methods  by  which  they  are  worked. 
The  second  chapter  treats  of  signalling  regulations,  and 
whUe  being  of  special  value  to  all  professionally  engaged 
in  railway  working  must  prove  most  instructive  and  inter- 
esting to  outsiders,  who  are  thereby  let  into  some  of  the 
technical  mysteries  of  telegraphy.  Every  one  is  familiar 
with  blank  spaces  left  at  the  head  of  the  telegraph  forms 
issued  by  the  Post  Office,  against  which  are  printed  the 
words  **  Prefix,"  "  Code  time,"  "  Words,"  &c.,  but  compa- 
ratively fe  w  know  their  meaning.  The  Prefix  to  a  telegram 
is  a  signal  letter  or  abbreviation  to  indicate  the  character 
of  the  message  which  follows,  and  therefore  the  order  of 
its  precedence  for  transmission.  The  Code  time  is  a 
similar  abbreviation  to  indicate  the  exact  time  at  which  a 
communication  is  handed  to  the  telegraph  clerk  for  trans- 
mission ;  and  the  space  marked  '*  Words ''  is  set  apart  for 
signalling  to  the  distant  station  the  number  of  words  con- 
tained in  a  message  which  gives  to  the  receiving  clerk  a 
check  upon  his  correct  reading  of  the  signals  by  which 
the  communication  is  transmitted. 

In  railway  telegraphy  the  prefix  D.R.  (Danger)  gives 
to  the  message  precedence  over  all  others,  and  should 
never  be  employed  except  in  cases  of  great  emergency. 
Other  prefixes  SP.  (for  special  service),  DB.  (for 
ordinary  traffic))  ^uid  various  others  are  employed  in 
railway  signalling,  by  which  the  degree  of  its^  urgency  is 
indicated  before  the  message  itself  is  transmitted. 

The  system  upon  which  the  Code  time  is  abbreviated  is 
very  ingenious,  and  will  be  readily  understood  by  referring 
to  Fig.  I,  which  we  have  borrowed  from  Mr.  Langdon's 
book.  Opposite  the  hour  figures  on  the  dial  of  a  clock  are 
placed  the  twelve  letters,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  K,  L, 
and  M,  and  against  the  four  minute  divisions  between  the 
hour  figures,  are  placed  the  letters  R,  S,  W,  X,  which,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  sketch,  are  repeated  all  round  the  dial 
A  simple  time-code  is  thus  obtained,  by  which  any  hour  or 
minute  throughout  the  day  can  be  expressed  in  from  one 
to  three  letters  ;  thus  2  o'clock  would  be  signalled  by  B, 
2.45  by  BI,  and  7.12  (the  time  shown  in  the  figure)  by 
G,  B,  S,  that  is,  G  for  seven  hours,  B  for  ten  minutes,  and 
S  for  the  remaining  two  minutes  to  make  up  the  twelve. 

The  technical  regulations  for  railway  telegraphing  and 
traffic  management  are  treated  very  fully.  In  this  the 
author's  large  experience  from  having  had  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  telegraphs  of  one  of  the  most  important 
lines  of  railway  in  the  country  is  most  apparent  and  gives 
great  weight  to  his  remarks,  which  ought  to  be  committed 
to  memory  by  all  concerned  in  the  management  of  rail- 
ways ;  for  if  rigidly  enforced  and  carried  out,  railway 
accidents  would  become  well-nigh  impossible,  except  from 
failure  of  instruments,  from  the  breaking-down  of  rolling- 
stock,  or  from  damage  to  permanent  way. 

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The  second  division  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  block  system,  first  conceived  by  Sir 
William  Fothergill  Cooke,  and  to  the  instruments  and 
regulations  by  which  that  system  which  is  the  great 
guardian  of  the  safety  of  railway  travelling  is  carried  out 
It  begins  with  a  short  historical  notice  of  the  subject,  and, 
after  explaining  some  of  the  elementary  principles  upon 
which  the  various  instruments  are  constructed,  proceeds 
to  describe  the  difffrent  systems  for  carrying  the  block 
system  into  effect  The  chapters  devoted  to  this  subject 
are  embellished  by  a  large  number  of  excellent  illustra- 
tions ;  each  system  being  treated  in  a  chapter  to  itself, 
which  is  a  tolerably  complete  treatise  on  the  subject 


of  sections  or  "  blocks,"  and  the  traffic  is  so  regulated^  that 
it  is  impossible  for  two  trains  to  be  in  the  same  section 
at  the  same  time.  As  a  train  enters  one  sectioD,  the 
signal  behind  it  is  set  at  danger,  and  is  not  lowered  untO 
the  train  has  passed  [into  the  next  section,  which  is 
similarly  protected,  and  thus  throughout'the  whole  of  its 
course  a  train  cannot  follow  it  at  a  distance  less  than  the 
length  of  a  section,  or  the  distance  between  sig:nal  and 
signal.  This  is  the  one  principle  of  the  block  system 
and  all  the  various  arrangements  devised  by  diOFerent 
inventors  difTer  only  in  the  detmls  by[ which  it  is  carried 
out 

In  Rousseau's  arrangement,  which  may  be  taken  as  a 


Fig. 


The  beautiful  arrangements  of  Mr.  Prccce,  in  which 
the  indications  of  the  signalling  instruments  as  well  as 
their  manipulation  are  identical  with  those  of  the  outdoor 
signals,  are  clearly  described,  as  well  as  the  systems  of 
Mr.  Walker,  of  Messrs.  Tyer,  and  of  Mr.  Spagnoletti,  all 
of  which  are  very  extensively  used  in  this  country.  The 
system  of  Messrs.  Siemens  Brothers  so  largely  employed 
on  the  Continent,  a  description  of  which  concludes  this 
pait  of  the  book,  is  specially  remarkable  for  the  fact  that 
in  it  batteries  are  dispensed  (with,  the  necessary  electric 
currents  for  working  the  instruments  being  derived  from 
small  magneto-electric  machines. 


A 
—r 


^L 


2t 


Fig.  9. 

The  various  schemes  that  have  been  devised  for  making 
the  train  work  its  own  signals,  either  by  depressing 
''  treadles  "  on  the  line,  or  by  otherwise  making  electrical 
contacts,  form  a  very  interesting  chapter,  in  which  the 
systems  of  Mr.  Imray,  of  London,  of  Mr.  Rousseau,  of 
New  Yoik,  and  of  Dr.  Whyte,  of  Elgin,  are  described 
and  rendered  clear  by  means  of  drawings  and  diagrams 
of  the  apparatus. 

The  essential  principle  of  what  is  known  as  the  block- 
system,  is  the  insuring  of  there  always  being  a  certain 
distance  between  two  trains  travelling  on  the  same  line  of 
rails.    To  carry  this  out  the  line  is  divided  into  a  number 


Fig.  3. 

type  of  the  automatic  systems  of  block  signalling,  the 
train  in  its  progress  depresses  treadles  on  the  line^  which, 
by  making  electrical  contacts  with  suitable  apparatus, 
set  the  signals  at  danger  as  the  train  enters  one  section,  and 
releases  them  as  it  passes  into  the  next.  A  general  idea  of 
this  system  may  be  obtained  by  referring  to  Fig.  2,  in  which 
A,  B,  and  C  represent  three  signals,  and  the  spaces  A  B  and 
B  c  two  sections  of  the  line ;  at  a  is  a  treadle  by  which  a  is 
set  at  danger,  and  at  al  is  another  by  which  it  is  released ; 
similarly  a  treadle  at  b  sets  the  signal  b  at  danger,  and  a 


Fic.  4. 

second  at  b'  lowers  it  to  the  all  clear  position.  A  train, 
therefore,  in  passing  ^,  which  it  does  just  before  entering 
A  b,  will  block  that  section  against  following  trains  by  the 
signal  A ;  travelling  to  b  it  will,  in  passing  ^,  set  B  at 
danger,  and  not  until  it  passes  a\  when  it  is  well  out  of 
the  section  ab,  can  the  signal  a  be  set  at  all  clear, 
permitting  a  following  train  to  enter  a  b. 

In  the  system  of  M.  Brunius,  which  is  imder  trial  on 
the  state  railways  of  Sweden,  telegraphic  conmiunication 
is  made  between  the  stations  and  the  engine  of  the  train, 
so  that  not^only  ,can  ordinary 'signals  be  transmitted  tc 


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the  CDgine-driver,  but  he  can  receive   instructions  by 
telegraph. 

Miscellaneous  appliances  employed  in  railway  tcle^ 
graphy  are  treated  in  the  third  division  of  Mr.  Langdon's 
book,  and  an  interesting  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  various 
"  signal  repeaters  "  and  "  light  recorders.**  By  the  former, 
which  were  first  employed  by  Mr.  Preece,  the  position  of 
the  out-door  signals  is  reproduced  in  miniature  within 
the  signal  box,  so  that  the  signalman  knows  at  once  if 
the  outside  signals  are  correct  Light  recorders  are 
instruments  which  give  warning,  within  the  signal  box,  of 
the  extinction  of  the  light  of  Che  outside  night-signals. 
Of  these  several  forms  have  been  devised  but  they  all 
depend  upon  the  expansion  of  metallic  substances  when 
subjected  to  the  influence  of  heat  and  their  subsequent 
contraction  when  that  heat  is  removed.  Fig.  3  is  a  cross- 
section  of  the  transmitting  portion  of  one  of  these  instru- 
ments, in  which  B  represents  a  concave  disc  of  copper 
attached  by  its  edge  to  the  ring  A  A,  a  short  distance  above 
the  flame  of  the  lamp.  When  the  light  is  out  the  lever  D 
rests  on  the  contact  screw  attached  to  the  arm  F  (as 
shown  in  the  figure)  and  the  circuit  is  closed  between 
the  "  line "  and  the  earth,  and  an  electric  bell  is  set 
ringing  in  the  signal  box  at  the  same  time  as  an  instru- 
ment indicates  the  words  ^^  Light  out!*    When,  however, 


Fic.  5. 


the  plate  b  is  heated  by  the  flame  below  it,  it  becomes 
expanded,  lifting  the  stud  c,  which,  pressing  against  the 
lever  D,  lifts  it  off  the  contact  screw,  thereby  breaking  the 
circuit.  The  bell  ceases  ringing  and  the  indicating  instru- 
ment falls  back  to  the  signal  '*  Light  in!* 

Figs.  4  and  5  represent  a  different  arrangement  for  pro- 
ducing the  same  result,  in  which  the  contact-maker  con- 
sists of  two  compact  bars  of  dissimilar  metals,  constructed 
after  the  manner  of  a  metallic  pyrometer,  and  united 
together  at  the  end  A  with  the  similar  metals  facing  one 
another.  By  this  arrangement  the  arc  of  motion  is  largely 
increased  and  the  instrument  is  in  consequence  rendered 
more  sensitive.  Under  the  influence  of  heat  the  bars 
curve  in  opposite  directions,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  but  on 
the  light  becoming  extinguished  their  differential  contrac- 
tion brings  them  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  4,  contact 
is  established,  the  bell  rings,  and  the  signal  ^  Light  out!* 
is  transmitted  to  the  receiving  station. 

The  important  subjects  of  the  interlocking  of  points  and 
signal  levers,  of  level  crossings,  and  the  working  of  rail- 
way yards,  all  find  their  place  in  Mr.  Langdon's  book ; 
and  very  interesting  chapters  are  devoted  respectively  to 
the  various  kinds  of  electric  bells,  to  lightning  protectors 
or  telegraphic  instruments,  and  for  the  methods  devised 


by  different  inventors  and  adopted  by  different  railway 
companies  for  establishing  intercommunication  in  trains. 

It  is  not  easy  within  the  limits  of  the  space  at  onr  dis- 
posal to  do  anything  like  justice  to  Mr.  Langdon's  most 
useful  work,  which  is  a  thorough  exposition  of  the  subject 
in  all  its  branches  by  one  who  not  only  has  had  a  very 
large  practical  experience  of  the  application  of  electricity 
to  railway  working,  but  who  has  the  gift  of  clear  descrip- 
tion and  a  power  of  interesting  his  readers. 

To  all  engaged  in  railway  management  whether 
directors,  engineers,  traffic  managers,  station-masters, 
signal-men,  engine-drivers,  or  guards,  Mr.  Langdon*s 
work  will  become  a  necessary  text-book  and  book  of 
reference,  and  the  general  scientific  reader  will  find  it 
most  interesting  and  instructive.  We  must  congratulate 
its  author  upon  having  put  so  much  valuable  information 
in  so  small  a  space,  and  its  publishers  upon  having  issued 
it  in  so  cheap  and  attractive  a  form.  C.  W  C. 

TROLLOP E*S  ^' SOUTH  AFRICA*' 
South  Africa.  By  Anthony  Trollope.  (London :  dap- 
man  and  Hall.) 
THERE  are  probably  few  of  our  Colonies  the  rela- 
tions of  which  to  one  another  are  so  little  understood 
by  the  general  public  as  those  of  South  Africa,  and  none 
where  events  of  so  extraordinary  a  nature  have  occurred 
within  the  last  few  years.  There  are  few  Englishmen, 
therefore,  by  whom  these  charming  volumes  will  not  be 
read  with  delight  and  interest,  coming  as  they  do  from  a 
man  of  so  much  experience  and  of  such  liberal  views  as 
Mr.  Trollope.  The  arrangement  of  the  book  is  good  and 
clear,  each  of  the  colonies  being  treated  separately ;  a 
few  chapters  being  devoted  to  a  general  introduction, 
and  a  few  to  the  native  tribes.  The  author  has  been  led 
thereby  into  a  somewhat  unnecessary,  possibly  uncon- 
scious, repetition,  when  introducing  each  new  district  to 
his  readers.  This  clearly  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
origin  of  each  colony  is  the  same — the  desire  of  the  Boers 
to  free  themselves  from  British  rule,  their  consequent 
occupation  of  new  lands  beyond  the  English  border,  and 
the  necessity  of  our  ultimately  stepping  in  to  govern  them, 
both  for  their  own  good  and  for  Uiat  of  the  natives.  Mr. 
Trollope  states  that  the  objects  of  his  interest  are  men 
and  women,  and  it  is  to  learn  their  condition,  both 
socially  and  politically,  that  he  visited  South  Africa. 

Cape  Colony,  the  oldest,  largest,  and  most  flourishing 
one,  contains  at  present  about  750,000  inhabitants,  one 
third  only  of  whom  are  white,  and  of  the  latter  but  one- 
third  are  English.  These  numbers  indicate  at  once  the 
very  slow  progress  of  the  colony,  and  show  that  it 
is  far  from  popular  amongst  emigrants,  which  Mr. 
Trollope  thinks  is  due  to  the  fact  that  here,  and  here 
only,  the  white  labourer  has  to  compete  on  equal  terms 
with  the  native.  The  country  seems  closely  to  resemble 
the  Riviera,  though  on  a  larger  scale,  both  in  scenery 
and  capabilities.  A  great  deal  of  the  best  lands,  about 
80,000,000  acres,  is  in  private  hands,  of  which  only 
550,000  acres  are  cultivated,  being  i- 145th  of  the  private 
lands,  and  not  one- fourteenth  as  Mr.  Trollope  has  it. 
The  great  drawback  to  the  country  is  the  want  of  irriga- 
tion works  when  almost  every  European  plant  could  be 
grown.    Amongst  other  things,  has  not  the  cultivation  of 


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the  olive  been  tried  ?  We  have  nowhere  seen  any  ace:  unt 
of  such  an  attempt.  One  would  suppose  that  it  would 
grow  well,  and  in  that  case  could  not  fail  to  be  very  re- 
munerative. The  people  are  well-to-do,  and  the  rate  of 
wages  is  good.  When  one,  however,  compares  what  is 
done  here  and  in  the  United  States  in  the  way  of  irriga- 
tion works,  in  the  scientific  investigation  of  the  country 
with  reference  to  mining  and  agricultural  pursuits,  and 
in  the  collection  and  examination  of  the  objects  of  scien- 
tific interest,  one  cannot  but  feel  that  there  is  a  sad  lack 
of  enterprise  and  energy  in  the  colony.  The  Cape  Town 
Museum  seems  to  be  in  a  semi- starved  condition. 

The  white  population  of  Natal  is  almost  entirely 
English,  the  Dutch  having  withdrawn  for  the  most  part 
as  soon  as  the  English  Government  decided  on  interfering. 
Sugar  seems  likely  to  form  the  staple  of  the  colony.  It  is 
cultivated  with  the  aid  of  coolie  labour,  although  the 
Zulus  are  to  the  white  population  as  sixteen  to  one. 

In  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State  the  Dutch 
form  the  agricultural,  the  English  the  town  and  trading 
population.  Mr.  Trollope  seems  to  possess  that  genial 
disposition  which  draws  out  the  bright  side  of  the  people 
with  whom  he  is  brought  in  contact.  Although,  therefore, 
he  finds  the  Boer  wanting  in  cleanliness,  education, 
sociability,  and  enterprise,  he  finds  in  him  many  good 
points,  and  is  far  from  thinking  him  so  bad  or  so  hopeless 
as  the  author  of  "  The  Great  Thirst  Land."  The  Boer 
has  improved  of  late  years,  and  in  some  cases  consider- 
able pains  are  taken  with  the  education  of  the  children. 
As  Mr.  Trollope  says,  "The  Dutch  Baer  is  what  he  is, 
not  because  he  is  Dutch  or  because  he  is  a  Boer,  but 
because  circumstances  have  isolated  him.'' 

Three  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  diamond  diggings, 
and  a  very  interesting  plan  of  the  great  Colesberg  Kopje 
is  given.  The  author  has  very  little  sympathy  with 
diamond-digging,  and  the  only  satisfaction  he  finds  there 
is  the  civilising  influence  which  the  employment  of  so 
many  natives  cannot  fail  in  time  to  exert  Mr.  Trollope 
has  devoted  considerable  thought  and  attention  to  the 
native  question.  His  opinion  is  one  well  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, though  it  is  not  likely,  he  thinks,  to  be  regarded 
with  favour  either  by  Exeter  Hall  or  the  Colonists  whose 
lands  lie  uncultivated  for  want  of  labour.  He  visited 
several  of  the  Missionary  Institutions,  all  of  which,  with 
the  exception  of  M.  Esselin's  self-supporting  one  at 
Worcester,  seem  to  have  been  more  or  less  failures.  He 
thinks  that  work,  steady  and  regular  but  voluntary,  will 
be  found  to  be  the  best  and  most  effective  civilising 
agents.  Unfortunately  the  natives'  wants  are  so  few  and 
so  easily  satisfied,  that  there  is  at  present  no  spur  to 
regular  work. 

The  account  of  Bloemfontein  as  a  sanatorium  for  con- 
sumptive people  is  that  of  a  man  of  "heroic  mould" 
equal  to  the  feat  of  dining  twice  daily,  such  as  Mr. 
Trollope  must  be,  seeing  that  at  his  age  he  makes  light 
of,  and  seems  to  have  enjoyed,  the  rough  travelling  by 
mail-carts,  cape-carts,  and  otherwise,  of  considerably 
over  two  thousand  miles.  One  regrets  that  he  has  not 
mentioned  whether  there  is  here  the  same  change  between 
rooming,  midday,  and  evening  climate  as  he  observed  at 
Pretoria  ;  also  whether  he  came  across  any  consumptive 
people,  and  how  they  fared.  He  also  forgets  that  deal 
benches  and  chairs  constructed  with  an  equal  regard  to 


human  anatomy,  judging  from  the  fact  that  easy  diairs 
cost  13/.  lar.  each,  are  not  the  seats  most  likely  to  conduce 
to  the  comfort  of  an  invalid. 

An  excellent  map  accompanies  the  book.  The  type, 
paper,  and  **  get-up  "  are  all  that  can  be  desired,  and  the 
number  of  misprints  is  small.  W.  J.  L. 


OUR  BOOK  SHELF 

The  Science  of  Language,    By  Abel  Hovelacqae.     Tran- 
slated by  A.  H.  Keane.    (Chapman  and  Hall,  1877.) 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  review  at  length  the 
original  French  text  of  this  work,  which  is  now  presented 
in  an  English  dress.     M.  Hovelacque  is  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  representatives  of  the  school  of  comparative 
philologists  who  would  include  their  study  amon^  the 
physical  sciences,  and  his  book  illustrates  both  the  fault* 
and  the  excellences  of  the  view  he  upholds.     la  spite  of 
the    limitations    thus   introduced    into   the    science    of 
language,  in  spite,  too,  of  the  many  inaccuracies  which 
occur  in  his  descriptions  of  the  various  groups  of  language 
at  present  existing  in  the  world,  the  clearness  and  vigour 
of  his  style  niake  his  book  one  well  worth  translating, 
and  it  is  satisfectory  to  see  that  it  has  been  put  into 
competent  hands.    Mr.  Keane  has  added  to  the  value  of 
the  work  by  a  philological  map,  and  a  tabulated  list  of 
the  languages  described  by  M.  Hovelacque,  together  with 
their  characteristics  and  geographical  position.      From 
time  to  time,  too,  he  has  introduced  foot-notes  and  even 
insertions  in  the  text ;  many  of  these  give  fresh  informa- 
tion or  correct  the  statements  of  the  author ;  others  of 
them,  however,  had  better  been  left  unwritten.    Thus  his 
reference  to    Raabe's  attempt  to  connect  Aryan    and 
Semitic  grammar  is  not  very  happy,  and  he  is  unfair 
towards  his  author  when  he  accuses  him  of  inconsistency 
in  being  at  once  a  Darwinian  and  a  polygenist.     No 
doubt  **  the  impossibility  of  reducing  man  now  to,  say  a 
mollusc,  is  no  argument  against  the  orig^inal  identity  of 
man  with  a  mollusc  "  (or  rather  of  his  descent  from  the 
same  form  of  life  as  a  mollusc) ;  but  that  is  because  there 
are  intermediate  links  and  stages  of  development  between 
the  mollusc  and  man,  and  M.  Hovelacque  believes—  and 
with  good  reason— that  such  intermediate  links  do  not 
exist  between  the  manifold  families  of  speech  that  are 
scattered  over  the  world. 


LETTERS  TO  THE  EDITOR 

\Tht  Editor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  for  opinions  expressed 
by  his  correspotidents.  Neither  can  he  wtderta&e  to  return^ 
or  to  correspond  with  the  writers  of  rejected  manuscripts. 
No  notice  is  taken  of  anonymous  communications, 

[  The  Editor  urgently  requests  correspondents  to  keep  their  Utters  at 
short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  greai  that  it 
is  impossible  othenuise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com* 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts, ^ 

Age  of  the  Sun  in  Relation  to  Evolution 

It  has  been  urj^cd  by  Mr.  riummer  (pp.  303  and  360)  as  a 
fundaiiicntal  objection  to  the  theory  that  .sini-.stars  are  formed 
from  the  collision  of  stellar  mas^scs,  that  if  the  theory  be  true 
there  ouj/ht  to  be  many  of  the  stars  moving  with  great  velocities, 
which  he  aftirms  is  not  the  case,  liut  I  am  unable  to  understand 
uix>n  what  grounds  he  bases  his  assertion.  I  freely  admit  that 
if  it  could  be  proved  that  none  of  the  stars  has,  as  he  seems  to 
supi^jsc,  a  pro|x:r  motion  of  mure  than  thirty  or  forty  miles  per 
second,  it  would  at  least  be  a  formidable  dithculty  in  the  way  of 
accepting  the  theory.  For  it  would  indeed  be  strange,  as  Mr. 
riuiiiL'.er  rcmarlcf-,  **  that  aiuid  all  the  diversity  of  dimensions  of 
the  heavenly  bodier,  it  should  iuvaiiably  hap})en  that  the  resultant 
movement  of  the  combined  masses  should  be  reduced  to  Hich 
insignificant  figures  as  the  above.'*  But  how  does  Mr.  Plummer 
arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  something  like  this  must  invariably 


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4«5 


have  taken  place  ?  I  fear  that  before  his  objection  can  be  fairly 
urged  something  more  definite  must  yet  be  known  as  to  the  rate 
of  motion  of  the  stars. 

All  that  we  are  at  present  warranted  to  affirm,  I  presume,  is 
simply  that  of  the  comparatively  few  stars  whose  rate  of  motion 
has  been  properly  measured,  none  has  a  motion  greater 
than  thirty  or  forty  miles  per  second,  while  nothing  what- 
ever is  known  with  certainty  as  to  the  rate  of  motion  of  the 
greater  numbers  of  stars.  Before  we  can  ascertain  the  rate  of 
motion  of  a  star  from  its  angular  displacement  of  position  in 
a  given  time  we  must  know  its  absolute  distance.  But  it  is  only 
of  the  few  stars  which  show  a  well-marked  parallax  that  we 
can  estimate  the  distance,  for  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that 
there  is  no  relation  between  the  apparent  magnitude  and  the  real 
distance  of  a  star.  All  that  we  know  in  r^fard  to  the  distances 
of  the  greater  mass  of  the  stars  is  little  more  than  mere  con- 
jecture. Even  supposing  we  knew  the  absolute  distance  of  a 
star  and  could  measure  its  amount  of  displacement  in  a  given 
time,  still  we  could  not  be.  certain  of  its  rate  of  motion  unless 
we  knew  that  it  was  moving  directly  at  right -angles  to  the  line 
of  vision,  and  not  at  the  same  time  receding  or  advancing  to- 
wards us ;  and  this  we  could  not  determine  by  mere  observation. 
The  rate  of  motion,  as  determined  from  its  observed  change  of 
position,  may  be,  say,  only  twenty  miles  a  second,  while  its 
actual  velocity  may  be  ten  times  that  amount. 

By  spectrum  analysis  it  is  true  we  can  determine  the  rate  at 
which  a  star  may  be  advancing  or  receding  along  the  line  of 
sight  independently  of  any  knowledge  of  its  distance.  But  this 
again  does  not  give  us  the  actual  rate  of  motion  unless  we  are 
certain  that  it  is  moving  directly  to  or  from  us.  If  it  is  at  the 
same  time  moving  transversely  to  the  observer,  its  actual  motion 
may  be  more  than  100  miles  per  second,  while  the  rate  at  which 
it  is  receding  or  advancing,  as  determined  by  spectrum  analysis, 
may  not  be  twenty  miles  a  second.  But  in  many  cases  it  would 
be  difficult  to  a«;certain  whether  the  star  had  a  transverse  motion 
or  not.  A  star,  for  example,  1,000  times  more  remote  than 
a  Centauri,  that  is,  twenty  thousand  billion  miles,  though  moving 
transversely  to  the  observer  at  the  enormous  rate  of  100  miles 
per  second,  would  take  upwards  of  thirty  years  to  change  its 
position  so  much  as  i"  and  1,800  years  to  change  its  position  i'. 
In  fact,  we  should  have  to  watch  the  star  for  a  generation  or 
two  before  we  could  be  certain  whether  it  was  changing  its 
position  or  not.  And  even  after  we  had  found  with  certainty 
that  the  star  was  shifting,  and  this  at  the  rate  of  1'  in  1,800 
years,  we  could  not,  without  a  knowledge  of  its  distance,  express 
the  angle  of  displacement  in  miles.  But  from  the  apparent 
magnitude  or  brilliancy  of  the  star  we  could  not  determine 
whether  its  distance  was  ten  times,  100  times,  or  1,000  times 
that  of  a  Centauri  and  consequently  we  could  form  no  conjec- 
ture as  to  the  actual  velocity  of  the  star.  If  we  assumed  its 
distance  to  be  ten  times  that  of  a  Centauri,  this  would  give  a 
transverse  velocity  of  one  mile  per  second.  If  we  assumed  its 
distance  to  be  100  times  that  of  a  Centauri,  this  would  give  ten 
miles  a  second  as  the  velocity,  and  if  1,000  times,  the  velocity 
of  course  would  be  100  miles  per  second. 

As  there  are  but  few  of  the  stars  which  show  a  measurable 
parallax  and  having  no  other  reliable  method  of  estimating  their 
distances,  it  follows  that  in  reference  to  the  greater  number  of 
the  stars  neither  by  spectrum  analysis  nor  by  observation  of 
their  change  of  position  can  we  determine  their  velocities. 
There  does  not  therefore  appear  to  be  the  shadow  of  a  reason 
for  believing  that  none  of  the  stars  has  a  motion  of  over  thirty 
or  forty  miles  per  second.  For  anything  that  at  present  is 
known  to  the  contrary,  the  majority  of  them  may  possess  a 
proper  motion  enormously  greater  than  that. 

There  is,  however,  an  important  point  which  seems  to  be 
overlooked  in  Mr.  Plummers  objection,  viz.,  that  unless  the 
greater  part  of  the  motion  of  translation  be  transformed  into 
heat,  the  chances  are  that  no  sun-star  will  be  formed.  It  is 
necessary  to  the  formation  of  a  sun  which  is  to  endure  for 
millions  of  years  and  to  form  the  centre  of  a  planetary  system 
like  oiu:  own  that  the  masses  coming  into  collision  should  be 
converted  into  an  incandescent  nebulous  mass.  But  the  greater 
the  amount  of  motion  left  unconverted  into  heat,  the  less  is  the 
chance  of  this  condition  being  attained.  A  concussion  which 
would  leave  the  greater  part  of  the  motion  of  translation  untrans- 
formed  would  be  likely  as  a  general  rule  to  produce  merely  a 
temporary  star,  whidi  would  blaze  forth  for  a  few  years  or  a 
few  hundred  vears,  or  perhaps  a  few  thousand  years,  and  then 
die  oat«    In  met  we  have  had  several  good  examples  of  such 


since  the  time  of  Hipparchus.  Now,  although  it  may  be  true 
that  according  to  the  law  of  chances,  collisions  producing  tem- 
porary stars  may  be  far  more  numerous  than  those  resulting  in 
the  formation  of  permanent  stars,  nevertheless  the  number  of 
those  temporary  stars  observable  in  the  heavens  may  be  perfectly 
insignificant  in  comparison  to  the  number  of  permanent  stars. 
Suppose  there  were  as  many  as  one  hundred  temporary  stars 
formed  for  one  permanent,  and  that  on  an  average  each  should 
continue  visible  for  1,000  years,  there  would  not  at  the  present 
moment  be  over  half-a-dozen  of  such  stars  visible  in  the  heavens. 

James  Croll 


The  Age  of  the  Earth 

With  reference  to  the  ingenious  suggestion  by  Mr.  Preston, 
on  the  earth's  orbit  having  been  practically  diminished  by  ethe- 
real retardation,  there  are  a  few  other  points  to  be  considered. 
I.  That  the  minor  planets  could  never  have  passed  the  major 
planets,  as  they  would  be  certainly  caught  by  them  during  the 
immense  number  of  revolutions  in  which  their  orbits  would  be 
nearly  equal.  Therefore  the  earth  cannot  have  dropped  in  from 
much  farther  than  Jupiter's  present  orbit ;  for  if  during  its  revolu- 
tions it  came  within  one-sixth  of  the  distance  from  Jupiter  that  it 
now  is  from  the  sun,  it  would  be  mastered  by  Jupiter.  2.  By'the 
retardation  of  Encke's  comet  it  seems  that  u  the  comet  had  the 
same  orbit  as  the  earth,  its  distance  from  the  sun  would  dimmish 
about  itJtjt  per  year.  But  for  any  appreciable  lengthening  of 
the  earth's  life-period,  the  earth  must  have  started  much  more 
than  one-tenth  farther  from  the  sun  than  it  now  is  ;  that  is  to 
say,  it  must  fall  in  much  quicker  than  at  the  rate  of  its  present 
distance  from  the  sun  in  10"  years.  This  shows  that  the  indi- 
vidual portions  of  Encke's  comet  must  be  much  more  than  two 
miles  m  diameter,  even  supposing  it  to  have  as  great  a 
mean  density  as  the  earth,  and  to  consist  of  a  shower  of 
solid  meteors.  Thus  if  the  earth's  history  should  be  length- 
ened by  any  important  amount  from  this  cause,  the  nucleus 
of  Encke's  comet  must  consist  of  a  shower  of  bodies  of  as  great  a 
density  as  the  earth,  and  of  a  considerable  size,  each  weighing 
very  much  more  than  100,000,000  tons.  And  considering  that 
there  must  be  thousands  of  such  bodies  to  compose  it,  the  total 
mass  would  be  greatly  beyond  what  is  considered  possible.  3. 
If  the  earth  had  drawn  much  nearer  to  the  sun,  the  asteroids 
must  have  come  in  from  a  very  much  greater  distance ;  and  yet, 
though  they  differ  greatly  in  size,  they  arc  all  grouped  closely 
tc^ether,  whereas  we  should  find  then  sorted  out  very  much  more 
widely,  and  a  vast  quantity  of  them  retained  by  Jupiter  as 
satellites. 

The  soUir  system  appears  to  be  really  a  quinary  system  of 
stars ;  the  major  planets  being  analogous  to  the  sun  in  their 
characteristics  of  denshy,  distances  and  proportions  ot  satellites, 
and  other  elements,  the  minor  planets  being  the  sun's  satellites. 
Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  uniform  law  of  satellites  is  to  regularly  de- 
crease in  volume  both  close  to,  and  farthest  from,  their  primaries  ; 
the  series  manifestly  terminating  in  asteroids  in  the  case  of  the 
sun  and  of  Saturn. 

In  the  whole  of  the  present  discussion  of  the  earth's  age,  what 
is  the  reason  why  only  one  out  of  several  different  limits  is  con- 
sidered ?  I.  The  decrease  of  temperature  in  the  evth.  2.  Tidal 
retardation.  3.  The  cooling  of  the  sun,  which  is  recognised  as 
being  the  weakest  of  the  three.  4.  A  uniform  diffusion  of  tem- 
perature in  the  earth,  which  gives  a  limit,  not  for  life,  but  for 
the  separate  existence  of  the  earth.  The  close  agreement  of  the 
limits  of  life  history  given  by  these  first  three  methods  is  a  very 
strong  argument  ia  favour  of  each  of  them  ;  for  if  there  is  even  a 
possibility  of  I  in  5  that  each  separately  is  wrone,  it  would  be 
less  chance  than  i  in  100  that  the  concordance  of  all  three  was 
wrong. 

Is  there  anything  so  stable  and  certain  in  geologic  time — 
when  we  remember  that  levek  permanently  alter  as  quickly  as 
ten  feet  per  century— that  rainfall  (and  therefore  denudation) 
depends  mainly  on  the  almost  unknown  changes  in  the  sun's 
heat,  a  slight  increase  of  rainfall  making  much  greater  rapidity 
of  denudation— and  that  accumulation  of  peat  and  stalactite  might 
well  become  proverbial  for  its  variability— when  all  these  un- 
certainties are  remembered,  is  there  an3rthing  so  indubitable  as 
to  warrant  our  throwing  all  the  odium  of  incorrectness  on  the 
cosmiod  chronology,  and  seeking  to  square  it  with  geological 
suppositions?  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie 

Bromley,  Kent 


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{April  1 1,  1878 


The  "Burydice"  Squall 

The  loss  of  H.M.S.  Eurydice  on  the  24th  ult.  may  perhaps 
give  a  melancholy  interest  to  a  plain  statement  of  the  facts  con- 
nected with  the  meteorology  of  that  day. 

The  squall  in  which  she  capsized  was  one  of  a  common  class 
which  occur  when,  after  a  long  steady  fall  of  the  barometer,  the 
mercury  pauses  for  a  few  hours  before  commencing  to  rise. 
These  squalls  differ  considerably  from  simple  squalls,  and  are 
frequently  complicated,  as  in  this  case,  with  small  secondary 
cyclones. 

Since  the  20th  inst.  the  general  type  of  weather  over  our 
islands  had  been  very  uniform,  an  area  of  high  pressure  being 
constantly  found  over  the  west  of  Ireland,  with  a  constantly  low 
pressure  near  Stockholm  giving  cold  north-west  winds,  conditions 
which  are  very  conmion  in  the  month  of  March.  But  while  the 
general  shape  of  the  isobaric  lines  remained  constant,  the  abso- 
lute  pressure  over  the  whole  area  had  been  diminishing  rapidly 
till  the  24th  inst.  On  the  morning  of  that  day,  the  centre  of  a 
cyclone  was  near  Stockholm,  while  no  less  than  three  secondary 
depressions  were  influencing  Great  Britain,  and  by  6  p.m.  the 
whole  system  had  gathered  itself  into  two  small  cyclones  whose 
centres  were  near  Yarmouth  and  Bergen. 

Such  a  development  of  secondaries  with  a  north-west  wind  is  not 
common,  and  is  always  associated  with  exceptionally  wild  and 
broken  weather,  of  the  kind  which  gives  heavy  local  rainfall, 
with  squalls,  or  violent  cold  thunderstorms,  but  not  widespread 
or  destructive  gales. 

In  London  the  changes  above  described  were  well  shown  by  a 
steady  fall  of  the  barometer  from  the  21st  inst.,  which  amounted 
to  an  inch  at  3.45  P.M.  on  the  24th.  As  a  heavy  squall  came 
on  then,  the  barometer  jumped  up  suddenly  two-hundredths  of  an 
inch,  as  is  often  the  case  in  squalls,  and  then  fell  slowly  in  about 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  its  former  level,  where  it  remained  sta- 
tionary till  about  9  P.M.,  after  which  it  rose  steadily.  The 
squall,  which  lasted  about  twenty  itainutes,  was  followed  by 
very  threatening-looking  weather,  during  which  the  wind  per- 
haps backed  a  little  to  west-north-west,  but  at  4.40  p.m.  it 
shifted  to  north-north-east  and  became  strong,  with  heavy  snow, 
till  5.20,  when  the  weather  moderated,  the  whole  being  evi- 
dently due  to  the  complicated  action  of  one  of  the  secondary 
depressions  before  mentioned. 

Materials  are  still  wanting  for  tracing  the  connection  between 
the  souall  in  London  at  3.45  P.M.,  and  that  at  Ventnor  at  the 
same  hour,  but  squalls  often  do  occur  simultaneously  sU  distant 
places  in  connection  with  the  trough  of  great  non-cyclonic  baro- 
metric depressions.  The  question  of  any  such,  relation  has  not 
yet  been  worked  out,  and  its  solution  presents  great  difEculties. 

On  the  whole,  then,  the  squall  in  which  the  Eurydice  was  lost, 
though  of  a  common  type,  was  somewhat  exceptional  in  sudden- 
ness and  violence.  Ralph  Abercromby 

21,  Chapel  Street,  S.W.,  April  3 


Leidenfrott't  Phenomenon 

A  FEW  days  ago  I  was  examining  the  "  rosette  "  formed  bir  a 
sphercMd  of  water  in  a  hot  platinum  cap«ule,  and  noticed  that 
the  outline  was  not  a  oontinuoas  curve,  as  b  genenlly  represented 
in  books,  but  was  "  beaded  "  with  re«^ntenng  angles  as  shown  bj 
the  oontinaoiis.  lines  in  figures  Ag,  B„  c^  while  the  curve  of 


each  bead  could  be  distinctly  traced  within  the  drop,  forming  a 
"  fluted"  outline^  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  same  figures. 
It  was  at  once  manifest  that  both  the  "beaded"  and  "fluted" 
fimes  were  produced  by  the  superposition  of  the  retinal  images 
of  the  drop  in  two  extreme  conditions  of  Tibration ;  that, 
in  the  case  represented  by  A„  the  drop  was  really  vibrat- 
ing  like  a  bell  which  is  sounding  its  first  harmonic  abore 
its  fundamental  note,  and  tbermne  possesses  six  Tentral 
the  extreme  fiomt  twim^wl  beins  rcpwicotcd  bj 


A}  and  A,  respectively,  and  that  B,  and  c,  represent  the 
appearance  of  the  drop  when  vibrating  like  a  bell  which 
is  sounding  its  second  and  third  harmonic  respectivdy.  To 
verify  this  a  spheroid  of  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter was  produced;  and  as  soon  as  the  beaded  decagon,  c„  was 
steadily  maintained,  the  room  was  darkened,  and  the  spheroid 
illuminated  by  sparks  from  Holtz's  machine.  Immediately  the 
curvilinear  pentagons  c,  and  c,  were  apparent,  and  frequently 
the  vibrations  continued  perfealy  steady  for  several  seconds. 
When  the  drop  had  diminished  in  size  the  mode  of  vibration 
changed,  and  the  crosses  represented  by  Bi  and  B^  apposed  when 
the  sparks  passed;  on  openmg  the  shutters  the  beaded  octagon  b, 
appeared  almost  perfectly  steady  in  the  capsule.  The  figures  A|, 
A2,  and  A,  were  obtained  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  a  larger 
spheroid  twelve  and  sixteen  beads  were  obtained,  presenting 
respectively  curvilinear  hexagons  and  octagons  when  iUuminatod 
by  the  sparks.  In  one  case  a  small  spheroid  presented  a  very 
large  number  of  beads  in  its  outline ;  but  on  examining  it  with 
sparks  it  was  found  to  be  produced  by  the  crosses  B|  and  B^ 
rotating  very  rapklly  about  a  vertical  axis.  Two  or  three  par- 
ticles of  carbon  introduced  into  a  spheroid  remained  for  a  long 
time  close  to  the  surface  of  one  "  ventral  segment,"  like  lycopo- 
dium  powder  on  a  Chladni*a  plate,  and  when  they  escaped  from 
it  were  ensnared  by  the  next  segment  The  fii^ures  observed 
when  the  spheroids  were  illuminated  by  sparks  were  fully  as 
exorbitant  as  those  shown  at  Aj,  a^i  Bj,  b^  c^,  and  c^. 

If  the  spheroidal  foim  be  due  to  the  combined  action  of 
gravity  and  surface  tension,  it  is  obviously  to  the  latter  force  tl**t 
we  must  look  for  the  production  of  vibrations  when,  by  any 
acckient,  the  spheroid  is  disturbed.  The  amount  of  steam 
produced  from  the  under-side  of  any  •*  ventral  segment "  will, 
of  course,  be  greater  the  greater  the  surface  exposed ;  and  when 
this  is  a  fresh  surface,  will  increase  as  the  surface  becomes  heated 
by  exposure.  Hence  the  amount  of  steam  escaping  from  beneath 
a  **  ventral  segment "  will  be  greater  as  it  b  contracting  towards, 
than  when  it  is  moving  from,  the  centre  of  the  spheroid,  thus 
supplying,  on  the  whole,  during  each  vibration  an  impfdse  in  the 
direction  of  motion.  It  seems  unnecessary  to  look  faxther  for  a 
supply  of  energy.  Wm.  GARNErr 

Cavendish  Laboratory,  Cambridge^  March  15 

Trigectories  of  Shot 

Having  observed  a  letter  in  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  401,  in 
which  extracts  from  a  paper  of  mine  are  commented  upon  by  the 
Rev.  F.  Bashforth,  I  trust  you  will  let  me  make  a  few  remarks 
by  wav  of  explanation. 

In  the  paper  referred  to  I  was  trying  to  weigh  against  one 
another  the  menu  of  different  methods  of  finding  the  trajectories 
of  shot,  the  calculations  beings  of  course,  based  upon  Mr.  Bash* 
forth's  tables ;  and  the  method  which  I  liked  the  best  dki  not 
contain  the  equation  (a),  which  is  the  text  of  Mr.  Bashforth's 
letter.  Now  without  doubt  the  method  I  preferred  had  faulu  of 
its  own,  but  it  was  a  sort  of  argument  in  its  favour  if  I  could 
show  that  the  other  methods  were  not  faultless,  and  in  particular 
if  I  conki  show  that  the  equation  (a),  which  is  the  key  of  those 
other  methods,  had  no  merits  of  severe  accuracy  to  set  off  against 
certain  defects  which  I  thought  it  might  fairly  be  charged  with. 

The  objections  I  had  to  the  equation  (a)  are  partly  set  forth  in 
the  first  extract  quoted  by  Mr.  Bashforth  ;  but  one  great  objec- 
tion to  it  is  the  tediousness  of  its  application  in  practice.  Mr. 
Bashforth  appears  to  be  greatly  ofiended  with  my  description  of 
the  way  the  equation  is  uMd,  viz.,  that  it  is  a  process  of  guessing. 
But  he  cannot  pretend  that  he  has  solved  the  equation  according 
to  anj  strict  method ;  he  has  only  guessed  at  a  solution  which 
falls  m  more  or  less  with  his  tables.  It  seems  to  me  he  is  here 
quarrelling  about  a  mere  name,  because  the  process  he  describes 
and  indeed  illustrates  is  practiodly  the  process  I  describe,  and  it 
is  idle  on  his  part  to  give  me  the  infornution  contained  in  his 
letter,  because  I  am  very  well  aware  that  the  second  guess  gives 
a  better  result  than  the  first  But  as  regards  the  amount  of 
accuracy  belonging  to  the  equation,  I  must  still  hold  by  the 
substance  and  tendency  of  my  remarks  on  that  subject,  except 
in  my  unfortunate  use  of  the  epithet  "dangerous,"  which  I 
admit  was  extreme.     I  frankly  confess  that  the  force  of  the 

argument  derived  from  discussing  the  values  of  ^  immaterially 

weakened  when  those  values  are  ntmierically  exhibited  and  com- 
pared with  the  tables.  At  the  same  time,  when  taken  in  con- 
nectkm  with  the  peculiar  way  the  equation  is  naedy  the  *iTynbfit, 


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such  18  I  make  them  rooghly,  do  not  coDYince  me  that  the 
argument  b  without  force.  My  chief  criticism  on  the  equation 
has  two  branches  :— i.  Mr.  Bashforth  has  nowhere  proved  that 
he  U  entitled  to  use  the  >&  belonging  to  the  mean  velocity  over  the 
arc  2.  Granting  that  he  may  use  that  k^  we  have  then  to 
consider  whether  he  has  got  v^  and  k  to  accord.  For  my  part, 
I  do  not  feel  the  degree  of  certainty  which  Mr.  Bashforih  ex- 
presses about  this,  especially  if  the  work  is  carried  over  a  con- 
siderable arc  I  will  grant  that  his  result  comes  near  the  truth, 
but  assuredly  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  determined  t/^  accurately^ 
as  he  affirms. 

I  cannot  help  thinking  thit  there  is  no  real  difference  between 
Mr.  Bashforth  and  myself,  for  all  that  I  have  said  against  the 
equation  (a)  can  be  said  in  another  form  against  the  method  that 
I  prefer,  and  I  willingly  indorse  the  statement  in  the  last  para- 
graph but  one  of  his  l.cter.  I  may  be  allowed  to  add  that  all 
meuiods  hitherto  proposed  of  calculating  shot  ranges  seem  to 
me  too  difficult  for  common  use,  and  I  believe  what  would  really 
be  a  boon  to  the  artilleryman  is  a  book  of  trajectories  drawn  to 
scale.  This  might  be  accomplished  very  well  by  Mr.  Bashforth's 
tables  and  methods  in  the  hands  of  some  one  competent  to  use 
them,  the  ^simpler  methods,  as  I  think  them,  inttoauced  by  me, 
being  also  of  some  service.  I  trust  this  will  be  done  when  the 
resistance  to  shot  moving  with  low  velocities  has  been  ascer- 
tained, as  I  hear  it  is  to  be,  by  a  series  of  experiments  under 
Mr.  Bashforth's  superintendence. 

Allow  me  in  conclusion  to  express  my  regret  that  I  should 
seem  to  have  been  reviewing  in  a  hostile  spirit  any  part  of  the 
work  done  by  Mr.  Bashforth  at  Woolwich.  I  will  onlv  ashore 
h'm  that  nothing  could  have  been  further  from  mv  thoughts  than 
to  do  so.  W.  D.  NiVKN 

Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  March  30 


Th«  Daylight  Meteor  of  March  25 

A  CORRESPONDENT  in  NATURE  described  the  falling  of  a 
daylight  meteor  on  Monday,  March  25.  I  have  received  infor- 
mation respecting  this  meteor  from  five  persons  who  witnessed 
its  fall. 

Mr.  Mclntyre,  who  saw  it  from  near  Dunston-on-Tyne  ;  Mr. 
"Wood,  banker,  who  saw  it  whilst  leaving  his  residence  at 
Benton,  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne ;  Mrs.  Hopper,  from  Gos- 
forth,  one  mile  north  of  Newcastle ;  Mrs.  Lupton,  who  saw  it 
from  a  railway  carriage  at  Brampton,  near  Carlisle ;  and  Mr. 
W.  Clarke,  of  Newbuni,  who  saw  it  at  Wallbottle,  four  miles 
west  of  Newcastle.  All  these  observers  agree  in  the  following 
particulars  : — i.  Tbat  the  meteor  was  visible  at  10.20.  2.  That 
It  was  very  luminous  with  a  white  light  slightly  coloured.  3. 
That  it  fell  at  a  slijjht  inclination  from  E.  to  N„  and  reached 
the  horizon  at  or  near  the  north  point.  4.  That  the  weather 
was  clear  and  the  sun  shone  brightly  at  the  time  the  meteor  was 
visible.  T.  P.  Barkas 

26,  Archbold  Terrace,  Newcastle-on-Tyne 

Meteor 

On  the  night  of  Tuesday,  April  2,  at  about  7.55  o'clock,  I 
was  standing  with  two  companions,  facing  the  nortn,  when  we 
were  surprised  to  observe  the  ground  before  us  suddenly  lighted 
up,  and  our  three  shadows  sharply  defined  ujx)n  it.  One  of  my 
friends  exclaimed,  **  Why,  there's  the  moon  come  out!"  We 
turned  round  and  beheld  a  wonderfully  brilliant  meteor  descend- 
xxi'i  almost  perpendicularly  from  about  5"  east  of  Betelgeux,  in 
Orion,  towards  the  most  eastern  of  the  three  stars  in  the  belt.  Its 
course  was  slightly  zig-zag,  its  colour  yellow  or  orange,  its  apfwirent 
size  about  half  the  diameter  of  the  full  moon.  It  vanished 
noiselessly  before  reaching  the  belt,  and  left  no  visible  remains. 
When  we  first  saw  it  there  appeared  be  a  short  trail  of  light 
behind  it.  About  three  minutes  after  its  disappearance  a 
rumbling  sound  was  heard  like  distant  thunder,  from  the  same 
direction.  Whether  this  was  connected  with  the  meteor  I 
cannot  tell.  If  so  it  would  indicate  a  dbtance  of  about  forty 
miles,  and  we  ought  to  hear  of  this  meteor  from  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Warwick.  F.  T.  MoTT 

Birstal  Hill,  Leicester 

[The  same  meteor  was  seen  by  several  Times  correspondents. 
It  made  its  appearance  in  Ursa  Major,  and  after  remaining 
stationary  for  a  second  or  two  between  Orion's  Belt  and  Sirius, 
fell  at  a  comparatively  slow  rate  and  in  a  direct  line  to  the  horizon. 
It  was  pear-tike  in  shape,  seemed  three  or  four  times  larger  than 
Jupiter,  and  was  intensely  bright.    Its  colour  changed  from  a 


silvery  white  to  a  pale  red  as  it  approached  the  horizon,  where 
it  disappeared  behind  a  cloud,  leaving  a  long  track  of  light 
behind  it.]  

To  Entomologists 

As  I  have  undertaken  the  section  "  Arthropod  i"  for  the 
**  yahresberichi  fiir  AnatomU  utid  Physiologies  of  Hoffmann 
and  Schwalbe,"  and  find  some  difficulty  in  obtaining  English 
scientific  journals  (specially  the  entomological  ones)  here  in 
Naples,  will  you  oermit  me  through  your  columns  to  request 
such  of  your  reaaers  as  may  have  published  papers  on  the 
anatomy^  ontogeny^  oxt^  phyheeny^  of  the  Ilexipoda^  Myriapoda, 
ArcuhnoidtOy  Protracheata^  PoecUopoda,  and  Crustacea  in  1877, 
or  intend  to  do  so  in  1878  and  the  following  years,  to  be  kind 
enough  to  forward  me  a  copy  of  theji,  or  at  least  to  inform  me 
of  the  fact  ?  Paul  Mayer 

Niples,  Stazione  Zoologica,  March  31 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Royal  Geographical  Society  Medals.— The 
Founder's  Medal  for  1878,  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society,  has  been  awarded  to  Baron  F.  von  Richthofen 
for  his  extensive  travels  and  scientific  explorations  in 
China;  also  for  his  great  work  now  in  course  of  pub- 
lication, in  which  the  materials  accumulated  during  his 
long  journeys  are  elaborated  with  remarkable  lucidity  and 
completeness.  The  Patron's  Medal  has  been  given  to 
Capt.  Henry  Trotter,  R.E.,  for  his  services  to  geography, 
in  having  conducted  the  survey  operations  of  the  late 
Mission  to  Eastern  Turkistan,  under  Sir  Douglas  For- 
syth, which  resulted  in  the  connecrion  of  the  Trigono- 
metrical Survey  of  India  with  the  Russian  Surveys  from 
Siberia,  and  for  having  further  greatly  improved  the  map 
of  Central  Asia.  Mr.  Stanley,  being  ahready  a  medallist, 
is  disqualified  from  receiving  a  similar  honour,  but  he  has 
been  elected  an  honorary  corresponding  member,  and  is 
to  receive  the  thanks  of  the  Council  for  his  discoveries. 

Africa. — With  a  view  to  facilitating  the  progress  o! 
the  London  Missionary  Society's  contemplated  expedition 
from  the  East  Coast  of  Africa  to  Lake  Tanganyika,  the 
Rev.  Roger  Price,  who  had  had  long  experience  of  roads 
and  waggons  in  South  Africa,  was  despatched  to  Zanzibar 
in  1876,  to  make  investigations  respecting  a  new  route 
and  new  mode  of  travelling  into  the  interior.  He  made 
the  experiment  of  using  bullocks  and  waggons  in  the 
place  of  paqazi,  and  with  so  much  success  that  it  was 
resolved  4hat  the  expedition  should  adopt  that  mode  of 
conveyance  for  themselves  and  their  goods,  and  a  flourish- 
ing account  of  the  new  scheme  was  given  before  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  on  February  26, 1877.  Before 
the  expedition  arrived  at  Zanzibar  in  the  summer  of  last 
year,  Mr.  Mackay,  an  agent  of  the  Church  Missionary 
Society,  was  reported  to  have  cleared  a  road  nearly,  if 
not  quite,  as  far  as  Mpwapwa,  and  it  was  supposed  Uiat 
the  expedition  would  reach  the  Lake  with  great  ease. 
Their  hopes,  however,  have  been  grievously  disappointed. 
The  road  has  turned  out  to  be  no  road  at  all,  and  most  of 
the  oxen  have  died  from  the  effects  of  the  climate.  Mr. 
Price  returned  to  England  some  little  time  back,  con- 
vinced, we  believe,  of  Uie  present  impracticability  of  his 
bullock-waggon  scheme,  and  sad  to  relate,  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  revert  to  the  old  pagazi  system,  the 
curse  of  African  travel.  By  latest  accounts  the  expe- 
dition had  formed  a  camp  at  Kirasa,  in  Usugara,  on  the 
edge  of  the  high  plateau,  and  about  forty  miles  east  of 
Mpwapwa,  and  there  they  intend  to  remain  till  after  the 
rainy  season. — Lieut  J.  B.  Wathier  has  been  appointed 
to  join  the  Belgian  expedition  at  Zanzibar,  which  recently 
lost  two  of  its  members,  MM.  Crespel  and  Maes.  He 
has  visited  Dr.  Nachtigall  at  Berlin,  to  obtain  the  advice 
of  the  experienced  explorer,  and  left  Brindisi  for  Zan- 
zibar on  the  5th  inst.  Dr.  Nachtigall  himself,  as 
leader  of  the  German  expedition,  is  to  start  from  Sl  Paul 
de  Loanda,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  tviro  expeditions  may 
meet  in  the  centre  of  ^rica. 


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NATURE 


'[April  II,  1878 


Cm  the  5th  inst.  Lieut,  de  Semell^  left  Bordeaux 
for  the  purpose  of  setting  out  on  his  proposed  journey 
across  Africa  from  Scnegambia.  The  Society  of 
Algerine  Catholic  Missions  has  obtained  from  the  Pope 
an  authorisation  to  send  two  parties  of  priests  into  the 
interior  of  Africa;  one,  under  the  direction  of  Father 
Pascal,  will  establish  a  vicariat  apostolique  on  the  banks 
of  Lake  Tanganyika ;  the  second  party,  whose  head  is 
said  to  be  Father  Livinzac,  will  establish  a  similar 
organisation  in  the  region  of  the  Nyanzas.  The  missions 
will  be  scientific  as  well  as  religious. 

Arctic  Exploration.— A  wealthy  Russian  merchant 
M.  Sibiriakoflf  has  offered  the  sum  of  12,000  roubles 
to  the  Committee  of  the  Dutch  Arctic  Expedition, 
on  condition  that  the  Committee  should  order  that 
the  Siberian  coasts  be  specially  explored  by  the 
Expedition.  The  Committee  has,  howerer,  refused  the 
offer,  on  the  one  hand  because  it  was  considered  undig- 
nified to  accept  foreign  help  for  a  purely  national  under- 
taking, and  on  the  other,  because  the  expedition  has  a 
specifically  scientific  and  not  a  commercial  object  This 
offer  of  M.  Sibiriakoff  seems  unnecessary,  seeing  that 
the  Siberian  coast  is  likely  to  be  explored  this  summer  by 
Prof.  Nordenskjold  in  the  Vega,  We  may  remind  our 
readers  that  this  expedition  sets  out  in  the  beginning  of 
July,  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  the  Nt)rth-East  Passage 
from  Europe  to  Behring*s  Straits.  Prof.  Nordenskjold 
has  made  a  thorough  study  of  the  records  of  Russian 
exploration  along  the  north  coast  of  Siberia,  and  con- 
cludes that  in  early  autunm  the  ice  retires  from  the  coast 
as  a  rule,  leaving  a  comparatively  clear  waterway.  Even 
should  the  immediate  aim  of  the  expedition  not  be 
accomplished,  w^e  may  expect  large  additions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  hydrography,  geology,  and  natiu-al 
history  of  these  regions,  which,  from  a  scientific  point 
of  view,  have  been  comparatively  unexplored  Prof. 
Nordenskjold  conjectures  that  a  line  of  islands  separates 
the  Siberian  from  the  strictly  Polar  Sea,  of  which  we  only 
know  Wrangell  Land  and  New  Siberia ;  he  will  endeavour 
to  verify  this  conjecture.  The  proposal  has  been  made 
in  the  first  Chamber  of  the  Swedish  Reichstag  to  grant 
the  sum  of  22,000  Swedish  crowns  for  the  Arctic  Expe- 
dition projected  by  Lieut.  Sandeberg,  the  costs  of  whose 
exploration  in  Lapland,  to  which  we  have  already  referred, 
were  defrayed  entirely  by  himself. 

Cairo  Geographical  Society.— At  an  extraordinary 
meeting  of  this  society  on  Fcbnianr  16  the  question  of 
its  existf  nee  was  discussed  ;  it  had  become  almost  ex- 
tinct from  want  of  funds.  It  was  proposed  to  join  it  to 
the  Egyptian  Institute,  thereby  much  diminishing  its 
working  expenses,  and  putting  it  in  an  advantageous 
position  for  carrying  on  its  work.  We  hope  the  scheme 
will  be  carried  out,  as  the  situation  of  the  society  places 
it  in  an  unusually  favourable  position  for  carrying  on  the 
work  of  African  exploration* 

South  America. — Advices  from  Valparaiso  state  that 
Commander  Paget,  of  Her  Majesty's  ship  Penguin^  com- 
municated to  the  captain  of  the  port  of  Coquimbo  that 
while  passing  through  Messier*  s  Channel,  on  Jantiary  ic^ 
he  saw  a  volcano  in  eruption,  situated  E.  \  S.  (Mag.)  of 
the  southern  extremity  of  Middle  Island,  English  Narrows. 
It  is  supposed  that  this  volcano  is  the  cause  of  the  subter- 
ranean noises  heard  by  an  exploring  party  from  the 
corvette  Magailanes^  near  Lake  Santa  Cruz,  in  the  middle 
of  December,  and  is  the  same  as  that  believed  to  exist  by 
the  Argentine  explorer  Moreno.  Apropos  of  the  fore- 
going, says  the  Timpos^  one  of  the  most  remarkable  dis- 
coveries made  by  Chilian  explorers  is  the  complete  disap- 
pearance of  the  Andes  chain  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  continent.  Messrs.  Rodgers  and  Ibar  crossed  from 
Brunswick  Peninsula,  situated,  according  to  the  Argen- 
tines, to  the  east  of  the  Andes,  to  the  Pacific,  arriving  at 
a  place  called  by  Fitzroy  the  plains  of  Diana,  without 


meeting  with  vestiges  of  the  Cordillera.   There  are  plains, 
more  or  less  inclined,  but  only  plains. 

Ethnography  of  Russia,— As  Supplement  54  to 
Petermann's  AfUiheilun^en,  CoL  Rittich's  valuable  and 
elaborate  treatise  on  the  ethnography  of  Russia  has  just 
been  published,  with  a  large  map,  coloured  with  the 
greatest  care,  and  showing  with  wonderful  clearness  the 
many  elements  which  go  to  make  up  the  Russian 
population. 

The  Yenissei.— To  the  April  number  of  the  Geogra- 
phical Magazine  Mr.  Seebohm  contributes  a  paper  on 
the  Valley  of  the  Yenissei,  embodying  some  of  the  results 
of  his  recent  voyage  to  that  river. 

The  Whang-ho. — In  the  same  number  is  the  first 
instalment  of  an  exhaustive  paper  on  this  river,  with 
special  reference  to  its  double  delta,  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Mossman. 

Educational  Voyage.— A  voyage  around  the  world, 
designed  for  students,  is  being  arranged  at  Paris.  It  will 
last  eleven  months,  over  six  months  being  devoted  to 
various  land  excursions.  Books,  collections,  &c.,  will  be 
taken,  and  the  entire  programme  will  have  instruction, 
rather  than  sight-seeing,  in  view.  It  is  intended  to  depart 
on  June  15. 

Parts  Geographical  Society.— The  January  Bulletin 
of  this  Society  contains  the  first  part  of  an  important 
inquiry  into  the  medical  geography  of  the  West  Coast  of 
Africa,  by  Dr.  H.  Rey,  and  also  the  first  instalment  of  a 
narrative  of  a  journey  in  Cilicia  in  1874  by  MM.  C.  Favre 
and  B.  Mandrot.  M.  Nogueira  gives  a  translation  of  a 
paper  from  the  Portuguese  on  the  South  African  river 
Cunene. 

The  Council  of  the  Society  of  Geography  has  issued  its 
list  of  candidates  for  the  high  offices  of  the  society.  It 
proposes  to  the  members  to  elect  Admiral  La  Ronci6re  le 
Nourry,  who  has  been  voted  six  or  seven  times  almost 
without  opposition.  But  a  number  of  independent  mem- 
bers are  proposing,  in  opposition,  the  nomination  of 
the  present  Minister  of  Marine. 

Depths  of  Lakes. — The  Bavarian  Courier  publishes 
an  interesting  comparative  statement  of  the  depths  of 
lakes.  Amongst  European  lakes  the  Achensee,  in  the 
Tyrol,  heads  the  list.  At  some  points  the  depth  of  this 
lake  amounts  to  772  metres.  The  greatest  depth  of  the 
lake  of  Constance  is  about  300  metres,  that  of  the 
Chiemsee  about  141  metres,  and  that  of  the  Walchen-  and 
Konigssee,  188  metres.  The  measiurements  made  about 
1870  at  the  Dead  Sea  showed  that  at  its  deepest  part 
the  depth  is  565  metres,  but  if  we  consider  that  the 
level  of  this  lake  is  already  429  metres  below  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  then  we  find  that  the  total 
depression  in  the  soil  here  amounts  really  to  994  metres. 
The  Lake  of  Tiberias  is  extremely  shallow  in  com- 
parison ;  on  its  eastern  part  the  average  depth  is  only 
eight  metres,  while  on  the  western  side  it  lies  between  six 
and  seven  metres.  In  Lake  Baikal  depths  have  been 
foimd  which  for  a  lake  are  truly  astonishing.  In  the 
upper  part  of  the  lake  the  depth  is  3,027  metres  (about 
the  height  of  Mount  Etna),  but  downwards  the  bottom 
constantly  descends,  and  near  the  opposite  bank  the 
depth  amounts  to  3,766  metres.  This  depth  far  exceeds 
that  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which  at  its  deepest  part 
measiures  only  2,197  metres. 

German  Alpinb  Club.— The  German  and  Austrian 
Alpen  Verein,  although  comparatively  young,  has  deve- 
loped a  most  praiseworthy  activity  in  a  variety  of  direc- 
tions. From  the  last  general  report  we  notice  that  it 
has  a  membership  of  nearly  7,000,  and  an  annual  income 
of  40,000  marks.  The  chief  exertions  are  devoted  to  the 
erection  of  shelter  huts  in  the  Alps,  and  maintenanct  of 
cooununications  over  the  passes.  It  is,  however,  readm* 
ing  no  slight  jcrvice  to  tne  canse  of  geognqihy,  by  4v 


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gradual  preparation  of  elaborate  maps  of  the  German 
and  Austrian  Alps.  At  present  it  is  engaged  on  a  map  of 
the  Salzkammergut,  on  a  scale  of  i  :  100,00a 


A  LUNAR  LANDSCAPE 

MESSRS.  GAMMON  AND  VAUGHAN,  No.  28, 
Old  Bond  Street,  have  at  present  on  view  a  picture 
in   which  the  artist,   Olafs  Winkler,  of   Weimar,  has 
endeavoured  to  represent  a  lunar  landscape.    Prof.  C. 
Bruhns,  of  Leipzig,  has  assisted  him  in  the  parts  of  the 
I       treatment  which  are  directly  scientific. 

The  painter  has  not  trusted  all  to  his  imagination. 
He  has,  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  ability,  sought 
to  stick  rigidly  to  truth,  and  to  paint  a  lunar  landscape 
such  as  it  would  appear,   so  far  as  human  observa- 
tion has  hitherto  ascertained,  to  a  human  eye,  were  it  at 
all  possible  for  a  man  to  be  transplanted  to  the  moon  and 
observe  through  his  earthly  eyes,  only  for  a  moment, 
nature  as  she  manifests  herself  on  the  surface  of  our 
satellite.    From  the  merely  artistic  point  of  view  the 
;       artist  fears  his  task  may  be  a  thankless  one,  for  since 
the  moon  has  no  atmosphere,  there  is  neither  a^ial 
.       perspective  nor  diffusion  of  light,  but  it  is  precisely  this 
^       point  which  should  make  our  artist  all  the  more  inter- 
ested in  this  unique  production.    The  shadow  of  a  body 
in  the  foreground  wiU  appear  quite  as  black  as  the  sky  itself 
'       which  closes  the  landscape  like  a  fiat  steep  wall,  broken 
'       only  by  the  quiet  light  of  the  stars.     All  lights  appear 
equally  strong  at  a  distance  and  close  at  hand,  and  this  also 
holds  with  the  local  colouring.     In  a  word,  there  is  want- 
ing in  the  lunar  landscape  that  which  lends  to  our  earth 
perspective,  richness  ot  tone,  modulation,  softness,  and 
temper.      It  is  our  atmosphere  we  have  to  thank  for 
most  of  the  multitudinous  coloured  phenomena  of  the 
terrestrial  landscape — phenomena  which  in  our  satellite 
are  impossible.    The  sunlight  falls  upon  the  hills  with 
blinding  brightness,  and  cuts  sharply  across  the  deep 
black  shadows.     Its  intensity  rivals  the  electric  light, 
and  light  effects  of   such  a  kind  are  far  beyond  the 
reach  of  our  palettes.    We  must  resort  to  some  expedient 
to  be  able  to  introduce  a  medium  between  the  extreme 
contrast  of  light  and  shade,  a  sort  of  half-tone,  which,  at 
the  same  time,  must  be  the  chief  tone  of  the  pictiure ; 
this  Herr  Winkler  has  sought  in  the  light  of  the  earth, 
the  true  "earthshine." 

The  artist  has  chosen  the  time  of  simset,  and  the 
region  he  has  selected  lies  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  moon.  The  spectator  is  supposed  to  be  on  the  front 
,  slope  of  a  mountain,  the  continuation  of  which  in  the 
background  comes  out  as  a  closed  ridge.  At  his  feet  one 
of  the  numerous  maria  spreads  out,  filled  up  with  rills, 
circular  hills,  and  large  and  small  craters,  stretching  away 
to  the  distant  mountain  referred  to.  Before,  us  in  the 
black  sky,  hangs  the  moon*s  moon,  our  earth.  She 
sheds  her  pale,  ash-coloured  light  over  the  rent,  desolate, 
dead  stone-fields.  Only  the  highest  points  of  the 
mountain-tops  still  glow  in  the  light  of  the  setting  sun, 
no  longer  red,  as  here,  but  dazzlingly  white,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  absence  of  atmospheric  absorption.  The 
earth  is  at  the  period  of  her  course  between  Sagittarius 
and  the  Scorpion,  An  tares  being  nearly  in  the  middle  of 
the  picture.  Against  his  persuasion  he  has  been  com- 
pelled to  make  the  milky  way  very  weak,  and  the  stars 
somewhat  large  in  proportion  to  the  earth. 

Herr  Winkler,  in  a  paper  read  at  the  last  meeting  of  the 
German  Association,  stated  that  his  first  impulse  to 
undertake  the  picture  was  derived  from  Nasmyth  and 
Carpenter*  s  work  on  the  moon. 

Our  only  criticism  of  the  picture  refers  to  the  colour  of 
the  earth  and  of  the  true  earthshine.  We  doubt  whether 
the  earth  is  quite  red  enough,  especially  at  the  edges,  and 
we  doubt  again  whether,  with  the  earth  as  ruddy  as  it 
is,  the  colour  of  the  lunar  landscape  itself  should  not  be 


rather  more  in  harmony  with  it,  as  it  is  the  true  light 
source. 

The  picture  is  an  admirable  performance,  and  the 
science  of  it  is  so  true  that,  as  we  hinted  before,  those 
of  our  artists  who  care  to  have  a  natiu-al  basis  for  their 
depiction  of  natural  phenomena  will  learn  much  from 
such  an  attempt  at  dealing  with  a  new  order  of  things. 


EDISON'S  TALKING'MACHINE^ 

MR.  THOMAS  A.  EDISON  has  recenUy  invented  an 
instrument  which  is  undoubtedly  the  acoustic  marvel 
of  the  century.  It  is  called  the  "  Speaking  Phonograph," 
or,  adopting  the  Indian  idiom,  one  may  aptly  call  it  ^^The 
Sound' Writer  who  Talks^  Much  curiosity  has  been 
expressed  as  to  the  workings  of  this  instrument,  so  I 
purpose  giving  an  account  of  it. 

All  talking-machines  may  be  reduced  to  two  types. 
That  of  Prof.  Faber,  of  Vienna,  is  the  most  perfect 
example  of  one  type;  that  of  Mr.  Edison  is  the  only 
example  of  the  other. 

Faber  worked  at  the  source  of  articulate  sounds,  and 
built  up  an  artificial  organ  of  speech,  whose  parts,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  perform  the  same  functions  as  corre- 
sponding organs  in  our  vocal  apparatus.  A  vibrating 
ivory  reed,  of  variable  pitch,  forms  its  vocal  chords. 
There  is  an  oval  cavity,  whose  size  and  shape  can  be 
rapidly  changed  by  depressing  the  keys  on  a  key-board. 
A  rubber  tongue  and  lips  make  the  consonants  ;  a  little 
windmill,  turning  in  its  throat,  rolls  the  letter  r,  and  a 
tube  is  attached  to  its  nose  when  it  speaks  French. 
This  is  the  anatomy  of  this  really  wonderful  piece  of 
mechanism. 

Faber  attacked  the  problem  on  its  physiological  side. 
Quite  differently  works  Mr.  Edison :  he  attacks  the 
problem,  not  at  the  source  of  origin  of  the  vibrations 
which  make  articulate  speech,  but,  considering  these 
vibrations  as  already  made,  it  matters  not  how,  he  makes 
these  vibrations  impress  themselves  on  a  sheet  of  metallic 
foil,  and  then  reproduces  from  these  impressions  the 
sonorous  vibrations  which  made  them. 

Faber  solved  the  problem  by  reproducing  the  mechani- 
cal causes  of  the  vibrations  making  voice  and  speech ; 
Edison  solved  it  by  obtaining  the  mechanical  effects  of 
these  vibrations.  Faber  reproduced  the  movements  of 
our  vocal  organs ;  Edison  reproduced  the  motions  which 
the  drum-skin  of  the  ear  has  when  this  organ  is  acted  on 
by  the  vibrations  caused  by  the  movements  of  the  vocal 
organs. 

Figs.  I  and  2  will  render  intelligible  the  construction  of 
Mr.  Edison*  s  machine.  A  cylinder,  F,  turns  on  an  axle 
which  passes  through  the  two  standards,  A  and  B.  On 
one  end  of  this  axle  is  the  crank,  D  ;  on  the  other  the  fly- 
wheel, E.  The  portion  of  this  axle  to  the  right  of  the 
cylinder  has  a  screw-thread  cut  on  it,  which,  working  in  a 
nut.  A,  causes  the  cylinder  to  move  laterally  when  the 
crank  is  turned.  On  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  scored 
the  same  thread  as  on  its  axle.  At  F  (shown  in  one-half 
scale  in  Fig.  2)  is  a  plate  of  iron.  A,  about  ^J^y  of  an  inch 
thick.  This  plate  can  be  moved  toward  and  from  the 
cylinder  by  pushing  in  or  pulling  out  the  lever  H  G,  which 
turns  in  an  horizontal  plane  around  the  pin  I. 

The  under  side  of  this  thin  iron  plate,  A  (Fig.  2),  presses 
against  short  pieces  of  rubber  tubmg,  X  and  x,  which  lie 
between  the  plate  and  a  spring  attached  to  E.  The  end 
of  this  spring  carries  a  rounded  steel  point,  P,  which 
enters  slightly  between  the  threads  scored  on  the  cylinder 
C.  The  distance  of  this  point,  P,  from  the  cylinder  is 
regulated  by  a  set-screw,  S,  against  which  abuts  the  lever, 
H  G.    Over  the  iron  plate,  a,  is  a  disc  of  vulcanite,  B  B, 

*  The  figures  in  this  article  are  uken  from  "  Sound,  a  Series  of  Simple, 
Eutertaining,  and  Inexpensive  Experiments  in  the  Phenomena  of  Sound,  for 
the  Use  of  Students  of  every  Age."  By  Alfred  M.  Mayer.  Vol.  ii.  of 
"  Experimental  Science  Series  for  Beginners."  (Now  in  press  and  soon  to  be 
published  by  D.  Appleton  and  Co.) 


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{April  \  I,  1878 


with  a  hole  in  its  centre.  The  under  side  of  this  disc 
nearly  touches  the  plate  A.  Its  upper  surface  is  cut  into 
a  shallow,  funnel-shaped  cavity,  leading  to  the  opening 
in  its  centre. 

To  operate  this  machine,  we  first  neatly  coat  the 
cylinder  with  a  sheet  of  foil,  made  to  adhere  by  coating 
the  edges  with  shellac  varnish,  then  we  bring  the  point, 
P,  to  bear  against  this  foil,  so  that,  on  turning  the  cylinder, 
it  makes  a  depressed  line,  or  furrow.    The  mouth  is  now 


I. — Edison's  Talking-PhoDograph. 


placed  close  to  the  opening  in  the  vulcanite  disc,  B  B,  and 
the  metal  plate  is  Uuked  to  while  the  cylinder  is  revolved 
with  a  uniform  motion. 

The  plate.  A,  vibrates  to  the  voice,  and  the  point,  P, 
indents  the  foil,  impressing  in  it  the  varying  numbers, 
amplitudes,  and  durations  of  these  vibrations.  If  the 
vibrations  given  by  the  voice  are  those  causing  simple 
sounds,  and  are  of  a  uniform,  regular  character,  then 
similar,  regular,  undulating  depressions  are  made  in  the 


Fig.  2. 

foil.  If  the  vibrations  are  those  causing  complex  and 
irregular  sounds  (like  those  of  the  voice  in  speaking:), 
then,  similarly,  the  depressions  made  in  the  foil  are 
complex,  having  profiles  like  the  curve,  B,  in  Fig.  3. 
Thus  the  yielding  and  inelastic  foil  receives  and  retains 
the  mechanical  impressions  of  these  vibrations  with  all 
their  minute  and  subtile  characteristics. 

The  permanent  impressions  of  the  vibrations  of  the 
voice  are  now   made.     It  remains  to  obtain  from  these 


impressions  the  aerial  vibrations  which  made  them. 
Nothing  is  simpler.  The  plate  A,  with  its  point,  P,  is 
moved  away  from  the  cylinder  by  pulling  toward  you  the 
lever,  h  g.  Then  the  motion  of  the  cylinder  is  reversed 
till  you  have  brought  opposite  to  the  point  P  the  begin- 
ning of  the  series  of  impressions  which  it  has  made  on 
the  foiL  Now  bring  the  point  up  to  the  cylinder ;  place 
against  the  vulcanite  plate,  B  B,  a  large  cone  of  paper  or 
tin  to  re-enforce  the  sounds,  and  then  steadily  tiun  the 
crank,  D.  The  elevations  and  depressions  which  have 
been  made  by  the  point,  P,  now  pass  under  this  point, 
and  in  so  doing  they  cause  it  and  the  thin  iron  plate  to 
make  over  again  the  precise  vibrations  which  animated 
them  when  they  made  these  impressions  under  the  action 
of  the  voice.  The  consequence  of  this  is,  that  the  iron 
plate  gives  out  the  vibrations  which  previously  fell  upon 
it,  and  it  talks  back  to  you  what  you  said  to  it. 

By  the  following  method  we  have  just  obtained  several 
magnified  traces  on  smoked  glass  of  the  contour,  or  pro- 
file, of  the  elevations  and  depressions  made  in  the  foil 
by  the  sonorous  vibrations.  On  the  under  side  of  the 
shorter  arm  of  a  delicate  lever  is  a  point,  made  as  nearly 
as  possible  like  the  point,  P,  under  the  thin  iron  plate,  A. 
Cemented  to  the  end  of  the  longer  arm  of  this  lever  is  a 
pointed  slip  of  thin  copper-foil,  which  just  touched  the 
vertical  surface  of  a  smoked-glass  plate.  The  point  on 
the  short  arm  of  the  lever  rested  in  the  furrow  in  which 
are  the  depressions  and  elevations  made  in  the  foil  on 
the  cylinder.  Rotating  the  cylinder  with  a  slow  and 
uniform  motion,  while  the  plate  of  glass  was  slid  along, 
the  point  of  copper-foil  scraped  the  lamp-black  off  the 
smoked-glass  plate  and  traced  on  it  the  magnified  profile 
of  the  depressions  and  elevations  in  the  foil  on  the 
cylinder.  I  say  expressly  elevations  as  well  as  depres- 
sions in  the  foil,  because,  when  the  plate  vibrates  out- 
ward, the  furrow  in  the  foil  often  entirely  disappears, 
and  is  always  lessened  in  its  depth  by  this  outward 
motion  of  the  point.  One  who  has  never  made  a  special 
investigation  of  the  character  of  the  impressions  on  the 
phonograph,  and  forms  his  opinion  from  their  appear- 
ance to  his  eye,  might  state  that  they  are  simply  dots 
and  dashes,  like  the  marks  on  the  filet  of  a  Morse 
instrument 

Another  method  of  obtaining  the  profile  of  the  impres- 
sions on  the  foil  is  to  back  it  with  an  easily-fusible  sub- 
stance, and  then,  cutting  through  the  middle  of  the 
furrows,  we  obtain  a  section,  in  which  the  edge  of  the 
foil  presents  to  us  the  form  of  the  elevations  and 
depressions] 

The  instrument  has  been  so  short  a  time  in  my  posses- 
sion, that  I  have  not  had  the  leisure  to  make  on  it  the 
careful  and  extended  series  of  experiments  which  it 
deserves.  I  have,  however,  obtained  several  traces,  and 
I  have  especially  studied  the  characters  of  the  trace  of 
the  sound  of  bat.  As  far  as  the  few  experiments  warrant 
an  expression  of  opinion,  it  seems  that  the  profile  of  the 
impressions  made  on  the  phonograph  and  the  contours 
of  the  flames  of  K5nig,  when  vibrated  by  the  same 
compound  sound,  bear  a  close  resemblance. 

In  Fig.  3  we  give  on  line  A  the  appearance  to  the  eye 
of  the  impressions  on  the  foil,  when  the  sound  of  a  in 
bat  is  sung  against  the  iron  plate  of  the  phonograph. 
B  is  the  magnified  profile  of  these  impressions  on  the 
smoked  glass  obtaincKl  as  described  above.  C  gives  the 
appearance  of  Konig^s  flame  when  the  same  sound  is 
sung  quite  close  to  its  membrane.  I  say  expressly  quite 
close  to  its  membrane,  for  the  form  of  the  trace  obtained 
from  a  point  attached  to  a  membrane  vibrating  under 
the  influence  of  a  compound  sound  depends*  on  the 
distance  of  the  soturce  of  the  sound  from  the  membrane, 
and  the  same  compound  sound  will  form  an  infinite 
number  of  different  traces  as  we  gradually  increase  the 
distance  of  its  place  of  origin  from  the  membrane ;  for, 
as  you  increase  this  distance,  the  waves  of  the  components 


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471 


of  the  compound  sound  are  made  to  strike  on  the 
membrane  at  different  periods  of  their  swings. 

For  example,  if  the  compound  sound  is  formed  of  six 
harmonics,  the  removal  or  the  source  of  the  sonorous 
vibrations,  from  the  membrane  to  a  distance  equal  to  \ 
of  a  wave-length  of  the  first  harmonic,  will  remove  the 
second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  harmonics  to  dis- 
tances from  the  membrane  equal  respectively  to  ^,  |, 
I,  I  J,  and  i\  wave-lengths.  The  consequence  evidently 
is,  that  the  resultant  wave-form  is  entirely  changed  by 
this  motion  of  the  source  of  the  sound,  though  the 
sonorous  sensation  of  the  compound  sound  remains 
unchanged. 

The  above  facts  are  readily  proved  experimentally  by 
sending  a  constant  compound  sound  into  the  cone  of 
K^nig*s  apparatus,  while  we  gradually  lengthen  the  tube 
between  the  cone  and  the  membrane  next  to  the  flame. 
This  is  best  done  by  the  intervention  of  one  tube  sliding 


in  another,  like  a  trombone.  These  experiments  I  have 
recently  made  with  entire  success,  and  they  explain  the 
discussions  which  have  arisen  between  different  observers 
as  to  the  composition  of  vocal  and  other  composite 
sound,  as  analysed  by  means  of  Konig's  vibrating  flames. 

These  facts  also  show  how  futile  it  is  for  any  one  to 
hope  to  be  able  to  read  the  impressions  and  traces  of 
phonographs,  for  these  traces  will  vary,  not  alone  with 
the  quality  of  the  voices,  but  also  with  the  differently- 
related  times  of  starting  of  the  harmonics  of  these  voices, 
and  with  the  different  relative  intensities  of  these 
harmonics. 

It  is  necessary  to  give  to  the  cylinder  a  very  regular 
motion  of  rotation  while  it  receives  and  reproduces  the 
vibrations  made  in  singing  ;  for  even  slight  irregularities 
in  the  velocity  of  the  cylinder  destroy  the  accuracy  of  the 
musical  intervals,  and  cause  the  phonograph  to  sing 
falsetto.      Even    the    reproducing  of  speech  is  greatly 


••     mi 


•   •  ##     mjL 


/^^VL^^^VU^^VlXVl" 


Fic.  3. 


improved  by  rotating  the  cylinder  by  mechanism  which 
gives  it  uniformity  of  motion.  If  you  make  the  machine 
talk  by  giving  it  a  more  rapid  rotation  than  it  had  when 
you  spoke  to  it,  the  pitch  of  its  voice  is  raised ;  and  by 
varying  the  velocity  of  the  cylinder  the  machine  may  be 
made  to  speak  the  same  sentence  in  a  very  bass  voice,  or 
in  a  voice  of  a  pitch  so  high  that  its  sounds  are  really 
elfish  and  entirely  unnatural. 

Recent  experiments  seem  to  show  that  the  nearer  the 
diaphragm  A  approaches  to  the  construction  of  the  drum- 
skin  of  the  human  ear  by  "damping'*  it,  as  the  hammer- 
bone  does  the  latter,  the  better  does  it  record  and  repeat 
the  sonorous  vibrations ;  for  the  motion  of  a  membrane 
thus  damped  is  ruled  alone  by  the  atrial  vibrations  falling 
on  it. 

Mr.  Edison  has  just  sent  me  the  following  notes  of  the 
results  of  recent  experiments : — 

"  That  the  size  of  the  hole  through  which  you  speak  has 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  articulation.     When  words  are 


spoken  against  the  whole  diaphragm,  the  hissing  sounds, 
as  in  shally  fleece^  last,  are  lost ;  whereas,  by  the  use  of  a 
small  hole  provided  with  sharp  edges,  these  words  are 
reinforced  and  recorded.  Also,  teeth  around  the  edge  of 
a  slot,  instead  of  a  round  hole,  give  the  hissing  consonants 
clearer. 

"That  the  best  reading  is  obtained  when  the  mouth- 
piece, B  F  B  (Fig.  2),  is  covered  with  several  thicknesses 
of  cloth,  so  that  the  snapping  noise  on  the  foil  is  rendered 
less  audible. 

"  I  send  you  a  sheet  of  copper-foil  upon  which  I  made 
records  in  Ansonia,  Connecticut,  that  could  be  read  275 
feet  in  the  open  air,  and  perhaps  farther,  if  it  had  been 
tried.'* 

Mr.  Edison  also  states  that  impressions  of  sonorous 
vibrations  have  been  made  on  a  cylinder  of  soft  Norway 
iron,  and  from  these  impressions  have  been  reproduced  the 
sonorous  vibrations  which  made  them. 

Alfred  M.  Mayer 


I 


THE   OLD  RED  SANDSTONE  OF  WESTERN 
EUROPE^ 

Part  I. 

N  a  historical  introduction  the  author  gives  an  outline 
of  the  progress  of  research  into  the  history  of  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  of  the  British  Area.  This  system  is 
at  present  regarded  as  composed  of  three  sub-divisions. 
Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper,  each  characterised  by  a 
distinct  suite  of  organic  remains.  From  the  absence  of 
unequivocally  marine  fossils  and  from  lithological  charac- 
ters, it  has  been  inferred  by  Mr.  Godwin  Austen,  Prof, 
kamsay,  Prof.  Rupert  Jones,  as  well  as  other  observers, 
and  is  now  very  generally  admitted  that  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  as  distinguished  from  the  "  Devonian " 
rocks,  probably  originated  in  inland  sheets  of  water. 
The  object  of  the  present  memoir  was  to  endeavour 


»  Abstract  of  paper  by  Prof.  Geikie,  F.R.S., 
ocicty  of  EdinbuT;gh  on  April  i,  1878. 


read  before   the  Royal 


to  trace  out  in  that  geological  system  of  deposits  the 
changes  of  physical  geography  which  took  place  over 
Western  Eiurope  during  the  interval  between  the  close 
of  the  Upper  Silurian  and  the  beginning  of  the 
Carboniferous  period. 

After  a  sketch  of  the  probable  conditions  of  the  region 
previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone, the  author  proceeds  to  show  how  the  shallow- 
ing Silurian  sea  was  converted  here  and  there  vaiosalinas 
or  inland  seas,  by  a  series  of  subterranean  movements 
which  have  left  their  indelible  traces  upon  the  upturned 
Silurian  rocks.  He  divides  his  memoir  into  two  parts, 
the  first  dealing  with  the  Lower  and  the  second  with  the 
Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  present  paper  deals 
only  with  a  portion  of  the  first  of  these  sections.  It 
traces  out  the  limits  of  the  different  basins  in  which  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  of  the  British  Islands  were  deposited, 
and  for  the  sake  of  convenience  as  well  as  briefness  of 
reference,  proposes  short  geographical  names  for  these 
basins,  which  are  arranged  as  follows : — 


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[April  \\,  1878 


Area  of  the  Basaos. 


Short  reference  names 

proposed  to  be  applied 

to  tl^m. 


1.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  tracts  of  the^ 

north  of  Scotland,  embracing  the 
region  of  the  Moray  Firth,  Caith- 
ness, the  Orkney  Islands,  the  main- 
land of  Shetland,  and  perhaps  part 
of  the  south-western  coast  of  Nor- 
way. 

2.  The  central  valley  of  Scotland  be- 

tween the  Highhmds  on  the  north 
and  the  Silurian  uplands  on  the 
south,  including  the  basin  of  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  and  ranging  across 
the  north  of  Ireland  to  the  high 
grounds  of  Donegal. 

3.  A  portion  of  the  south-east  of  Scot-S 

land  and  north  of  England  extend- 1 
ing  from  near  St.  Abb's  Head  to  / 
the  head  of  Liddesdale,  and  indud-  J 
ing  the  area  of  the  C*heviot  Hills.    ^ 

4.  A  district  in  the  north  of  Argyllshire 

extending  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Sound  of  Mull  to  Loch  Awe,  and 
perhaps  up  into  the  southern  part 
of  the  Great  Glen. 

5.  The  Old  Red  Sandstone  region  of 

Wales  and  the  border  counties  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
west  by  the  older  palaeozoic  hills, 
the  eastern  and  southern  limits  being 
unknown. 


Lake  Orcadie. 


Lake  Caledonia. 


Lake  Cheviot. 


Lake  Lome. 


The  Welsh  Lake. 


Lake  Orcadie.^Ahtx  describing  the  limits  of  this 
basin,  and  giving  a  sketch  of  the  labours  of  prerious 
observers  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  tracts  of  the  north 
of  Scotland,  the  author  proceeds  to  examine  the  evidence 
for  the  threefold  arrangement  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 
proposed  by  Murchison.  He  shows  that  nowhere  are 
the  three  groups,  Lower,  Middle,  and  Upper,  found  in 
consecutive  order ;  that  this  so-called  "Middle*'  division 
occurs  only  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  where  it  lies  uncon- 
formably  upon  the  older  palaeozoic  rocks,  and  is  itself  imcon- 
formably  overlaid  by  the  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone,  thus 
occupying  a  position  exactly  similar  to  that  of  the  Lower 
Old  Red  Sandstone  on  the  southern  side  of  the  High- 
lands. He  further  points  out  that  while  some  species  of 
fishes  arc  common  to  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  Highland  barrier,  the  lithological  differences 
between  the  deposits  of  the  two  areas  are  so  great  as  to 
make  it  evident  that  the  rocks  were  laid  down  in  distinct 
basins  and  consequently  that  the  fauna  of  each  basin 
might  be  expected  to  be  more  or  less  peculiar,  as  in  many 
analogous  cases  at  the  present  day.  As  evidence  that 
adjacent  areas  in  the  time  of  the  Lower  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone were  strongly  marked  off  from  each  other  in  their 
faimas,  reference  is  made  to  the  contrast  between  the 
fishes  and  crustaceans  of  the  Welsh  region  and  those  of 
Lanarkshire  and  Forfarshire,  not  a  single  species  being 
common  to  the  two  countries  though  some  of  the 
genera  are.  Reasons  are  then  given  why  the  argument 
used  by  Murchison  from  the  occurrence  of  many  of  the 
Scottish  ichthyolites  in  Russia  could  not  be  regarded  as 
establishing  the  existence  of  a  "  Middle*'  division  of  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone. 

The  conclusion  arrived  at  by  the  author  is  that  the 
Caithness  flags  or  "Middle  Old  Red  Sandstone"  are 
probably  the  general  equivalents  of  the  Lower  Old  Red 
Sandstone  of  other  regions,  and  that  this  system  consists 
in  Britain  of  two  well-marked  divisions  only— a  Lower, 
which  graduates  in  some  places  into  the  Upper  Silurian 
rocks  and  is  separated  by  an  unconformability  from  an 
Upper  which  in  many  districts  passes  up  into  the  base  of 
the  Carboniferous  system. 


The  various  districts  into  which  the  area  embraced 
under  the  term  Lake  Orcadie  may  be  divided  are  then 
described  seriatim.  The  detailed  structure  of  Caithness 
has  been  worked  out  by  the  author  (partly  with  the  co- 
operation of  his  colleagues  in  the  Geological  Survey,  Mr. 
B.  N.  Peach  and  Mr.  John  Home)  as  affording  the  most 
complete  sections  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  in  the  North 
of  Scotland.  Arranged  in  descending  order,  the  various 
stratigraphical  zones  stand  as  in  the  subjoined  table ; — 

Thickness 

9.  John  0*Groats  Red  Sandstone,  Flagstones,  and » 

impure  Limestones  and  Shales     2000 

8.  Huna  Flagstones,  Shales,  and  Limestones    ...  1000 

7.  Gill's  Bay  Red  Sandstones      400 

6.  Thurso  or  northern  group  of  Flagstones,  Shale.', 

and  Limestones       5000 

5.  Wick  or  eastern  group  of  Flagstones,  Shales, 
and  Limestones  passing  down  into  Red  Shales 

and  Sandstones       5000 

4.  Dull  Red  Sandstones,   Red  Shales,  and  fine 

Conglomerates 2000 

3.  Brecciated  Conglomerates        300 

2.  Badbea  Red  Sandstones  and  Shales  or  Clays..    450 
I.  Coarse  basement  Conglomerates     50 

16,200  ft. 
From  the  four  lowest  sub-divisions  no  fossils  have  yet 
been  obtained.  The  flagstones  have  yielded  to  Mr.  C.  W. 
Peach,  and  other  observers  many  land  plants  (some  of 
which  resemble  forms  described  by  Dawson  from  the 
Gasp^  sandstones)  as  wel^  as  Estheria  membranacea^ 
Pterygotus^  sp.,  and  many  ichthyolites.  Availing  himself 
of  the  list  of  localities  furnished  to  him  by  Mr.  Peach  (to 
whom  he  cordially  acknowledges  his  obligations)  with  the 
species  of  fish  found  at  each,  the  author  has  constructed 
a  table  of  .the  vertical  distribution  of  the  fossil  fishes  in 
Caithness.  Some  of  the  species  range  through  almost 
the  entire  succession  of  beds.  Some,  however,  are  either 
peculiar  to  or  very  characteristic  of  one  sub-division. 
Thus  Osteoiepis  arenatus  and  Dipierus  VaUnciennesi^  are 
not  noted  except  from  the  group  No.  5.  In  the  Thurso 
and  the  higher  flagstones  (Nos.  5,  8,  and  <))  Acanthodesy 
Parexus,  Cheiracanthus^  Diplacanthus^  Pieriehthys,  Tris- 
tichopterusy  and  Hoioptychius—g&[\tYdL  absent  from  the 
Wick  beds— are  found  in  greater  or  less  abundance. 
These  strata  are  further  marked  by  peculiar  species  of 
genera  which  likewise  occur  among  the  older  flagstones, 
as  Coccosteus  pusillus  and  Osteoiepis  microiepidotus. 

The  Orkney  Islands  are  assigned  to  the  higher  sub- 
divisions of  the  flagstone  series,  the  protruding  ridge  of 
granite  and  gneiss  which  rises  at  Stromness  and  Gremsa 
being  merely  an  indication  of  the  irregular  surface,  on 
which  the  deposits  of  Lake  Orcadie  were  accumulated, 
and  of  the  slow  progressive  subsidence  of  the  area.  The 
fossils,  for  which  these  islands  have  long  been  famous, 
include  most  of  those  of  the  upper  groups  of  Caithness, 
with  the  addition  of  others  which  have  been  regarded  as 
distinct  In  the  determination  of  these  fossils  much  skill 
is  required  to  discriminate  between  the  accidental  differ- 
ences of  aspect  resulting  from  the  condition  of  fossilisation. 
The  Orkney  fishes,  for  instance,  are  preserved  as  black 
jet-like  impressions  which,  often  very  perfect  when  first 
removed  from  the  quarry,  are  apt  to  scale  off,  leaving  in 
each  case  only  an  amorphous  layer  which,  though  it 
retains  the  contour  of  the  fish,  shows  little  or  no  trace  of 
structure.  On  the  shores  of  the  Moray  Firth,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  organisms  have  been  inclosed  within 
calcareous  nodules ;  their  colours  are  sometimes  brilliant, 
and  their  scales,  plates,  fins,  and  bones,  are  often  admi- 
rably preserved  and  remain  unchanged  in  the  Museum. 
Want  of  experience  in  these  different  modes  of  preserva- 
tion may  have  led  to  a  reduplication  of  species,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  Orkney  and  Moray  Firth  fishes. 
Among  the  most  interesting  Orkney  fossils  is  a  portioQ 


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April  w,  1878] 


NATURE 


473 


of  a  Pterygotus  (recognised  by  Dr.  H.  Woodward),  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  The  occurrence  there  oiF  this 
characteristically  Upper  Silurian  and  Lower  Old  Red 
Sandstone  genus  supports  the  view  contended  for  in  this 
paper  as  to  the  true  horizon  of  the  Orkney  and  Caithness 
tiagstones. 

The  Shetland  Islands  contain  a  portion  of  the  shore- 
line of  Lake  Orcadie  with  its  conglomerates  and  sand- 
stones and  the  flagstones  and  shales  of  deeper  water. 
Among  these  strata  the  Caithness  Estheria  occurs,  with 
abundant  stems  and  roots  of  large  calamite-like  plants  with 
well-marked  flutings  but  without  observable  joints.  Some 
ichthyolites  of  the  Caithness  type  are  said  to  have  been 
;  ound  in  Bressay.  The  general  lithological  characters 
"  are  quite  those  of  the  sandy  parts  of  tne  Orkney  and 
Caithness  groups.  On  the  west  side  of  the  mainland  of 
Shetland  interesting  evidence  occurs  to  show  the  exist- 
ence of  volcanic  action  contemporaneous  with  the  accu- 
mulation of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.  Beds  of  amyg- 
daloidal  lavas  and  bands  of  tuff  occur  among  the  sand- 
stones, the  whole  being  pierced  by  masses  of  pink 
felsite. 

The  south-western  and  southern  margin  of  this  great 
northern  basin  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  can  still  be 
traced  nearly  continuously  from  the  confines  of  Caithness 
to  the  borders  of  Aberdeenshire,  its  position  being  marked 
by  a  zone  of  littoral  conglomerates.     Beyond  the  edge  of 
that  zone,  however,  there  occur  some  interesting  outliers 
which  in  some  cases  may  represent  long  fjord-like  in- 
dentations of  the  coast  line;*in  others  may  mark  what 
were  really  independent  basins  lying  at  the  base  of  the 
Grampian  Mountains.     The  author  points  out  that  prob- 
ably most  of  the  difficulty  which  has  hitherto  been  expe- 
rienced in  understanding  the  sequence  of  beds  along  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Moray  Firth  and  their  parallelism 
with  those  of  Caithness  and  Orkney  is  not  to  be  attributed 
.0  the  amount  of  detritus  covering  the  country,  but  rather 
to  the  fact  which  has  not  heretofore  been  observed  that 
the  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone  with  Holoptychius  and 
Pterickthys  major  really  overlap  imconformably  upon 
the  older  nodular  clays  and  conglomerates  with  Coccasteus^ 
CheirolepiSf  &c.     This  relation  could  be  satisfactorily 
determined  in  Morayshire,  and  was  now  being  worked 
out  by  Mr.  John  Home  in  the  course  of  the  Geological 
I      Survey.    The  author  traces  in  great  detail  from  the  Spey 
I      into  Sutherlandshire,  the  development  of  the  lower  sand- 
stone conglomerates  and  clays,  which  have  been  regarded 
as  equivalents  of  the  Caithness  flagstones.     He  thinks 
that  in  no  sense  can  this  comparatively  thin  group  of 
\      rocks  (seldom  1,400  feet  in  depth)   be  regarded  as  a 
J      mere   southward   attenuation   of   the   great    Caithness 
J      series,  as   suggested  by   Murchison,   for   that   neither 
lithologically   nor   palseontologically  can  that  view  be 
^      sustained.     He  has  been  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
,      whole  of  these  rocks  from  the  borders  of  Sutherlandshire 
to  those  of  Aberdeenshire  represent  only  the  higher  por- 
tions of  the  great  Caithness  series,  and  that  they  were 
I      formed  during  a  gradual  depression  of  the  ancient  high 
grounds  whereby   the  waters   of    Lake    Orcadie  were 
I    '  allowed  to  creep  southward  over  the  descending  land. 
This  movement   is  indicated  by  the  character  of  the 
strata,  and  that  it  took  place  about  the  time  of  deposit  of 
the  later  flagstones  of  Caithness  is  shown  by  the  occur- 
rence of  the  fossils  of  that  division  in  the  nodules,  fla^s, 
and  clays  of  the  Moray  Firth  region,  while  those  of  the 
Lower  division  are  absent. 

Allusion  is  likewise  made  to  the  discovery  of  two 
localities  where  contemporaneous  volcanic  action  has 
recently  been  observed  in  the  Moray  Firth  area,  the 
whole  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Orcadie  being  otherwise 
remarkably  free  from  any  trace  of  such  action  except  on 
the  northern  margin  in  Shetland.  The  history  of  the 
area  embraced  by  Lake  Caledonia  will  form  the  subject 
of  the  next  paper* 


NOTES 
We  re^^ret  to  have  to  announce  the  death  of  Dr.  F.  Briiggc- 
mann.  Dr.  Briig^eman  was  a  native  of  Bremen  and  studied  at 
Jena,  where  he  was  for  several  years  assistant  to  Prof.  Haeckel. 
His  earliest  pul>lications  were  on  entomolc^cal  subjects,  but 
later  he  published  an  account  of  the  Amphibians  and  Reptiles  of 
Bremen.  He  was  especially  interested  in  ornithology,  and 
amongst  other  papers  on  this  subject  published  two  on  the  Birds 
of  South-Eastem  and  Central  Borneo  {Ahkand.  d.  naturtv, 
Vereim  tu  Bremen,  Bd.  v.  u.  vi.).  On  the  recommendation  of 
Prof.  Haeckel,  Dr.  Briiggemann  was  engaged  last  year  by  Dr. 
Giinther  to  arrange  and  catalogue  the  collection  of  corals  in  the 
British  Museum.  Whilst  in  the  midst  of  this  undertaking  he 
died  suddenly  at  his  lodgings  on  the  night  of  Saturday  last  of 
haemorrhage  from  the  lungs.  He  had  already  named  1,500 
species  of  corals  in  the  collection,  and  had  published  two  papers 
on  undescribed  forms  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural 
History,  He  had  in  hand  a  revised  list  of  all  species  of  recent 
corals  hitherto  described,  which  was  in  an  advanced  state  and 
which  he  had  intended  to  have  published.  He  was  of  an 
extremely  amiable  disposition  and  his  loss  is  deeply  regretted  in 
London  by  the  staff  of  the  British  Museum  and  other  naturalists 
with  whom  he  was  acquainted.  He  was  under  thirty  years  of 
age  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

On  Thursday  last  the  members  of  the  General  Council  sum- 
moned to  deliberate  upon  the  improvements  required  in  the 
organi'^ation  of  the  Paris  Observatory  waited  upon  M.  Bardoux, 
the  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  They  insisted  upon  the 
necessity  of  continuing  the  existing  connection  between  astro- 
nomy and  meteorology  in  accordance  with  the  principles  estab- 
Esh^  by  M.  Leverrier  himself,  and  developed  the  reasons 
which  had  led  the  majority  to  pass  a  resolution  in  favour  of 
that  system.  A  number  of  eminent  scientific  men  had  interviews 
with  M.  Bardoux,  and  have  made  a  strong  impression  upon  his 
mind.  M,  Bardoux  has  ordered  all  the  letters  from  a  number 
of  departmental  meteorological  commissions  to  be  summarined, 
and  it  has  been  found  that  not  a  single  one  has  urged  the  discon- 
nection of  the  two  departments.  We  are  in  a  position  to  state 
that  according  to  every  probability,  during  the  present  month, 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  new  Council  of  the  Observatory 
will  be  summoned  to  present  each  two  candidates,  between 
whom  the  Minister  will  exert  his  right  of  selection  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  newly-published  decree. 

Captain  Feilden,  R.A.,  naturalist  to  the  late  British  Expe- 
dition to  the  Arctic  R^ons,  and  Mr.  De  Ranee,  of  H.M. 
Geological  Survey,  are  annotmced  to  read  a  paper  on  the  Geology 
of  the  Northern  Lands  visited,  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  Geolo- 
gical Society  of  London,  at  which  Mr.  Etheridge  will  present  a 
detailed  report  of  the  palaeontology  of  the  same  area.  We 
understand  that  the  British  Museum  will  probably  be  the  destina- 
tion of  the  very  numerous  collection  of  geological  specimens 
made  by  Capt.  Feilden,  Dr.  Coppinger,  and  other  officers  of  the 
expedition. 

M.  Belorand,  Director  of  the  Paris  Sewers  and  Waterworks, 
died  suddenly  on  the  8th  inst.  in  his  sixty-eighdi  year.  To  him 
Paris  owes  its  network  of  sewers  and  its  supply  of  water  from 
the  Dhuys,  the  Vanne,  and  the  Somme  Sonde.  He  also  devised 
the  system  of  hydrological  observations,  by  which  floods  are 
foreseen.  As  a  connoisseur  of  water  he  is  said  to  have  had  no 
rival. 

It  is  stated  that  Prof.  H.  J.  S.  Smith,  F.R.S.,  is  to  be  a 
candidate  for  the  representation  of  Oxford  University  in 
Parliament. 

The  coloured  spherules  discovered  by  M.  Hannover  in  the 
cones  of  the  retina  of  many  birds  are  known  to  have  three 
colours  t  a  yellowirir  gieen,  an  orange  yellow,  and  an  intense 


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NATURE 


{April  I  r,  1878 


ruby  red.  Lately,  M.  Capranica  affirmed  the  identity  of  these 
different  colouring  matters  and  their  close  relation  to  visual  red 
and  the  widely  expanded  lutein  (found  in  the  yolk  of  ^[g,  adipose 
tissae,  corpora  lutea,  the  ovary  of  mammalia,  &c.),  and  he  cited 
various  reactions  as  proving  this  relation.  M.  Kuhne  has  lately, 
n  the  CentralblcUt fiir  die  Medicin,  JViss.,  opposed  this  view ;  he 
has  succeeded  easily  in  isolating  the  three  colouring  matters  after 
they  were  freed  from  fat,  and  he  affirms  that  as  regards  spectro- 
icopic  behaviour,  reaction,  and  solubility,  they  may  be  clearly 
distinguished. 

The  French  Academy  had  proposed  for  the  prire  of  eloquence 
J.i  1877  the  if/offf  of  Buffbn,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  and  not 
less  than  seventeen  memoirs  were  presented.  Two  were  found 
s  5  excellent  that  in  opposition  to  the  traditions  of  the  Academy, 
they  were  declared  ex  aquo^  as  having  obtained  the  premium. 
When  the  sealed  envelopes  containing  the  name^  of  the  authors 
Avere  opened,  it  was  found  that  one  of  them  had  died  before 
he  had  quite  revised  his  work.  The  name  of  this  posthumous 
laureate  is  M.  Narcisse  Michand.  M.  Dumas  has  written  a 
letter  of  sympathy  and  regret  to  the  family  in  the  name  of  the 
Academy. 

M.  deWatteville,  one  of  the  chief  secretaries  of  the  French 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  has  lately  submitted  a  plan  for 
the  formation  of  a  large  scientific  committee  in  Paris,  which 
shall  stand  in  direct  communication  with  all  existing  learned 
societies.  The  project  will  be  put  into  execution  during  the 
l)resent  month,  and  M.  Bardoux,  the  Minister  of  Public  In- 
struction, will  be  the  first  president  of  the  committee. 

On  April  4  was  held  at  the  Tuileries  a  meeting  of 
the  several  committees  which  had  been  appointed  in  order 
to  oi^anise  the  series  of  congresses  intended  to  take  place 
in  Paris  during  the  Universal .  Exhibition.  After  having 
returned  thanks  to  his  numerous  subordinates  for  their 
exertions,  the  Minister  for  Public  Works  rend  a  list  of 
eleven  congresses  which  are  completely  organised,  viz.  :  — 
I.  Agriculture.  2.  Metrical  and  monetary,  for  the  adoption  of 
a  universal  system.  3.  Special  congreus  for  determining  a 
universal  measure  of  threads  of  every  description  u^ed  in  textile 
fabrics.  4.  For  the  protection  of  literary,  artistic,  and  indus- 
trial property,  patents,  &c.,  &c.  5.  For  provident  institutions, 
life,  fire,  agriculture,  &c.,  insurances.  6.  Philological.  7.  A 
congress  inaugurated  by  European  economists.  -8.  Meteoro- 
logical. 9.  The  French  Alpine  Club  will  call  a  congress  of 
every  similar  institution.  10.  Public  hygiene,  ii.  A  congress 
for  the  international  regulation  of  measures  against  the  pro- 
legation  of  epizootics.  Other  congresses  are  in  preparation. 
The  several  regulations  will  be  published  very  shortly,  mention- 
ing the  dates,  the  space  of  time  allotted  to  them,  the  several 
programmes,  the  places  of  meeting,  the  conditions  of  admis- 
^ion,  and  the  composition  of  initiative  commissions. 

Herr  Achenbach,  the  Prussian  Minister  of  Commerce,  has 
lately  issued  an  order  that  during  the  Paris  Exhibition  arrange- 
ments shall  be  made  at  the  Berlin  School  of  Mines  to  put  at  the 
Kervice  of  those  desiring  to  study  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  king- 
dom, all  possible  cartographical  and  literary  requisites,  as  well 
as  information  as  to  the  best  means  of  reaching  all  points  of 
interest  in  the  mining  regions ;  this  disposition  is  made  more 
especially  for  the  benefit  of  American  scientific  visitors  in  recog* 
mtion  of  the  courtej^ies  extended  by  them  in  this  direction  two 
years  ago. 

A  guide  for  the  approaching  Exhibition  at  Paris  has  just  been 
published  under  the  title  **  Guide  de  I'Exposition  Universelle  et 
de  la  Ville  de  Paris."  (Paris :  Bureau  de  la  Publicity.)  It 
contains  no  less  than  fifty-four  maps  and  plans. 

The  Institute  of  Naval  Architects  commences  its  annual 
session  to-day ;  the  meetings  will  be  coiitiniied  to-morrow  and 


Saturday.     A  large  number  of  papers  on  subjects  of  gr«< 
importance  are  down  for  reading. 

The  agents  of  the  Paris  Acclimatisation  Society  are  engaged  in. 
organising,  at  Marseilles,  a  zoological  garden  which  will  be  co:>- 
sidered  as  an  annexe  to  the  Parisian  establishment.  A  certaia 
number  of  animals  have  already  arrived  but  have  not  yet  beei 
placed  in  the  cages  which  are  being  built  for  thera. 

A  PAPER  on  "State  Aid  to  Music  at  Home  and  Abroad'' 
was  read  by  Mr.  Alan  S.  Cole,  at  the  Society  of  Arts  on  Wed- 
nesday evening,  March  27.  Allusion  was  made  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  foreign  Conservatoires,  which,  to  a  considerable  cxten*. 
depend  upon  the  support  given  to  them  by  the  govemm«its  \  • , 
the  countries  in  which  they  are  established.  Govemrocrr 
support  gives  an  element  of  stability  to  these  foreign  Conscna- 
toires,  and  Mr.  Cole  endeavoured  to  show  that  in  the  Unitai 
Kingdom  there  is  an  absence  of  stability  in  respect  of  the  differen: 
music  schools  which  exist.  Our  academies  and  schools  of  niu^ic 
have  been  founded  by  private  enterprise,  and  their  existence, 
depending  upon  the  fluctuations  of  subscriptions  and  amateur  f  cf 
paying  students,  seems  to  have  no  guarantee  of  permanence,  b 
regard  to  freely  established  classes  for  promoting  science  aiid 
art,  the  prospect  of  their  becoming  permanent  is  assisted  by  the 
offer  of  national  payments  for  ascertained  results  of  instructioo. 
In  elementary  day  schools  the  education  department  mako  - 
payment  of  one  shilling  per  child  who  attends  a  school  where 
singing  b  taught.  These  shilling  payments  amount  to  96,000'. 
a  year.  As,  however,  the  Inspector  of  Music,  Mr.  John 
Hullah,  reports  that  the  musical  proficiency  of  the  children  t> 
bad,  it  may  be  inferred  that  not  only  is  the  instruction  of  t>(e 
children  in  music  bad,  but  the  payment  also  of  fo  large  a  sum  as 
96,000/.  per  annum  is  of  little  use  in  securing  for  national  benefit  3:1 
adequate  return,  llie  supply  of  duly  qualified  teachers  in  rb** 
art  and  science  of  music  may  probably  tend  to  diminish  tfce 
disproportion  between  the  annual  expenditure  and  the  ini^uffidcni 
return  of  results  in  musical  instruction.  Accepting  the  generJ 
features  common  to  Conservatoires  abroad  as  the  outlines  for 
similar  institutions  at  home,  Mr.  Cole  called  attention  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  and  to  the  New  National  Traininjj 
School  for  Music  at  Kensington.  The  Royal  Academy  i» 
not  a  Conservatoire  according  to  the  definition  given.  The 
constitution  of  the  National  Training  School  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  chief  Conservatoires,  The  tendency  of  individual 
or  private  enterprise  seems  to  direct  itself  towards  the  train- 
ing of  singers  and  peformers;  and  it  was  stated  that  the 
Kensington  School  was  at  present  training  nearly  a  hundred 
scholars  of  this  class.  The  duty  of  the  Government  is  to  pro- 
vide qualified  teachers,  the  results  of  whose  instruction  shall  be 
of  value  to  the  country  at  large,  and  therefore  properly  to  be 
paid  for  out  of  the  exchequer.  The  form  of  State  aid  which  it 
was  suggested  might  be  given  was  the  payment  of  the  fees  of 
instruction  of  a  certain  number  of  students  whose  aim  is  to  be 
teachers  in  elementary  schools,  in  local  classes,  and  music  schooU 
throughout  the  country.  Such  payment  of  fees  would  be  made 
to  that  academy  or  training  school  whose  proved  methods  of 
instruction  seemed  to  be  the  best,  and  the  work  promoted 
by  this  kind  of  State  aid  would  not  compete  with  that  part  of 
national  culture  which  is  at  present  dependent  upon  the  support 
given  according  to  the  whims  of  the  givers,  and  therefore  of  an 
imcertain,  spasmodic,  unbusiness-like  character. 

M.  Cazin,  the  eminent  French  physicist,  whose  premature 
death  we  noticed  a  few  months  since,  left  a  manuscript  on 
Sj)ectrum  Analysis.  This  has  just  been  published  by  Gauthier 
Villars  in  his  **  Actualit^s  Scientifiques," 

The  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Cumberland  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Literature  and  Science  will  be  held  at  Cocker- 
mouth  on  Easter  Monday  and  Tuesday.  A  varied  and  interesting 


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programme  is  arranged  for  the  two  days,  one  of  the  items  being 
a  lecture  by  Sir  George  Airy  on  **  The  Probable  Condition  of 
the  Interior  of  the  Earth." 

For  Easter  Monday  and  following  day  the  Geologists*  Asso- 
ciation have  arranged  what  prombes  to  be  an  interesting  excur- 
sion to  Chipping  Norton.  Provincial  field  societies  are  now  also 
issuing  programmes  of  their  summer  excursions ;  the  Manchester 
Field  Naturalists  and  the  Leeds  Naturalists  have  sent  us  well- 
arranged  programmes  of  this  kind. 

Excavations  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Merten,  in  Lorraine, 
have  uncovered  the  remains  of  an  old  Roman  temple,  and  brought 
to  light  a  variety  of  weapons,  busts,  coins,  &c.  Tlie  indications 
all  point  to  the  existence  of  a  laige  settlement  here  under  the 
Roman  rule,  and  arrangements  have  been  made  for  a  series  of 
widely  extended  excavations. 

The  archaeologists  of  Rome  are  busied  over  the  latest  disco- 
very, the  uncovering  of  a  cellar  containing  a  thousand  vessels 
for  various  commercial  purposes,  two  hundred  of  which  are 
covered  with  inscriptions  throwing  no  small  light  on  the  business 
terms  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

In  the  course  of  a  report,  which  has  just  been  published  by 
order  of  the  Inspector-General  of  Maritime  Customs  in  China, 
Dr.  F.  Wong  gives  us  some  curious  particulars  respecting  a 
strange  remedial  agent  employed  by  the  Chinese  in  cases  of 
Cynanche  Tomillaris,  The  disease  they  term  Ngo-hawt  or 
**  Goose-throat,"  and  the  remedy  in  question  b  called  ffow-tsao, 
a  soft  stone  not  unlike  biliary  calculus  in  appearance.  It  b 
expensive,  being  worth  twenty  times  its  weight  in  silver,  and  is 
said  to  come  from  Siam.  Twenty  or  thirty  grains  of  this  in  pow- 
der, taken  in  water,  is  thought  to  be  very  efficacious.  Dr.  Wong 
mentions  having  seen  a  case  where  this  remedy  was  given,  and 
'  where  it  certainly  appeared  effective,  after  gargles  and  astrin- 
gents had  been  applied  in  vain.  The  specimens  of  the  stone 
which  have  come  under  his  notice  appear  like  animal  concre- 
tions, and  are  of  various  sizes,  some  being  smaller  than  pigeons' 
eggs,  while  others  are  as  large  as  hens'  eggs.  The  story  goes 
that,  when  a  monkey  is  wounded,  the  animal,  from  [Us  natural 
instinct,  picks  out  the  proper  medicinal  herbs,  masticates  and 
applies  them  to  the  wound,  so  that  successive  layers  are  in  this 
way  laid  on  so  as  to  form  a  mass.  In  time  the  wound  heab, 
and  the  lump  of  dried  herbs  falls  off;  it  b  then  picked  up  by 
the  Siamese,  found  by  them  to  possess  peculiar  virtues,  and 
sent  in  small  quantities  to  China  as  a  drug. 

News  from  Berlin  states  that  Prof.  Mommsen  has  again 
started  upon  a  scientific  expedition  to  the  south  of  Italy,  from 
which  he  intends  to  return  to  Berlin  at  the  end  of  May. 

In  the  south  of  France  no  rain  or  snow  has  fallen  since  the 
beginning  of  the  winter,  and  the  prevailing  drought  resulting 
from  this  peculiar  absence  of  atmospheric  mobture  has  well- 
nigh  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  real  catastrophe.  The 
authorities  have  been  obliged  to  take  in  hand  the  dbtribution  of 
drinking  water  to  the  inhabitants.  Between  Marseilles  and  the 
Italian  frontier  certain  railway  stations  are  completely  without 
water,  and  waggon-cisterns  had  to  be  constructed  which  are 
kept  filled  by  water  brought  by  train.  The  soil  in  the  dbtrict  b 
so  hard  that  all  agricultural  work  b  impossible,  and  the  crops 
are,  of  course,  in  a  most  miserable  condition. 

From  Leipzig  and  its  vicinity  heavy  rains  are  reported  causing 
severe  intmdations  in  that  neighbourhood. 

Dr.  a,  Hartmann  describes  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Berlin 
Physiological  Society  for  the  present  year,  a  new  application  of 
the  telephone  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  hearing.  It  rests 
upon  the  fact  that  when  the  magnet  of  the  receiving  instrument 
s  excited  by  a  galvanic  stream,  the  intensity  of  the  tone  trans- 
mitted can  be  altered  at  will  ^by  the  introduction  of  various 


resbtances  or  of  Du  Bois-Reymond's  compensator  into  the  circuit. 
By  this  means  it  is  easy  to  measure  comparatively  in  different 
persons  the  limits  of  hearing,  by  applying  the  telephone  to  the 
ear,  and  noticing  the  amount  o^esbtance^necessary  in  order  to 
extingubh  the  same  sound. 

The  American  Chemical  Society  closes  its  second  year  with  a 
membership  of  300.  Its  Transactions,  instead  of  appearing  at 
irregular  intervals,  are  to  be  published  twice  a  month,  and  efforts 
are  being  made  to  concentrate  in  them  all  that  America  produces 
in  the  line  of  chemical  research.  The  Society  has  chosen  Prof. 
Johnson,  the  familiar  authority  on  agricultural  chemistry,  for  its 
president  during  1878,  and  has  elected  to  honorary  membership 
Professors  Frankland  and  Williamson,  of  London,  Bunsen  and 
Wohler  of  Germany,  Berthelot  of  Paris,  Boutlerow  of  St, 
Petersburg,  and  Cannizzaro  of  Rome. 

An  earthquake  was  felt  at  Liesthal,  in  the  canton  of 
Bide  during  the  night  of  March  28-29.  This  phenomenon  was 
probably  connected  with  another  commotion  which  was  regb- 
tered  at  Strasburg  Observatory  by  Winnecke,  and  was 
observed  on  March  29  at  8h.  52m.  27s.  in  the  morning.  The 
duration  of  the  commotion  was  only  j^s.,  and  would  have  escaped 
notice  if  a  registering  apparatus  had  not  been  kept  at  the 
observatory.  A  violent  earthquake  was  felt  at  Kaltenbrunn,  in  the 
Kaunser  Valley  (Tyrol)  on  March  16  at  5  A.M. 

Mr.  a.  O.  Thorlacius,  the  observer  for  the  Scottish 
Meteorological  Society  at  Stykkbholm,  in  the  north-west  of 
Iceland,  reports  the  occurrence,  on  March  4,  of  the  severest 
thunderstorm  ever  experienced  in  that  part  of  Iceland.  Thunder 
and  lightning  continued  without  interruption  from  5.30  A.M.  to 
8  A.M.,  accompanied  at  intervab  with  rain  and  hail.  For  the 
past  thirty-three  years,  during  which  Mr.  Thorlacius  has  observed, 
nearly  all  the  thunderstorms  have  occurred  during  the  winter 
months.  At  7  A.M.  a  very  fine  meteor  passed  over  the  village 
of  Stykkisholm  and  exploded  into  innumerable  fragments  over 
the  harbour,  unaccompanied,  however,  with  any  audible 
report,  and  shortly  after  another  fine  meteor  passed  over  the 
village  and  disappeared  without  being  observed  to  explode.  It 
b  added  that  thb  is  the  first  time  such  meteors  have  been 
observed  by  any  one  at  Stykkisholm. 

With  regard  to  the  fact  stated  by  M.  Forel,  that  frequently 
during  dbtinct  shocks  of  earthquake,  the  lakes  show  neither 
waves  nor  seiches^  while  at  other  times  shocks  produce  large 
movements,  M.  De  Rossi  writes  to  La  Nature^  from  Rome,  that 
the  lakes  probably  act  according  to  the  law  of  pendulums.  Thus 
in  Italy  shocks  of  earthqtiake  have  frequently  occurred  without . 
the  pendulum  seismograph  showing  any  sign  of  movement, 
whereas,  again,  the  pendulum  may  swing  violently  without  the 
shock  being  perceived  by  any  one.  M.  De  Rossi  has,  with  others, 
experienced  a  distinct  shock  of  earthquake,  and  on  immediately 
examining  with  a  microscope  eight  pendulums  of  different 
lengths,  could  not  detect  the  slightest  motion.  The  fact  evidently 
depends,  he  says,  on  the  relation  between  the  length  of  the 
pendulum  and  the  rapidity  of  the  earth-vibrations.  When  the 
seismic  wave  is  jynchronous  with  the  natural  oscillation  of  the 
pendulum,  the  latter  enters  into  motion;  when  it  b  dissyn- 
chronous,  the  pendulum.refuses  to  move. 

It  will  be  seen  from  our  advertising  columns,  that  pending 
the  erection  of  the  permanent  buildings  of  the  Channel  Islandh' 
Zoological  Station,  St.  Heller's,  Jersey,  arrangements  have  been 
made  for  placing  private  rooms  with  tables  and  apparatus  at  the 
disposal  of  a  limited  number  of  naturalists  and  students,  with 
every  assbtance  in  obtaining  subjects  for  investigation. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  two  Persian  Gazelles  {Gazella  sttbgutterosa) 
from   Persia,    presented   by  Mr.  R.  W.   Inglb;   a  Macaque 


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Monkey  i^Macacus  cynomolgus)  from  India,  presented  by  Mr. 
Francis  Pym ;  a  Common  Squirrel  {Sciurus  vulgaris),  European, 
presented  by  Madame  Hante ;  a  Vulpine  Phalanger  {Phalangisfa 
vulpina)  from  Australia,  presented  by  Capt.  F.  Ayling ;  a  Pudu 
Deer  {CiTvus  humiJis),  a  Naked-earQd  Deer  {Cfrvus  gymtto/is) 
from  Chili,  a  Maned  Goose  {Bernicla  jubata)  from  Australia, 
purchased ;  an  Egyptian  Gazelle  {Gazella  dorcas)  from  Egypt, 
deposited ;  a  Frazer's  Squirrel  {Sciurus  fraseri)  from  Ecuador,  a 
Black  Sternothere  (SternoUuxrus  niger)  from  West  Africa, 
received  in  exchangee. 


UNDERGROUND  TEMPERATURE'' 

(OBSERVATIONS  on  a  very  elaborate  scale  have  been 
^^  received  from  the  important  mining  district  of  Schem- 
nitz,  in  Himgary.  A  request  for  observations  was  sent  by 
the  Secretary,  in  1873,  ^'^  ^"®  Imperial  School  of  Forests  and 
Mines  at  Schemnitz,  and  on  the  receipt  of  two  thermometers  a 
Committee  was  formed  to  plan  and  carry  out  observations.  The 
leading  part  in  the  observations  has  been  taken  by  Dr.  Otto 
Schwartz,  Professor  of  Physics  and  Mathematics,  who  has  fur- 
nished an  elaborate  report  of  the  results  obtained.  This  is 
accompanied  by  a  geological  report  drawn  up  by  Prof.  Gustav 
von  liszkay  and  by  a  geological  map  with  plans  and  sections  of 
the  mines. 

The  two  thermometers  sent  being  deemed  insufficient  for  the 
numerous  observations  which  were  contemplated,  twenty- five 
large  thermometers  were  ordered  from  a  local  maker  (T.  T. 
Grciner),  and  the  ten  best  of  these,  after  being  minutely  com- 
pared with  one  of  the  two  thermometers  sent — which  was  non- 
registering  and  had  a  Kew'certificate — were  devoted  to  the  obser- 
vations. Three  of  them  were  divided  to  tenths  and  the  others  to 
fifths  of  a  degree  Centigrade,  and  all  had  bulbs  of  thick  glaf  s  to 
ensure  slowness  of  action.  They  were  found  not  to  change 
their  indications  during  the  lime  requ'site  for  an  observation. 

The  observations  were  for  the  most  part  taken  by  boring 
a  hole  in  the  rock  to  a  depth  in  the  earlier  observations 
of  '422,  and  in  the  later  ones  of  79  of  a  metre,  then  filling  the 
hole  with  water,  and  after  leaving  it  in  some  cases  for  a  few 
hours,  in  others  for  several  days,  to  plunge  a  thermometer  to  the 
bottom  of  the  hole,  and  after  thirty  or  forty-five  minutes  take  it 
out  and  read  it.  The  tenths  of  a  degree  were  read  first,  and 
there  was  time  for  this  to  be  done  before  the  reading  changed. 
As  a  rule  three  observations  were  taken  in  each  gallery,  two  of 
them  in  bote-holes  to  give  the  temperature  of  the  rock,  and  the 
third  in  the  air  of  the  gallery  at  an  intermediate  position.  Pyrites 
and  also  decaying  timl^r  were  avoided  as  being  known  to  generate 
heat,  and  as  nir  as  possible  currents  of  air  and  the  neighbourhood 
of  shafts  were  avoided  also. 

A  table,  which  forms  part  of  Dr.  Schwartz's  report,  contains 
observations  made  in  no  fewer  than  thirty- eight  galleries.  Besides 
the  temperatures,  it  gives  the  depth  of  the  place  of  observation 
beneath  the  shaft-mouth  and  the  height  of  the  latter  above  sea- 
level.  Dr.  Schwartz  takes  exception  to  a  few  of  the  observations 
in  the  table^  as  being  vitiated  by  the  presence  of  pyrites  or  by 
currents  of  air. 

All  the  galleries  mentioned  in  the  table  are  classified  according 
to  the  shafts  with  which  they  are  connected,  and  there  are  for  the 
most  part  six  of  these  galleries  to  each  shaft.  In  the  final  reductions, 
Dr.  Schwartz  compares  the  temperature  in  the  deepest  gallery  of 
each  shaft  with  the  assumed  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
ground  at  the  shaft-mouth.  For  determining  this  latter  element 
Uie  following  data  are  employed. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  at  the  School  of  Mines,  from 
twenty  years*  observation,  is  7°-2  C.  at  the  height  of  612*6 
metres  above  sea-level.  The  shafi-mouths  are  at  heights  of  from 
498  to  763  metres  above  sea-level,  and  it  is  assumed  that  the 
temperature  of  the  air  falls  1*  C.  for  100  metres  of  elevation.  It 
is  further  assumed  that  the  mean  temperature  one  metre  deep  in 
the  soil  is,  in  these  particular  localities,  i^'  C.  higher  than  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  air.  The  reasons  given  for  this  last 
assumption  may  be  thus  summarised  : — 

1.  Observations  in  various  localities  show  that  in  sandy  soils 
the  excess  in  question  amounts  on  the  average-  to  about  half  a 
degree  Centigrade. 

2.  In  this  locality  the  surface  is  a  compact  rock  which  is  highly 

*  Report  of  the  British  Association  Committee  on  Undersround  Tern- 
peralure,  by  Piof.  £v«rctt. 


heated  by  the  sun  in  summer  and  is  protected  from  radiation  by 
a  covering  of  snow  in  winter ;  and  the  conformation  of  the  hHIs 
in  the  neighbourhood  is  such  as  to  give  protection  against  the 
prevailing  winds.  Hence  the  excess  is  probably  greater  here 
than  in  most  places,  and  may  fairly  be  assumed  to  bie  double  of 
the  above  average. 

Omitting  one  shaft  (Franz  shaft),  in  which,  owing  to  the  pre- 
sence of  pyritef»,  the  temperatures  are  abnormal,  the  following 
are  the  principal  results : — 


-8 

*^  5 

i 

^^    M 

£ 

Elizabeth  shaft       

417 

8-5 

49-1 

89-5 

Maximilian,,         

253 

6-4 

39-5 

720 

Amalia        ,,         

285 

81 

35-2 

64-2 

Stefan          „         

218 

r^ 

303 

55*2 

Siglisberg    „         

414 

81 

511 

93-2 

Sums,  &c 

1587 

38-3 

41-4 

75  5 

The  best  mode  of  combining  the  results  from  these  five  shafts 
is  indicated  in  the  last  line  of  the  above  table,  where  the  sum  of 
the  depths  is  compared  with  the  sum  of  the  increments  of  tern  - 
perature.  We  have  thus  a  total  increase  of  38<'*3  C.  in  1,587  m. ; 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  1°  C.  in  41  •4m.,  or  i*  F.  in  75*5  lect. 

As  these  results  depend  on  an  assumption  regarding  the  surface- 
temperature,  it  seems  desirable  to  check  them  by  a  comparison 
of  actual  observations,  namely,  by  comparing  the  deepest  with 
the  shallowest  observation  in  each  mine.  We  thus  ob'ain  the 
following  results :— 


IS 

145*2 

IP 

Pi 
4-6 

Quotient 
metres  per 
deg.  Cent. 

1 

Elizabeth  shaft       ....    ... 

..•6 

57*6 

Maximilian  „         

191-6 

3  9 

491 

89-5 

Amalia        ,,         

2282 

5*1 

44*8 

817 

Stefan          ,,          

82-0 

4*7 

17*4 

31*7 

Siglisberg    „         

400-3 

80 

50-0 

91-2 

Sums,  &c 

1047*3 

26-3 

39*8 

725 

Combining  these  results  in  the  same  manner  as  the  others,  we 
have  a  total  difference  of  26" '3  C.  in  1047*3  metres,  whidi  is  at 
the  rate  of  i**  C.  in  39*8  metres,  or  i*»  F.  in  72*5  feet 

The  near  agreement  of  this  result  with  that  obtained  from 
comparison  with  the  assumed  surface-temperature  is  very  satis- 
factory.    The  mean  of  the  two  would  be  1°  F,  in  74  feet. 

The  rocks  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  tradiyte  and 
greenstone. 

Dr.  Schwartz  concludes  his  report  with  the  suggestion  that  the 
heat  developed  by  the  decomposition  of  pyrites  and  galena  in 
seams  which  are  not  altogether  air-tight  and  water-tight,  may 
possibly  be  utilised  as  a  guide  to  the  whereabouts  of  metallic 
lodes;  and  that  "we  shall  thus  obtain,  by  means  of  the 
thermometer,  scientific  information  which  the  ancients  sought  by 
means  of  the  divining-rod." 

Thanks  sure  due  to  M.  Antoine  P^ch,  Ministerial  Councillor, 
and  Director  of  the  Mines,  and  to  Herr  Edouard  Poschl, 
Director  of  the  School,  for  energetic  co-operation  in  this  extensive 
and  valuable  series  of  observations. 

Mr.  Lebour,  having  been  requested  to  supplement  the  above 
rhumJ  of  the  Schemnitz  observations  by  an  account  of  the  con- 
nection (if  any)  between  the  geological  and  thermal  conditions  of 
the  several  mines,  as  indicate  by  a  comparison  of  the  reports  of 
Dr.  Schwartz,  and  Prof,  von  Liszkay,  remarks  : — 

<*The  rock  at  all  the  mines  except  Franzschacht  is  gree 


Digitized  by 


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April  II,  1878J 


NATURE 


477 


homblende-andesite  {in  German  Grunstein-tradiyt],  a  compact 
fine-grained  crystalline,  more  or  less  vitreous  ^roclc,  containing 
ciystsJs  of  oligoclase  and  hornblende,  but  no  quartz  or  sanidine, 
lliis  rock  is  a  good  heat-conductor,  with  a  conductivity  probably 
nearly  approaching  that  of  '  Calton  trap  rock.' 

"  The  Franzscliacht  is  sunk  in  rhyolite  (a  highly  siliceous 
vitreous  tradiyte),  a  rock,  the  conductivity  of  which  would 
presumably  be  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  homblende-andesite, 
probably  a  litUe  greater.  Elements  of  temperature-disturbance 
are^  however,  present  in  the  form  of  thermal  springs,  and, 
possibly,  in  the  proximity  of  a  basaltic  cone.  This  last  element 
of  disturbance  is,  I  should  imagine^  a  very  doubtful  one  indeed, 
although  Councillor  A.  Pech  appears  to  think  it  of  importance. 
The  rate  of  increase,  as  deduced  from  observations  in  the 
rhyolite  here,  was  i*  C.  for  40*55m.,  or  about  i"  F.  for  74  feet. 

"  The  report  brings  out  strongly  the  important  variations  of 
rock-temperature  wmch  may  be,  and  are  occasionally,  generated 
by  the  decomposition  of  metallic  sulphides,  a  point  which  I  think 
is  here  prominently  mentioned  for  the  first  time." 

At  the  request  of  Mr.  Lebour,  observations  have  been  taken 
by  Mr.  Matthew  Heckels,  Manager  of  Boldon  Colliery,  between 
Newcastle  and  Sunderland,  in  holes  bored  upwards  to  a  distance 
of  ten  feet  from  some  of  the  deepest  seams. 

The  mine  is  described  as  **  perfectly  dry,"  and  those  parts  of 
it  in  which  the  observations  were  made  are  quite  free  from 
currents  of  air.  The  surface  of  the  ground  is  tolerably  level, 
and  is  ninety-seven  feet  above  Trinity  high- water  mark. 

Hole  No.  I  is  bored  up  from  the  roof  of  the  Bensham  seam. 
The  thermometer — one  of  the  new  slow-action  instruments,  not 
self-registering — was  placed  at  the  end  of  the  hole  (so  as  to  be 
ten  feet  within  the  rock)  and  protected  by  air-tight  plugging. 
The  surrounding  strata  consist  of  arenaceous  thsde,  known  as 
"grey  metal"  The  distance  of  the  thermometer  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  overhead  was  1,365  feet. 

The  hole  had  been  standing  idle  for  some  time  when  the  ther- 
mometer wss  inserted,  April  5,  1876.  The  first  reading  was 
taken  April  26,  and  was  75*,  the  surrounding  air  being  at  754", 
and  almost  stagnant.  The  readings  were  repeated  during  four 
consecutive  weeks,  without  change  of  the  indications. 

Hole  No.  2  is  in  the  same  vertical  with  No.  i,  and  is  bored 
up  (also  to  the  height  of  ten  feet)  from  a  deeper  seam— the 
Hutton  seam.  The  same  thermometer  was  employed,  and  in 
the  same  manner.  The  surrounding  strata  consist  of  a  close, 
compact  sandstone  known  as  **  hard  post."  The  distance  of  the 
thermometer  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  overhead  was  1,514 
feet.  Immediately  after  the  drilling  of  the  hole,  June  6,  1876, 
the  thermometer  was  inserted,  and  on  July  4  the  first  reading 
was  taken,  namely,  81**.  On  July  24  it  had  fallen  to  79^%  and 
on  August  I  to  79°.  Readings  taken  on  August  15  and  29  and 
September  i  also  showed  79%  the  surrounding  air  having  never 
altered  from  the  fixed  temperature,  784°.  It  would  therefore 
appear  that  the  first  observation  in  this  hole  was  2<^  too  high, 
owing  to  the  remains  of  the  heat  generated  in  boring,  notwith- 
standing the  lapse  of  four  weeks  which  had  intervened.  Four 
readings  have  since  been  taken  at  regular  intervals,  ending  with 
July,  1877,  and  the  same  temperature,  79°,  continues  to  be 
shovm. 

Assuming  48°  as  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  surface, 
we  have  the  following  data  for  calculating  the  rate  of  increase 
downwards :  — 

Surface      48' 

1.365  feet 75'* 

1,514  feet 79" 

For  the  interval  of  149  feet  between  the  two  holes  we  have  an 
increase  of  4°  F.,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  1°  Y.  in  37  feet. 

For  the  whole  depth  of  1,514  feet  from  the  surface  to  the  lower 
hole  we  have  an  increase  of  31",  which  is  at  the  rate  of  V  F.  in 
49  feet. 

In  explanation  of  the  length  of  time  required  for  the  heat  of 
boring  to  disappear  in  the  second  hole,  Mr.  Heckels  remarks 
that  **  it  required  two  men  sixteen  hours  with  a  hand-boring 
machine  to  drill  this  hole,  so  hard  is  the  stratum."  He  further 
says  :  "  The  tool  by  which  this  hole  was  bored,  on  being  drawn 
out,  was  too  hot  to  allow  it  being  touched  with  the  hand,  so  that 
the  temperature  of  the  hole,  on  being  finished,  must  have  been 
considerable ;  and  no  doubt  it  would  be  when  we  consider  the 
immense  pressure  required  to  bore  holes  in  such  strata  as  this." 
With  respect  to  the  permanent  temperature,  784°,  of  the  sur- 
rounding air,  Mr.  Heckels  'emarks  :  "The  air  of  this  district  is 
almost  stagnant,  and  what  circulation  there  is  will  have  travdled 


ft  distance  of  three  miles  underground;  and  hence  it  may  be 
expected  to  be  itself  pretty  near  the  temperature  of  the  rocks 
through  which  it  is  circulating." 

The  dryness  of  the  mine,  the  absence  of  currents  of  air,  and 
the  great  depth  render  these  observations  extremely  valuable  for 
the  purpose  which  the  Committee  have  in  view,  uid  their  best 
thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Heckels  and  the  proprietors  of  the  colliery 
for  the  trouble  and  expense  which  have  been  incurred  in  pro- 
curing them.  Observations  will  shortly  be  taken  in  another 
bore  in  the  same  colliery. 

Daring  the  past  year  the  first  observations  have  been  received 
from  India.  They  were  taken  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Medlicott,  M.A., 
of  the  Geological  Survey,  in  bores  made  in  search  of  coal,  and 
have  been  published  by  him  in  the  "  Records  of  the  (jreological 
Survey  of  India,"  vol.  x.,  part  i.  The  instrument  employed 
was  a  "  protected  Negretti  thermometer  sent  by  the  secretary 
of  this  Committee  to  Dr.  Oldham,  the  director  of  the  Survey. 
A  Casella-Miller  thermometer  was  used  to  check  the  observa- 
tions, but  was  found  much  less  sensitive  and  steady,  and  its 
readings,  though  placed  on  record,  are  therefore  left  out  of 
account  by  Mr.  Medlicott  in  his  reductions. 

The  observations  were  taken  in  three  bores,  at  places  named 
Khappa,  Manegaon,  and  Moran;  but  the  observations  at 
Moran  were  made  only  four  hours  after  the  boring  tool  had  been 
at  work,  and  the  Khappa  bore  exhibited  a  strong  bubbling, 
besides  other  marks  of  convection.  The  results  obtained  at 
these  two  bores  must  therefore  be  discarded  ;  but  in  the  Mane- 
gaon bore  everything  was  favourable  for  satisfactory  observation. 
•*  It  was  closed  on  April  24,  1875,  so  that  it  had  been  at  rest  for 
twenty  months.  There  is  only  one  guide-pipe  ten  feet  long  sit 
the  top  of  the  bore,  there  never  having  been  any  pressure  of 
water  in  the  hole.  The  position  is  low,  and  the  water  had 
always  stood  at  or  near  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  There  was  no 
difficulty  in  removing  the  plug.  The  very  equable  series  of 
temperatures  is  the  natural  result  of  these  conditions.  The 
observations  were  taken  in  the  evening  of  the  5th  and  morning 
of  the  6th  of  December.  At  5  p.m.  the  air-temperature  was 
72°  ;  at  8  P.M.,  59°;  at  8  A.M.,  65°;  at  11  a.m.,  84^.  The 
slight  decrease  of  temperature  in  the  top  readings  is  a  good 
proof  of  the  perfectly  tranquil  conditions  of  observation. 
It  is  no  doubt  due  to  the  excess  of  summer  heat  not  yet 
abstracted ;  and  it  is  apparent  that  that  influence  reaches  to  a 
considerable  depth—quite  to  sixty  feet."  The  following  are  the 
observations : — 


Depth, 
feet. 

Tcmoerature, 

Depth, 
feet 

Teorperature, 

10 

81-15 

150 

827 

20 

8ri           1 

200 

83-3 

40 

81  0 

250 

84-0 

60 

81 -o 

300 

84-65 

80 

813 

310 

8470 

100 

8r8 

This  last  observation  was  in  mud,  the  hole,  which  had 
originally  a  depth  of  420  feet,  having  silted  up  to  such  an  extent 
that  310  feet  was  the  lowest  depth  attainable.  The  increase 
from  60  feet  downwards  is  remarkably  uniform,  and  the  whole 
increase  firom  this  depth  to  the  lowest  reached  is  3''7,  which  is 
at  the  rate  of  1°  F.  for  68  feet. 

The  elevation  of  Manegaon  is  estimated  at  1,400  feet.  It  lies 
"in  an  open  valley  of  the  Satpuras,  traversed  by  the  Dudhi 
River,  south  of  the  wide  plains  of  the  Narbada  Valley,  about  half- 
way between  Jabalpur  and  Hoshungabad,  which  are  150  miles 
apart."  Jabalpur  is  1,351  feet  above  sea- level,  and  has  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  75*2.  Hoshungabad  is  1,020  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  78*3. 

**  The  geological  conditions  of  the  position  are  favourable  for 
these  observations.  The  rocks  consist  of  steady  alternations,  in 
about  equal  proportions,  of  fine  softish  sandstones,  and  hard  silty 
clays  of  the  upper  Gondwana  strata,  having  a  steady  dip  of  about 
10°.  .  .  Strong  trap  dykes  are  frequent  in  many  piarts  of  the 
stratigraphical  basin  ;  but  there  are  none  within  a  considerable 
distance  of  these  borings.  There  are  no  faults  near,  nor  any 
rock-features  having  a  known  disturbing  effect  upon  the  heat- 
distribution." 

Mention  was  made  in  last  report  (p.  209)  of  two  methods  which 
had  been  suggested  by  memb^  of  the  Committee  for  plugging 


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NATURE 


\ April  w^  if578 


bores  to  prevent  the  convection  of  heat.  Mr.  Lebour,  at  the 
request  of  the  Committee,  has  conducted  experiments  during  the 
past  year  on  both  forms  of  plu^.     He  reports  that  :— 

**In  accordance  with  Sir  W.  Thomson's  suggestion,  discs  of 
india-mbber  fixed  to  the  lowering  wire  above  and  below  the 
thermometer  have  been  tried.  The  chief  difficulty  met  with  was 
the  unwieldiness  of  the  armed  portion  of  the  wire,  which  conld 
not  be  wound  and  unwound  from  the  drum,  owing  to  the  fixed 
disc-holders.  This  difficulty  prevented  the  placing  of  the  discs 
anywhere  but  at  the  extremity  of  the  wire,  whereas  it  would  be 
very  desirable  to  have  a  large  number  of  them  at  intervals  along 
the  greater  part  of  its  entire  length.  Discs  for  a  2i-inch  bore 
were  found  to  work  well  with  a  diameter  of  2}  inches.  The 
lowering,  and  especially  the  raising,  of  the  wire  armed  with 
the  disc-plugging  were  very  slow  operations,  owing  to  the  re- 
sistance opposed  by  the  water  to  the  passage  of  the  discs. 

Experiments  with  the  form  of  plug  devised  by  Mr.  Lebonr 
himsdf  were  continued  with  a  set  of  l^ter  made  plugs.  "  The 
great  disadvantage  of  this  system  of  plugging  is  the  necessity  for 
using  two  wires,  one  to  lower  the  thermometer  and  plug  as 
usuu,  and  the  other  to  let  down  weights  upon  the  upper  ends  of 
the  plugs,  when  they  are  to  be  c^cpanded,  and  to  remove  them 
when  they  are  to  be  collapsed.  This  necessitates  not  only  the 
ordinary  drum  for  the  first  wire^  but  also  an  independent  reel 
for  the  second.  With  care,  however,  and  after  some  practice^ 
the  apparatus  was  found  to  work  well ;  but  it  certainly  is  ex- 
tremely inconvenient  for  rapid  work,  as  it  requires  a  good  deal 
of  setting  up.'' 

Expenments  were  made  with  both  forms  of  plug  at  the  depth 
of  360  feet,  in  a  bore  of  the  total  depth  of  420  feet.  In  the  one 
case,  eight  india-rubber  discs  were  employed,  four  above  and 
four  below  the  thermometer ;  in  the  other,  two  collapsible  plugs, 
one  above  and  the  other  below.  The  experiments  had  chiefly  in 
view  the  mechanical  difficulties  of  the  subject,  and  are  not 
decisive  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  plugs  to  prevent  convection. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Proposed  New  University.— A  movement  has  for  some 
time  been  on  foot  for  the  establishment  of  a  new  university  in 
the  north  of  England,  and  on  Tuesday  last  week  a  deputation, 
which  included  3ie  Rev.  Dr.  Gott  (Vicar  of  Leeds),  Mr.  Edward 
Baines,  Prof.  Thorpe,  Prof.  Riicker,  and  Mr.  R.  Re3molds, 
waited  upon  the  Mayor  of  Bradford,  Mr.  B.  Priestly,  with  the 
object  of^  inducing  the  Corporation  of  Bradford  to  adopt  a  me- 
morial to  the  Pnvy  Council  in  favour  of  the  proposal  The 
Mayor  intimated  that  the  matter  would  be  referred  to  the 
Finance  and  General  Purposes  Committee  of  the  Corporation 
for  consideration. 

Francs. — A  commission  of  twenty-two  members  has  been 
appointedl>y  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  of  the  French  Republic^ 
to  prepare  a  general  law  on  primary  instruction. 

Two  new  professorships  of  botany  have  been  created  in  the 
faculties  of  Lille  and  Rennes. 

Paris. — ^The  medical  course  at  the  University  is  attended  at 
present  by  23  ladies,  including  12  Russians,  6  English,  and  5 
French.  Since  1865,  30  ladies  have  studied  medicme  at  Paris, 
9  of  whom  have  received  the  doctor's  diploma. 

Higher  Femals  Education.— The  subject  of  the  admission 
of  female  students  to  the  universities  is  exciting  at  present  an 
unusual  degree  of  discussion  in  Germany  as  well  as  in  England. 
In  this  connection  we  notice  the  publication  of  c  letter  from 
Prof.  G.  H.  Meyer,  of  the  medical  faculty  of  Zurich,  in  which 
he  states,  as  the  result  of  the  experience  of  a  number  of  yean 
with  female  students,  that  he  can  detect  no  difference  in  the 
average  amount  of  talent  and  application  shown  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  two  sexes  under  nis  charge.  From  a  social  as 
well  as  a  professional  standpoint,  the  advanced  position  taken 
by  the  University  of  Ziirich  in  this  direction,  during  the  past  few 
years,  is  diown  to  be  justified. 

KCnigsberg.— The  university  is  attended  at  present  by  655 
students,  including  42  in  the  theological  faculty,  174  in  the  legal, 
134  in  the  medical,  and  305  in  the  philosophical.  But  42  are 
from  outside  of  Prussia.  The  corps  of  instructors  numbers  40. 
The  university  possesses  a  library  of  155,000  volumes,  an 
observatoxy,  the  zoological  museum  founded  by  von  Baer,  and 
numerous  dinic*.  On  February  2  the  eminent  philosopher, 
Herr  Rosenkranz,  celebrated    the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his 


receiving  his  doctor-diploma.  The  German  Emperor,  the 
Crown  Prince,  and  all  the  German  Universities,  sent  congra. 
tulatory  telegrams  and  addresses. 

Hallb.— On  February  27  the  150th  anniversaiy  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  agricultural  chair  was  celebrated  at  the  Halk 
University.  At  the  same  time  the  fifteenth  anniversary  of  the 
opening  of  the  Halle  Agricultural  Institute,  under  ^le  dir«ctiott 
of  its  founder,  ProC  Kiihn,  was  solemnised.  A  torchlight  pro- 
cession and  banquet  were  followed  by  the  laying  of  the  foanda- 
tion«tooe  for  a  new  geological  museum,  whi£  is  principally 
destined  to  contahi  a  geognostical  collection  of  the  most  im- 
portant formations  in  their  natural  form  and  succession. 

Munich.— The  rapid  increase  in  the  attendance  shows  that 
this  young  University  is  taking  a  leading  position  in  Germany. 
At  present  the  studenU  number  1,360,  an  increase  of  over  aoo 
on  1876-77.  The  philosophical  faculty  contains  400^  and  the 
medicdi4a  Countries  outside  of  Bavaria  are  represented  by 
346.    The  corps  of  instructors  number  1 14. 

GISSSEN.— The  university  is  attended  at  present  by  315 
students,  of  whom  237  are  natives  of  Hesse.  There  are  but  16 
students  of  chemistry,  a  striking  contrast  to  the  numbers  which 
were  wont  to  flock  from  all  quarters  to  L4ebig's  laboratory. 

Marburg. — ^Tbe  number  of  students  in  attendance  <m  the 
university  during  the  past  winter  was  415.  They  were  divided 
among  the  fisumlties  as  follows :  -Theology  51,  law  85,  medicine 
100,  philosophy  179.    The  Prussian  students  numbered  363. 

Bonn. — ^The  professorship  of  geology  and  palaeontology  in 
this  university  has  been  offered  to  the  well-known  geokigist, 
Prof,  von  Seebach,  of  Gottingen. 

Kiel.— The  vacant  chair.of  botany  is  to  be  filled  by  Prof.  A. 
Engler,  of  Munich. 

Dresden.— A  congress  of  representatives  from  all  the  Ger- 
man technical  institutions  is  to  take  place  at  Dresden  shortly 
after  Easter. 

Leipzig.— A  young  lady  has  taken  here,  for  the  first  time, 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Jurisprudence  in  the  legal  faculty. 

Prussia. — ^The  number  of  1^1  students  in  the  various  um*- 
versities  has  increased  so  rapidly  of  late  years  that  they  now 
form  three-tenths  of  the  total  number. 

Germany.— From  statistical  results  published  by  the  Neut 
Deutsche  Schul  Zeitung^  it  is  shown  that  60,000  schools  with 
6,000,000  pupils  are  in  existence  in  Germany,  for  a  population 
of  about  40,000,000  inhabitants. 

Madrid.— The  Royal  School  of  Mines  has  recently  c^e- 
brated  its  looth  anniversanr  and  published  a  handsome  historical 
work  in  commemoration  or  the  event, 

Upsala. — The  University  is  attended  at  present  by  1,370 
students,  consisting  of  331  in  the  theological  faculty,  145  in  the 
legal,  181  in  the  medical,  and  713  in  the  philosophical.  The 
corps  of  instructors  numbers  no,  including  30  ordinary  and  9 
extraordinary  professors. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Reale  IstUuto  Lombardo  di  Scitnu  e  Lettere,  Rendiconti,  voL 
xi.,  fasc  i.  and  il — On  some  propositions  of  Clausius  on  the  theory 
of  potentials,  by  M.  Beltrami— On  Uie  composition  of  cheeses, 
and  on  the  emanation  of  fat  from  their  albuminoid  substances 
during  maturation,  by* MM.  Musso  and  Menoszi.— On  determi- 
nation of  the  nitrogen  m  milk  and  its  products,  by  M.  MenozzL — 
On  the  resistance  of  the  helices  of  telegraphic  electro-magnets,  by 
M.  Ferrinl — Experimental  researches  on  heterogenesis  ;  on 
the  limit  of  productivity  of  organic  solutions  (third  communica- 
tion), by  MM.  Maggi  and  Giovanni —Chemical  manures,  the 
agrarian  industry,  and  funded  property,  by  M.  Gaetano. — On  a 
reaction  of  substances  reductive  in  general,  and  in  particular  of 
glucose,  by  M.  Pollacd. — On  granite  in  the  serpentine  formation 
of  the  Apennines,  by  M.  Torquato. 

Morphologisehes  Jahrbuch^  vol*  iv.  part  I,  commences  with  a 
paper  of  in  pages  by  Max  FUrbringer  on  the  comparative 
anatomy  and  development  of  the  excretory  organs  of  vertebrata. 
Nearly  fifty  figures  are  given  to  illustrate  the  early  stages  of  these 
organs  in  the  common  frog  and  salamander,  a  full  risumi  is 
given  of  all  observations  on  those  of  other  vertebrates ;  together 
with  a  discussion  on  their  homologies,  and  on  their  indications  of 
relationship  to  the  segmental  organs  of  worms. — A  careful 
description  of  the  anatomy  of  Isis  neapoliiana^  n.sp.,  is  given  by 


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G.  von  Koch. — Dr.  H.  von  IheiiDg!s  contribution  to  the 
anatomy  of  Chiton  deals  chiefly  with  the  sexual  apparatus,  the 
kidney,  and  the  muscles.  He  show  that  in  Chitonidae  the  sexes 
are  undoubtedly  separate,  and  that  the  ova  are  fertilised  in  the 
ovary.— Observations  on  the  formation,  fertilisation,  and  seg- 
mentation of  the  animal  egg,  by  Oscar  Hcrtwig,  part  3,  20 
pages,  3  plates.  This  part  deals  with  the  ova  of  the  star-fish, 
Asteracanthion. 

Zeiischrift  fiir  wissenschafiliche  Zoologie^  vol.  xxx.  part  2.— 
Contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  the  flagellate  infusorians  and 
some  related  organisms,  by  O.  Butschli,  78  pp.  5  plates,  de* 
scribirg  or  criticising  a  great  number  of  species. — On  the  lungs 
of  Birgus  latro  (land  crab),  by  C  Semper, — ITie  copulatory 
oigans  of  plagiostomes,  by  K.  R.  Petri,  48  pp.  3  plates. — The 
'antral  nervous  system  of  the  alligator,  by  Rabl-Ruckaid,  38  pp. 
X  plates. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  March  28.— "  Measurements  of  Electrical 
Constants.  No.  IT.  On  the  Specific  Inductive  Capacities  of 
Certain  Dielectrics,"  by  T.  E.  H.  Gordon,  B.A.  Camb.  First 
Series.  Communicated  by  Prof.  J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  F.R.S. 
(Abstract) 

The  author  has,  under  Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell's  directions, 
carried  out  some  m?ssurements  of  specific  indactive  capacities 
by  a  new  method. 

The  author  finds  that  all  his  results  are  much  lower  than  those 
obtained  by  previous  experimenters,  and  suggests  that  the  fieict 
may  perhaps  be  explained  on  a  supposition  that  the  specific 
inductive  capacity  of  dielectrics  increases  from  an  inferior  to  a 
superior  limit  during  the  first  small  fraction  of  a  second  after  the 
commencement  of  the  electrification.  He  discusses  this  question 
at  some  length  in  his  paper. 

"On  the  Thermo-Elcctric  Properties  of  Liquids,"  by  G. 
Gore,  LL.D.,  F  R.S. 

In  this  communication  the  author  has  described  an  improved 
apparatus  for  examining  the  thermo-electric  properties  of  liquids, 
by  the  use  of  which,  with  the  precautions  stated,  all  sources  of 
error  in  such  experiments  appear  to  be  removed ;  he  has  also 
described  a  number  of  experiments  he  has  made  with  it,  and  the 
results  obtained. 

By  employing  a  sufficient  number  and  variety  of  electrically- 
conducting  solutions,  of  acids,  salts,  and  alkalies,  in  those 
experiments,  be  has  discovered  several  exceptions  to  the  usual 
effect  be  had  formerly  obtained,  viz.,  that  add  liquids  are 
thermo-electro-positive,  and  alkaline  ones  thermo- electro- 
negative, and  has  sketched  a  diagram  representing  the  thermo- 
electric behaviour  of  heated  platinum  in  three  of  the  exceptional 
liquids. 

Reasoning  upon  the  satisfactory  results  obtained,  he  con« 
eludes :— (i)  That  the  electric  currents  are  not  produced  by 
chemical  action  ;  (2)  Nor  by  a  temporary  disassociation  of  the 
constituents  of  the  liquid;  (3)  Nor  by  the  action  of  gases 
occluded  in  the  metals  ;  (4)  But  that  they  are  produced  purely 
and  solely  by  the  heat,  and  that  heat  disappears  in  producing 
them  ;  (5)  That  they  are  immediate  or  direct  effects  of  the  heat, 
and  that  aqueous  conducting  liquids,  therefore,  possess  true 
thermo-electric  properties  ;  (6)  That  the  current  is  a  result  of  a 
difference  of  thermic  action  at  the  surfaces  of  the  two  pieces  of 
metal ;  (7)  That  it  is  a  product  of  a  suitable  molecular  structure 
of  the  liquid,  a  change  of  such  structure  resulting  from  alteration 
of  temperature,  and  a  direct  conversion  of  heat  into  electricity ; 
and  (8)  That  the  circumstance  which  is  most  influential  in 
enabling  beat  to  produce  the  currents,  and  most  determines  their 
direction  and  amount,  is  a  suitable  molecular  structure  of  the 
liquid. 

^^  means  of  the  apparatus  and  process  desaibed,  he  has  dis- 
covered irregular  molecular  changes  in  several  of  the  liquids 
examined ;  and  as  molecular  changes  are  the  bases  of  various 
physical  and  chemical  alterations,  he  suggests  the  use  of  this 
apparatus  and  method  as  a  new  one  for  diECOvering  anomalous 
molecular  alterations,  and  other  coincident  physical  and  chemical 
cces,  in  electrically  conducting  liquids ;  and  for  detectine  differ- 
ences of  electric  potential  between  metals  and  liquids  at  different 
temperatures. 

By  reasoning  upon  the  different  results  obtained,  he  concludes 
also  as  probable,  that  when  a  piece  of  metal  is  siinply  immersed 


in  a  suitable  liquid,  a  change  of  temperature  occurs ;  and  this  (if 
correct  ^)  is  a  r>»ialJel  fact  to  that  of  the  production  of  electricity 
by  simple  contact  only.  The  results  also  support  the  contact 
theory  of  voltaic  electricity. 

The  paper  concludes  with  several  suggestions  of  new  lines  of 
research  suggested  by  the  experiments,  one  of  which  is  the  con- 
struct on  of  a  new  thermo-electro-motor. 

Chemical  Society,  March  30.— Anniversary  meeting. — ^Dr. 
Gladstone,  president,  in  the  chair. — The  following  is  a  brief 
summary  of  the  president's  address  :— The  bye-laws  have  been 
thoroughly  revised.  Successful  efforts  have  been  made  to  expe- 
dite the  publication  of  the  Journal^  and  a  sub-editor,  Mr.  C.  E. 
Groves,  nas  been  appointed.  The  Research  Fund  now  amounts 
to  4, coo/.,  and  already  two  papers  have  resulted  from  the  assist- 
ance rendered  by  it  to  investigators.  The  President  hopes  that 
many  chemists,  especially  those  to  whom  the  pursuit  of  chemistry 
has  become  a  source  of  wealth,  will  contribute  to  this  important 
fund.  During  the  past  year  an  independent  body,  the  Institute 
of  Chemistry  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  has  been  formed  and 
incorporated  ;  its  objects,  which  are  quite  distinct  from  those  of 
the  Chemical  Society,  are  the  encouragement  of  the  study  of 
chemistry  and  the  midntenance  of  the  profession  on  a  sound  and 
satisfactory  basis.  Sixty-five  papers  have  been  read  during  the 
past  session,  and  two  lectures  have  been  delivered.  There  are 
at  present  965  Fellows.  The  Society  has  lost  by  death  one 
eminent  foreign  member,'  M.  Regnault,  and,  besides,  Messrs.  R. 
Apjohn,  T.  J.  Griffin,  W.  Gossage^  T.  Hall,  E.  L.  Koch,  M. 
Murphy,  Dr.  Noad,  and  E.  F.  Teschemacher.  After  several 
votes  of  thanks,  &c.,  the  following  officers  were  elected  for  the 
ensuing  year  :^President— J.  H.  Gladstone,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 
Vice-presidents— F.  A.  Abel,  C.B.,  Sir  B.  CBrodie,  W.  Dela 
Rue,  £.  Frankland,  A.  W.  Hofmann,  W.  Odling,  Lyon  Playfair, 
A.  W.  Williamson,  T.  Andrews,  W.  Crookes,  F.  Field,  N.  S. 
Maskelvne,  H.  £.  Roscoe,  R.  Angus  Smith.  Secretaries — W. 
H.  Perkin  and  H.  E.  Armstrong.  Foreign  Secretary— Hugo 
Miiller.  Treasurer— W.  J.  Russell  Council— Lothian  BeD, 
M.  Carteighe,  A.  H.  Church,  W.  N.  Hartley,  C.  W.  Heaton, 
D.  Howard,  G.  Matthey,  E.  Riley,  W.  A.  Tilden,  R.  V.  Tuscmi, 
R.  Warington,  C.  R.  A.  Wright.  During  the  meeting  it  was 
aimounced  that  Mr.  Warren  De  la  Rue  had  presented  the 
Research  Fund  with  the  sum  of  100/.  on  the  condition  that  it 
should  be  devoted  to  any  one  important  research. 

Anthropological  Institute,  March  12. — Mr.  John  Evans, 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair.— Prof.  A.  Graham 
Bell  read  a  paper  on  the  natural  language  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
The  author  stated  that  in  most  cases  dumbness  was  merely  a 
consequence  of  deafness,  and  does  not  arise  from  any  deficiency 
in  the  vocal  organs,  but  merely  from  the  inabiU^  to  acquire 
articulate  language,  from  want  of  means  of  imitating  it.  This 
can  be  supphed  by  teaching.  The  dogma,  "  without  speech, 
no  reason, '  is  not  well  founded.  Deaf-mute  children  think  in 
pictures.  Thence  they  form  a  language  of  signs  which,  as  con- 
tractions of  it  become  understood,  develops  into  a  conventional 
language,\,but  its  extent  is  verv  limited.  No  deaf-mute  has  been 
found  who  had  formed  the  idea  of  a  Supreme  Beinjg.  About 
the  commencement  of  the  present  centuiy  the  Abbe^de  TEp^ 
opened  an  institution  for  the  education  of  deaf-mutes.  The 
tendency  of  education  was  to  render  the  language  more  and 
more  conventional  by  means  of  contractions.  Of  this  Mr.  Bell 
gave  many  interesting  examples.  The  result  of  systematic  edu- 
cation has.  been  to  enable  the  deaf-mutes  to  form  a  community 
among  themselves,  using  a  real  language,  representing  abstract 
ideas  as  well  as  mere  objects.  Not  only  so,  but  the  language 
has  idioms  of  its  own ;  for  example,  the  obiective  case  comes 
first— thus,  "  the  boots  made  the  bootmaker."  Thb  is  a  diffi- 
culty, and  perhaps  a  mistake  in  the  education  ;  it  affords,  how- 
ever, a  useful  subject  for  anthropological  inquiry  into  the  analogy 
with  the  development  of  spoken  language.  In  illustration,  Mr. 
Bell  delivered  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  sign  language.  The 
North  American  Indians  have  a  sign  language,  tht  same  in 
character,  but  less  developed,  than  that  of  the  deaf-mutes.  The 
language  of  the  deaf-mutes  is  beginning  to  split  into  dialects. 

Photographic   Society,  March  12.— J.  Glaisher,    F.R.S., 

President,  in  the  chair. — Papers  were  read  by  Dr.  van  Monck- 
oven  on  the  fading  of  .carbon  prints,  and  the  suppression  of 

'  .Since  writing  the  paper  he  has  proved,  by  experiment,  that  whenashee  t 
of  platinum  is  immersed  in  various  saline,  alkaline,  and  acid  liquids  , a  sli|;ht 
rise  ot  temperature  lakes  place  ;  the  solutions  already  employed,  in  which 
such  a  result  occurs,  are  enumerated. 


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{April  II,  1878 


bichromates  in  carbon  printins^  and  by  Edwin  Cockiq^  on  non- 
convereiDg  perpendiculars  in  architectural  photographs.  Dr. 
Monduioven,  in  his  paper,  asseits  that  neither  hot  water  nor 
alum  fix  carbon  prints,  and  although  excess  of  bichromate  of 
potash  b  removed,  still  the  chromic  salt,  which  has  rendered 
the  gelatine  insoluble,  not  only  remains,  but  undergoes  a  change 
by  subsequent  exposure  to  light,  and  thus  accelerates  the  action 


of  light  upon  the  organic  colour  of  the  pigment,  which  fades 
rapidly.  He  suggests  a  new  fixing  agent,  bisulphite  of  soda, 
and  for  colour  some  of  the  oxides  of  iron,  mixed  when  moist. 


with  glycerine  and  geUtine,    which  he  states  are  absolutely 
unalterable  by  exposure  to  light 

Edinburgh 

Royal  Society,  Mardi  8.~Sir  William  Thomson  in  the 
chair. — Prof.  Tait  read  a  paper  on  thermal  conductiTity,  the 
result  of  experiments  during  the  last  ten  Tears,  His  results  for 
iron  are  much  the  same  as  Oiose  obtainea  by  Principal  Forbes. 
He  had  solved  the  following  problems:—!.  That,  with  the 
exception  of  iron,  in  no  case  as  yet  tried  does  a  pure  metal  dimi- 
nish in  thermal  conductivity  as  the  temperature  rises.  2.  That 
different  specimens  of  the  same  metal,  as,  for  instance,  two 
kinds  of  copper  differ  much  the  same  relativel]^  in  thermal  and 
in  electric  conductivity.  3.  A  substance  which  is  pretty  constant 
as  a  conductor  of  electricity  is  also  pretty  constant  in  thermal 
conductivity.  Among  the  difficulties  encountered  was  the  altera- 
tion of  the  zero  point  of  the  thermometers  used — Kew  standards— 
after  being  heated  to  a  high  temperature.  This  affects  only  the 
absolute  values  slightly,  but  not  the  general  character  of  the  rmlts. 
Another  difficulty  was  the  oxidation,  during  heating,  of  the  short 
bars  employed  to  measure  the  heat  lost  by  radiation  and  convec- 
tion at  different  temperatures.  This  was  almost  completely 
overcome. — Prof.  Fleeming  Jenkin  and  Mr.  J.  A.  Ewiag  com- 
municated a  paper  on  the  wave  forms  of  articulate  sounds 
obtained  bv  thie  aid  of  the  phonograph.  Their  results  show  that 
Helmholtz  s  theory  of.  vowel  sounds,  viz.,  that  for  the  produc- 
tion of  any  one  vowel  certain  fixed  notes  are  nec^saiy,  is  not 
tenable,  as  they  obtained  vowel  sounds  under  ctrcnmstances 
which  rendered  the  presence  of  some  of  these  notes  impossible. 
They  have  also  made  out  that  every  vowel  tmd  eveij  consonant 
is  reversible,  lliis  is  true  also  of  such  single  sounds  as  n^^  th^ 
ch,  &c.  A  number  of  curves  were  exhibited  showing  the  form 
of  the  indentations  on  tinfoil  produced  by  Various  articulate  • 
sounds,  multiplied  about  400  times  by  meant  of  a  system  of 
levers. — A  paper  by  Mr.  George  M'Gowan  on  the  action  of  the 
chlorides  of  iodine  on  acetylene  and  ethylene^  was  read  by  Mr. 
J.  Y.  Buchanan. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  April  1.— M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair.— 
The  following  papers  were  read  :— On  some  applications  of 
elliptic  functions  (continued),  by  M.  Hermite.— Parameters  of 
elasticity  of  solids,  and  their  experimental  determination,  by 
M.  de  Saint-Venant.— On  the  specific  heats  and  the  heat  of 
fusion  of  gallium,  by  M.  Berthelot.  Tlie  Uauid  specific  heat 
was  found  to  be  0*0802 ;  the  solid,  0*079.  befeired  to  69*9 
as  the  atomic  weight,  the  heat  of  fusion  was  1*33  cal.  As  with 
mercury,  lead,  tin,  and  bismuth,  the  solid  and  liquid  specific 
heats,  taken  at  the  same  temperature,  are  dosely  alike.  The 
specific  atomic  heat  of  gallium  (liquid  5*59,  solid  5*52)  is  about 
the  same  as  that  of  aluminium  (5*53)  and  that  of  glucinium 
(5*64). — Action  of  oxygen  on  acid  chlorides,  bromides,  and 
iodides;  compounds  of  aluminium,  by  M.  Berthelot. — On 
the  movements  of  storms,  by  M.  Fayc. — On  the  whirlpools 
of  watercourses,  by  M,  Belgrand.  He  notices  some  phe- 
nomena of  streams  as  illustrating  M.  Faye*s  theory. — Obser- 
vations on  the  nature  of  the  plants  collected  in  the  group  of 
Nmggerathia ;  types  of  N./Uibeliata^  Lindl.  and  Hutt.,  and  N. 
cychpteroidis^  Goepp.,  by  M.  de  SaporU.— The  conidia  of 
Polyporus  sulfureus^  BuD,  and  their  development,  by  M.  de 
Seynes.— Action  of  the  sun  on  the  magnetic  and  electric  fluids 
of  the  earth,  by  M.  Quet.  The  subject  is  treated  mathemati- 
cally,— On  the  linear  differential  equation  which  connects  with 
the  modulus  the  complete  function  of  the  first  species,  by  M. 
Tannery, — On  the  kinematics  of  continuous  fi^gures  on  curved 
surfaces,  and,  in  general,  in  plane  or  curved  varieties,  by  M, 
Levy,— Actlnometric  measurements  made  in  Algeria  during  the 
summer  of  1877,  by  M.  Violle.  These  were  partly  made  in  the 
dry  Saharan  climate  of  Laghouat,  466  kilom.  south  of  Algiers, 
partly  at  Fagrait,  a  height  of  993  m.,  and  at  Khanza,  740  in. 
ower.     The  method  >vas  the  same  as  M.  Violle  used  on  the  top 


of  Mont  Blanc  two  years  ago.  The  numbers  obtained  for  the  solar 
constant  in  the  former  case,  by  Pouillet's  and  Forbes*  f ormnlae,  were 
2*40  and  2*42  ;  both  less  than  2*54,  the  value  got  on  the  top  of 
Mont  Blanc  The  ratio  of  the  intensities  of  solar  radiation  in 
the  plain  and  on  the  mountain  was  0*915. — On  astronomical 
refraction,  b^  M.  Makarevitsch.— On  the  physical  properties 
and  the  spednc  heat  of  glucinium,  by  MM.  Nilson  and  Pettersson. 
They  obtained  large  quantities  of  crystalline  glucinium  by  heat- 
ing to  a  red  heat  a  cylindrical  mass  of  iron,  containing,  in  a  hole 
closed  with  a  screw,  some  of  the  chloride  and  some  sodluin  freed 
from  its  oil  of  naphtha.  The  compound  of  marine  salt  and 
glucinium  foimd  after  cooling,  is  washed  with  water,  and  the 
reduced  metal  (impture)  appears  in  bright  spangles,  or  dendrite, 
or  small  globules.  The  density  of  pore  glucinium  is  calcnlated 
to  be  1*64 ;  specific  heat  0*4084.  The  atomic  weight  Bc=  I3-S» 
and  the  formula  for  the  oxide  Be^Oj  (assigned  by  Berzelins)  a-  ♦^ 
confirmed. — On  a  reaction  peculiar  to  some  polyatomic  alcoho/s 
by  M.  Klein.  It  is  shown  that  all  the  ethers  of  mannite  and 
its  derivatives  possess  rotatory  power, — On  a  new  method  of 
separation  of  arsenic  from  other  metals,  by  MM.  Dc  Clemvnt 
and  FrommeL  This  is  based  on  the  fact  that  while  a  large 
number  of  hydrates  of  sulphides  are  dissociated  at  loo*"  into 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  oxide,  sulphide  of  arsenic  is  the 
only  one  which  gives  a  soluble  oxide,  arsenions  add.  Hence,  if 
a  nuxture  of  sulphide  of  arsenic  and  other  sulphides  be  brought 
to  boiling,  the  sulphides  will  all  be  oxidised,  and  remain  hi* 
soluble  in  the  vrater,  except  arsenioas  add,  which  may  then  be 
easily  isolated, — On  mdilotol,  b^  Mr.  Phipson.  This  is  a  new 
oily  product  got  by  distilling  with  water,  dried  MtHiatus  ^jfki- 
na/iSf  then  treating  the  distilled  water  with  ether  which  dissoivcs 
the  substance,  so  that  it  is  p)t  very  pure  after  evaporation.  To 
it  is  due  the  odour  of  meblot^  and  hay. — Telephone  employed 
as  galvanoscope,  by  M,  D^ArsonvaL  The  worst  cons^nctcd 
instrument  is  round  to  be  at  least  100  times  more  seuFitive  than 
the  nerve  for  revealing  weak  dectric  tensions.  It  is  very  well 
adapted  for  studying  the  electric  tetanus  of  musde, — On  anthrax 
in  the  horse  and  Uie  dog;  i^ogogenic  action  of  anthradc 
blood,  by  M,  Toussaint.  The  phl(^;ogenic  matter  accompany- 
ing the  bacterides  is  more  or  less  active  according  to  the  source 
whence  these  latter  come. — On  the  epoch  of  formation  of  ilwt  ^ 
cloaca  in  the  embryo  of  the  common  fowl,  by  M.  Cadiat.  ^ 

GOTTINGEN 

Royal  Society  of  Sciences,  January  5. — On  a  class  of 
difleroitial  eq|uatioa8  which  are  in^^rable  by  Abd's  or  dUptic 
functions,  by  M.  Fucfas.— On  the  aflfiiities  and  systematic  signifi. 
cance  of  Ctroxylon  andkola^  .1^  ML  Dmde, — Some  w<»d8  on  the 
origin  of  language,  by  M.  Bniiey. 


CONTENTS  p^GE 

Thb  Application  op  Elbctricity  to  Railway  Working  {)Viih 

lUuttrati^Hi) 401 

Trollopb's  "  South  Africa  " 463 

Our  Book  Shblf  :  ~ 

Hovelacque's  "  Science  of  Language  '* 464 

LSTTBRS  TO  THB  EoiTOR  '.-~ 

An  of  the  Sun  in  Reladoo  to  Evolution.— Jambs  Croli.,  F.R.S.  464 

The  Age  of  the  Earth.- W.  M.  FundbrsTbtrib 465 

The  "  Eurydice  "  Squall.— Ralph  Abbrcromby 466 

Leidcfnfrost*!  Phenomenon.— Wm.  Garnktt  (IfVM  lllustrutitm)  466 

Trajectories  of  Shot.— W.  D.  Nivbn 466 

The  DayUffht  Meteor  of  Mardi  25.  ~T.  P.  Barkas 467 

Meteor.— P.  T.  Mott 467 

To  Entomologists.— Dr.  Paul  MaYbr 467 

Gbographical  Notbs  :— 

Royal  Geographical  Scdcty  Medals 467 

Africa 467 

Arctic  Exploration .  468 

Cairo  Geo^phical  Society 468 

South  America 466 

Ethnography  of  Russia 468 

TheYenissei 468 

TheWhang-ho 468 

Educatiomu  Voyage 468 

Paris  Geognmhical  Society 468 

Depths  of  Lakes 468 

German  Alpine  Club 468 

A  Li'NAR  Landscape 469 

Edison's  Talking  Machine.    By  Alfred  M.  Mayer  (M7M  ///«»• 

tratiftu) 469 

Thb  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Western  Europe,  Pakt  I.    By  Prof. 

Gbikib,  F.R.S 471 

Notes 473 

Underground  Temperature.    By  Prof.  Everett 47«> 

University  and  Edu^tional  Intelugence 478 

Scientific  Serials 478 

SOCIDEIES  AND  ACADEMIES 479 


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THURSDAY,  APRIL   i8,    1878 


THE  COMING  TOTAL  SOLAR  ECLIPSE 

I'^HERE  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  eclipse  which 
will  sweep  over  the  United  States  next  July  will  be 
observed  as  no  eclipse  has  ever  been  observed  before. 
The  wealth  of  men,  the  wealth  of  instruments,  and  die 
wealth  of  I  skill  in  all  matters  astronomical,  already  accu- 
mulated there,  makes  us  Old  Country  people  almost  gasp 
when  we  try  to  picture  to  ourselves  what  the  golden  age 
will  be  like  there,  when  ah-eady  they  are  so  far  ahead  of 
us  in  so  many  particulars. 

Draper,  Hall,  Harkness,  Holdcn,  Langley,  Newcomb, 
Peters,  Peirce,  Pickering,  Rutherfurd,  Trouvelot,  and 
last,  but  not  least.  Young,  are  the  names  that  at  once 
run  easily  ofT  the  pen  to  form  a  skeleton  list,  capable  of 
considerable  expansion  with  a  little  thought,  when  one 
thinks  of  the  men  who  will  be  there.  One  knows  too 
that  all  the  enthusiasm  of  devoted  students  and  all  the 
appliances  of  modem  science— appliances  in  the  creation 
of  which  many  of  those  named  have  borne  so  noble  a 
part— will  not  be  lacking.  So  that  we  may  be  sure  that 
not  only  all  old  methods  but  all  possible  new  ones  will  be 
tried  to  mak^  this  year  one  destined  to  be  memorable  in 
the  annals  of  science  side  by  side  with  1706,  1851,  18601, 
and  other  later  years. 

Thank  Heaven,  too,  there  is;no  necessity  that  the  thank- 
less Usk  of  organising  an  "Eclipse  Expedition'*  from 
this  country  should  fall  on  any  unfortunate  individual, 
among  other  reasons  because— and  this  is  a  very  hopeful 
sign  of  increasing  general  interest  taken  in  scientific 
work — Messrs.  Ismay,  Imray  and  Co.,  the  owners  of  the 
White  Star  Line,  have  expressed  in  the  warmest  manner 
their  desire  to  aid  English  observers  by  a  considerable 
reduction  of  fares,  and  the  directors  of  the  Pennsylvanian 
Railway  Company,  as  the  readers  of  Nature  have 
already  been  made  aware,  have  done  the  like  in  the  case 
of  observers  coming  from  Europe  in  their  individual 
capacity.^ 

The  progress  in  that  branch  of  knowledge  which 
requires  the  aid  of  eclipse  observations  has  been  so  rapid 
during  the  last  few  years  that  the  eclipse  of  1868,  though 
it  happened  only  ten  years  ago,  seems  to  be  as  far 
removed  from  the  present  as  the  Middle  Ages  are  in 
regard  to  many  other  branches  of  culture.  The  work 
done  by  the  spectroscope  since  that  year,  when  in  the 
hands  of  Janssen,  Pogson,  Herschel,  and  others,  it 
added  so  enormously  to  our  knowledge,  has  gradually 
covered  larger  and  larger  ground,  and  each  successive 
eclipse  in  1869,  1870,  1871  and  1875,  ^^  ^^^  waL<t 
variations  in  its  use,  so  that  its  employment  has  proved  the 
most  novel,  if  not  the  most  powerful,  side  of  the  attack. 

Young's  work  of  1869  will  no  doubt  form  the  key-note  of 
much  that  will  be  done  this  year  so  far  as  the  coronal  atmo- 
sphere is  concerned.  It  will  be  remembered  that  Young 
in  1869  observed  a  continuous  spectrum,  while  Janssen  in 
1 87 1  observed  a  non-continuous  one^  for  he  recorded  the 
presence  of  the  more  prominent  Fraunhofer  lines,  notably 
D.    This  positive  observation  from  so  distinguished  an 

I  In  fact  Mestn.  Ismay,  Immy  and  Co.  have  just  announced  that  they 
will  take  properly  certified  observers  and  bring  them  home  again  for  the  sum 
of  ao/.,  which  u  rather  less  than*  ist  claM  singU  fare;  so  that  English 
observers  wjl  be  carried  t?  Denver  or  the  Rodcy  MountMns  and  back  again 
for  the  sum  of  34/. 


Vol.  XVII.— Na  442 


observer  demands  attention,  not  only  on  its  own  account, 
but  because  of  the  question  which  hangs  upon  it,  which 
is  this :  Does  the  corona  reflect  solar  light  to  us  or  does 
it  not,  and  if  it  does,  where  are  those  particles  which  thus 
act  as  reflectors  ?  On  this  point  the  photographs  taken 
in  Siam  in  1875  arc  silent,  as  the  method  employed  was 
not  intended  to  discriminate  between  a  continuous  and  a 
discontinuous  spectnmi. 

But  although  this  point  remains,  how  greatly  has 
the  ground  been  cleared  since  1869.  That  wonderful 
line,  "  i474>''  is  more  familiar  to  us  now !  and  yet  there 
has  been  almost  a  chapter  of  accidents  about  it  In  the 
first  place,  with  regard  to  this  line  above  all  others, 
there  appears  to  be  a  mistake  in  Angstrom's  map; 
the  solar  line  at  1474  is  not  due  to  iron  at  all;  with 
the  most  powerful  arc  there  is  no  iron  line  to  be  seen 
there.  Then  Secchi  attributed  it  to  hydrogen,  though  I 
am  not  aware  on  what  evidence.  But  whatever  be  its 
origin,  the  fact  remains  that  we  now  know  by  its  means 
that  the  solar  hydrogen  is  traversed  and  enwrapped  by 
the  substance  which  gives  rise  to  the  line  to  an  enormous 
height,  so  that  it  forms  the  highest  portion  of  the  atmo- 
sphere which  is  hot  enough  to  render  its  presence 
manifest  to  us  by  spectral  lines.  Here,  so  far  as  I  know, 
only  one  point  of  diflerence  remains.  In  1871  I  most 
distinctly  saw  the  line  trumpet-shaped,  that  is,  with  the 
base  broadening  as  the  spectrum  of  the  photosphere  was 
reached,  while  Janssen  saw  it  stopping  short  of  the  spec- 
trum of  the  photosphere.  The  importance  of  this  point  is 
that  supposing  one  of  us  to  be  mistaken  and  one  or  other  ob- 
servation to  represent  a  constant  condition,  then,  if  the  line 
broadens  downwards  till  the  sun  is  reached  we  are  dealing 
with  a  gas  lighter  than  hydrogen,  capable  of  existing  at  a 
high  temperature,  which  thins  out  as  the  other  gases  and 
vapours  do  in  consequence  of  its  vapour  density  being 
below  that  of  hydrogen  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  line 
stops  short  as  a  constant  condition,  it  represents  a  sub- 
stance which  is  probably  dissociated  at  the  lower  levels, 
and  is  therefore  probably  a  compound  gas ;  and  then  the 
question  arises  whether  it  has  not  hydrogen  as  one  of  its 
constituents. 

Perhaps  I  may  conveniently  to  refer  to  a  paper  of  mine 
which  was  read  at  the  Royal  Society  last  Thursday  in 
this  connection,  because  it  may  be  that  the  solar  regions 
most  worthy  of  the  closest  study  at  the  present  time  are 
precisely  these  higher  reaches  of  the  sun*  s  atmosphere. 
There  is  little  doubt,  I  think,  that  around  thestm*s  visible 
atmosphere  matter  exists  at  a  temperature  low  enough  not 
to  give  us  its  autobiography  in  the  bright  line  manner, 
and  there  is  evidence  that  matter  existing  imder  such 
conditions,  absorbing  as  it  must  do  some  of  the  sim*s 
light,  will,  if  it  remains  elemental,  give  us  an  absorption 
of  the  fluted  kind,  or  again  will  absorb  only  in  the  blue 
or  ultra-violet  region. 

Now  the  more  the  chemistry  of  the  reversing  lower 
layer  of  the  sun*s  atmosphere— that  in  which  the  upper 
level  of  the  photosphere  is  bathed — is  examined  the  more 
metallic  is  it  found  to  be.  For  instance,  my  own  work 
has  enabled  me  to  trace  with  more  or  less  certainty 
eighteen  metallic  elements,^  in  addition  to  those  recorded 

X  These  are  strontium,  lead,  cadmium,  potasriuraj  cerium,  uranium,  vana 
dium,  ittlbuiium,  molybdenum,  indium,  lithium,  rubidium,  coesium,  bismuttab 
tin,  lanfhanum,  glucinum,  and  yttrium  or  erbium. 


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[April  18,  1878 


by  previous  observers  ;  but  of  metalloids  in  this  region  I 
have  traced  none.  The  persistency  with  which  metal 
after  metal  revealed  itself  to  the  exclusion  of  the  metal- 
loids led  me  to  throw  out  the  idea  some  time  ago,  that 
perhaps  the  metalloids  lay  as  a  whole  above  the  metals, 
and  shortly  afterwards  I  obtained  evidence  which  seemed 
to  me  of  a  very  satisfactory  nature  as  to  the  existence  of 
carbon,  its  presence  in  the  sun*s  atmosphere  being  ren- 
dered probable  by  fluted  bands,  and  not  by  lines.  There 
were  two  points,  however,  which  remained  to  be  settled 
before  the  matter  could  be  considered  to  be  placed  be- 
yond all  doubt. 

The  first  was  to  establish  that  the  fluted  bands  gene- 
rally present  in  the  spectrum  of  the  electric  arc,  as  pho- 
tographed, which  bands  vary  very  considerably  in 
strength  according  to  the  volatility  of  the  metal  under 
experiment,  were  really  bands  of  carbon— a  point  denied 
by  Angstr6m  and  Thal^n. 

This  point  I  have  settled  by  two  photographs,  in  which 
the  carbon  bands  remain  the  same,  though  one  spectrum 
is  that  of  carbon  in  air,  the  other  of  carbon  in  dry 
chlorine. 

The  next  point  was  to  insure  accuracy  by  the  most 
positive  evidence  that  there  was  absolutely  no  shift  in  the 
carbon  bands.  Such  a  shift  is  produced  when  the  part 
of  the  arc  photographed  is  not  perfectly  in  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  axis  of  the  collimator  of  the  spectroscope.  Its 
effect  is  to  throw  the  lines  of  iron,  for  instance,  a  little  to 
the  right  or  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  Fraunhofer  lines  with 
which  they  really  correspond. 

I  have  now  obtained  a  photograph  which  supplies  such 
evidence.  There  are  metallic  lines  close  to  the  carbon 
bands  which  are  prolongations  of  Fraunhofer' s  lines, 
while  the  lines  which  I  have  already  mapped  at  W.  L.9 
39'27  and  39*295,  in  the  spectrum  of  iron,  are  also  abso- 
lute prolongations.  Therefore  there  is  no  shift  in  the 
carbon  flutings,  and  the  individual  members  of  the  fluted 
spectra  in  the  brightest  portion  are  absolute  prolongations 
of  a  fine  series  of  Fraunhofer  lines  in  the  ultra-violet. 

Now  how  does  this  connect  itself  with  observations  of 
t  he  upper  parts  of  the  solar  atmosphere  ? 

Angstr5m  has  already  shown  that  the  true  carbon  lines 
which  we  get  when  a  coil  and  jar  are  employed  are 
not  reversed  in  the  spectrum  of  the  sun,  and  I  have 
already  shown  that  the  calcium  spectrum  in  the  sun 
is  similar  to  the  spectnun  obtained  when  the  spark, 
and  not  the  arc,  is  employed.  Accompanying  the 
change  from  a  high  to  a  higher  temperature,  there  is 
a  change  in  the  intensity  of  the  lines —some  thicken, 
others  become  thinner.  We  can  only  match  the  relative 
thickness  of  the  solar  calcium  lines  by  employing  a  very 
powerful  coil  and  jar — so  powerful,  indeed,  that  the  lines, 
and  not  the  flutings,  of  carbon  would  be  visible  in  the 
spark  given  by  it.  It  is  fair  then  to  say  that  if  carbon  were 
present  with  the  calcium  /;/  the  sun's  reversing  layer^  we 
should  get  the  lines  of  carbon  when  we  get  the  calcium . 
lines  appearing  as  they  do. 

As  we  do  not  get  this  evidence,  we  are  driven  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  carbon  vapour  exists  not  only  in  a  more  com- 
plicated molecular  condition  (as  is  evinced  by  the  flutings) 
than  the  metallic  vapours  in  the  sun's  atmosphere,  but  at 
a  lower  temperature.  It  must,  therefore,  exist  above  the 
chromosphere^  that  is,  in  a  region  of  lower  temperature. 


Lower  pressure,  again,  is  indicated  by  the  feeble  reversal, 
so  that  everything  points  to  a  high  leveL 

The  question  is,  will  this  region  be  recognised  daring 
the  coming  eclipse  ? 

Coming  down  lower  we  reach  a  level  better  known,  and 
of  which,  perhaps,  the  interest  during  the  eclipse  will  now 
be  less,  if  we  except  the  possibilities  opened  out  to  us  by 
photography.     One  good  photograph  of  the  lines  visible 
in  the  lower  chromosphere  will  be  of  incalculable  value. 
Attempts  may  be   made  on  the  cusps  just  before    and 
after  totality,  and  if  only  one  of  these    succeeds   we 
shall  have  the  ordinary  solar  spectrum  as  a  scale.     If 
good   pictures   near    H    can    be    secured,    enough     in- 
formation   now   exists   for   that   region  to   enable    us 
to  determine  the  chemical  origin  of  the  bright   lines 
photographed.    These  remarks  apply  to  attempts  made 
with  spectroscopes  furnished  with  slits  in  the  ordinary 
way;    there  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  the  method 
utilised    for   the    Siam    eclipse   in    1875,  the    method 
suggested  by  Prof.  Young  and  myself  for  the    Indian 
Eclipse  of  1 87 1,  will  also  be  taken  advantage  of;  here 
the  chromosphere  itself  becomes  the  slit.    A  dispersed 
series  of  spectral  images  of  the  thing  itself,  instead  of 
the  spectrum  of  a  part  of  the  image  of  it  focussed  on  a  slit 
is  obtained,  the  position  of  each  image  in  the  spectnmi 
enabling  its  chemical  origin  to  be  ascertained  if  only  a 
comparison  spectrum  can  be  secured  at  the  same  time. 

In  1875,  in  the  expedition  to  Siam,  the  photographs 
of  this  nature  were  obtained  by  means  of  a  prism,  and 
the  results  obtained  by  that  expedition  led  me  to  think 
that,  possibly,  this  method  of  using  the  coronal  atmo- 
sphere as  a  circular  slit  might  be  applied  under  very 
favourable  conditions  if  the  prism,  or  train  of  prisms, 
hitherto  employed,  were  replaced  by  a  reflection  grating, 
with  which  the  generosity  of  Mr.  Rutherford  has  made 
many  of  us  familiar,  for  the  simple  reason  that^while  a 
prism  only  gives  lis  one  spectrum,  a  brilliant  grating 
placed  at  right  angles  to  an  incident  beam  gives  us 
spectra  of  different  orders,  so-called,  on  each  side  of  the 
line,  perpendicular  to  its  surface.  Of  these  two  or  three 
are  bright  enough  to  be  utilised  on  each  side,  so  that  we 
can  get  six  in  all. 

To  test  this  notion  I  made  the  following  experiment 
with  a  grating  given  to  me  by  Mr.  Rutherfurd.  This 
magnificent  instrument  contams  17,280  lines  to  the  inch, 
ruled  on  glass  and  silvered ;  its  brilliancy  is  remarkable. 

In  front  of  the  condenser  of  an  electric  lamp  adjusted 
to  throw  a  parallel  beam,  I  placed  a  circular  aperture, 
cut  in  cardboard,  forming  a  ring  some  2  inches  in  interior 
diameter,  the  breadth  of  the  ring  being  about  \  inch. 
This  was  intended  to  represent  the  chromosphere,  and 
formed  my  artificial  eclipse. 

At  some  distance  from  the  lamp  I  mounted  a  3|  inch 
Cooke  telescope.  Some  distance  short  of  the  focus 
I  placed  the  grating;  the  spectrum  of  the  circular  slit, 
illuminated  by  sodium  vapour  and  carbon  vapour  was 
photographed  for  the  first,  second,  and  third  orders  on 
one  side.  The  third  order  spectrum,  showing  the  exqui- 
site rings  due  to  the  carbon  vapour  flutings,  was  produced 
in  forty-two  seconds.  The  first  order  spectrum,  obtained 
in  the  same  period  of  time,  was  very  much  over-exposed. 
It  is,  therefore,  I  think,  not  expecting  too  much  that  we 


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qacstion  which  sooner  or  later  mnst  occapy  the  attention  it  de- 
serves, viz.,  the  best  means  of  collecting  and  arranging^  museoms 
for  the  purposes  of  instruction. 

How  few  of  those  who  visit  the  British  Museum  or  South 
Kensington,  amongst  the  less  instructed  portion  of  the  public  at 
least,  carry  away  any  distinct  reminiscence  of  what  they  have 
seen.  The  mind  is  bewildered  by  the  immense  number  of  objects 
presented  to  it  and  the  absence  of  any  sequence  in  the  arrange- 
ment by  which  to  assist  the  memory.  The  principles  which  are 
recognised  as  applicable  to  education  in  general  apply  equally  to 
the  arrangement  of  museums  in  so  far  as  their  educational 
functions  are  concerned,  and  consist,  not  in  overwhelming  the 
student  with  an  immense  accumulation  of  facts,  but  in  presenting 
to  his  mind  only  such  facts  as  are  important  or  typical,  and  in 
the  order  in  which  it  is  intended  they  should  be  remembered. 
The  order  in  which  the  knowledge  of  things  is  best  received  and 
retained  by  the  memory  is  precisely  that  in  which  the  things 
themselves  were  evolved ;  consequently,  the  arrangement  which 
in  a  museum  is  best  adapted  to  impart  instruction  Is  at  the  same 
time  that  which  best  records  the  history  of  the  things  exhibited. 
This  consideration  appears  to  determine  conclusively  the  arrange- 
ment which  ought  to  be  adopted  wherever  the  education  of  the 
public  is  the  object  to  be  attained,  but  museums,  whether  local 
or  national,  have  other  objects  besides  the  instruction  of  the 
public.  They  are  intended  for  (he  preservation  of  antiquities  and 
natural  history  objects,  many  of  which  are  not  yet  classified  and 
have  no  place  assigned  to  them,  and  which  consequently  cannot 
be  arranged  in  any  historic  sequence  such  as  I  have  alluded  to. 
They  should  afford  materials,  not  for  the  use  of  the  public  only, 
bat  for  savants^  in  promoting  original  research,  which  is  one  of 
their  most  important  functions,  and  which  ought  not  to  be 
sacrificed  for  the  benefit  of  the  common  herd  of  visitors,  and 
the  question  Is,  whether  these  distinct  objects  can  be  properly 
combined  in  one  museum  and  by  the  same  arrangement.  If 
my  own  experience  as  a  collector  may  be  relied  upon,  this  can- 
not be  the  case,  unless  an  educational  museum  is  collected  from 
the  first  with  a  view  to  sequence,  and  unless  this  object  is  kept 
steadily  in  view  whenever  any  addition  is  made  to  the  collection, 
it  will  miss  its  aim.  Take,  for  example,  the  case  of  the  British 
Museum,  which  has  accumulated  from  time  to  time  by  the 
accession  of  more  or  less  homogeneous  collections  which  have 
been  purchased  or  presented,  and  which  it  is  important  to  keep 
together.  Out  of  any  such  collection  it  is  prolmWe  that  only  a 
very  few  objects  could  be  regarded  as  typical  of  any  particular 
phase  of  development,  say  in  pottery,  sculpture,  or  glyptic  art, 
and  the  remainder,  altliough  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  anti- 
quary and  necessary  to  be  retained,  would  only  serve  to  confui-c 
any  arrangement  that  might  be  made  either  for  historic  or  edu- 
cational purposes.  Or  take  the  case  of  a  local  museum  in  any 
large  country  town.  Two  distinct  functions  present  themselves  : 
on  the  one  hand  it  is  of  use  in  preserving  the  antiquities  or 
natural  history  specimens  of  the  locality ;  on  the  other  hand  it 
.  should  consist  of  general  collections  scientifically  arranged  and 
classified  for  the  instruction  of  the  people  of  the  neighbourhood. 
We  are  brought  by  this  to  consider  the  advisability  of  having 
two  distinct  kinds  of  museums,  which  would  bear  pretty  much 
the  same  relation  to  one  another  that  a  glossary  of  scientific 
terms  would  bear  to  a  series  of  elementary  treatises  on  different 
sciences — the  one  might  be  termed  a  museum  of  reference,  the 
other  an  educational  museum;  the  first  arranged  geographi- 
cally, and  the  second  having  an  evolutionary  arrangement; 
the  one  special  and  the  other  general;  the  one  arranged 
by  finds  and  the  other  by  subjects;  the  one  comprising 
all  the  various  objects  that  can  be  brought  together  from  any 
particular  district  or  country,  and  the  other  consisting  only  of 
such  objects  as  may  be  selected  as  typical  or  as  forming  con- 
nectii^  links  of  development,  the  one  composed  exclusively  of 
ori'^inals,  aud  the  other  consistii^  in  great  part  of  casts,  repro- 
duction", ".nd  m:dels.  This  provision,  although  I  have  placed 
it  last  in  the  list  of  distinctive  function?,  is  by  no  means  the 
least  important  in  a  practical  point  of  view,  l>ecause  we  see  that 
by  this  means  the  two  institutions  ought  never  to  be  allowed  to 
cla'^h.  Not  only  are  reproductions  and  casts  as  usefiU  as 
originals  [for  the  purposes  of  instruction,  but  models,  in  some 
cases,  are  infinitely  preferable,  because  taking  less  room. 
Might  it  not  serve  to  clear  our  ideas  if  we  could  arrive  at  the 
principle  of  utilising  our  existing  institutions  so  as  to  serve  the 
two  distinct  purposes  above  discuiised,  retaining  the  British 
Museum  as  a  museum  of  reference,  devoting  South  Kensington 
exclusively   to    the    purpores  of    education    and    evolutionary 


arrangement,  and  separating  the  loan  coUections  as  a  branch 
distinct  from  both.  By  this  means  we  should  be  enabled  to 
cany  out  the  objects  contemplated  by  Lordi  WiuHmclifTe's 
motion,  not  conBning  ourselves  to  statuary  alone,  but  orga- 
nising coUections  to  illustrate  the  history  of "  various  other 
branches  of  art  and  industry,  each  coihmencing  with  the  rude 
production  of  savage  and  prehistoric  man,  and  ending  with 
the  complex  contrivances  of  oiur  own  time.  Each  year  the  Mmis 
hitherto  devoted  to  annual  exhibitions  would  be  applied  to 
perfecting  and  re-arranging  the  collection,  casting  out  some  and 
replacing  them  by  others  more  strictly  representative  in  their 
character.  The  final  result  would  be  a  museum  of  super-orgauic 
evolution  worthy  of  the  nation  and  of  any  labour  that  might  be 
bestowed  upon  it.  It  mijht  be  thought,  perhaps,  that  to  carry 
out  such  a  system  representing  any  considerable  number  of  arts 
and  sciences,  unbounded  space  would  be  lequb-ite,  but  when  it 
is  remembered  that  the  specimens  would  be  rigidly  confined  to 
such  as  represented  a  distinct  step  of  development,  excludin<f  all 
abnormal  excrescences,  it  is  evident  that  the  number  of  objects 
required  for  any  particular  series  would  be  limited. 

My  own  collection  of  savage  and  prehistoric  objects  now  exhibited 
at  Bethnal  Green  has  been  collected  upon  this  system  during  the 
last  twenty  years,  and  although  the  effectual  carrying  out  of  the 
plan  has  been  limited  by  the  means  at  my  disposal,  enough  has 
been  done  to  show  that  a  considerable  number  of  subjects  may 
be  represented  without  any  extravagant  demand  on  space. 
Weapons,  pottery,  early  ship-building,  personal  ornament, 
carving  and  sculpture,  musical  iastruments,  early  or  savage 
drawings,  clothing,  early  writing,  objects  illustrating  the  origin 
and  use  of  fire,  religious  emblems,  &c.,  are  exhibit^  reparately 
in  cases  ocaipying  the  basement  on  one  side  of  the  building,  and 
several  cases  are  devoted  to  the  distribution  and  development  of 
particular  forms  of  ornament.  The  long  rooms  in  the  Exhibition 
buildings  at  South  Kensington  are  admu^bly  adapted  for  the 
extension  of  this  system.  Probably  the  best  arrangement  would 
be  to  devote  the  whole  range  of  the  side  walls  to  objects  laid  out 
in  historic  sequence  and  to  place  in  cares  opposite  each  successive 
stage  of  art,  objects  belonging  to  existing  peoples  which  corre- 
spond most  nearly  to  the  historic  or  prehistoric  fc<iuence  on  the 
opposite  side ;  by  this  means  both  ancient  and  modern  phases 
would  be  represented,  and  survivals  where  they  occur  could  be 
traced  to  their  source^.  A.  Lane  Fox 


The  Phonograph 

In  reference  to  Prof.  Mayer's   account  and  Prof.  Fleeming 

ienkins's  letters,  I  may  say  that  I  had  an  opportunity  of  an 
our's  observation  of  a  phonograph  coastructed  by  Mr.  Strob, 
42A,  Hampstead  Road,  on  April  3,  at  the  invitation  of  Prof. 
Graham  Bell.  The  difTerence  between  words  produced  from 
the  phonograph  and  those  spoken  into  it  gave  me  the  same 
feeling  as  the  difference  between  a  worn  print  and  an  early  proof 
of  an  engraving.  When  the  words  were  uttered  loualy  and 
slowly  and  repeated  rather  faster,  it  was  easy  to  catch  the  sense 
and  meaning,  but  I  doubt  whether  unknown  English  words 
would  be  recognised,  and  certainly  unknown  foreign  words  would 
present  insuperable  difficulties.  I  should  myself  find  the  phono- 
graph as  at  present  constructed  quite  sufficient  for  my  own  pur- 
poses of  registering  pronunciation,  especially  delicate  shades  of 
dialectal  utterance.  Some  words,  as  ja*,  almost  disappear.  Both 
ee  and  00  are  difficult  vowels,  so  that  Prof.  Bell  at  first  thought 
that  the  first  sounded  like  the  second,  while  in  reality  both  are 
altered  to  indistinct  sounds  that  I  do  not  remember  to  have  heard 
in  speech.  The  resemblance  is  so  great,  however,  that  btte,  bout 
could  not  be  distinguished,  though  one  ends  nearly  with  ee  and 
the  other  nearly  with  00,  and  there  is  no  other  difference  in  the 
words.  The  vowels  a/,  oa^  as  in  bait^  boat^  are  also  poor  ;  aa^ 
au,  as  in  baa^  haul^  are  really  the  only  good  ones.  Hence  I  feel 
totally  unable  to  sneak  positively  as  to  the  change  of  vowel 
quality  by  altering  the  rapidity  of  rotation  and  therefore  pitch. 
As  far  as  I  could  observe  the  quality  did  change,  as  it  does  in 
speech.  We  tried  pronouncing  words  backwards,  sometimes  with 
good  success,  but  as  might  be  expected,  even  when  the 
effects  were  recognisable,  they  were  not  always  true.  Thus, 
aabaa,  aadaa,  passed  muster,  but  aajaa  failed.  The  instrument 
is,  however,  not  delicate  enough  to  bring  out  there  dilTerenccs. 
The  mechanical  obstacle  of  the  tin-foil,  which  has  to  be  in- 
dented, and  offers  too  much  resistance,  seems  to  be  the  caure  of 
this.  Such  a  word  as  Scots,  when  sung  rapidly,  at  the  beginning 
of  Scots  wha  hoe,  degenerated  almost  into  the  simple  vowel,  the 


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initial  and  final  s  were  quite  lost,  and  the  action  of  the  mutes, 
r,  /,  was  almost  nil. 

The  invention  is  highly  interesting^,  the  effects  at  present  pro- 
duced are  sometimes  startling  (as  in  cries,  coughs,  laughter, 
music),  the  philosophy  of  the  process  (taking  a  permanent  im- 
pression of  a  very  complex  compound  vibration,  and  using  it  as 
a  mould  to  reproduce  that  vibration)  is  exceedingly  attractive, 
but  at  present  the  instrument — at  least  that  one  which  I  saw, 
differing  in  many  respects  from  the  one  described  by  Prof. 
Mayer — has  not  risen  beyond  a  lecture  illustration  or  a  philoso- 
phical toy.  Alexander  J.  Ellis 

April  13 

Phoneidoscopic  Representation  of  Vowels  and 
Diphthongs 

Perhaps  your  correspondent,  Mr.  Sedley  Taylor,  would 
kindly  test  with  his  phoneidoscope  the  propriety  of  calling  the 
English  combinations  «j,  ae,  oe,  U  diphthongs,  and  the  simple 
vowel  /,  as  pronounced  in  the  personal  pronoun,  a  simple  sound. 
Perhaps  also  the  English  a  (as  in  **  nanu'*)  may  be  regarded  as 
a  diphthong.  In  Otto's  German  Grammar,  the  German  com- 
binations Off  oe^  u€y  are  classed  as  modified  vowels.  I  fancy  oe 
is  a  diphthong,  though  in  rapid  speech  it  becomes  more  like  the 
simple  sound  iu,  J.  II.  Blakesley 

Linden,  Hannover,  April  11 


The  Acoustical  Properties  of  Soap  Films. 

In  connection  with  the  interesting  results  recently  oblainetl 
by  Mr.  Sedley  Taylor  upon  the  acoustic  properties  of  .soap- 
films,  as  exhibited  in  the  simple  and  beautiful  instrument  which 
he  has  termed  the  Phoneidoscope,  I  should  like  to  call  attention 
to  the  following  passage  published  in  1873  by  Prof.  E.  Mach, 
of  Prague,  in  his  Optisck-AkusHsche  VersucTu:— 

"  Bei  dieser  Gelegenheit  kann  ens^hnt  werden,  dassdie 
Plateau'schen  Fliissigkeitshautchen  sich  vorzUglich  zum  Studium 
der  Membranschwingungen  eignen.  Eine  solche  Fliissigkeits- 
haut  vor  eine  tonende  Pfeife  ^bracht  zeigt  mebt  mehrere 
Bauche.  Ein  Lichtpunkt,  der  sich  in  der  Membran  spiegelt, 
gibt  mehrere  glanzende  geschlo.ssene  Curven," 

After  some  remarks  on  the  low  tones  to  which  these  films 
vibrate,  and  on  their  vibrations  to  the  upper  partial  tones,  the 
author  passes  on  to  another  subject  with  the  remark :— **  Ich 
erwahne  diese  Experimente,  weil  sie  vielleicht,  weiter  verfolgt, 
zur  Beantwortung  mancher  Fragen  iiber  Membranschwingungen 
beitragen  konnen." 

There  is  no  mention,  however,  of  the  rotating  pairs  of 
coloured  vortices  noticed  b^  Mr.  Sedley  Taylor.  Brewster 
appears  to  have  observed  similar  phenomena  (sec  Edin,  Trans.  ^ 
vol.  xxiv,  **0n  Colours  of  Soap  Bubbles,"  &c.)  as  the  result  of 
directed  currents  of  air  upon  films.  I  have  found  that  the 
vortices  are  also  produced  when  a  small  lightly  vibrating  tunii^- 
fork,  having  its  prongs  previously  wetted  with  soap  solution,  is 
made  to  touch  a  flat  soap  film  produced  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Silvanus  P.  Thompson 

University  College,  Bristol,  April  5 

Cumulative  Temperature 

'  The  idea  of  a  clock  with  an  uncompensated  pendulum  for 
temperature  integration  referred  to  by  Mr.  Cooke  (Nature, 
vol.  xvii.  p.  323  and  p.  448)  has  probably  occurred  to  many 
persons,  and  was  proposed  by  me  in  1840 ;  I  found,  however, 
that  it  was  not  new  then.  Forbes  says  in  his  Report  on 
Meteorology  (Brit.  Assoc.  Report,  1832,  p.  213):— **  A  me- 
chanical mode  of  taking  the  mean  of  an  infinite  number  of 
temperatures  has  been  proposed  by  M.  Grassman,  by  observing 
the  change  of  rate  caused  by  the  influence  of  temperature  upon 
the  uncompensated  pendulum  of  a  clock  {Poggmdorff,  1825). 
The  idea  is  a  good  one,  but  was  proposed  long  ago  by  Dr. 
Bre^vster  (*  ^inburgh  Encyclopaedia,'  art.  Atmospheric 
Clock).**  The  chief  merit  in  this  matter  will  belong  to  the 
person  who  puts  the  idea  into  a  working  form  which  can  be 
proved  capable  of  giving  accurate  results. 
April  9  B. 

The  Southern  Trought 

In  response  to  your  question  appended  to  my  letter  in  the 
last  number  of  Nature,  I  am  able  to  give  you  the  time  of  the 


last  great  drought  in  the  Gilbert  Islands.  In  1870  I  visited 
these  and  several  other  islands  in  the  South  Pacific  (an  ac- 
count of  my  cruise  appeared  in  Dr.  VeXermzsKOiS  MiUhriium^en 
for  June,  1 871),  and  at*"that  time  there  was  a  very  general 
drought.  I  was  among  the  ^Gilbert  Islands  daring  October,  and 
found  that  no  rain  had  fallen  there  for  several  month';.  The 
cocoa-nut  and  pandanur -trees,  upon  which  the  people  alroon 
entirely  depend  for  food,  were  very  much  dried  up,  and  the  frn:t 
upon  them  were  small,  both  in  quantity  and  in  sixc.  lliis 
drought  continued  for  two  years  after  my  visit,  and  the  famine 
became  so  severe  that  many  of  the  people  were  starved  to  death. 
Had  it  not  been  for  the  fi.-h  they  procured,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  of  them  would  have  survived,  for  the  cocoa-nut  and  pandanuf  • 
trees  ceased  to  yield  fruit,  and  the  poor  people  were  obliged  to 
chew  the  roots  of  the  tree?. 

Since  that  time  I  have  heard  of  another  season  durin^^  which 
there  was  little  rain,  in  c  )nsequence  of  which  there  was  com- 
parative scarcity,  but  this  was  not  to  be  compared  with  the  great 
drought  of  1 870- 1 872. 

I  regret  to  say  no  long-continued  observations  on  the  rainfall 
have  been  made  in  Samoa.  My  own  time  was  so  fully  occupied 
with  other  matters,  during  my  residence  there,  that  I  neglected 
this  one.  As  the  droughts  there  have  not  been  great  enon^jh  t^ 
cause  anything  like  distress,  the  periods  of  their  occurrence  hav<r, 
unfortunatelv,  not  been  recorded.  S.  J.  Whitmee 

Blackhcath,  April  5 

Research  in  Libraries 

Before  this  "voice  from  Australia"  can  reach  Loml  »n,  I 
hope  that  some  steps  will  have  been  taken  towards  carry in;^  out 
Dr.  Mallet's  valuable  suggestion  (Nature,  vol.  xvi.  p.  457)  so 
far  as  regards  the  British  Museum  and  other  leading  European 
libraries. 

The  benefit  of  the  proposed  arrangement  would,  I  am  sane, 
be  felt  in  Australia  as  much  as  in  America.  Anybody  living 
here,  in  the  North  of  Queensland,  who  may  wish  to  constilt  a 
scientific  book  must  take  a  sea  voyage  of  700  or  1,100  miles  at 
a  cost  of  16/.  or  20/.  in  money  and  at  least  a  fortnight  or  three 
weeks  in  time.  It  may  happen  that  one  has  a  busy  friend  in 
the  library  city  who  will  undertake  the  search  through  good- 
nattire,  but  most  people  would  prefer  to  employ  a  competent 
man  who  would  do  so  as  a  matter  of  business. 

Should  the  trustees  or  directors  of  the  ^eat  libraries  hesitate 
(and  they  may)  to  accept  the  responsibility  of  recomme!iding 
searchers,  probably  it  would  answer  nearly  as  well  if  the 
searchers  were  to  advertise  references  to  well-known  scientific  or 
literary  men.  Perhaps  a  hint  might  be  taken  from  the  Register 
House  in  Edinburgh.  Titles  to  land  in  Scotland  require  registra- 
tion for  their  completion.  A  purchaser,  to  satisfy  himself  that  the 
seller  has  not  previously  alienated  or  burdened  the  subjects,  has  to 
overhaul  the  books  of  the  register.  This  is  done  for  him  as  a  rule 
by  professional  searcher.*,  some  of  whom  are  ofiicial  and  some  " 
unofficial.  The  system  has  worked  admirably  for  some  centuries 
I  believe.     Any  Scotch  lawyer  could  explain  its  details. 

The  subdivision  of  labour  suggested  by  Dr.  Mallet  would 
enable  a  much  higher  use  to  be  made  of  the  system  than  the 
mere  hunting-up  of  references.  For  example,  if  there  were  a 
searcher  in  Paris— a  well-read  geologist— to  whom  I  could 
intrust  an  order  for  '*any  references  in  French  geographical 
works  bearing  on  the  date  of  the  erosion  of  the  terrace  between 
the  Queensland  coast  range  and  the  Pacific,'*  or  some  such 
information,  what  possibilities  would  open  out  to  the  dwellers  in 
distant  isles,  nay,  even  to  the  comparatively  privileged  inhabitants 
of  Lx)ndon  itself?  Robert  L.  Jack 

Geological  Survey  Office,  Towasville,  Queensland,  Jan.  14 


Mimicry  in  Birds 

With  reference  to  the  correspondence  on  this  subject  which 
has  recently  ajieared  in  Nature,  may  I  add  the  following 
instance,  wnich  has  fallen  under  my  own  obser\'ation  ? — 

On  the  coast  of  Kent  is  a  tract  of  land  protected  from  the  sea 
by  an  embankment  of  shingle,  and  known  as  the  **  Reculver 
Marsh."  It  is  frequented  by  skylarks  and  ring-plovers.  Almost 
all  these  larks  have  incorporated  the  well-known  alarm  note  of 
the  plovers  into  their  song.  With  such  distinctness  is  this  double 
note  brought  in,  that  the  first  time  I  heard  it  I  could  with  diffi- 
culty convince  myself  that  it  was  not  uttered  by  jEpa/i/h 
hiaticula. 


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In  the  surroundiiig  district,  where  larks  are  equally  ntunerous, 
I  have  never  detected  the  peculiar  note. 

This  power  of  imitating  the  son|^  of  birds  is  well  known  to 
bird-fanciers  and  dealers ;  hence  birds  taken  from  the  nest  are 
considered  worthless  by  those  who  admire  the  natural  song.  I 
myself  had  a  Siskin  that  sang  the  goldfinch's  song,  and  a  nuthatch 
thit  I  sent  to  a  bird  show  came  fiick  with  a  wonderful  medley 
of  notes,  of  which  he  seemed  extremely  proud,  the  call-note 
of  the  canary  and  several  notes  of  the  blackbird  being  amongst 
those  I  could  dearly  recognise.  J.  Young 

Netting  Hill 


Harrow  School  Bathiug- Place 

Will  you  kindly  allow  me  to  appeal  throu|;h  your  columns 
for  suggestions  how  to  cure  a  nuisance  which  we  suffer  from 
year  after  year  in  our  bathing-place  here,  and  for  which  we  have 
as  yet  found  no  remedy  ? 

The  water  which  is  pumped  into  the  bath  from  a  considerable 
depth  is  beautifully  clear  at  the  beginning  of  the  season,  but  as 
soon  as  the  weather  becomes  hot  and  the  rays  of  the  sun  attain 
power,  countless  filaments,  consisting  of  confervae,  &c.,  spring 
up  from  the  brick  floor  of  the  bath,  and  push  their  way  rapidly 
to  the  siurface,  the  depth  of  the  water  varying  from  about  four 
feet  to  six  feet.  As  the  boys  plunge  from  the  side  into  the  water 
and  swim  about  the  bath  these  long  wavy  stems  are  shivered  into 
myriads  of  fragments,  which  collect  on  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  form  there  a  disagreeable  and  uglv  scuip,  which  de- 
tracts not  a  little  from  the  pleasure  of  bathing  during  a  gr^t 
part  of  the  summer  term.  We  have  taken  some  pains  to  dis- 
cover a  remedy  for  this,  whether  by  chemical  or  other  means,  but 
as  yet  have  been  quite  unsuccessful.  The  weed  reappears  in  equal 
exuberance  year  after  year  and  we  are  helpless.  It  any  of  ypur 
rcEuders  can  contribute  to  the  removal  of  this  annual  plague,  he 
would  confer  a  great  benefit  on  the  school,  and  any  practical 
suggestions  would  be  gratefully  received  either  by  G.  Griffith, 
Esq.,  Harrow,  or  by  Arthur  G.  Watson 

Harrow,  April  8 


London  Clay  Fossils 

I  SHOULD  be  glad  if  any  of  the  contributors  to  Nature 
would  kindly  inform  me  of  any  fossiliferoos  sections  of  the 
London  clay  at  present  open  in  the  immediate  ne^hboorhood 
of  London.  Many  of  those  named  in  Whitaker's  "  Geology  of 
Londor,"  such  as  Hi^hgate,  Hampstead  Heath,  &c.,  are  closed, 
while  others  at  Lewisluim,  &c.,  yield  no  fossils  except  a  few 
fragments  of  wood.  Hermann  H.  Hoffert 

South  Kensington  Science  Schools,  April  15 


Meteor 


As  the  meteor  of  April  2  was.  Feen  at  Ashwell,  Herts,  and 
>vith  much  the  same  cotu^e  and  splendour  as  observed  at 
Leicester  (but  without  any  accompanymg  sound),  it  must  have 
been  very  much  further  off  than  your  Leicester  correspondent 
imagines. 

So  bright  a  meteor,  falling  so  early  in  the  evening,  cannot 
fail  to  have  been  much  observed.         H.  GEORGE  Fordham 

Odsey  Grange,  Royston,  Herts 


The  Nightingale 

In  case  you  have  received  no  earlier  communication  to  a 
similar  effect,  yon  may  possibly  think  it  worth  while  to  record 
that  I  heard  a  nightingale  twice  on  the  14th  instant,  in  a  planta- 
tion by  the  side  of  Hanger  Lane,  in  Ealing.  It  was  but  an 
abortive  song,  such  as  the  first  of  the  season  is  very  apt  to  be,  as 
if  he  were  rather  shy  of  the  sound  of  his  own  voice.  But  there 
was  enough  of  it  to  leave  no  possible  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of 
the  performer.  I  may  add  that  I  have  in  previous  years  heard 
him  in  the  same  spot  two  or  three  days  earlier  than  elsewhere 
in  this  neighbourhood. 

I  heard  the  wryneck  (**  cuckoo's  mate  ")  also  several  times  on 
the  same  day  in  Gunnersbory  and  Hanger  Lanes,  having  heard 
him  once  the  previous  afternoon  (13th)  m  Kew  Gardens. 

Gunnersbuiy,  April  16  G,  J.  Pearse 


FLOATING  MAGNETS^ 

FOR  one  of  my  little  books  of  the  Experimental 
Science  Series  I  have  devised  a  system  of  expe- 
riments which  illustrate  the  action  of  atomic  forces,  and 
the  atomic  arrangement  in  molecules,  in  so  pleasing  a 
manner  that  I  think  these  experiments  should  be  known 
to  those  interested  in  the  study  and  teaching  of  physics. 

A  dozen  or  more  of  No.  5  or  6  sewing  needles  are 
magnetised  with  their  points  of  the  same  polarity,  say 
north.  Each  needle  is  run  into  a  small  cork,  \  in.  long 
and  ^  in.  in  diameter^  which  is  of  such  size  that  it  just 
floats  the  needle  in  an  upright  position.  The  eye  end  of 
the  needle  just  comes  through  the  top  of  the  cork. 

Float  three  of  these  vertical  magnetic  needled  in  a  bowl 
of  water,  and  then  slowly  bring  down  over  them  the  N. 
pole  of  a  rather  large  cylindrical  magnet.  The  mutually 
repellent  needles  at  once  approach  each  other  and  finally 
arrange  themselves  at  the  vertices  of  an  equilateral 
triangle,  thus  .*.  .  The  needles  come  nearer  together 
or  go  further  away  lis  the  magnet  above  them  approaches 
them  or  is  removed  from  them.  Vibrations  of  the  magnet 
up  and  down  cause  the  needles  to  ribrate,  the  triangle 
formed  by  them  alternately  increasing  and  diminishing 
in  size. 

On  lifting  the  magnet  vertically  to  a  distance,  the 
needles  mutually  repel  and  end  by  taking  up  positions  at 
the  rertices  of  a  triangle  inscribed  to  the  bowl. 

Four  floating  needles  take  these  two  forms 


Five 


Six 


Seven        „  „  „  ... 

I  have  obtained  the  figures  up  to  the  combination  of 
twenty  floating  needles.  Some  of  these  forms  are  stable; 
others  are  unstable,  and  are  sent  into  the  stable  forms  by 
vibration. 

These  experiments  can  be  varied  without  end.  It  is 
certainlv  interesting  to  see  the  mutual  effect  of  two  or 
more  vibrating  systems,  each  ruled  more  or  less  by  the 
motions  of  its  own  superposed  magnet ;  to  witness  the 
deformations  and  decompositions  of  one  molecular  ar- 
rangement by  the  vibrations  of  a  neighbouring  group,  to 
note  the  changes  in  form  which  take  place  when  a  larger 
magnet  enters  the  combination,  and  to  see  the  deforma- 
tion of  groups  produced  by  the  side  action  of  a  magnet 
placed  near  the  bowl. 

In  the  vertical  lantern  these  exhibitions  are  suggestive 
of  much  thought  to  the  student.  Of  course  they  are 
merely  suggestions  and  illustrations  of  molecular  actions 
and  forms,  for  they  exhibit  only  the  results  of  actions  in 
a  plane ;  so  the  student  should  be  careful  how  he  draws 
conclusions  from  them  as  to  the  grouping  and  mutual 
actions  of  molecules  in  space. 

I  will  here  add  that  I  use  needles  floating  vertically  and 
horizontally  in  water  as  delicate  and  mobile  indicators  of 
magnetic  actions,  such  as  the  determination  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  poles  in  magnets,  and  the  displacement  of  the 
lines  of  magnetic  force  during  inductive  action  on  plates 
of  metal,  at  rest  and  in  motion. 

The  vibratory  motions  in  the  lines  of  force  in  the  Bell 
telephone  have  been  studied  from  the  motions  of  a  needle 
(floating  vertically  under  the  pole  of  the  magnet),  caused 
by  moving  to  and  fro  through  determined  distances,  the 

*  A  note  on  Experiments  with  Floating  Magnets,  by  Alfred  M.  Mayer. 
Reprinted  from  the  Americ^iH  JoHmal  0/ Science, 


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thin  iron  plate  in  front  of  this  inagnet.  These  experi- 
ments are  worth  repeating  by  those  who  desire  clearer 
conceptions  of  the  manner  of  action  of  that  remarkable 
instrument. 


SUN-SPOTS  AND  TERREST^RIAL  MAGNETISM 

IN  a  remarkable  article  on  ''La  M^t^rologie  Cosmique/' 
which  has  appeared  in  the  Annuaire  of  the  Bureau 
des  Longitudes,  for  1878,  M.  Faye  says  with  reference  to 
the  influence  of  sonspots  on  the  earth's  magnetism,  that 
the  observations  of  Cassini  "  give  1787*25  for  the  date  of 
the  maximum  observed  then  at  Paris,  whilst  the  latest 
observations — those  of  Mr.  Broun,  himself  at  Trevan- 
dium— assign  1870*85  for  the  epoch  of  the  last  maxi- 
mum. The  interval  is  83  60  years.  On  dividing  this  by 
8,  the  number  of  periods  in  this  intend,  10*45  ^ears,  are 
found  for  the  duration  of  the  period.  That  is  to  say, 
almost  exactly  the  value  already  found  by  Lamont  by 
means  of  his  own  observations  at  Munich.  The  period 
of  the  spots  deduced  by  M.  Wolf,  in  years,  not  being 
equal  to  that  for  the  magnetic  variations,  these  two 
phenomena  have  no  relation  to  each  other." 

I  desire  to  offer  a  remark  on  this  conclusion,  which 
seems  to  me  too  hasty.  On  examining  the  two  periodic 
series,  that  for  the  diurnal  variation  of  declination  and 
that  for  the  frequency  of  the  solar  spots,  we  see  that 
there  is  a  perfect  coincidence  in  their  phases  though  the 
length  of  successive  periods  is  not  constant.  We  may 
find  a  mean  length  of  ten,  eleven,  or  more  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  epoch  from  which  the  calculation  is  begun,  but 
we  shall  always  find  the  same  length  from  both  series  if 
we  commence  at  the  same  date. 

It  seems  to  me  then  that  the  true  way  to  determine 
whether  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between  the  two 
phenomena  is  to  compare  their  phases,  and  see  whether 
the  maxima  and  minima  of  the  one  coincide  with  those 
of  the  other.  If  there  is  identity  in  these  respects,  we 
must  without  doubt  find  the  same  mean  values  for  the 
periods. 

M.  Faye  accepts  the  date  1787*25  as  that  of  a  maxi- 
mum for  the  oscillations  of  the  declination.  If  we  look 
then  at  the  curve.  Fig.  2,  given  by  him  in  the  article  in 
question,  we  see  that  this  corresponds  exactly  with  a 
maximum  of  sun-spot  frequency.  In  like  manner  similar 
coincidences  are  seen  in  the  epochs  deduced  from  (he 
observations  of  Arago  and  others  up  to  the  present  time 
when  compared  one  by  one  with  the  sun-spot  observa- 
tions of  Sdiwabe,  Carrington,  Secchi,  as  well  as  of  those 
made  at  Kew.  The  conclusion  seems  to  me  very  dif- 
ftrcnt  from  that  of  M.  Faye.  We  are  entitled  to  apply 
the  rule  he  has  given  (p.  634) :  "If  two  series  of  pheno- 
mena, however  different  they  may  appear  at  first,  follow 
exactly  the  same  period,  they  ought  to  be  referred  to  the 
same  cause." 

There  is  another  passage  upon  which  I  desire  to  offer 
a  remark  :  "  Two  kinds  of  meteors  exercise  a  consider- 
able influence  on  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  needle, 
these  are  the  aurorae  boreales  and  the  cyclones." 

For  the  first  there  is  a  general  agreement,  but  for  the 
cyclones  what  observations  have  we  which  prove  any 
such  influence?  If  cyclones  exercise  a  considerable 
influence  on  the  direction  of  the  needle,  in  what  phase  of  the 
phenomenon  does  this  occur  ?  Is  it  on  their  formation,  on 
their  passage  over  some  particular  meridian,  or  when  their 
centre  is  over  a  place  ?  in  the  last  case  each  cyclone  will 
be  a  source  of  disturbance,  which  will  be  manifested  as  it 
progresses,  and  not  sinmltaneously  at  all  places,  which, 
however,  is  what  really  occurs  in  the  case  of  magnetic 
disturbances.  Electricity  is,  without  doubt,  a  cause,  but 
only  in  the  case  of  such  considerable  discharges  as  the 
aurora  jiobris ;  but  not  the  local  electricity  which  may 
accompany  cyclones.  When  there  is  a  storm,  and  the 
thunder  rolls,  and   the  elcctroipct^  shows   ^normous 


variations  of  atmospheric  electricity,  changing  sign 
tmually,  the  magnetic  needle  continues  its  usual  and 
regular  progress.  Of  this  we  can  offer  hundreds  of 
examples.  JOAS  Cap£LIX> 

Lisbon,  February  22 

P.S.— The  mean  movements  of  the  magnetic  needle  in 
the  Lisbon  Observatory,  from  eight  A.M.  to  two  P.M«  are 
given  in  Nature,  vol  xiiL  p.  448,  for  the  years  185S  to 
1875  ;  the  following  are  the  corresponding  mean  ranges 
for  the  next  two  years  : — 

1876     581'  1877     S'S4' 

So  that  the  mean  movement  was  less  in  1877  than   in 
1876. 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 

New  Companion  to  Aldebaran.— Mr.  S.  W.  Bum- 
ham  notifies  his  discovery  with  the  i8J-inch  Alvan  Clark 
refractor  of  the  Dearborn  Observatory,  of  a  minute  star 
much  nearer  to  Aldebaran  than  that  which  makes  the 
double  star  H.  VI.  66;  he  compares  it  with  the  ruddy 
bright  star,  as  resembling,  in  difficulty  and  appearance, 
Mars  and  his  outer  satellite.    The  mean  of  three  dajrs* 
observations  gives  the  angle  logi^o,  and  the   distance 
so'' '35  for  1877*90,  or  if  the   second  result  which,  as 
printed,  differs  nearly  ten  degrees  from  the  other  two, 
the  angle  will  be  1 1 1***9.     The  secular  proper  motion  of 
Aldebaran,  according  to  Madler,  is  I9*''i  in  the  direction 
157';    some  years  must  elapse  before  the  question  of 
physical  or  optical  duplicity  can  be  decided.     Eight  days* 
measures  of   the  close  companion   of    Sirius,   by    Mr. 
Bumham,   with  the  same  instrument,   assign    for   the 
angle  of   position    52'*'4,  distance  10" '83  at  the  epoch 
1877*97. 

The  Star  Lalande  378i3.—Mr.  J.  E.  Gore  writes 
from  Ballisodare,  Co.  Sligo,  with  reference  to  this  star, 
which  appears  in  the  reduced  catalogue  as  a  second  mag- 
nitude, and  which,  observing  in  the  Punjab  in  August, 
1877,  he  had  found  a  little  less  than  Lacaille  83%  or 
7  m.  This  is  one  of  the  errors  in  the  catalogue  which, 
as  in  a  case  recently  noticed  in  this  column,  can  only  be 
cleared  up  by  referring  to  the  Histoire  CHeste,  The 
observation  was  made  on  August  20,  1795,  and  the  star 
No.  37813  was  really  estimated  7*8  m.  a  Aquilx  was 
observed  immediately  before  it,  and  entered  2  m.;  it  is 
this  erroneous  magnitude  for  the  bright  star  of  Aquila 
that  h^s  become  attached  to  the  star  of  which  Mr.  Gore 
writes.  There  is  a  very  noticeable  proper  motion  in 
N.P.D.,  apparently  about  +  o''*48  annually,  as  shown  by 
comparison  of  the  observations  of  Lacaille,  Lalande, 
Jacob,  and  Argelander,  with  the  position  in  the  Wash* 
ington  Catalogue  for  i860. 

The  Minor  Planets.— Discoveries  in  this  group  still 
progress.  No.  186  was  detected  by  M.  Prosper  Henry 
at  Paris,  on  April  6,  shining  as  a  star  of  11*5  m.,  and 
No.  187  by  M.  Coggia  at  Marseilles,  on  April  10 ;  it  was 
estimated  10  m.  No.  178  (Palisa,  1877,  November  6) 
has  been  named  Belisana^  and  No.  184  (Palisa,  1878, 
February  28)  it  is  proposed  to  call  Detopeia,  With 
already  seven  additions  to  the  list,  it  would  not  appear 
that  1878  is  likely  to  fall  short  of  the  most  prolific  of 
preceding  years  in  these  discoveries. 

The  Transit  of  Mercury  on  May  6.— Jf  we  calcu- 
late strictly  from  Le  Verrier's  tables  of  sun  and  planet, 
using  therefore  the  value  of  the  sim's  diameter  which 
he  deduced  from  the  transits  of  Mercury  in  his  memoir, 
printed  as  an  addition  to  the  Connaissance  des  Temps  for 
1848,  we  shall  have  the  following  formula  for  determining 
the  time  of  the  first  external  contact  of  limbs  in  the 
approaching  transit : — 

/  =  3h.  ijra.  IS.  —  (I'S/ajl  rsin  /-  [1*9079]  rcos  /,  cos  (L  ~  56' 49 '3) 

in  which  /  is  the  Greenwich  mean  time  of  contact,  r  the 


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radius  of  the  earth  at  the  place  for  which  .we  are  com- 
puting, /  its  geocentric  latitude,  and  L  the  east  longitude 
from  Greenwich ;  the  quantities  within  square  brackets 
are  logarithms. 

At  the  Royal  Obsenratory  the  first  external  contact  is 
found  to  occur  at  3h.  iim.  35s  ;  the  sun  will  set  at  7h. 
3im.9  about  30m.  after  least  distance  of  centres,  so  that 
more  than  half  the  transit  may  be  observed.  At  Edin- 
burgh the  first  contact  takes  place  at  2h.  58m.  53s.  Edin- 
burgh mean  time,  and  the  sun  will  set  at  yh.  36m.  The 
first  internal  contact  at  Greenwich  and  Edinburgh  occurs 
3m.  7s.  later.  The  angle"  from  North  point  of  external 
contact  is  45°  towards  East  for  direct  image. 

At  Ogden,  Utah,  to  which  position  it  has  been  stated 
that  a  French  Expedition  is  proceeding  for  the  observa- 
tion of  the  phenomenon,  Merou-y  enters  upon  the  sun's 
disc  at  7h.  44m.  a.m.,  and  the  egress  takes  place  at  3h. 
1 8m.  P.M.,  the  duration  of  the  transit  being  7h.  34m. 

At  the  next  transit  at  the  descending  node  on  May  10, 
1 89 1,  the  last  external  contact  at  Greenwich,  according 
to  Lererrier's  tables,  will  occur  at  4h.  5o*4m.  a.m.,  and 
as  the  sun  will  not  rise  till  4h.  19m.,  but  little  of  the 
transit  can  be  witnessed  in  this  country.  In  the  transit 
.  at  the  opposite  node  on  November  10,  1894,  the  first 
contact  of  limbs  appears  to  fall  close  upon  sunset  here. 
On  November  7,  1 881,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  Nautical 
Almanac^  the  transit  will  be  wholly  invisible  in  England. 
It  thus  follows  that  on  the  afternoon  of  May  6  next,  we 
shall  have  in  these  islands  the  only  favourable  opportu- 
nity of  viewing  the  planet  Mercury  projected  upon  the 
sun's  disc  that  is  afforded  during  the  present  century. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Africa.— M.  F.  Deloncle,  a  member  of  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  Lyons,  has  recently  translated  into 
French  a  remarkably  interesting  itinerary  of  the  voyages 
made  by  a  Spanish  friar  in  the  middle  of  the  foiu'teenth 
century.  The  work  was  originally  written  in  the  Catalonian 
dialect  and  devoted  chiefly  to  travels  in  Africa. 

The  Society  of  Geography  has  prepared,  for  the  Paris 
Exhibition,  a  map  of  Africa,  measuring  2  m.  X  2  metres, 
and  showing  the  route  of  every  explorer  from  1754 
to  Stanley,  in  1878.  The  number  of  travellers  is  121,  of 
whom  not  less  than  42  are  French ;  but  a  large  number 
of  these  explored  either  Madagascar  or  the  Desert  round 
Algeria.  The  first  name  written  in  this  list  is  Mayeur,  a 
traveller  now  quite  forgotten,  who  crossed  the  northern 
part  of  Madagascar. 

New  Mexico.— During  the  season  of  1 877  a  party  of  the 
U.S.  Geographical  and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Territories, 
under  the  command  of  Lieut.  C.  C.  Morrison,  was  detailed  to 
survey  the  section  of  New  Mexico  lying  between  the  105th 
and  io8th  meridians  and  between  the  33rd  and  35th 
parallels,  about  half  of  which  is  mountainous,  the  rest 
being  mesas  and  plains.  In  giving  an  account  of  their 
explorations  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographi- 
cal Society,  Mr.  T.  W.  Goad,  the  meteorologist  of  the 
party,  mentioned  some  points  in  regard  to  the  physical 
features  and  characteristics  of  the  country  surveyed, 
which  attracted  special  notice.  Between  the  Sierra 
Blanca  and  the  Oscura  Mountains  a  lava  flow  was  met 
with  of  over  seventy-five  miles  in  length,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  three  miles.  This  Mai  Pais,  as  the  Mexicans 
call  it,  resembles  a  black  river,  widening  and  narrowing 
as  the  country  imdulates.  This  stretch  of  |lava,  owing  to 
denudation,  is  somewhat  higher  than  the  surrounding 
country,  and  is  full  of  caverns.  Several  of  these  were 
visited  by  the  survey  party,  but  the  only  one  of  importance 
was  near  Fort  Stanton,  which,  like  the  others,  was  in  a 
limestone  formation,  and  proved  of  considerable  length ; 
some  persons,  indeed,  asserted  that  no  one  had  been  to 
the  end,  though  a  distance  of  five  miles  was  measured. 
The  exploration  of  this  cave  was  of  a  most  imcom- 


fortable  nature,  necessitating  long  crawls  through  narrow 
passages,  and  obliging  the  explorers  to  wade  up  to  their 
waists  in  ice-cold  water  for  hours.  Stalactites  and  stalag- 
mites of  immense  size  were  met  with.  The  lake  in  the 
cave  was  said  to  contain  eyeless  fish,  but  none  of  the 
party  were  able  to  catch  or  see  any.  The  canon,  again, 
of  the  Rio  Grande,  below  Castilla,  is  of  peculiar  interest, 
because  it  differs  in  most  respects  from  other  canons, 
and  instead  of  being  worn  away  by  the  action  of  the 
water  alone,  it  was  probably  commenced  by  volcanic 
action.  The  sides  are  of  trap-rock,  and  although  the 
cafion  itself  is  very  narrow,  its  depth  was  estimated  at 
1,000  feet.  The  river  at  this  point  has  a  great  fall  and 
rushes  along  with  a  velocity  of  ten  miles  an  hour.  Mr. 
Goad  describes  the  climate  of  New  Mexico  as  delightful. 

Geographical  Annual.— The  new  volume  of  VAnnde 
Giographigue,  for  1876,  has  at  length  appeared.  The 
delay  has  been  caused  by  the  resignation  of  the  editor- 
ship by  M.  Vivien  de  St.  Martin,  whose  time  is  now 
so  fully  occupied  with  other  work.  The  new  editors  are 
MM.  Maunoir  and  Duveyrier,  and  the  new  volume  is 
quite  up  to  its  predecessors.  The  volume  for  1877  will 
be  published  about  June. 


METEOROLOGICAL  NOTES 

Meteorology  of  Stonyhurst.— The  results  of  the 
meteorological  and  magnetical  observations  at  Stonyhurst 
for  1877  are  abeady  published.  In  addition  to  the  very 
full  statement  of  the  results  for  the  ^car,  and  which  are 
compared  with  the  averages  of  previous  years  brought 
down  to  date,  there  are  given  observations  of  crops, 
flowers,  trees,  and  shrubs;  observations  of  the  cirrus 
clouds  made  at  the  observatory  in  connection  with  Prof. 
Hildebrandsson's  large  inquiry  into  the  upper  move- 
ments of  the  atmosphere ;  and  a  discussion  of  the  hours 
of  occurrence  of  tne  barometric  maxima  and  minima 
during  the  eight  years  ending  1875.  This  discussion  has 
been  evidently  conducted  with  great  care  and  with  full 
knowledge  of  the  subject  in  hand.  The  results  arrived  at 
are  of  great  importance,  the  chief  points  being  that  there 
is  a  tendency  of  the  maxima  to  occur  between  10  and  1 1 
A.M.  and  P.M.,  the  total  number  from  midnight  to  noon 
bein^,  however,  considerably  in  excess  of  that  from  noon 
to  midnight ;  and  that  the  minima  occur  with  nearly  the 
same  re^ilarity  as  the  maxima,  but  at  different  hours, 
viz.,  about  3  and  4  A.M.  and  p.m.  The  importance  of 
these  results  lies  chiefly  in  the  circumstance  that  they 
accord  with  the  hours  of  the  critical  phases  of  the  diurnal 
fluctuations  of  the  barometer,  and  peculiarly  so  as  regards 
the  annual  results.  We  are  much  pleased  to  see  from  the 
report  that  Father  Perry  is  engaged  with  the  discussion 
of  the  meteorological  observations  made  at  Kerguelen 
during  the  Transit  of  Venus  Expedition,  to  the  results  of 
which  meteorologists  will  eagerly  look  forward. 

Weekly  Statistics  or  the  Weather.— The  Meteor- 
ological Office  has  begun  to  issue  weekly  statistics  of  the 
weather  of  the  British  Islands  for  agricultural  and  sani- 
tary purposes.  For  this  object  the  country  is  divided 
into  two  divisions,  the  one  being  suited  for  the  oroduc- 
tion  of  wheat,  and  the  other  for  the  rearing  ot  stock. 
For  each  of  the  ten  regions  into  which  these  two  divisions 
are  sub-divided  there  are  published  the  highest,  the  low- 
est, and  the  mean  temperature  of  the  week,  and  the 
degree  to  whidi  the  last  is  above  or  below  the  average  of 
the  week,  together  with  the  number  of  days  of  rainfall, 
its  amount,  and  the  difference  between  the  latter  and  the 
average  rainfall  of  the  week.  To  these  follow  general 
remancs  on  the  weather  as  regards  frost,  winds,  storms, 
and  any  irregularity  that  may  have  occurred  in  the  rain- 
fall at  the  selected  stations.  This  step  is  in  the  right 
direction,  and  the  scheme  will  no  doubt  soon  receive 
greater  extension  and  further  development  in  order  that 


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it  may  the  fuller  meet  the  requirements  of  the  classes  for 
which  it  is  intended.  It  is  desirable,  for  instance,  if  not 
indeed  essential,  that  the  mean  temperature  be  given  to 
tenths  of  a  degree  and  not  merely  to  whole  degrees,  par- 
ticularly when  it  is  kept  in  view  that  no  inconsiderable 
poriioa  of  Great  Britain  is  but  little  removed  from  the 
limits  of  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  wheat,  and  the 
rainfall  to  hundredths  of  an  inch,  so  as  to  mark  qfi"  clearly 
the  practically  rainless  districts  during  each  week.  Tne 
number  of  stations  situated  on  the  coast  preponderates 
too  largely.  Additional  stations  from  several  of  the 
great  agricultural  centres  are  needed,  and  a  partition 
of  the  country  into  more  districts  than  ten,  it  being  evi- 
dent that  a  division  of  Scotland  merely  into  east  and 
west,  and  of  Ireland  into  norrh  ar^i  south,  is  inadequate. 
Scotland,  for  instance,  should  be  divided  at  least  into 
north-east,  north-west,  south-eSist,  and  ^uth-west  divi- 
sions, these  differing  essentially  from  each  other  in  their 
climatic  and  agricultural  peculiarities. 

Missouri  Weather  Reports,  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3.— The 
system  of  weather  service  for  the  State  of  Missouri  is 
being  satisfactorily  and  energetically  developed  by  Prof. 
Francis  E.  Nipher,  Washington  University,  St.  Louis. 
The  second  report,  being  for  January  last,  is  accompanied 
with  a  table  showing  the  rainfall  at  thirty-eight  stations 
in  Missouri  and  a  map  on  which  the  amounts  are  entered 
and  isohyetal  lines  drawn  showing  where  the  fall  was 
nothing,  one  inch,  two  inches,  and  three  inches  respec- 
tively. From  this  map  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall,  a 
correct  knowledge  of  which  is  so  important  to  farmers 
and  others,  is  seen  at  a  glance.  The  distribution  of  the 
heavy  snowfall  of  the  30th  and  31st  is  particularly  de- 
tailed, and  we  are  pleased  to  see  the  frankness  with  which 
Prof.  Nipher  informs  his  observers  that  it  has  been  im- 
possible to  give  a  proper  account  of  the  remarkable  storm 
of  the  26th,  which  entered  the  northern  part  of  the  state 
at  8  A.M.  and  soon  thereafter  developed  into  a  severe 
thunderstorm  in  central  and  southern  Missouri,  owing  to 
the  times  of  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  storm  not 
being  given  carefully  for  a  sufficient  number  of  places. 
We  feel  assured  that  the  observers  will  gladly  see  to  the 
rectification  of  this  and  supply  the  information  desiderated 
in  future.  From  the  first  report  we  see  that  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  December  was  I2'*4  above  the  average  of  the 
month ;  and  with  this  high  temperature,  the  mean  of  the 
month  being45°-6,  vegetable  and  animal  life  was  prematurely 
urged  forward  at  an  undesirably  rapid  rate.  A  valuable 
table  accompaiiies  this  number,  which  has  been  prepared 
by  Dr.  Engelmann,  giving  the  mean  monthly  tempera- 
tures and  extremes  and  the  mean  rainfall  at  St.  Louis  for 
forty-two  years,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  mean  of 
the  coldest  month,  January,  is  3i°7  ;  the  warmest  month, 
July,  79**2,  and  of  Uie  year,  55***4.  The  highest  tempera- 
ture noted  during  these  forty-two  years  was  I04°;o  in  July, 
i860,  and  the  lowest — 23***o  (below  zero)  in  January,  J873. 
The  mean  annual  rainfall  is  42*46  inches,  the  largest 
monthly  fell  being  5*39  inches  in  June,  and  the  least,  2*13 
inches  in  January. 

Extraordinary  Rain-Storm  in  Canada.— A  con- 
tinuous storm  of  rain,  extending  over  two  or  three  days, 
and  covering  a  considerable  portion  of  North.  America, 
occurred  in  the  end  of  February,  the  .weather  for  some 
tune  before  having  been  unusually  mild.  Near  the  coast 
rain  prevailed,  in  the  Quebec  district  much  snow  fell, 
about  Ottawa,  sleet,  hail,  rain,  atid  snow  fell  in  succes- 
sion, and  on  advancing  westwards  through  Canada,  and 
into  the  United  States,  the  precipitation  appears  to  have 
been  heavier.  In  Ctntral  Canada  the  floods  seem  to  have 
been  most  destructive,  and  immense  damage  has  been 
done  to  the  towns  built  on  the  rivers,  by  the  loosening  of 
the  ice  by  the  floods,  which,  floating  down  the  swdlen 
rivers,  carried  bridges  and  other  structures  before  it 
Much  damage  was  ^so  done  by  the  ice  running  aground 


at  various  points,  and  thereby  damming  up  the  rivers,  by 
which  extensive  stretches  of  low-lying  grounds  were 
submerged. 

Comparative  Atmospheric  Pressure  of  New 
Zealand  and  Great  Britain.-— Mr.  C.  Rous  Marten, 
whose  name  has  been  so  long  and  so  favourably  asso- 
ciated  with  the  meteorology  of  New  Zealand,  has  pub- 
lished a  short  paper  on  this  subject  in  the  Jransactiotts 
of  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society.  The  mean 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  of  Great  Britain  calculated 
from  fourteen  stations  distributed  from  the  Channel  to 
the  Moray  Frith,  is  29*848  inches  ;  and  of  New  Zealand, 
as  similarly  determined  from  fourteen  stations  from  South- 
land to  Mongonui,  29918  inches.  The  interest  of  the 
comparison  lies  in  this,  that  pressure  diminishes  in  both  > 
countries  at  a  somewhat  rapid  rate  on  proceeding  into 
higher  latitudes,  and  that  though  the  Ne^r  Zealand  sta- 
tions lie  on  the  average  in  about  12°  lower  latitudes  than 
British  stations,  yet  the  pressure  does  not  greatly  differ 
in  the  two  countries.  The  strong  resemblances  between 
the  climatologies  of  the  two  countries  result  from  the 
peculiar  distribution  of  pressure  common  to  both  and  the 
lie  of  their  mountain  ranges,  by  which  the  prevailing 
winds  are  westerly,  and  being  laden  with  the  vapour  of 
the  ocean  they  have  traversed,  are  productive  of  rainy 
climates  in  the  west,  and  dry  climates  in  the  east* 

NOTES 

Invitations  have  recently  been  issued  by  the  Rector  of  the 
University  of  Pavia  to  the  various  scientific  societies  of  Europe, 
to  participate  in  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the  unveiling  of 
the  statue  of  Volta  on  April  28. 

The  Electro-metallurgical  Company  of  Brussels  has  lately 
completed  a  colossal  statue  of  Jan  van  Eyck,  in  bronze,  by  the 
system  of  electric  deposition.  The  galvanic  process  occupied 
several  month?,  although  a  thickness  of  but  six  to  eight  milli-  , 

metres  was  attained.  It  is  probably  the  largest  object  which 
has  been  produced  by  this  method,  being  over  twelve  feet  in 
height,  and  is  regarded  as  a  much  more  perfect  imitation  of  the 
model  than  could  be  obtained  by  casting. 

The  meeting  of  the  delegates  of  the  French  Soci^es  Savanles 
will  take  place  as  usual  at  the  Sorbonne,  in  the  first  week  after 
Easter.  M.  Bardoux  will  preside  over  the  meeting  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  prizes,  and  deliver  an  address  summarising  all  the 
measures  contemplated  by  the  Government  for  promoting 
popular  instruction. 

M.  Bardoux  has  given  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  to  the  oldest  schoolmaster  of  France,  who  has  been 
teaching  since  18 18  in  the  very  parish  where  he  was  bom.  The 
ceremony  took  place  at  Clermont-Ferrand  at  a  dinner  given  by 
the  Prefect  in  honour  of  the  Minister.  The  whole  scene  is  said 
to  have  been  very  impressive. 

M.  AssELiNE,  a  journalist  and  a  member  of  the  Municipal 
Council  of  Paris,  died  suddenly  a  week  ago.  He  was  one  of  the 
Society  of  Mutual  Autopsy  recently  established  in  Paris  for  in- 
vestigating by  post  mortem  examination  all  the  circumstances  of 
death,  and  his  case  was  the  first  instance  of  the  application  of 
the  rules  of  the  Society.  The  autopsy  was  made  by  Dr. 
Broca,  the  president  of  the  Society,  and  the  residts  published 
in  the  papers. 

The  Municipal  Council  of  Paris  has  appointed  a  Commission 
of  ten  members  in  order  to  take  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
French  Association  for  the  Advancement  ef  ScieiKC,  which  >vill 
take  place  at  Paris,  as  we  have  already  reported.  They  will  sit 
in  their  official  capacity. 

A  Sociferfe  DK  MiNERALOGiE  has  been  formed  in  Paris,  with 
M.  Des  Cloiseaux  as  president.  It  meets  on  the  second  Tuesday 
of  .each  month  in  the  mineralugical  lalx»ratory  of  the  Sorbonne* 


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491 


A  Cours  Annexe  has  been  crealctl  at  the  Sorbonne  for  physical 
astronomy.  M.  Wollf  will  Jectnrc  on  the  obf^crvational  methods 
of  physical  astronomy,  and  the  constitution  of  celestial  bodies. 

M.  OssiAN  Bonnet,  IHrector  of  Studies  to  the  Polytechnic 
School,  has  been  appointed  succe.s.sor  to  M.  Leverrier  in  his 
capacity  of  lecturer  on  Mathemattcnl  Astronomy. 

The  Italian  Cryptogamic  Society,  founded  in  1858  by  De 
Notaris,  has  just  been  reconstltutetl  untfer  the  presideiicy  of  Prof. 
F.  Ardissone,  of  Milan.  It  consists  of  two  classes  of  members  : 
ordinary  {fffdhn)  and  foreio^.  The  former  conhist  entirely  of 
Italian,  the  latter  of  foreign  cryptogamic  botanists,  the  foreign 
members  being  elected  by  the  vote  of  the  ordiuafy  members. 
The  Society  will  publish  admial  volumes  of  its  *  *  atti,"  and,  in  addi- 
tion,  one  or  more  fasciculi  every  year,  each  containing  fifty  new 
or  interesting  species  of  cryptogams,  at  a  cost  of  10  lire  (Italian) 
the  fasciculus.  The  lirili^h  correspondnig  meml)ers  at  present 
are  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  Dr.  K.  Braithwaite,  Dr.  M.  C. 
Cooke,  Mr.  Jas.  Stirton,  and  Mr.  John  Smith.  Cryptc^gamista 
who  are  not  members  of  the  Society  are  invited  to  contribute 
descriptions  or  specimens  of  new  species,  for  which  they  will 
receive  in  exchange  the  volume  or  fascicuhu  contaiuing  their 
contributions. 

The  Birmingham  Natural  History  and  Microscopical  Society* 
one  of  the  most  active  of  our  provincial  societies,  have  resolved 
to  spend  about  100/.  in  improving  and  adding  to  their  apparatus. 

The  Faculty  of  Medicine  at  Lyons  has  taken  the  initiative  in 
a  subscription  for  the  erection  of  a  monument  to  the  late  Claude 
Bernard  on  the  Quai  de  la  Vitriolerie. 

Dr  Puluj,  of  Vienna,  exhibited  at  a  recent  session  of  the 
Imperial  Academy,  an  ingenious  arrangement  for  signalling 
by  means  of  the  telephone.  The  vibrating  membranes  in  two 
connected  telephones  are  replaced  by  a  pair  of  tuning-forks 
giving  the  same  number  of  vibrations  per  second.  A  bell  Is 
placed  close  to  each  fork  and  a  brass  ball'  is  suspended  from  a 
thread  between  the  two,  but  in  contact  vrith  the  fork.  If  one 
of  the  forks  be  put  in  vibration  by  means  of  a  hammer  the  move- 
ment is  communicated  to  the  other,  which  causes  a  loud  ringing 
on  the  bell  by  means  of  the  ball.  A  response  can  be  sent  back 
in  the  same  manner,  and  after  replacing  the  vibrating  mem- 
branes, the  usual'method  of  communication  begins. 

A  French  inventor,  M.  Br^jnet,  has  recently  completed  a 
so-called  mercury  telephone,  which  is  quite  a  variation  on  the 
systems  already  in  use.  It  is  composed  of  two  instruments  for 
transmission  and  reception,  connected  by  means  of  wires.  Each 
of  these  consists  of  a  glass  vessel,  containing  acidulated  water 
and  mercury,  into  which  is  inserted  a  capillary  tube  fUled  with 
mercury.  One  wire  connects  the  merciuy  in  the  tubes,  and  the 
other  that  in  the  vessels.  When  a  person  speaks  before  the 
transmitter,  the  vibrations  of  the  air  are  communicated  to  the 
mercury,  and  cause  variations  in  the  electromotive  force,  which 
^are  transmitted  to  the  receiver,  and  there  give  rise  to  vibrations 
of  the  air  appreciable  by  the  ear.  A  later  simplification  of  the 
apparatus  consists  in  using  a  tube  with  alternate  drops  of 
mercury  and  acidulated  water,  forming  thus  a  series  of  electro- 
capiUary  elements. 

We  are  glad  to  know  that  one  of  the  signs  of  our  times  is  a 
more  appreciative  and  intelligent  interest  in  the  things  lying 
around  us,  including  the  beauties  of  nature  as  well  as  those  affairs 
of  a  more  human  interest.  Messrs.  Marcus  Ward  and  Co.,  in 
their  new  monthly  publication,  entitled,  Our  Native  Land ^  a  copy 
of  which  we  have  just  received,  certainly  deserve  well  of  those 
who  think  that  the  habit  of  ol).servation  can  be  fostered  and 
developed  by  calling  attention  to  the  many  things  of  beauty  and 


interest  in  our  own  country.  The  work  is  to  consist  of  repro. 
ductions  of  .water-colour  sketches,  with  ^cscrjptive  noles,"  'txA 
the  publication  breaks  ground  by  giving  cotetir^  plates  and  text 
illustrating  *'  Derwcntwatcr,"  **  Ambleside,**  and  '*  Rydal 
Falls."  Tlie  publication  is  as  excellent' in' execution  as  it  is 
admiral)le  in  idea,  and  the  reproduction  of  the  water-colour  of 
Ambleside  is  admirable;  it  is  one  of  the  finest  spcclmtrts  Jof 
chromolithography  that  we  have  ever  seen.  Its  truth  to  the 
colour  of  iKtture  and  the  softness  of  the  atmospheric  effects,  leaves 
little,  if  anything,  to  be  desired. 

^  Macmillan  and  Co.  are^  preparing;  for  iTublicatidri 'a 
**  Journal  of  a  Tour  in  Morocco  in,i87i,  iiKluding  a  Visit  to  the 
Great  Atlas,"*  'by  Sir  J.  D.  Hooker,  P.R.S.,  &c.,  and  John 
Ball,  F.R.S.,/with  a  Sketch  of  ^he  deology  of  Morocco,  by 
George  Mivw,  F.C.S.  Tlig  work  wJU'be  ill^st^atdd  by  MK 
Whympcr.  .      -  •      . 

Gen.  de  Nansouty,  the  direc'or  of  the  Pic  du  Midi 
Observatory,  has  been  appointed  Officer  of  Public  lustruc- 
tion  as  a  reward  for  his  efforts  and  successes.  He  had 
already  been  made,  eighteen  months  ago,  Officer  of  the 
Academy.  T*he  General  Council  of  Vaucluse  framed,  at  its  Ust 
session,  a  resolution  for  establishing  a  meteorological  observatory 
on  the  top  of  Mount  Ventonx,  a  mcwintain  about  2,000  isetrcs 
high,  situated  in  the  most  admirable  position  for  an  extensive 
view  of  an  immense  r^on. 

The  intellectual  abilities  of  the  Japanese  race  liave  been 
evidenced  in  a  striking  manner  by  a  quartette  of  students  from 
that  country  now  studying  in  Berlin.  One  of  these,  Dr.  Dirokitao, 
has  lately  invented  an  ingenious  optical  instrument  termed  the 
leucoscope,  which  measures  the  variations  in  the  perception  of 
light  and  colour  by  the  human  eye,  in  accordance  with  the 
strictest  mathematical  laws.  Another,  who  has  attained  the  rank 
of  lieutenant  in  the  Prussian  army,  has  introduced  a  renuirkable 
simplification  into  the  mechanism  of  the  Mauser  rifle,  which  has 
succeeded  the  historic  needle-gun.  Two  more  who  lu^  prose- 
cuting their  chemical  studies  under  Prof.  Hofmann,  have 
publi«he<l  for  two  years  past  several  interesting  synthetical 
researches  on  the  aromatic  series. 

The  canvas  for  the  great  Paris  captive  ^balloon  is  quite  ready ; 
it  forms  46  roll?,  weighing  60  kilogs.  each,  having  a  length  of  80 
metres,  and  a  brcatlth  of  113  centimetres.  It  was  submitted  to 
a  traction  of  1,000  kilogs.,  under  which  it  has  extended  25 
millimetres  per  metre.  After  some  time  the  increase  in  length 
was  reduced  to  12\  millimetres.  The  net  is  almost  finished.  It 
is  comix)setl  of  256  ropes  1 1  millimetres  each  in  diameter,  and 
bearing  a  strain  of  I  ton. 

In  a  note  in  the  BuUetiH  of  the  French  Scientific  Association, 
CoL  Gazan  gives  some  interesting  obsetvations  on  the  fracture  of 
iron.  During  his  sojourn  in  the  arm  manufactories  of  St. 
Etienne  and  Tulle,  at  the  central  depot  of  attiUery,  and  at  the 
manufactory  of  Ch&tellerault,  he  was  able  to  make  important 
researches  on  iron.  The  fracture  of  iron  may  be  nervous,  in 
grains  more  or  less  fine,  or  in  facets  sometimes  having  a  surface 
of  several  square  millimetres ;  often  it  presents  a  mixture  of  these 
three  features.  Thus  it  is  impossible  to  judge  of  the  quality  of 
an  iron  before  breaking  it ;  and  it  is  on  this  account  that  in  arm 
manufEurtories  they  break  a  certain  number  of  bars  with  which 
they  make  a  certain  number  of  pieces  for  which  they  are  intended, 
and  which  are  afterward  broken  to  asQsrtain  their  resisUmce^ 
that  is,  the  goodness  of  the  uroo,  which,  moreover,  is  still  ren- 
dered brittle.in  presence  of  phosphorus,  atsenic,  or  sulphur.  The 
best  urons  are  the  nervous,  then  those  of  fine  grain  and  with 
faceta.  Oa  railways  it  has  been  proved  that  rails  placed 
in  the  direction  .of  the  magnetic  meridian  are  affected  quite 
differently   from  rail$  placed   at  right  angles  to  this   direc« 


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[April  1%,  1878 


tion ;  the  fonner  oxidise  and  do  not  become  1  brittle,  the 
latter  do  not  oxidise,  bat  do  become  brittle.  In  intermediate 
directioos  the  rails  participate  more  or  less  in  the  qualities  of 
those  which  are  placed  in  the  two  extreme  directions.  What 
becomes  of  the  iron  which  is  now  so  plentiiully  used  in  the 
construction  of  building— girders  among  others  ?  Is  not  this  a 
subject  for  serious  research  ? 

Thb  French  Minister  for  Public  Works  has  accepted  the 
plans  of  an  underground  railway  in  Paris,  which  was  worked 
oat  by  order  of  the  Prefect  of  the  Seine.  According  to  these  it 
is  intended  to  build  the  central  station  seven  metres  underneath 
the  gardens  of  the  Palais  RoyaL  Three  different  lines  will 
radiate  from  that  spot,  viz. :  (i)  to  the  Exchange,  the  Opera,  the 
railway  station  of  St.  Lazare,  then  to  BatignoUes,  communicating 
with  the  Great  Western  Railway  [and  the  Chemin  de  Fer  de  Cein- 
ture  ;  (2)  to  Les  Halles,  the  rue  Turbigo,  the  Boulevard  Sebas- 
topol,  the  Boulevard  de  Strasbourg,  the  Great  Eastern  and  Great 
Northern  Railways  ;  from  the  Boulevard  de  Strasbourg  a  branch 
line  would  lead  to  the  Vincennes  and  Lyons  Railway  Stations, 
passing  underneath  the  Seine  to  the  left  bank^of  the  river ;  (3)  to 
the  me  de  Rennes,  the  Montpamasse  Railway  Station,  the 
station  for  Sceaux,  and  to  Gentilly.  The  cost  of  the  lines  is 
estimated  at  6,000,000/.,  and  is  to  be  borne  johitly  by  the 
State,  the  Departement  de  la  Seine,  and  the  City  of  Paris. 

Writing  in  La  Nature^  M.  Helinc  calls  attention  to  the 
excellent  example  set  by  Switzerland  in  regard  to  popular 
meteorology.  There  is  hardly  a  town  but  has  in  one  of  its 
squares,  perhaps  at  the  side  of  a  lake,  an  elegant  column  with 
instruments  required  for  obseivation  of  the  usual  phenomena. 
Thus  in  Fribourg,  is  a  black  marble  column  (about  2*65  m. 
high)  on  a  granite  platform.  On  the  north  face  is  an  alcohol 
thermometer,  with  double  graduation  cut  in  the  marble  ;  on  the 
west  a  mercury  barometer ;  on  the  east  a  hair  hygrometer.  The 
south  face  has  an  inscription  giving  the  longitude,  latitude,  alti- 
tude, barometric  and  thermometric  means,  and  annual  rainfalL 
On  a  globe  crowning  the  column  are  lines  giving  the  direction 
of  the  four  cardinal  points.  An  inscription  near  the  ba; e  tells 
that  the  column  was  erected  by  the  Fribourg  Society  of  Natural 
Sdencet.  The  monument  cost  not  more  than  1,500  to  2,000 
francs.  Such  columns  often  give  various  other  kinds  of  informa- 
tion, e,g,  the  hour  in  different  cities  of  the  globe  when  it  is  mid- 
day at  Berne,  the  heights  of  neighbouring  mountains,  measures, 
variations  of  lake  level,  records  of  severe  winters,  &c,  in  short 
the  chief  points  which  a  natural  curiosity  would  seek  knowledge 
of.    They  are  generally  erected  by  cantonal  societies. 

We  have  received  the  first  two  parts  of  the  tenth  edition  of 
Coolcy's  "Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Receipts,"  revised  and  partly 
rewritten  by  Prof.  R.  V.  Tuson,  F.C.S.  To  what  extent  the 
work  has  been  brought  up  to  date  may  be  learned  by  looking  at 
the  articles  on  Spectrum  Analysis  and  Anemometers;  in  the 
latter  case  the  anemometers  now  in  use  arc  dismissed  in  a 
foot-note. 

Interesting  antiquities,  coins,  vases,  &c.,  have  recently 
been  found  at  Strassburg  in  some  excavations  which  are  being 
made  in  connection  with  water-works.  In  some  parts  a  number 
of  skeletons  of  animals  have  been  discovered,  amongst  others  a 
well-preserved  jaw  with  tusks  of  a  prehistoric  boar,  and  some 
deer  horns,  Ac 

At  Cologne  a  meeting  of  the  International  Society  against 
the  pollution  of  rivers,  the  soil,  and  air,  took  place  a  few 
weeks  ago.  Its  reports  are  published  by  Herr  Hugo  Voigt,  at 
Leipzig. 

The  International  Congress  for  the  investigation  of  the 
history  of  America  before  Columbus,  will  meet  at  Brussels 
during  1879.  Originally  it  was  intended  to  hold  the  meeting  at 
some  American  city. 


The  United  States  of  North  America  possessed  only  forty- 
nine  public  libraries  in  the  year  1800.  The  number  has  now 
risen  to  no  less  than  3,682,  and  the  number  of  volumes  con- 
tained in  them  exceeds  thirteen  millions. 

Two  new  institutions  are  about  to  be  established  in  Germany ; 
one  at  Bielefeld,  for  textile  industries,  and  another  at  Iserlohn, 
for  metal  industry. 

On  March  11  the  Ural  Mountains  were  first  crossed  by  a 
railway  train  upon  the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  new  line 
from  Perm  to  Jekaterinburg. 

On  the  14th  inst.  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at 
Leipzig  celebrated  the  looth  anniversary  of  its  foundation.     It      . 
is  the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  Germany,  f 

A  NEW  eruption  is  reported  to  have  occurred  in  Iceland  on 
March  24,  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Hecla.- 

During  the  past  three  years  Admiral  Dupcrr^  has  met  with 
considerable  success  in  his  efforts  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
French  colony  in  Cochin  China.  He  first  started  an  experi- 
mental farm  just  outside  Saigon,  where  sugarcane,  cotton, 
indigo,  coffee  shrubs,  &c.,  were  planted  under. the  superin- 
tendence of  a  botanist  from  Paris.  From  this  farm  thousands 
of  coffee  plants,  &c.,  are  distributed  every  year  all  over  the 
colony  among  the  French  and  native  planters.  Tobacco  has 
also  been  successfully  cultivated,  and  attempts  arc  about  to  be 
made  to  prepare  the  leaf  for  the  European  market,  and  an 
official  from  the  tobacco  manufactory  at  Paris  has  been  appointed 
to  superintend  this  work.  The  sugar-cane  is  found  to  flourish 
well  in  Cochin  China,  and  experiments  are  being  made  with  a 
view  to  discovering  the  best  means  of  turning  it  to  profitable 
account. 

At  p.  16,  vol.  xvi.  of  Nature,  is  an  account  of  a  new  ttimn-  "* 
lant  known  as  pitury,  which  it  vras  shown  had  been  proved  by 
Baron  von  Mueller  to  be  derived  from  ^Dubmia  hopwootU^  a 
plant  described  by  himself  in  1861.  It  was  mentioned  in  the 
paper  above  alluded  to  that  the  better  known  spedes  oiDuboiu^ 
namely,  D,  myoporoides  of  Robert  Brown  might  possibly  prove 
to  be  of  some  medicinal  value.  This  prophecy  has  since  been 
borne  out,  for  in  a  paper  read  by  Dr.  J.  Bancroft  on  Duboisia 
and  Pituri  before  the  Queensland  Philosophical  Society  at  Bris- 
bane, a  good  deal  of  information  is  given  on  both  these  new 
medicinal  products.  With  regard  to  D,  myoporoida^  which  is  a 
small  tree  or  shrub,  we  are  told  that  it  is  found  in  various  locali- 
ties from  the  neighbourhood  of  Sydney  to  that  of  Cape  York, 
and  that  it  has  also  been  found  in  New  Caledonia  and  New 
Guinea.  It  grows  plentifully  on  the  borders  of  the  vine  tcrabs 
about  Brisbane  and  springs  up  abundantly  after  the  dearance 
of  forest  land.  The  valuable  part  of  the  plant  seems  to  be  the 
leaves,  from  which  an  extract  was,  in  the  first  p^ace,  made,  and 
its  effects  tried  upon  ,some  cats  and  dogs,  which,  during  the 
time  they  were  under  its  influence,  were  as  helpless  as  if  thej 
were  totally  blind,  falling  down  when  the  slightest  obstacle  came  in 
their  way.  A  trial  of  its  effect  was  afterwards  made  on  the  hnasar^  ^ 
eye  in  several  cases,  and  its  action  in  dilatnig  the  pupil  was  found  to 
be  very  powerful  and  rapid.  The  active  prindple  seems  to  be 
almost  identical  vrith  atropine,  both  as  regards  its  action  and  its 
strength,  and  it  is  used  in  Sydney  and  Brisbane  in  place  of  tiiat 
alkaloid.  A  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  given  in  this  ooontxy 
to  the  new  agent  by  Dr.  Ringer  and  Mr.  Tweedy.  The  fonner  says 
that  ithas  the  power  of  drying  the  month  or  preventing  the  flow 
of  saliva,  and  that  it  also  produces  headache  and  drowsiness,  while 
the  latter  considers  it  quicker  and  more  energetic  in  its  actioii 
than  atropine,  and  oondderably  moreso  than  the  strongest  extxMt 
of  belladonna.  In  every  case  in  which  it  had  been  used  by  him 
he  found  its  action  entirely  satisfactory.  This  subject,  which  is 
one  of  importance,  inasmuch  as  it  promises  to  open  up  a  new 


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493 


source  of  sapply  of  a  sobfttance  folly  as  efficacious  as^  or  perhaps 
more  so  than,  atropine  or  belladonna,  has  for  some  time  past 
attracted  much  attention  in  the  colony  where  the  plant  grows, 
and  has  quite  recently  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Pharma* 
oeutical  Society.  It  is  perhaps  worth  noting,  that  one  of  the 
coloDial  names  of  DuMsia  myoporoides  is  tha  cork  wood 
tree,  so  named  from  its  light  brown  corky  bark.  The  wood  is 
of  a  light  yellow  colour,  even  grained,  but  soft,  and  used  in  the 
colony  for  carving.  Specimens  of  the  wood  are  contained  in  the 
Kew  Museum. 

The  additions  to  the  Zoological  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  an  Arabian  Baboon  {Cynocepkalus  hama- 
dryas)  from  Arabia,  presented  by  Dr.  A.  P.  Woodforde ;  two 
Chacnia  l^vhoon^  (Cynocepkalus  porcarim)  from  South  Africa, 
presented  by  Capt  W.  L.  Coke ;  a  Green  Monkey  (Cercopithecus 
callitrichm)  from  West  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  Milward ;  a 
Great  Kangaroo  {Macropus  giganteus)^  a  Laughing  Kingfisher 
{Dacelo  giganiea)  from  Australia,  presented  by  Lieut.  Crawford 
Cafiin,  R.N. ;  a  Short-eared  Owl  {Otus  hrachyotus)^  European, 
presented  by  Mr.  W.  K.  Stanley ;  a  Golden-winged  Parrakeet 
{Brotogerys  ckrysoptera)  from  the  Amazons,  received  in  exchange  ; 
a  South  American  Rat  Snake  {Spilotes  TMriabUis)  from  South 
America,  deposited  ;  a  Yellow-footed  Rock  Kangaroo  {PetrogaU 
xanthopus)^  bom  in  the  Gardens. 

THE  DETERIORATION  OF  OIL  PAINTINGS' 

/^  IL  paintings  are  subject  to  various  kinds  of  changes,  which 
^^  may  be  considered  as  diseases,  requiring  different  treat- 
ment according  to  their  different  nature.  A  science  needs  to  be 
formed,  a  paSiology  and  therapeutics  of  oil  paintings.  The 
})athology  would  have  to  describe  and  explain  those  diseases  and 
their  progress,  and  to  develop  the  methods  by  which  a  correct 
diagnosis  could  be  arrived  at  m  each  individual  case.  The  thera- 
peutics would  teach  the  remedies  wliich  might  be  applied  cither 
to  cure  or  to  alleviate  the  disease,  or  at  least  to  stop  its  progress. 
A  hygiene  would  follow,  which  would  have  to  teach  how  to 
avoid  pernicious  influences,  and  which,  besides,  while  giving 
precepts  for  the  technical  process  of  [xiinting,  would  have  to 
forestall  those  constitutional  diseases  which,  even  in  cases  where 
no  noxious  influences  can  be  traced,  are  the  causes  of  decay, 
after  a  comparatively  short  period  of  existence.  As  medical 
science  is  above  all  things  based  on  anatomy  and  [^ysiology,  so 
the  exact  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  a  picture  would  have  to 
be  acquired  previously  to  any  study  of  its  disease.  Unfortu- 
nately, direct  investigation  alone  can  procure  no  such  exact 
knowledge;  on  the  contrary,  we  are  obliged  to  enter  upon  a 
minute  historical  investigation  of  the  material  as  well  as  of  the 
technical  methods  adopted  by  artists  of  different  schools  and 
different  periods. 

The  excellent  works  of  Cennlno  Cennini,  Merim^e,  Sir 
Charles  Eastlake,  Mrs.  Merrifleld,  and  others,  have  already 
furnished  most  valuable  material ;  but  still  the  field  for  investi- 
gation remains  unlimited ;  for,  in  order  to  enable  us  to  secure 
the  conservation  of  each  valuable  painting,  we  ought  to  know 
exactly  how  it  was  made.  The  artists  of  the  present  time  would 
spare  infinite  trouble  to  the  investigators  of  future  times,  if, 
along  with  their  works,  they  would  leave  the  account  of  iheir 
|)ractice  in  the  case  of  each  picture.  A  treatment  without  exact 
^knowledge  of  the  normal  condition,  as  well  as  of  the  nature  of 
the  disease,  is,  as  we  shall  see,  as  dangerous  for  the  picture  as  it 
would  be  in  the  case  of  living  beings. 

Professional  restorers  of  pictures  admit  this  danger  in  a 
general  way  ;  each  of  them,  however,  is  convinced  that  he  him- 
self, by  his  personal  knowledge,  skill,  and  care,  knows  how  to 
avoid  it.  Tne  public  pays  too  little  attentbn  to  the  subject,  and 
therefore  it  occurred  to  me  that  it  might  be  useful  tagivea  short 
account  of  what  we  know  about  this  question,  of  the  changes  to 
which  oil  paintings  are  exposed,  as  well  as  of  the  means  either 
to  avoid  or  to  cure  them. 

We  have  to  consider,  first,  the  material  on  which  the  artist  has 
painted,  that  is,  as  far  as  oil  painting  is  concerned,  principally 
wood  and  canvas. 

•   '  Paper  read  at  the  Roval  lastitution,  Friday,  March  x,  by  R.  Liebreicb, 
D.,  M.R.CS.,M.R.I. 


Secondly,  the  priming,  that  is,  the  substance  with  .whiph  the 
surface  was  prepared  in  order  to  be  made  fit  for  painting. 

Thirdly,  the  painting  itself,  that  is,  the  pigments  ana  vehicles 
used  for  it,  and  the  liquids  that  were  added  during  th^  punting 
the  mediums,  meguilp,  siccatire,  varnish,  essential  oiISa  ^  .-  ^-% 

Fourthly,  the  coat  or  coats  of  varnish  spread  Qyer|th*e  D^upeV 


The  wood  on  which  a  picture  has  been  painted  may  ek^^'.\^i^ 
or  get  chinks  in  it,  or  become  worm-eaten,  or' even  altogeuta: 
rotten.  Against  warning,  the  remedy  ustially  applied  is 
moisture.  If  the  panel  is  very  thick,  it  is  first  made  somewhat 
thinner ;  then  the  l^ck  is  moistened,  and  the  picture  is  left  to 
lie  on  its  back  for  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  time 
it  will  be  found  to  have  bent  straight.  Of  course  this  must  not 
be  continued  lon^r  than  necessary,  otherwise  the  convex 
surface,  instead  of  becoming  plane,  would  become  concave. 
When  straight,  the  picture  is  kept  so  by  beads  which  have  to  be 
adapted  in  a  particular  way,  a  certain  degree  of  shifting  being 
allowed  for  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  wood. 

Cracks  in  the  wood  are  drawn  together  by  inserting  pieces  of 
wood  of  a  special  shape. 

Sublimate  solutions  are  employed  to  destroy  worms. 

Trifling  losses  of  substance  are  replaced  by  cement.  Small 
portions  of  rotten  wood,  not  extending  too  near  the  painting,  are 
cut  out  and  replaced  by  wedge-shaped  pieces.  If,  however,  the 
greater  part,  or  the  whole  substance  of  the  panel,  is  rotten,  the 
picture  must  be  separated  from  it  and  transferred  to  new  wood, 
or  rather  to  canvas. 

This  was  first  tried  by  Hacquin  in  Paris,  and  was  performed 
successfully  upon  many  pictures,  and,  among  others,  upon  one 
of  RaphaeUs  Madonnas,  in  the  Gallery  du  Louvre,  and' upon 
Sebastian  del  Piombo's  "Resurrection  of  Lazarus,"  now  in  the 
National  Gallery.  The  process  no  longer  appears  so  very 
marvellous ;  it  is  generally  executed  in  the  following  way  : — 

First  of  all,  the  surface  of  the  picture  is  pastel  over  with 
gauze  and  paper.  After  that  the  wood  is  made  straight  by 
moistening,  or,  if  necessary,  by  making  incisions  with  the  saw, 
into  which  cuneiform  pieces  of  wood  are  driven.  By  means  of 
a  tenon-saw  the  panel  is  to  be  sawn  into  little  square?,  w^hich  must 
be  removed  by  a  chisel,  and  in  this  way  the  thickness  of  the 
wood  is  reduced  to  half  an  inch;  it  is  then  planed  until  it 
becomes  no  thicker  than  paper,  and  the  rest  is  removed  by 
means  of  a  knife  and  with  the  fingers.  The  painting  being 
thus  severed  from  its  basi5,  it  can  be  fixed  on  canvas,  if  the 
priming  is  sufficiently  preserved.  In  the  opposite  case,  a  mix- 
ture made  of  chalk  and  glue,  or  something  of  the  kind,  must  be 
put  on  first,  and  very  evenly  smoothed,  after  being  dry.  This 
done,  the  new  canvas  has  to  be  fixed  upon  it  by  means  of  a  mix- 
ture of  glue,  varnish,  and  turpentine,  and  the  substance  of  the 
picture  pressed  tightly  and  evenly  against  it  by  means  of  warm 
irons. 

In  order  to  avoid  deterioration,  the  most  minute  precepts  ha/e 
been  given  for  preparing  the  panel.  It  has  to  be  taken  from 
the  best  oak,  or  nut-trees,  or  cedar?.  The  wood  is  to  be  cut 
into  boards  during  winter-time,  and  kept  till  autumn  before 
being  dried ;  it  can  then  be  prepared  only  in  the  following 
spring,  &c.  It  would  certainly  be  preferable  to  give  up  wood 
panels  altogether  for  large  picture?,  and  only  to  think  of  means 
to  make  the  canvas  stronger.  For  small  picture^,  panels  offer 
certain  advantages,  and  can  be  more  easily  preserved  from 
decay. 

f  In  the  canvas  we  meet  with  thel'results  of  injuries  or  spon- 
taneous decay.  A  rent  may  be  jnended  by  rags  of  linen  stuck 
at  the  back  of  the  picture.  Even  a  hole  may  be  filled  up  by 
pieces  taken  from  other  decayed  paintings.  If  the  picture  is 
considerably  damaged,  it  will  be  best  to  line  it.  But  if  the 
whole  canvas  is  rotten  and  tattered,  it  will  be  preferable  to 
sacrifice  it  by  pulling  ofT  the  threads  one  by  one,  after  having 
secured  the  painting  itself  by  pasting  paper  on  the  front  of  it. 
This  done,  the  painting  is  transferred  to  another  canvas  in  the 
same  way  as  those  removed  from  wood. 

There  are  different  modes  of  priming,  which  may  be  brought 
imder  two  principal  heads  :  the  distemper  and  the  oil  priming. 

I.  The  canvas  is  distempered  by  a  mixture  of  chalk  or  plaster 
andcpaste,  or  glue,  which  may  be  laid  on  raw,  unbleached  can 
vas,'  or  this  latter  may  be  beforehand  prepared  with  glue  or 
paste.  Several  coats  of  this  mixture  must  be  put  on  in  succes- 
sion, one  being  perfectly  dry  before  the  next  can  be  applied. 
Many  of  the  older  oil  paintings  are  painted  on  such  ground. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  being  quicker  prepared,  of  absorbing 
the  excess  of  oil,  of  permitting  the  colour  to  enter  into  the 


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{April  iZ,  1878 


priming  and  to  dry  quicker,  and  moreover,  of  containing  a  white 
absolntdy  innocaons  to  the  others. 

The  inconveniences,  on  the  other  hand,  are :  that  it  more 
easily  breaks,  uid  nnder  the  inflaence  of  humidity  separates 
from  the  canvas. 

2.  The  oil  priming  consists  of  several  coats  of  oil  coloors. 
As  each  of  these  must  be  perfectly  dry  before  the  next  is  laid 
on,  and  as,  moreover,  time  must  be  given  to  the  whole  to 
dry  completely  before  painting  upon,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
sinking  m  of  the  colours,  the  whole  preparation  is  much 
slower  than  the  distemper.  Nevertheless  it  is  now  generally 
adopted. 

R^,  in  France,  has  pointed  out  a  process  which  is  a  compro- 
mise between  the  two  methods  ;  he  b^ins  by  distempering,  and 
after  several  coats  of  distemper,  having  dried  one  after  the 
other,  he  puts  a  coat  of  oil  which,  as  it  were,  changes  the  dis- 
tempered ground  into  an  oil-colour  ground. 

With  oil  priming  it  is  of  importance  that  the  principal  colour 
be  white-lead,  to  which  are  added  comparatively  small  quantities 
of  yellow,  black,  or  other  colours.  For  a  whole  century  a 
school,  that  of  Bologna,  predominated  in  Italy,  which  aban- 
doned this  principle.  During  the  second  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  most  of  the 
Italian  masters  of  other  schools  followed  its  example.  Probably 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  more  easily  the  desired  effect  of 
the  chiaroscuro,  they  painted  on  a  brownish-red  priming,  which 
consisted  of  bolus  mixed  with  umber.  Not  one  of  those  pic- 
tures has  kept  its  original  colouring.  cNot  only  has  the  priming 
caused  all  the  dark  parts  to  grow  mudi  darker,  but  it  has 
destroyed,  or  nearly  so,  all  the  glazing,  so  that  only  those 
colours  can  be  recognised  which  either  contain  white,  or  are 
glazed  on  white.  I  can  show  you  numerous  instances  of  this, 
for,  on  account  of  the  extreme  fertility  of  this  school,  there  is 
little  difficulty  in  procuring  pictures  of  masters  of  that  time  or 
of  their  pupils. 

Wood  pnming  does  not  require  the  same  elasticity  as  that  of 
the  canvas,  whidi  ought  to  be  capable  of  being  rolled.  There- 
fore the  priming  of  the  wood  shows  less  variations.  It  is  gene- 
rally compDsed  of  chalk  or  plaster,  tempered  with  starch,  paste, 
size,  or  glue,  and  more  or  less  thickly  laid  on.  In  some  pictures 
of  different  centuries  we  find,  either  between  the  wood  and  the 
priming,  or  between  the  priming  and  the  painting,  canvas,  and, 
exceptionally,  even  ptper. 

The  diseases  of  the  priming  are  not  of  a  very  complicated 
nature.  They  manifest  themselves  principally  in  three  different 
wajTS : — I.  By  cracks  in  the  priming  itself.  2.  By  the  sever- 
ance of  the  priming  from  the  painting.  3.  By  the  severance  of 
the  priming  from  the  wood  or  the  canvas.  The  third  disease  is 
bjr  far  the  most  frequent,  especially  among  pictures  on  canvas 
distempered  with  paste.  If  small  pieces  oiSy  are  scaling  off  or 
blistering,  they  are  fixed  again  to  tne  ground  by  letting  a  solu- 
tion of  size  pass  between  &e  detached  part  and  the  canvas,  and 
pressing  both  gently  together.  If  the  deterioration  extends 
over  a  considerable  surface,  the  picture  has  to  be  lined.  While 
this  is  being  done,  and  while  the  gluing  substance  penetrates 
into  the  picture,  the  detached  parts  are  pesscd  on  again  with 
slightly  neated  irons.  If  the  whole  priming  threatens  to  come 
off,  it  will  be  better  to  take  the  picture  entirely  from  the  panel 
or  canvas,  and  to  transfer  it  to  a  new  canvas. 

I  shall  show  you  examples  illustrating  the  before-mentioned 
points,  and  among  them  two  pictures ;  one  in  oil,  taken  off 
from  canvas,  the  other  in  tempoa,  taken  off  from  wood.  Both 
of  them,  strange  to  say,  have  escaped  destruction  without 
having  been  transferred  to  a  new  canvas,  and  without  being 
covered  with  paper,  as  is  usually  done,  before  taking  them  off. 
They  show  you  the  painting  b^  itself  ht>m  both  sides.  I  have, 
of  course,  lued  evety  precaution  in  bringing  them  safely  over 
from  Florence,  where  I  happened  to  discover  them  carelessly 
stowed  away  among  heaps  of  old  pictures. 

We  come  now  to  the  most  important  part  of  the  picture,  the 
painting  itself .  We  meet  very  often  with  the  idea  that  the  old 
masters  had  been  in  possession  of  colours,  that  is  pigments,  the 
knowledge  of  which  has  been  lost,  and  that  this  accounts  princi- 
pally for  the  difference  between  the  oil  painting  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  on  the  one  hand,  and  that  of  the 
ei^teenth  and  nineteenth  on  the  other.  But  this  is  a  great 
mistake.  We  know  perfectly  well  the  pigments  used  by  the  old 
masters ;  we  possess  the  same,  and  a  considerable  number  of 
new  ones,  good  as  well  as  bad,  in  addition.  In  using  the  ex- 
preasion  of  good  and  bad  I  am  principally  thinking  of  their  dura- 


bility.   From  this  point  of  view  the  pigments  can  be  plaoed 
under  three  headings  : — 

1.  Those  which  are  durable  in  themselves,  and  also  agree 
well  with  the  other  pigments  with  which  they  have  to  be  mixed. 

2.  Such  as  when  sufficiently  isolated  remain  unaltered ;  bat 
when  in  contact  with  certain  other  pigments  change  colour,  or 
alter  the  others,  or  produce  a  reciprocal  modification. 

3.  Those  which  are  so  little  durable  that,  even  when  isolated 
from  other  pigments,  the  mere  contact  of  the  vehicle,  the  air,  or 
the  light,  makes  them  in  time  fade,  darken,  or  disappear  alto- 
gether. 

The  old  masters  used,  without  reserve,  only  those  belonging 
to  the  first  of  these  categories.  For  those  belonging  to  the 
second  they  imposed  on  themselves  certain  limits  and  jvecautions. 
Those  belonging  to  the  third  they  did  not  use  at  all.  > 

That  some  of  the  modern  masters  have  not  followed  these  '^ 
principles  is  not  owinsr  to  a  lost  secret,  but  to  the  fact  that  they 
disregarded  those  well-known  principles,  and  even  consdou^^ly 
acted  against  them.  In  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds's  diarv,  for  instance, 
we  read  that  in  order  to  produce  certain  tints  of  nesh,  he  mixed 
orpiment,  carmine-lake,  and  blue-black  altogether.  Now  orpi- 
ment  is  one  of  the  colours  of  the  second  category,  carmine-lake 
one  of  the  third.  That  is  to  sav  :  orpiment,  as  long  as  it  remains 
isolated,  keeps  its  brilliant  yellow  or  reddish-orange  colour ;  but 
when  mixed  with  white-lead  it  decomposes,  because  it  consists 
of  sulphur  and  arsenic,  and  it,  moreover,  blackens  the  white- 
lead,  because  the  sulphur  combines  with  it.  Carmine-lake,  even 
if  left  isolated,  does  not  stand  as  an  oil  colour,  and  therefore 
has  been  superseded  by  madder-lake. 

Unfortunately  some  of  the  most  brilliant  colours  are  perish- 
able to  such  a  degree  that  they  ought  never  to  be  used ;  yet,  it 
seems  to  me,  that  just  in  one  branch  of  art  in  which  of  late 
remarkable  progress  has  been  made,  I  mean  landscape  painting, 
the  artiste,  in  onler  to  obtain  certain  effects  of  colour  not  easily 
to  be  realised,  do  not  alwa3rs  resist  the  temptation  to  make  use 
of  a  number  of  pigments,  the  non-durability  of  which  is  proved 
beyond  doubt.  However  that  may  be,  I  think  it  pretty  certain 
that  the  pigments  in  themselves  play  only  a  subordinate  part  in 
the  deterioration  of  oil  paintings,  and  Uiat  the  principal  par^  J 
belongs  to  the  vehicle  with  whidi  the  colours  are  ground,  and  to 
the  liquids  which  are  added  during  the  painting.  I  hope,  there- 
fore, you  will  excuse  my  making  some  r  elementary  explanations 
about  these  liquids. 

Oil  and  fat  are  bodies  consisting  of  carbon,  -hvdrogen,  and 
oxygen.  They  may  be  considered  as  salts  in  which  gl3rcerine, 
as  a  basis,  is  combined  with  different  acids,  stearic  add,  palmic 
acid,  oleic  acid.  If  oil  is  exposed  to  the  air  it  changes ;  certain 
kinds  of  oil  remain  liquid ;  others  become  thicker  and  darker, 
and  are  gradually  transformed  into  hard  and  opaque  bodies.  The 
drying  of  oils  is  l>ased  upon  a  chemical  process,  during  which 
the  oil  oxidises  by  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  combining 
a  part  of  it  with  carbon  to  form  carbonic  acid,  and  another  part 
with  hydrogen  to  form  water.  The  diflbrent  oils  dry  with  dif- 
ferent rapidity,  but  thb  rapidity  may  be  modified  bv  the  presence 
of  certain  substances,  or  by  certain  treatment.  Linseed  oil,  for 
instance,  according  to  the  way  in  which  it  has  been  pressed  out 
of  the  seed,  contains  more  or  less  mucilaginous  substances. 
These  latter  impede  the  drying  of  the  oil,  and  have  therefore  to 
be  removed  by  a  refining  process.  If  linseed  oil  in  a  shallow 
vessel  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  light,  and  especially  to  a  green 
light,  it  soon  begins  to  dry,  and  is  transformed  first  into  a  kind 
of  varnish  and  gradually  into  a  solid  opaque  substance.  The 
drying  may  be  quicken^  by  boiling,  and  more  particularly  by 
the  addition  of  lead,  zinc,  or  manganese.  In  this  way  a  quick^^ 
drving  oil  varnish  may  be  prepared  and  used  as  a  siccative.  It 
follows  that  there  are  certam  substances  which  impede  the  drying 
of  oils,  and  others  which  facilitate  it.  Amongst  the  pigments 
are  some  which  belong  to  this  cat^fory  of  bodies  ;  white-lead, 
rinc-white,  >  minium,  vermilion,  for  instance,  facilitate  the 
drying ;  others,  such  as  ivory-black,  bitumen,  madder-lake,  will 
impede  it.  Supposing,  now,  we  should  add  to  each  of  the 
different  pigments  the  same  -quantity  of  oil,  the  drying  of  it 
would  progress  at  different  rates.  But  in  reality  this  difference 
is  very  greatly  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  different  pigments 
require  very  afferent  quantities  of  oil,  in  order  -to  ^be  ground  to 
the  consistency  requisite  for  painting. 

Pettenkofer  quotes  the  following  figures,  given  to  him  by  one 
of  the  colour  manufacturers: — 

100  parts  (weight)  White-lead    require  12  parts  of  oil. 

„  „       Zinc-white     „       14  „ 


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NATURE 


495 


100  parts  (weight)  Green  chrome 

,,  ,,  Chrome-yellow 

,,  „  Vermilion       

,,  „  Light  reel       

,,  ,,  Madder-lake 

,,  ,,  Yellow  ochre 

,,  ,,  Light  ochre    

,,  ,,  Cassel's -brown 

,,  ,,  Brown  manganese 

,,  ,,  Terre  vertc     

,,  ,,  Parisian-blue 

,,  ,,  Burnt  terre  vertc   .. 

,,  ,,  Berlin-blue     

,,  ,,  Ivory-black    

,,  ,,  Cobalt     

,,  ,,  Florentine-brown  .. 

,,  ,,  Burnt  terra  .'^icnna 

,,  „  Raw  terra  sienna  .. 


require  15  parts  of  oil. 

„  3» 

„  62 

»,  66  „ 

M  75 

..  75 

„  87 

„  100 

„  106  „ 

„  112 

„  "2 

„  112 

„  125 

»  iSi  „ 


According  to  this  table  a  hundred  partr,  of  the  quick -drying 
white-lead  are  ground  with  twelve  parts  of  oil,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  the  slow-drying  ivory-black  requires  one  hundred  and 
twelve  parts  of  oil. 

It  is  very  important  that  artists  should  have  an  exact 
knowledge  of  these  matters.  But  it  seems  to  mc  that  they 
are  insufficiently  known  to  most  of  them.  All,  of  course, 
know  perfectly  how  different  the  drying  quality  of  different 
colours  is.  But  that  these  different  col  jurs  introduce  into  thfc 
picture  so  different  a  quantity  of  oil,  and  how  large  this  quan- 
tity is  in  the  colours  they  buy,  and  further,  that  the  oil  as  well 
as  the  mediums  or  siccatives  they  add  to  dry  the  colours,  are 
gradually  transformed  into  a  caoutchouc-like  opaque  substance, 
which  envelops  and  darkens  the  pigments  ;  and  moreover,  that 
the  oil  undergoes — not  in  the  beginning,  but  much  later  on  when 
it  is  already  completely  dry— changes  of  volume, and  so  impairs 
the  continuity  of  the  picture— all  this  is  not  sufficiently  known. 
Otherwise,  the  custom  of  x>ainting  with  the  ordinary  oil  colours 
to  be  bought  at  any  colourman's,  would  not  have  been  going  on 
for  nearly  a  hundred  years  in  spite  of  all  the  clearly  shown  evil 
results ;  results  due,  chitfly,  to  the  principal  enemy  of  oil 

PAINTING,  THAT  IS  TO  SAY,  THE  OIL. 

That  the  masters  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  did 
not  use  colours  prepared  in  this  way  you  may  consider  as  abso- 
lutely certain ;  and  if  we  hear  the  lost  secret  spoken  of,  and  if 
we  read  that  the  pupils  of  the  old  masters  had  to  pledge 
themselves  to  keep  the  secret,  we  may  be  sure  that  it  is  neither 
the  method  of  painting  nor  the  pigment  used  for  it  which  is 
concerned  in  that  secret,  but  exclusively  the  way  of  preparing 
the  colours.  The  preparation  was  a  very  complicated  one, 
varying  with  the  different  pigments ;  and  we  know  that  the 
pupils  passed  six  years,  that  is  half  of  the  apprenticeship,  in 
grinding  the  colours  for  the  master. 

And  therefore  it  Is  to  this  very  point  that  everyone  who 
wishes  to  study  the  method  of  the  old  masters  must  first  of  all 
direct  his  attention.  I,  too,  was  led  by  the  study  of  this  ques- 
tion to  analyse  and  restore  old  pictures.  The  jx)ssibility  of 
making  such  analysis  we  owe  to  the  relation  between  the  old 
masters  and  their  pilpib.  Of  course  we  could  not  dissect  or 
chemically  analvse  works  of  Titian  or  Raphael.  But  fortu- 
nately the  pupils  painted  with  the  same  material  and  by  the 
same  method  as  the  masters,  and  thousands  of  pictures  by  the 
pupils,  well  preserved  ox  in  diff*erent  stages  of  decay,  may  be 
easily  procured. 
^  I  have  myself,  from  among  a  very  great  number  of  such 
pictures,  selected  about  one  hundred  specimens,  jxirt  of  which  I 
have  brought  before  you.  As  their  artistic  value  is  not,  as  you 
perceive,  of  the  highest  description,  we  need  not  feel  any 
scruple  in  experimenting  upon  or  even  destroying  them,  if  we 
can  thereby  gain  any  valuable  information. 

( To  be  continued ) 


GAS-LIGHTING  BY  ELECTRICITY 

■pOR  some  time  past  the  street  lamps  in  Pall  Mall,  Waterloo 
■*•  Place,  and  part  of  Regent  Street,  have  been  connected  by 
wires,  which  may  have  led  the  uninitiated  to  think  that  a  new 
method  of  fixing  telegraphic  wires  was  about  to  be  adopted. 
This  is  not  the  case,  however,  for  although  the  wires  were- con- 
nected with  a  battery,  they  were  not  intended  to  convey  telegra- 
hic  message.-,  but  to  experiment  on  a  ne^v  method  of  lighting 


street  lamps  by  means  of  electricity.  The  inventor  of  this 
method  is  Mr.  St.  George  Lane  Fox,  who  recently  described 
his  invention  to  the  Society  of  Arts.  Should  Mr.  Fox's  method 
be  adopted,  the  wirej--,  instead  of  running  from  lamp  to  lamp 
above  ground,  will  be  carried  along  under  ground,  and  the  only 
thing  visible  would  be  a  small  piece  of  boxed-in  mechanism  ju^t 
under  the  burner  of  each  lamp.  The  cx})criment  which  wa,s 
made  on  Saturday  afternoon  was  not,  we  believe,  completely 
successful.  The  magneto-electric  machine  and  the  battery  which 
supply  the  current  were  placed  in  a  small  temix)rary  instrument - 
house  at  the  bottom  of  Waterloo  Place.  At  the  first  trial  the 
whole  of  the  lamps  in  the  circuit  were  lighted  by  the  current, 
though  in  a  second  trial  some  of  the  lamps  failed  to  respond  to 
the  current;  but  that  this  \\as  owing  to  some  local  cause  is 
probable  from  the  fact  that  the  first  and  last  lamps  in  the  circuit 
always  resjx)nde<l  to  the  discharge.  We  shall  endeavour  to 
explain  the  method  .adopted  by  Mr.  Fox. 


tf 


In  the  first  place  he  supplies  every  lamp  with  an  apparatus 
similar  to  Fig.  i ;  next  the  lamps  must  be  connected  with  an 
insulated  conductor,  so  that,  starting  from  a  central  station,  a 
wire  would  travel  through  each  of  these  machines  and  back 
again  to  the  station.  Mr.  Fox  proposes  that  several  of  these 
circuits,  each  connecting  and  controlling  200  or  300  lamps, 
should  proceed  or  radiate  from  a  central  station,  so  that  from 
one  point  several  thousand  lamps  could  be  operated  upon  almost 
instantaneously. 

The  method  by  which  he  has  succeeded  in  producing  the 
ignition  of  the  gas  at  a  considerable  distance,  ana  at  numerous 
points,  is  by  supplying  each  lamp  with  a  small  induction  coil,  so 
that 'the  primary  wires  of  each  one  of  these  induction  coils 
forms  part  of  the  circuit,  so  in  fact  as  to  preserve  without  a  break 
the  metaUic*continuity  of  the  line.  After  several  experiments  it 
occurred  to  him  that  in  reality  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  in 
producing  a  number  of  small  electric  sparks  was  extremely 
minute,  although  at  the  same  time  requiring  to  be  produced 
almost  instantaneously.  Now  the  amount  of  work  which  an 
electric  battery  will  produce  is  dependent  on  the  time  during 
which  action  continues,  and  in  a  single  motant,  or  say  the  thou- 
sandth part  of  a  second,  the  actual  amount  of  power  available  is 
naturally  extremely  small,  and  he  thought  that  if  he  could  by  any 
means  accumulate  this  power  for  a  short  time  and  then  bring  it 
suddenly  to  bear  upon  the  circuit,  the  desired  result  would  be 
obtained.  By  means  of  an  apparatus  he  succeeded  in  accumu- 
lating the  elec'ric  current  and  storing  it  up  into  the  condenser  or 


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NATURE 


[April  iZ,  1878 


dectric  reservoir,  which  is  composed  of  glass  plates  and  tia-fuii 
laid  side  by  side  alternately. 

The  condenser,  however,  is  not  charged  direct  by  the  battery, 
but  the  cnrrent  is  made  to  work  this  Ruhmkorff  induction  coil, 
from  which  there  is  derived  a  current  having:  an  enormously 
increased  electromotive  force,  and  it  is  this  electricity  that  is 
stored  up  in  the  condenser. . 

Having  charged  the  condenser  in  this  fashion,  the  whole  of  the 
electricity  is  at  once  sent  through  the  line,  and  produces  most 
extraordinary  results.  So  much,  then,  for  the  lighting  of  the 
gas.  The  process  of  turning  on  and  off  the  gas,  although 
involving  many  important  details,  is  very  simple.  Mr.  Fox 
makes  use  of  the  soft  iron  core  which  runs  through  the  centre  of 
the  coil  to  produce  a  reciprocating  horizontal  motion  of  a  per- 
manent  horse-shoe  magnet,  suspended  on  needle-points  just 
above  the  coiL    The  soft  iron  core  with  the  primary  coil  is,  in 


Fiff.S. 


Ftp.  4. 


Fig.6. 


;niOi9     om 


fact,  an  electro-magnet,  which  can  be  magnetised  so  as  to  render 
its  poles  reversible  at  pleasure ;  the  magnets  are  carried  in  a 
small  metal  frame,  having  a  passage  through  it  for  the  gas  to 
pass  to  tiie  burner  at  the  top,  and  being  provided  with  a  stop- 
cock, or  valve,  which  is  actuated  by  the  reciprocating  magnet. 
The  whole  of  this  apparatus  is  inclosed  in  an  air-tight  metallic 
case,  which  measures  about  2\  inches  high,  by  2\  wide,  and  is 
screwed  on  to  the  supply-pipe  in  the  lamp,  the  msulated  con- 
ductor or  line- wire  being  carried  down  the  interior  of  the  lamp- 
post and  laid  under  ground,  except,  of  course,  where  an  overhead 
line  is  admissible.  The  turning  of  the  gas  on  and  off  is  accom- 
plished by  opening  and  closing  what  may  be  termed  an  electric 
needle-tap.  The  plug  of  tins  needle-tap  is  cylindrical,  and 
about  a  quarter  ot  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  carried  in  a 
socket,  which  it  fits  rather  loosely.  It  is  made  to  turn  in  this 
socket  by  the  action  of  the  reciprocating  magnet,  a  couple  of 
studs,  on  which  are  brought  into  contact  with  a  small  pin  or 
lever  connected  with  the  plug,  and  forming,  in  fact,  the  handle 
of  the  stop-cock.  The  aimular  space  between  the  plug  and  the 
socket  (which  is  about  one-thousuidth  part  of  an  inch)  is  filled 
with  some  liquid,  which  is  retained  bv  capillary  attraction 
between  the  two  surfaces,  the  joint  being  thus  rendered  perfectly 
gas-tight  The  oil  of  bitter  almonds  or  glycerine  are  both  well 
adapted  for  this  purpose,  on  account  of  their  non-oxidisable 
character,  and  from  the  power  they  possess  of  resiiting  the  action 


Tig.f. 


Pig.$. 


Fi^.9. 


ot  very  low  temperatures.  A  special  feature  in  the  apparatus  is 
the  introduction  of  a  fixed  core,  which  can  l)e  magnetised,  so  as  to 
render  its  poles  reversible  at  pleasure,  and  in  conjunction  with 
it  a  movable  magnet,  the  polsjity  of  which  is  permanent*  An 
electric  current  sent  either  forwards  or  backwards  for  a  few 
seconds  will  turn  the  gas  on  or  off  in  every  lamp  in  the  circuit 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  current 

To  put  the  system  into  practical  operation,  there  would  be  for 
any  district  of,  say  two  or  three  thousand  lamps,  a  central  sta- 
tion, from  which  the  wires  would  proceed  in  every  direction,  so 
as  to  command  a  number  of  distinct  circuits ;  all  that  is  neces^uuy 
to  have  at  the  central  station  would  be  a  battery  of  some  sort. 
Mr.  Fox  would  much  prefer  a  magneto-inductor.  By  means 
of  a  switch  and  a  commutator  the  electric  current  from  this 
machine  can  be  directed  so  as  to  operate  separately  on  each  one 
of  the  circuits,  and  by  this  means  turn  the  gas  on  or  off.  When 
the  gas  is  turned  on  it  is  lighted  by  sending  a  discharge  from  the 
condenser.    It  is  constructed  of  alternate  metallic  plates,  wiUi 


an  insulator  or  dielectric  between  them  ;  the  conducting  surfaces 
in  this  case  are  of  tinfoil,  and  the  dielectric  of  crown  glass.  Tbe 
coil  used  for  charging  the  condenser  need  not  give  more  than 
about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  spark  in  the  air.  The  disrhaiBe, 
like  the  current,  will  of  course  have  to  be  sent  throngti.  each 
circuit  separately,  and  this  is  also  done  by  means  of  the  switdi 
arrangement. 

Tbe  accompanying  figures  will  enable  the  reader  more  deaify 
to  understand  the  description  we  have  given  above. 

Fig.  I  is  a  front  elevation,  Fig.  2  a  side  elevation,  and  Fig.  3 
a  plan  of  the  apparatus ;  Fig.  4  is  a  plan  of  the  permaneDt 
magnet ;  Figs.  5  to  9  represent  details  to  be  referred  to. 


Fig.  xo. 

a  is  the  gas-pipe  leading  fiom  any  ordinary  source  of  supply  ; 
^  ^  is  a  rectangular  frame  of  white  metal  or  brass,  ca%t  or  made 
with  a  hollow  core,  and  having  two  cylindrical  portions,  c  d. 
The  part  d  is  screwed  upon  the  gas-pipe  a,  which  supports  the 
apparatus,  aud  the  part  c  receives  the  stop-cock ;  this  cock, 
which  is  shown  in  sectional  elevation  in  Fig.  5,  and  in  sectional 
plan  in  Fig.  6,  is  composed  of  a  brass  tube  e  (shown  separately 
in  Fig.  7),  which  fits  into  the  cylindrical  part  r,  and  has  two 
openings,//,  corresponding  with  the  passages  ^^,  in  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  frame  bb;  his  the  plug  of  the  cock  (shown 
separately  in  Fig.  8) ;  it  is  made  with  a  very  slight  downward 
taper,  and  has  two  apertures  or  ways  ii^  corresponding  with  the 
openings//* in  the  tuoe  ^  and  it  is  hollowed  out  in  the  middle. 
When  the  gas  is  turned  on,  the  apertures  ii  come  opposite  th« 


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497 


openings//^  the  gas  haTing  then  a  free  passage  from  the  pipe 
n  through  the  two  sides  of  the  frame  b  b,  and  mto  and  through 
the  plug  h.  It  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  Fig.  6,  that  a  small 
mm  of  the  plug  is  sufficient  to  open  or  dose  the  cock.  >&  is  a 
pipe  screwed  into  the  tube  e^  and  leading  to  the  burner  /.  ot  is 
a  projection  at  the  lower  end  of  the  plug,  and  if  is  a  pin  passed 
through  the  same.  The  plug  is  supported  on  the  point  of  the 
pivot  on  which  a  magnet  turn!«,  so  that  very  little  power  is 
required  to  turn  the  plug,  o  is  a  permanent  niagnet,  which  may 
be  either  cast  in  steel,  with  the  two  projecting  pieces  //>,  or 
made  out  of  a  steel  bar  bent  into  the  proper  shape,  and  in  this 
case  the  projections//  are  produced  by  screwing  in  two  pieces 
of  OMtal.  q  is  the  pivot  on  which  this  magnet  turns  ;  it  is  passed 
through  a  vertical  nole  in  the  magnet,  and  fixed  by  a  screw  r. 
The  lower  end  of  the  pivot  rests  in  a  steel  step  x,  which  is  sup- 
ported \rf  a  small  wooden  beam  /,  secured  to  the  ends  of  the 
wooden  bobbin  m.  z/  is  the  induction-coil ;  it  is  composed  of  a 
core  of  soft  iron  wires  two  layers  of  primary  wires  wound  with 
covered  copper  wire  of  about  No.  20  BWG,  and  upon  these 
about  ten  to  fifteen  layers  of  secondary  wire  of  about  No.  40 
BWG.  The  primary  wires  ww  form  part  of  the  drcnit  by 
which  the  lamps  to  be  lighted  or  extinguished  simultaneously 
are  connected.  One  end  of  the  secondary  coil  is  connected  to 
an  insulated  wire  jt,  leading  to  the  burner  /,  where  it  terminates 
in  a  platinum  point,  and  the  other  end  is  connected  to  the  frame 
b^  or  to  any  other  metallic  part  of  the  apparatus,  so  as  to  be  in 
metallic  connection  with  the  burner.  The  insulated  wire  x 
passes  through  an  earthenware  support  y  (seen  in  plan  in  Fig.  9), 
fixed  to  the  pipe  k.  The  soft  iron  core  projects  about  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  from  each  end  of  the  wooden  bobbin  u.  The 
bobbin  is  fastened  to  wooden  supports  z  z,  which  are  fixed  to  the 
frame  b  by  screws  s*  z\ 

Fig.  10  (for  the  use  of  which  we  are  indebted  to  the  Society 
of  Arts)  is  a  view  of  the  complete  apparatus  as  attached  to  a 
gas  lamp. 


AMERICAN  SCIENCE 

T^HE  March  number  of  the  Anurican  Journal  0/  Science 
^  opens  with  a  valuable  paper,  in  which  Prof.  Norton 
collates  the  various  observations  made  on  Coggia's  comet. 
The  theory  of  cometary  phenomena  he  arrives  at  is  (briefly) 
that  the  direct  action  of  the  sun  on  the  side  of  the  nucleus 
exposed  to  the  solar  rays  is  to  form  an  envelope  of  gaseous 
carbonic  oxide.  This  envelope  of  diamagnetic  gas  is  tra- 
versed by  the  ideal  lines  of  magnetic  force  proceeding  from 
the  nucleu*,  which  are  also  lines  of  conduction  through  the 
gas.  The  electricity  set  free  by  the  ascending  currents  of  gas, 
by  reason  of  the  diminished  gaseous  pressure,  is  propagated 
along  these  lines,  and  the  impulsive  force  of  the  electric  currents 
detaches  streams  of  the  successive  molecules  of  the  gas  in  the 
direction  of  the  lines  of  conduction.  Both  the  nucleus  and  the 
sun  exert  repulsive  forces  on  the  escaping  molecules ;  but  their 
effective  actions  may  be  either  repulsive  or  attractive,  according 
as  their  attraction  prevails  over  the  attraction  of  gravitation,  or 
the  reverse.    The  author  elucidates  this  theory  at  some  length. 

In  a  reply  to  Mr.  Mallet's  review  (m  the  Philosofhkal  Maga- 
zine) of  General  Abbott's  paper  on  the  velocity  of  transmission 
of  earth-waves,  in  which  the  value  and  accuracy  of  the  Hallet's 
Point  observations  were  doubted,  the  General  describes  some 
new  observations  on  the  subject,  which  seem  to  establish  these 
points  :  I.  A  high  magnifying  power  of  telescope  is  essential  in 
^'^ismometric  oUervations.  a.  The  more  violent  the  initial 
'  shocJr  the  higher  is  the  velocity  of  transmission.  3.  This  velocity 
diminishes  as  the  geneial  wave  advances.  4.  The  movements  of 
the  earth's  ciust  are  comolex,  consisting  ot  many  short  waves 
first  increasing  and  then  decreasing  in  amplitude,  and,  with  a 
detonating  explosive,  the  interval  between  the  first  wave  and  the 
maximum  wave,  at  any  station,  is  shorter  than  with  a  slow- 
biur^ing  explosive. 

A  new  method  for  decomposiiion  of  chromic  iron,  proposed 
by  Mr.  Smith,  consists  in  exposing  it  (in  an  exceedingly  fine  state) 
with  iMTomune  to  a  temperature  of  iSo  C  from  two  to  three  days. 
Prof.  Marsh  furnishes  an  account  of  some  new  Dinosauiian  rep-  ■ 
tiles. — Prof.  Kimball  describes  some  experunents  on  journal  , 
friction  at  low  speeds. — ^There  are  also  notes  on  some  reactions 
of  silver  chloride  and  bromide,  brightness  of  the  satellites  of 
UnmtUf&c. 

The  new  number  of  AppcUacki*^  the  journal  of  the  Appala- 
chian Mountain  Club,  contains  a  valuable  address  by  the  presi- 


dent. Dr.  S.  H.  Scudder,  in  which  he  reviews  the  principal 
scientific  expeditions  in  the  United  States  during  the  past  year. 
Dr.  Scudder  himself  is  attached  to  the  Hayden  Survey,  and 
made  the  discovery  of  the  beds  of  fossil  insects  at  Florissant, 
near  Manitou,  Colorado.  During  the  past  year  20,000  fossil 
insects  have  lieen  exhumed  from  this  quarry. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge. — The  fifth  and  final  report  of  the  Syndicate 
appointed  in  May,  1875,  to  consider  the  requirements  of  the 
University  in  different  departments  of  study,  has  been  issued, 
llie  Syndicate  have  considered  the  question  of  the  residence 
to  be  recjuired  of  professors.  They  are  of  opinion  that  it 
is  desirable — (i)  that  the  time  for  which  the  University  may 
require  the  residence  of  professors  shall  be  left  to  be  determined 
by  the  University  in  the  case  of  each  professorship,  without  any 
general  statutable  restriction  ;  (2)  that  no  professor  shall  be  con- 
sidered to  satisfy  the  condition  of  residence  who  is  not  for  the 
time  required  making  his  home  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of  Great 
St.  Mary's  Church,  unless  special  permission,  available  for  not 
more  than  one  year  at  a  time,  but  renewable,  be  granted  by  the 
Vice-Chancellor  and  Sex  Viri,  and  that  such  permission  shal 
not  be  granted  unless  the  Vice-Chancellor  and  Sex  Viri  are 
satisfied  that  the  professor  has  made  such  arrangements  as  will 
secure  his  being  reasonably  accessible  in  Cambridge  during  term 
time.  The  Syndicate  have  also  had  under  then*  consideration 
the  importance  of  individual  personal  intercotunse  between 
students  and  teachers,  and  it  has  also  been  suggested  that  the 
inspection  and  revision  of  students'  note-books  by  the  teacher 
may  in  many  cases  be  of  considerable  use.  The  precise 
manner  in  which  such  personal  intercourse  may  be  most 
effectually  secured  will  probably  vary  very  much  in  different 
subjects  and  for  different  teadiers,  but  it  seems  important 
that  the  arrangements  should  be  such  that  the  professor 
himself  may  in  all  cases  see  a  f>ortion  of  the  work  of  his  clasF, 
so  as  to  make  himself  accurately  acquainted  with  their  wants. 
The  Syndicate  have  referre<l  to  the  Board  of  Medical  Studio.; 
the  question  whether  it  is  desirable  to  found  a  complete  medicnl 
school  in  Cambridge  so  as  to  make  it  possible  for  a  student  to 
complete  his  whole  medical  course  here,  or  whether  it  is  better 
for  all  concemetl,  while  makiru?  the  teaching  at  Caml>ri(lge  as 
perfect  as  pos.sihk  in  the  scientific  subjects  which  are  the  ba^i ; 
of  medicine,  to  leave  students  to  carry  on  elsewhere  the  greater 
part  of  their  clinical  studies  and  most  of  what  relates  directly  to 
the  practice  of  medicine.  The  reply  of  the  Board  of  Medical 
Studies  states  that  they  consider  it  inexpedient  that  student. >; 
should  complete  their  whole  professional  education  at  any 
single  medical  school,  and  that  it  is  therefore  desirable  that 
students  should  pursue  their  studies  away  from  Cambridge  for  a 
year  or  more  before  commencing  practice,  either  before  or  after 
their  final  M.B.  examination.  They  believe,  however,  that  it 
would  be  in  most  cases  advantageous  to  students  to  carry  their 
medical  studies  in  Cambridge  further  tlian  is  usually  done  at 
present,  and  in  some  cases  as  far  as  the  final  M.B.  examination, 
and  they  are  therefore  of  opinion  that  the  University  should 
provide  systematic  instruction  in  all  the  sul^ects  necessary  for  a 
medical  degree,  as  is  done  at  other'  Universities.  In  order  that 
this  may  be  carrie<l  out  satisfactorily  the  Board  of  Medical 
Studies  think  that  the  University  should  provide: — ^.  A  Pro- 
fessor of  Pathology.  2.  A  Professor  of  Surgery.  3.  Systematic 
teaching  in  (i)  midwifery  and  the  diseases  peculiar  to  women 
(2)  medical  jurisprudence;  (3)  sanitary  science;  (4)  mental 
diseases.    4.  Systematic  clinical  teaching. 

R.G.S.  Public  Schools'  Prize  Meda.ls.— The  following 
Ls  the  award  of  the  Public  Schools^  Prize  Medals  annually 
given  by  the  lloyal  Geographioal  Society: — ^Physical  Geo- 
graphy—Gold Medallist,  William  John  Newton,  of  Liverpool 
College;  Silver  Medallist,  Christopher  Mounsey  Wilson,  of 
Clifton  College;  Honourably  Mentioned— £.  G.  Harmer,  Uni- 
versity Colle;fe  School;  M.  H.  Ciiffoni  and  M.  A.  Soppitt,  of 
Dulwich  College;  and  J,  S.  G.  Pemberton, •  of  Eton  College. 
Political  Geography— Gold  Medallist,  William  Wallis  Ord,  of 
Dulwich  College ;  Silver  Medallist,  George  Arnold  Tomkinson, 
of  Haileybury  CoU^^ ;  Hononrabty  Mentioned-^ A.  R.  Ropes, 
of  the  City  of  London  School ;  A.  Kay,  of  Rossall  School 
and  D.  Bowie,  of  Dulwich  College. 


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{April  \%,  1878 


Greifswald. — The  University  has  received  a  grant  of 
381,000  marks  for  a  new  library  baildino;,  and  200,000  marks 
for  the  construction  of  a  physical  laboratory. 


SCIENTIFIC  SERIALS 

Bulletin  of  the  Nuttall  Ornithological  Club,  A  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Ornithology,  Vol.  III.  January,  No.  I. — ^This 
journal,  on  entering  upon  its  third  volume,  has  increased  its 
quarterly  numbers  from  a  thin  part  of  twenty-four  pages  to  a  part 
containing  forty-eight  pages  and  a  coloured  plate.  It  will  con- 
tinue, as  before,  under  the  editorial  management  of  Mr.  J. 
A.  Allen,  assisted  by  Prof.  Baird  and  Dr.  £.  Coues,  and  it  is 
intended  that  the  volume  for  the  current  year  should  contain  an 
exhaustive  rhumi  of  the  current  literature  relating  to  North 
American  Ornithology.  The  present  number  contains — Dr.  E. 
Coues  :  On  Passerculus  bairdi  (with  plate),  and  P,  princeps, — H. 
W.  Henshaw  on  the  species  of  Passerella. — W.  A.  Cooper  :  On 
the  breeding  of  Carpod<uus  purpureas ,  var.  Calif ornicus, — W, 
Brewster  :  On  the  first  plumage  of  North  American  birds. — ^J.  A. 
Allen  :  On  Wallace's  theory  of  birds'  nests.— N.  S.  Goss  :  Breed- 
ing of  the  duck  hawk  in  trees.— Notes  of  recent  literature  and 
general  notes. 

Rcale  Istituto  Loinbardo  di  Scietize  e  Lettere,  Uendiconli,  vol.  xi. 
fasc.  iii. — On  the  action  of  so-called  catalytic  force  viewed  accord- 
ing to  the  thermodynamic  theory,  by  M.  Tommasi. — Study  on  the 
dominant  diseases  of  vines,  by  M.  Garovalio  and  Cattaneo. — 
On  the  chronolc^  of  Tyrrhenian  volcanoes,  and  on  the  hydro- 
graphy of  the  Val  di  Chiana  previously  to  the  miocene  epoch, 
by  M.  Verri. — On  the  permanent  magnetism  of  steel  at  different 
temperatures,  by  M.  Poloni. — On  the  plasmogonic  production 
of  leptothrix  and  leptomitus,  by  M.  Cattaneo. — On  the  refrige- 
ration of  pulverulent  metallic  solids  (continued),  by  M.  Cantoni. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  February  28.—"  On  the  Reversal  of  the 
Lines  of  Metallic  Vapours,"  by  G.  D.  Liveing,  M.A.,  Professor 
of  Chemistry,  and  J.  Dewar,  M.A.^  F.R.S.,  Jacksonian  Pro- 
fessor, University  of  Cambridge.    No.  I. 

In  order  to  examine  the  reversal  of  the  spectra  of  metallic 
vapours,  the  authors  observe  the  absorptive  effect  produced  on 
the  continuous  spectrum  emitted  by  the  sides  and  end  of  the 
tube  in  which  the  volatilisation  takes  place.  For  this  purpose 
they  use  iron  tubes  about  half  an  inch  in  internal  diameter,  and 
about  twenty-seven  inches  long,  closed  at  one  end,  thoroughly 
cleaned  inside,  and  coated  on  the  outside  with  borax,  or  with  a 
mixture  of  plumbago  and  fireclay.  These  tubes  are  inserted  in 
a  nearly  vertical  position  in  a  furnace  fed  with  Welsh  coal,  which 
will  heat  about  ten  inches  of  the  tube  to  about  a  welding  heat, 
and  they  observe  through  the  upper  open  end  of  the  tube,  either 
with  or  without,  a  cover  of  glass  or  mica.  To  OLclnde  oxygen, 
and  avoid  as  much  as  possible  variations  of  temperature,  they 
introduce  hydrogen  in  a  gentle  stream  through  a  narrow  tu^ 
into  the  upper  part  only  of  the  iron  tubf,  so  that  the  hydrogen 
floats  on  the  surface  of  the  metallic  vapour  without  producmg 
convection  currents  in  it.  By  varying  the  length  of  the  small 
tube  conveying  the  hydrogen,  they  are  able  to  determine  the 
height  in  the  tube  to  which  the  metallic  vapour  reaches,  and  to 
prevent  further  displacement  of  the  vapour,  and  thus  to  maintain 
different  lengths  of  the  iron  tube  full  of  metallic  vapour  at  a 
comparatively  constant  temperature  for  considerable  periods  of 


By  this  means  the  following  observations  have  been  made  up 
to  the  present  time  : — 

The  first  metal  experimented  on  was  thallium,  one  of  the  most 
volatile  of  metals.  After  arranging  the  current  of  hydrogen  so 
as  to  keep  the  tube  free  from  air,  but  without  any  rapid  move- 
ment of  the  gas»  they  saw  the  characteristic  line  reversed,  and 
maintained  it  so  for  a  considerable  time. 

The  metal  indium,  closely  allied  in  its  behaviour  and  volatility 
to  thallium,  was  next  examined,  and  they  observed  the  bright 
bine  line  reversed.  This  was  most  plainly  visible  when  UaX 
portion  of  the  vapour  which  was  nearest  to  the  sides  of  the  tube 
was  looked  through. 

They  had  great  difficulty  in  preventing  the  oxidation  of  mag- 
nesiom  in  the  tube,  and  in  using  tubes  wider  than  half  an  inch, 


did  not  succeed  in  getting  any  reversal,  but  with  half-inch  tubes 
the  b  lines  were  clearly  and  sharply  reversed,  also  some  dark 
lines,  not  measured,  seen  in  the  blue.  Hie  uuurpness  of  these 
lines  depended  on  the  regulation  of  the  hydrogen  cnrxent,  by 
which  the  upper  stratum  of  vapour  was  cooled. 

A  piece  of  metallic  lithium  was  introduced,  and  gave  no  re- 
sults. Sodium  was  next  added  in  the  same  tube,  and  this  did 
not  bring  out  the  reversal  of  the  lithium  lines.  Similarly,  chloride 
of  lithium  and  metallic  sodium,  introduced  together,  'gave  no 
better  results.  To  a  tube  containing  potassium  vapour,  some 
lithium  chloride  was  added,  but  no  lithium  line  appeared.  On 
adding  metallic  sodium  to  this  atmosphere,  and  more  li|h*n»fi 
chloride,  the  bright-red  lithium  line  appeared  sharply  revosed* 
and  remained  well  defined  for  a  long  time.  It  is  wmthy  of 
observation  that  the  lithium  line  was  only  reversed  in  a  mixtnie  ^ 
of  the  vapours  of  potassium  and  sodium,  and  it  seems  h^hly  ^ 
probable  that  a  very  slightly  volatile  vapour  may  be  diffused  in 
an  atmosphere  of  a  more  volatile  metal,  so  as  to  secure  a  suffident 
depth  of  vapour  to  produce  a  sensible  absorption.  This  woold 
be  analogous  to  well-known  actions  which  take  place  in  the 
attempt  to  separate  organic  bodies  of  verv  difierent  boiling 
points^by  distillation,  where  a  substance  of  high  boiling-point  is 
always  carried  over,  in  considerable  quantity,  with  the  vapour  of 
a  body  boiling  at  a  much  lower  temperature.  It  is  a  matter  for 
future  investigation  how  far  chemical  interactions  taking  place  in 
a  mucture  of  metallic  vapours  affect  the  volatility  of  a  third  body, 
and  what  relation,  if  any,  this  may  have  to  such  phenomena  as 
the  increased  fusibility  of  mixtures  of  salts  of  potassium  and 
sodium,  and  the  well-known  fluidity  of  the  alloy  of  those 
metals. 

As  the  authors  have  had  occasion  to  use  sodium  and  potassium 
in  their  tubes,  they  have  had  opportunities  of  observing  the 
absorption  spectra  of  these  metals,  and  they  find  that  there  is  a 
great  deal  yet  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  these  spectra.  Up  to 
the  present  time  they  have  not  ob^rved  any  of  the  appearances 
noted  by  Locky^er,  "  On  a  New  Class  of  Absorption  Phenomena," 
in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society,  voL  xxii.,  but  they 
have  repeatedly  noted  the  channelled-space  spectrum  of  sodinm  .^ 
described  by  Roscoe  and  Schuster,  in  the  same  volume  of  thi  j^ 
Proceedings,  They  observed  in  their  tubes  no  channelled  space 
absorption  by  potassium,  but  continuous  absorption  in  the  led 
and  one  narrow  absorption  band,  with  awave-lepgth  of  5,730^ 
not  corresponding  with  any  bright  line  of  that  metal. 

With  reference  to  the  absorption  spectrum  of  sodium  vapour 
they  remark  that  it  is  by  no  means  so  simple  as  has  been  gene- 
rally represented.  The  fact  that  the  vapour  of  sodium  in  a  lame 
shows  only  the  reversal  of  the  D  lines,  while  the  vapour,  volati- 
lised in  tubes,  shows  a  channelled  space  absorption,  correspond- 
ing to  no  known  emission  spectrum,  appears  to  be  part  of  a 
gradational  variation  of  the  absorption  spectrum,  which  may  be 
induced  with  perfect  regularity.  Experiments  with  sodium, 
carried  out  in  the  way  described,  exhibit  the  following  succession 
of  appearances,  as  the  amount  of  vapour  is  gradually  diminished, 
commencmg  from  the  appearance  when  the  tube  is  full  of  the 
vapour  of  sodium,  part  of  it  condensing  in  the  cooler  portion  of 
the  tube,  and  some  being  carried  out  by  the  slow  current  of 
hydrogen.  During  this  stage,  alihough  the  lower  part  of  the 
tube  is  at  a  white  heat,  we  have  always  noticed,  as  long  as  the 
cool  current  of  hydrogen  displaced  metallic  vapour,  that,  00 
looking  down  the  tube,  it  appeared  perfectly  dark.  The  first 
appearance  of  luminosity  is  of^  a  purple  tint,  and,  with  the  spec- 
troscope, appears  as  a  faint  blue  band,  commencing  with  a  wave- 
length of  atx>ut  4,500,  and  fading  awa^  into  the  violet  Next 
appears  a  narrow  band  in  the  green,  with  a  maximum  of  Ught/^ 
with  a  wave-length  of  about  5,420^  diminishing  in  brightness 
so  rapidly  on  either  side  as  to  appear  like  a  bright  line.  This 
green  band  gradually  widens,  and  is  then  seen  to  be  divided  by 
a  dark  band,  with  a  wave-length  of  about  5i5io.  Red  light 
next  appears,  and  between  the  red  and  green  light  b  an  enonnons 
extension  of  the  D  absorption  lines,  while  a  still  broader  dark 
space  intervenes  between  the  green  and  the  bhie  light  The 
dark  line  in  the  green  (wave-length  about  5,510)  now  becomes 
more  sharply  defined.  This  line  appears  to  have  been  observed 
by  Roscoe  and  Schuster,  and  regarded  bv  them  as  coinciding 
mith  the  double  sodium  line  next  in  strength  to  the  D  lines,  bat 
it  is  considerably  more  refirangible  than  that  double  line.  In  the 
next  stage,  the  channelled  space  spectrum  comes  out  in  the  dark 
space  Mtween  the  green  and  blue,  and,  finally,  in  the  red. 
Gradually  the  light  extends,  the  channels  disappc^,  the  D  lines 
absorption  narrows,  but  still  the  dark  line  in  the  green  is  plainly 


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dificemible.  Lastly,  there  it  onlj  D  lices  absorptioii.  The  blue 
and  the  sbreak  of  green  light  at  nnt  observed  seem  to  theauthort 
due  to  Imninosity  of  the  vapour  itself,  where  it  is  somewhat 
cooled,  the  later  stages  being  mixed  phenomena  of  labiorptien 
and  emission. 

As  the  absorptioa  line^  with  wave-length  about  5,510,  has  not 
been  distinctly  recorded  by  other  observers,  they  have  endea* 
▼cured  to  trace  it  under  somewhat  different  oondidons  fix>m  that 
of  the  vapour  volatilised  in  white  hot-iron  tubes.  This  absorp- 
tion-line IS  easily  seen  when  a  gas-flame  b  observed  through  a 
horizontal'glass  tube^  about.three  inches  long,  containing  soruum 
volatilised  m  the  middle  of  the  tube  by  the  heat  of  a  Bunsen's 
burner,  and  eoually  well  whether  the  tube  ooutains  hvdrogen  or 
nitrogen,  besides  sodium.  They  have  also  observed  the  same 
absorption-line  when  a  piece  of  commercial  maenesium  ribbon 
(which  always  contains  sodium)  is  ignited  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion, so  that  the  metal  melts  and  produces  an  elongated  flame. 
It  is  of  some  interest  to  note  that  absorpdoo-Unes  of  about  this 
wave-length,  in  the  solar  spectrum,  are  pven  by  Kirchhoff  and 
Angstrom  not  corresponding  widi  emission  lines  of  known 
elementary  bodies. 

When  potassium  vapour  is  observed,  whether  in  the  iron  tube 
or  in  a  glan  tube,  an  absorpdon-line  is  seen,  with  a  wave-length 
of  about  5.730^  which  is  more  refrangible  than  the  yellow  double 
emission  tine  of  potassium,  and  does  not  correspond  to  any 
known  bright  line  of  that  metaL 

They  reserve^  for  a  future  communication,  the  discussion  of 
the  identity  or  non-idendty  of  these  absorption-lines  with  lines  in 
the  solar  spectrum  and  the  inferences  which  may  be  drawn  from 
such  determination. 

The  method  of  observation  described  may  be  used  to  observe 
emission-spectra  as  well  u  absorpdon-spectra,  for  if  the  closed 
end  of  the  tube  be  pUoed  against  the  bars  of  the  furnace  so  as  to 
be  relatively  cobltf  than  the  middle  of  the  tube,  the  light 
emitted  l^  the  vapours  in  the  hottest  part  is  more  intense  than 
that  emitted  by  the  bottom  of  the  tube.  This  succeeds  admir- 
ably with  sodium,  but  they  have  not  specially  observed  it  with 
other  vapours. 

Chemical  Society,  Bfarch  32.— Dr.  Gladstone,  president,  in 
the  chair.-— The  following  papers  were  read :— On  aromatic 
nitrosamines,  by  Dr.  O.  N.  Witt.  The  author  gives  an  account 
of  his  study  of  some  complicated  reactions  of  diphen^lnitrosa- 
mine.  He  has  found  that  ordinary  ethylic  nitrite  contains  nitric 
adc,  and  has  therefore  used  mixtures  of  pure  amylic  nitrite  and 
nitric  add  for  acting  on  diphenylamlne,  and  has  obtained  mono- 
nitrodiphenylnitrosamine  in  lieht  yellow  plates  melting  at  133*5^ 
C,  and  two  bodies  whidi,  on  Uie  removal  of  their  nitroso  groups, 
yielded  dinitrodiphenyamine  and  an  isomeric  substance.  The  final 
product  of  the  action  of  strong  nitric  add  is  hezanitrodiphenyl- 
amine.— The  next  paper  was  on  a  new  process  for  the  volumetric 
estimation  of  cyanides,  by  J.  B.  Hannay.  The  cyanide  is  dis- 
solved in  water,  and  the  solution  rendered  alkaline  b^  ammonia. 
A  standard  solution  of  mercuric  chloride  is  run  in  with  constant 
stirring  until  the  liauid  is  distinctiy  opalescent.  The  end  reac- 
tion is  sharply  marked  and  very  delicate.  The  presence  of  silver 
does  not  interfere,  so  that  the  process  can  be  used  for  estimating 
the  mnides  present  in  a  plating  bath.— The  last  paper  was  on 
certam  bismuth  compounds.  Part  7,  by  M.  M.  P.  Muir.  The 
author  has  oompured  the  behaviour  of  bismuthous  and  phos- 
phorous chlorides  in  certain  reactions ;  the  latter  substance  acts 
as  a  reducing  agent  in  some  cases  in  which  the  former  does  not 
eiert  any  sudi  action.  The  author  has  also  studied  two  oxalates  of 
bismuth,  the  production  of  the  so-called  bismuthates,  and  some 
experiments  with  bismuthous  iodide. — Mr.  Williams  exhibited  a 
fine  sample  24  oz.  of  natural  salicylic  add,  also  about  one  gallon 
of  pure  methylic  alcoh(^ 

Linnean  Society,  March  21.— W.  Camithers,  F.R.S.,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — Mr.  G.  T.  Saul  exhibited  an  example 
of  the  enormous  development  of  adventitious  roots  from  a  spedes 
of  Bo-beris.— On  behalf  of  Mr.  J.  Willis  Clark  of  Cambridge, 
there  was  exhibited  mounted  spedmens  of  the  male,  female,  and 
young  of  the  fur-bearing  seal  of  the  North  Padfic.  Mention 
was  made  of  the  "  rookeries  **  of  these  creatures,  containing  over 
3,000,000  seals  in  a  compact  area.  Like  old  Turks,  a  male 
dominates  over  a  harem  of  a  dozen  or  fifteen  females,  which  he 
guards  with  j^ous  care,  for  two  months  or  more,  never  stirring 
from  the  spot,  and  meantime  fights  terrific  batties  for  its  main- 
tenance. A  neutral  zone  exbts  to  the  rear  of  the  breeding- 
grounds,  where  the  enforced  bachelors  and  adolescent  young 
of  both  sexes  repair.    These  come  and  go  continuously,  posting 


to  and  fro  throu^  free  lanes  of  passage.  Others  of  these 
animals  delight  in  dashing  among  the  breakers  on  the  surf,  or  in 
droves  frolic  and  play  on  the  simd  and  grassy  dunes  adioining 
the  more  rocky  ground  of  the  "rookery."  The  method  of 
shaving  the  fleshy  side  of  the  skin,  thus  cutting  loose  the  roots  of 
the  long  coarse  hairs,  and  retaining  the  superficial  fine  fur  of 
commerce  was  explained,  as  also  other  interesting  points  in  the 
economy  and  natural  historv  of  the  Otaries. — ^The  Secretary  read 
the  gist  of  a  paper  on  the  venation  of  the  leaf  of  hemlock 
[Conium  macu/alum),  by  Mr.  J.  Gorham.  The  latter's  observa- 
tions show  that  in  a  piece  i  inch  long,  by  \  inch  wide,  by  regis- 
tration of  the  vdnlets  in  a  tabular  form,  and  constructing  uiese  in 
figure,  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  venation  of  the  entire  leaf 
results.  Comparisons  of  leaves  of  different  umbelliferous 
genera  prove  that  each  can  be  detected  and  recognised  from 
tiie  merest  fragment. — A  communication  was  made  by  Mr.  B. 
Clarke  on  a  new  arrangement  of  the  classes  of  zoology,  founded 
on  the  position  of  the  oviducts,  or  when  these  are  absent  on  the 
position  of  the  ovaries,  induding  a  new  mode  of  arranging  the 
mammalia. — A  notice  in  abstract  was  given  on  some  genera  of  the 
Olacaceac,  by  Mr.  J.  Miers.  He  describes  a  new  genus,  Rhaptarr- 
hena,  from  Brazil,  allied  to  Aptandra ;  also  three  other  genera.  My- 
osdulos,  Arjona,  and  Quinchaihalium,  which  possess  a  distinct 
though  small  calyx  and  separate  calyde.— ^The  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley 
and  Mr.  C.  £.  Broome  gave  a  list  of  fungi  from  Brisbane,  Queens- 
land. Among  these  Agarics,  Clavarei,  and  fleshy  fungi  are 
scarce ;  interesting  forms  of  Polypord  obtain  while  leaf -parasites 
are  poorly  represented.  Some  spedes  are  identical  with  Ceylon 
and  Soutn  American  kinds,  and  several  are  common  to  Europe. 
— The  following  gentiemen  were  dected  Fellows  of  the 
Society:— John  Evans,  F.R.S.,  C.  P.^Ogilvie,  ArUiurVdtch, 
and  Sydney  H.  Vines,  B.A. 

Zoological  Society,  March  19.— Mr.  Arthur  Grote,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — The  Secretary  exhibited  the  type  speci- 
men of  Dicrurus  marginatus  of  Blyth,  and  pointM  ont  its 
identity  with  Muscifdpra  vetula  (fam.  Tyrannid«).— Mr.  J,  W. 
Clark,  F.Z.S.,  exhibited  and  made  remarks  on  some  stuffed 
spedmens  of  the  Sea  Lion  {Oiaria  ursina)  of  the  Prybylov 
Islands,  which  had  been  presented  to  the  Museum  of  the  Uni- 
vo^ty  of  Cambridge  by  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company. — A 
communication  was  read  from  the  Man^uis  of  Tweeddale, 
F.R.S.,  containing  the  sixth  of  his  contributions  to  the  ornitho- 
logy of  the  Philippines.  The  present  memoir  gave  an  account 
of  the  collections  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  in  the  Island  of 
Leyte.— Mr.  P.  L.  Sdater,  F.R.S.,  read  a  report  on  the  collec- 
tion of  birds  made  during  the  voyage  of  H.M.S.  ChalUngtr^  in 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  pointed  out  the  characters  of  a  new 
spedes  of  duck,  of  which  it  contained  specimens,  and  which  he 
proposed  to  call  Anas  wyvHiiana.—A.  communication  was  read 
from  Mr.  W.  A.  Forbes,  F.Z.S.,  containing  notes  on  a  snrall 
collection  of  birds  from  the  Samoan  Islands  and  the  Island  of 
Rotumah,  Central  Padfic. — ^A  communication  was  read  from 
Mr.  F,  Nicholson,  F.Z.S.,  containing  a  list  of  the  birds  collected 
by  Mr.  E.  C.  Buxton,  at  Darra  Salam,  on  tiie  Coast  of 
Zanribar.— Messrs.  F.  Du  Cane  Godman  and  Osbert  Salvin 
gave  descriptions  of  new  spedes  of  Central  American  butterflies 
of  tiie  family  Erycinidae.— Prof.  A.  H.  Garrod,  F.R.S.,  read 
some  notes  on  the  visceral  anatomy  of  Lycaon  putus  and  NyC' 
teremta  proeyomdts,^K  communication  was  read  from  Mr. 
Andrew  Anderson,  F.Z.S.,  conUining  the  description  of  a  new 
Indian  Prinia^  obtained  in  the  Bag^ur  Valley,  NorUi-Westem 
Himalayahs,  which  he  proposed  to  name  Prinia  poliocepfuUa. 

Meteorological  Society,  March  'ao.— Mr.  C  Greaves, 
president,  in  the  chair.— Mr.  B.  L.  Smith  was  elected  a  Fellow. 
—The  discussion  on  Dr.  Tripe's  paper  on  the  winter  dimate  of 
some  English  sea-side  healUi  resorts  was  resumed  andconduded, 
afler  which  the  following  papers  wero  read  :— Notes  on  a  water- 
spout, by  Capt  W.  Watson,  F.M.S.— Notes  on  the  occurrence 
of  globular  lightning  and  of  waterspouts  in  Ca  Donegal,  Ireland, 
by  M.  Fitzgerald.— Observations  of  rainfall  at  sea,  by  W.  T. 
Black.— The  discussion  on  the  subject  of  waterspouU  and 
globuUr  lightning  was  adjourned  till  the  next  meeting,  oft 
April  17. 

Anthropological  Institute,  Bfarch  36.— Mr.  John  Evans^ 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  presklent,  in  the  chair.— The  following  new 
members  were  announced :— Dr.  Sebastian  Evans  and  Dr. 
Allen  Thomson,  F.R.S.— A  paper  was  read  by  Mr.  Frauds  A. 
Allen  on  the  original  range  of  the  Papuan  race.  This  paper  was 
a  brief  risumi  of  the  opinions  hell  by  nufiy  amhroiK)logisU 


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NATURE 


[April  i8,  187 


with  regard  to  the  origin,  characteristics,  and  distribution  of  these 
xaoes,  and  an  attempt  to  prove  that  they  once  extended  on  the 
west  as  far  as  Africa,  and  on  the  east  as  far  as  America.  The 
writer  especially  dwelt  npon  the  statements  of  Herodotus  with 
regard  to  ^  eastern  and  western  Ethiopians,  and  the  black 
Cdchians,  and  referred  to  the  legend  of  me  Asiatic  Memnon, 
and  the  existence  of  black  races  in  Central  America,  within  the 
historic  period.  The  director  then  read  a  paper  by  Dr.  Julius 
▼on  Haast,  F.R.S.,  on  some  ancient  rock  paintii^  in  New 
Zealand.  The  author  considered  that  when  these  rock  paintings 
were  carefully  studied  by  archaeologists  and  Unguists,  they  would 

Erove  that  at  one  time  there  had  been  an  introduction  of  a  far 
gher  ciTiUntion  than  the  Maories  ever  reached. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  April  2.— Mr.  Bateman, 
resident,  in  the  chair.  The  paper  read  was  on  the  Huelva 
I'ier  of  the  Rio  Tinto  Railway,  by  Mr.  T.  Gibson,  Assoc.  Inst. 
C.E. 

Edinburgh 

UnlTersity  Chemical  Society,  February  2a— John  Gibson, 
Ph.D.,  F.R.S.E-,  preading.— Mr.  W.  L.  Goodwin  read  a  paper 
on  a  method  of  remo^  of  iron  from  cupric  sulphate  for  analyti- 
cal purposes,  in  which  he  stated  that  this  could  be  performed  by 
the  replacement  of  the  iron  by  cupric  hydrate. — Mr.  Alexander 
Macfarlane,  M.A.,  B.Sc.,  read  a  paper  on  the  disruptive  dis- 
charge of  electricity,  in  which  he  gave  the  difierence  of  potential 
necessary  to  produce  sparks  at  different  distances  up  to  ten 
milHmeUes,  and  also  with  dUTerent  pressures  and  gases  as 
dielectrics. 

Februarr  27. — ^W.  Inglis  Clarke,  B.Sc,  in  the  chair.— A 
paper  on  electrolysis  was  read  by  R.  M.  Morrison,  D.Sc.,  Che- 
mical Demonstrator  of  the  University,  in  which  he  traced  the 
hi»tory  of  electrolysis  down  to  the  present  time,  showing  that  as 
recently  as  1840  £e  art  was  practic^Iy  in  its  infancy,  and  that 
at  the  present  day  it  was  in  numberless  ways  made  use  oC  The 
(^ief  points  of  tbectfetical  and  practical  interest  were  dwelt  upon, 
both  with  regard  to  the  various  metals  which  could  practically  be 
used,  aod  to  the  solvents  from  which  the  best  results  were 
obtainable. 

Vienna 

Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences,  January  la — On  the 
behaviour  of  propylic  glycol  in  a  high  temperature,  by  M.  Linne* 
mann.-^On  the  direct  traosformauon  of  isobutylic  iodide  into 
trimethylcarbinolamin,  by  M.  Brauner.— -On  artifidal  malic  acid 
from  evemic  acid,  by  M.  LoydL — On  the  Maxwell-Simpson 
synthesis  of  acrolein  from  diiodacetone,  by  M.  Voelker. — On 
tbe  bthaviour  of  /3  bibrompropionic  acid  towards  iodide  of  potas- 
sium, by  M.  Zotta.— On  the  so-called  rag-illoess  of  workers  in 
paper  manufactories,  by  M.  Frisch. 

January  17.— The  undulating  nutation  of  intemodes,  by  M. 
Wiesner. 

January  31.— Determinaion  of  the  path  of  the  second  comet 
of  1874,  by  M.  Wenzel. — Contributioos  to  a  fuller  knowledge  of 
the  Tunicata,  by  M.  Heller. — Oa  Ampere's  fundamental  elec- 
trodynamic  experimeots,  by  M.  Ettioghausea. — Oa  the  behaviour 
of  phorogludn  and  some  related  sulxtances  towards  woody  cell 
membranes,  by  M.  Wiesner. — Oa  the  degeneration  of  leaf-growth 
uf  some  Amygdalese,  produced  by  species  of  Exoascus, — On  the 
theory  of  surface  potential,  by  M.  Wassmuth. — Contribution  to 
study  of  electricity,  magnetism,  terrestrial  currents,  magnetic 
variation,  declinatioo,  inclination,  and  intensity,  by  M.  Dau- 
brawa.~On  a  simple  method  of  drairing  a  tangent  to  the  ellipse 
and  parabola,  by  M.  Zimels. 

Paris 

Academy  of  Sciences,  April  8.— M.  Fizeau  in  the  chair.— 
The  following  among  other  papers  were  read  :— Extract  from  a 
work  by  M.  Chevrcul,  on  the  vision  of  colours.  M.  Che\Teul 
describes  some  effects  obtained  by  rotation,  with  diminishing 
speed,  of  a  disc  havino^  one  half  red  the  other  white,  as  com- 
pared with  a  similar  disc  viewed  when  at  rest. — On  the  trans- 
])arence  of  coloured  flames,  by  M.  Gouy.  For  measuring  very 
weal;  radiations  the  objective  of  the  collimator  of  a  spectroscope 
if  half  covered  with  a  plane  mirror  which  reflects  the  rays  from 
a  second  collimator  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  first,  fhus  in 
the  focal  plane  of  the  telescope  are  got  two  superposed  spectra, 
received  on  a  slit  parallel  to  the  lines  which  serves  as  eye-pieces. 
The  ^two  flame  *  compared  send  their  rays  through  the  two 
collimators  respectively ;  the  eye  sees  through  the  prisms  half  of 
each  of  the  objectives  as  a  circle  with  its  two  halves  of  the  same 


colour,  hut  differing  in  brightness.   The  same  bris^tiiess  is  give 
them  by  means  of  two  Nicols  on  the  second  collimator.      Tb 
angle  of  the  principal  sections  is  then  read,  and  indicates  th 
re^t  of  experiment.    Coloured  flames,  got  from  a   mixtniMf  r) 
common  gas  and  air  with  a  lonely-powdered  salt  in   it,   wer 
carefully  regulated  and  inclosed  in  another  flame  at    the  sajrn 
temperature,  but  without  metallic  vapour.     M.   Goay  dcm*-- 
strates  the  transparency  of  flame  for  the  rays  it  does  not  emi: 
and  for  its  own  radiations. — On  the   variation   of    indices  r,3 
refraction  in  mixtures  of  isomorphous  salts,  by  M.  I>uf  ct.     He 
finds  that  the  differences  between  the  indices  of  a  mixtm^  or 
two  isomorphous  salts  and  those  of  the  component  salts  are  r 
in verse  ratio  of  the  number  of  equivalents  of  the  salts  pr&ci- 
in  the  mixture. — Direct  fixation  of  oxygen  and  sulphur  in  bcoriir 
and  toluene,  by  MM.  Friedel  and  Crafts.  Such  fixation  is  accosa- 
plished  by  the  mtervention  of  chloride  of  aluminium ;  the  aQtK-T> 
cite  it  as  supporting  their  hypothesis  about  this  class  of  reactios.- 
— Researches    on    nitrification   by  organic  ferments,    by  M>t 
Schloesing  and  Muntz.     The  vegetable  orgamsms,  mould  ar*- 
mycoderms,  which  are  strongly  productive  of  combustion  o: 
or^nic  matter,  do  not  produce  nitrification ;   on  the   contrxn . 
they  transform  nitric  acid,  placed  at  their  disposal,    first  iui 
organic  matter  then,   partly,  at   least,  into  free  nitrogen,    it^ 
last  phenomenon   being  often  attended  by  production  of  asv 
monia.     Hence  they  effect  a  loss  of  the  combined  nitrogen  <- 
the  surface  of  the  globe.     The  function  of  nitrifying  combtBa: 
nitrogen  seems  to  be  the  special  attribute  of  a  group  of  pai 
ticular  l)eings,  and  not  common  to  all  the  organism*;  which  arr 
intermediaries  of  combustion.— Absorption  by  the  living  c«^. 
nism  of  carbonic  oxide  introduced  in  small  quantities   into  the 
atmosphere,  by  M.  Gr^hant.     Man  or  an  inferior  animal  cau-^ 
to  respire    for    half   an    hour    in   an   atmosphere   containii^ 
only  7^^  of  carbonic  oxide,  absorbs  this  gas  sufficiently  for  aboiit 
half  of^  the  red  corpuscles  combined  with  the  gas  to  become  in 
capable   of  absorbing    oxygen,  while    in  an  atmosf^ere  con 
taining  y^  of  carbonic  oxide,  about  a  fourth  of  the  red  cor- 
puscles are  combined  with  this  gas. — On  the  organ  called  chonk 
dorsalis  in  Amphioxus  lanceolatus^  by  MM.  Renaut  and  Ehichamp. 
Amphioxus  deprived  of  red  blood  containing  haemoglobin  in  its  ' 
special  elements,  has  no  longer  a  chorda  dormlis  comparable  i& 
its  structure  to  that  of  all  vertebrates. 


CONTENTS  p^^ 

Thb  Coming  Total  Solar  Eclipse.     By  J.  Norman  Lockys*. 

F.R.S :    ^:i 

Gigantic  Land  Tortoises ^^ 

Our  Book  Shblp  :  — 

Saunier's  "  Treatise  on  Modem  Horology  in  Theory  and  Practice  **    4  it 
Grav's  "  China.    A  History  of  the  Laws,  Manners,  and  Custums 

of  the  People " ^i, 

Lkttbrs  to  thk  Editor  :— 

Arrangement  of  Museums.  -  General  A.  Lane  Fox,  CB.,  F.R^S.    aI^ 

The  I%onograph.— Alexander  J.  Elus,  F.R.S ^; 

Phoneidoscopic  Representation  of  Vowels  apd  Diphth -<ngs.  —  J    H. 

Blakeslby ^s* 

The  Acoustical  Properties  of   Soap  Fdms.— Prof.   Silvanii^  P. 

Thompson ^s^ 

Cumulative  Temperature.— B. ^5. 

The  Southern  Drought.— Rev.  S.  J.  Whitmee 4^, 

Research  in  Libraries.— Robert  L.  Jack ^p- 

Mimicry  in  Birds.  -  J.  Young 4-^ 

Hanrow  School  Bathmg- Place. —Arthur  G.  Watson 4>; 

L>ndon  Clay  Fossils.— Hermann  II.  Hoffkrt 4-- 

Mcteor.— H.  Gborge  Fordham ^i\ 

The  Nightingale.— G.  J.  Pearsh ^sf 

Floating  Magnets.    By  Alfred  M.  Mavar 487 

Sun-spots  and  Terrestrial  Macnatism ^u 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

New  Companion  to  Aldebaran 48^ 

The  Star  Lalande  37813 4SS 

The  Minor  Planets 4SS 

The  Transit  of  Mercury  on  May  6 48^ 

Geographical  Notes  :— 

Aff.ca 48} 

New  Mexico 4:^^ 

Geographical  Annual 489 

Meteorological  Notes  : — 

Meteorology  of  Stonyhurst 48? 

Weekly  Sutistics  of  the  Weather 43^^ 

Missouri  Weather  Reports,  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3 40.1 

Extraordinary  Rain-Starm  in  Canada 49^ 

Comparative  Atmott^eric  Pressure  of  New  Zealand    and  Great 

Bntain 4>o 

Notes 490 

The  Uktkrijration  ov  Oil  Paintings.    By  Dr.  R.  Liaurrich.    .    4^^ 

Gas-Lighting  bv  Elbctricity  (With  iUuttrati0mt) 49s 

American  Sciuncb 497 

University  AND  Educational  In  rELLiGKNCE 497 

Sjienfific  Skrials 49S 

Societies  and  Academies 498 


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THURSDAY,  APRIL   25,   1878 


THE  COMING  TOTAL  SOLAR  ECLIPSE » 
II. 

IN  ray  former  article  I  referred  to  the  possible  employ- 
ment of  slitless  spectroscopes  during  the  coming 
eclipse,  the  prism  being  replaced  by  a  grating  in  some 
cases.  It  will  be  convenient  here  to  give  the  results 
arrived  at  by  the  Siam  Expedition  with  an  instrument 
of  this  description,  which,  for  shortness,  was  called  a 
prismatic  camera. 

The  plates  secured  present  at  first  sight  a  very  puzzling 
appearance ;  they  are  unlike  anything  ever  obtained 
before,  and  a  good  deal  of  thought  had  to  be  spent  upon 
tbem  before  all  the  knowledge  they  were  afterwards  found 
capable  of  furnishing  to  us  was  properly  appreciated. 
One  of  the  plates  was  exposed  for  one  minute  at  the 
commencement  of  totality,  the  other  for  two  minutes  at 
the  end.  The  differences  between  them  are  those  due  to 
the  phases  of  the  eclipse.  In  the  first,  two  strong  protuber- 
ances close  together  are  photographed ;  these  are  partially 
covered  up  in  the  second,  while  another  series  is  revealed 
on  the  following  limb  in  consequence  of  the  motion  of  the 
moon  over  the  sun. 

Now  in  both  the  photographs — that  exposed  for  one 
minute  and  that  exposed  for  two— the  strongest  of  the 
prominences  are  repeated  three  times,  that  is  to  say,  three 
spectral  images  of  them  are  visible,  each  of  these  images 
being  produced  by  light  of  different  wave-lengths  which 
the  prominences  emitted. 

-  The  question  is  what  are  these  particular  wave-lengths 
thus  rendered  visible  ?  Unfortunately  no  photograph  was 
taken  of  the  cusps  either  before  oi"  after  totality ;  a  scale 
therefore  was  out  of  the  question ;  and  when  the  task 
of  assigning  wave-lengths  to  these  spectral  images  fell 
upon  Dr.  Schuster  and  myself,  while  we  were  preparing 
the  Report  which  was  sent  in  to  the  Royal  Society  last 
year,  the  difficulties  we  encountered  were  very  consider- 
able. 

Everybody  I  think  will  consider  that  we  were  justified 
in  expecting  the  lines  of  hydrogen  to  be  represented  in 
such  a  photograph.  Now  the  photographic  hydrogen 
lines  are  those  at  F,  near  G  and  at  ^,  and  the  silver  salts 
usually  employed  are  such  that  the  action  is  most  intense 
near  G,  less  intense  near  ^,  and  least  at  F  ;  the  running 
down  from  G  to  F  being  rapid,  and  that  from  G  to  ^ 
much  more  gradual,  so  that  while  at  one  end  F  may  be 
said  to  be  the  limit  of  photographic  activity,  at  the  other 
it  is  continued  long  past  h.  We  were  therefore  justified 
in  assuming  as  the  preliminary  hypothesis,  that  the  image 
of  least  refrangibility  was  produced  by  the  F  light  of 
hydrogen,  the  more  so  as  the  continuous  spectrum  also 
photographed — which  continuous  spectrum,  as  we  had 
independent  means  of  determining,  came  from  the  base 
of  the  corona — gave  us  also  an  idea  of  the  part  of  the 
spectriun  in  which  each  image  was  located. 

Taking  then  F  as  a  starting  point  and  assuming  the 
next  line  to  be  the  one  near  G,  we  had  a  quite  satis- 
factory method  of  checking  the  assumption,  by  com- 
paring the  real  distance  between  the  images  with  the 
calculated  one. 

>  Continued  from  p.  483. 

Vol.  XVII.— No.  443 


A  goniometer  was  therefore  brought  into  requisition, 
and  the  angular  distance  between  F  and  the  line  near 
G  carefully  measured  in  order  to  determine  the  dispersion 
of  the  prism  actually  employed.  This  dispersion  was  one 
which  should  bring  the  images  about  as  far  apart  as  they 
were  actually  found  to  be ;  this  therefore  was  so  far  in 
favour  of  our  assumption,  that  is  to  say,  it  did  look  as  if 
we  had  got  hold,  on  the  photographs,  of  images  of  the 
prominences  built  up  by  the  F  and  G  light  of  hydrogen. 

It  was  next  the  turn  of  the  third  line,  the  one  at  h.  On 
the  assumption  already  made,  it  was  easy  to  determine 
the  distance  from  the  G  image,  at  which  the  one  repre- 
senting h  should  lie.  In  this  place,  however,  we  found 
no  image  whatever  of  any  of  the  prominences. 

Now  this  was  a  very  extraordinary  result,  and  there  was 
only  one  way,  so  far  as  we  could  then  see,  of  accounting  for 
it.  Dr.  Frankland  and  myself,  nearly  ten  years  ago  now, 
produced  evidence  which  seemed  to  indicate  that  this  line 
of  hydrogen  was  only  produced  by  a  very  high  temperature. 
This  being  so,  then,  we  should  have  to  conclude  that  the 
prominences  were  of  a  relatively  low  temperature ;  this, 
however,  I  am  far  from  saying,  and  here  there  is  un- 
doubted work  of  the  greatest  value  to  be  done  at  the  next 
eclipse,  and  I  for  one  feel  certain  that  our  American 
cousins  will  do  it. 

I  have  not,  however,  yet  referred  to  the  strongest  image 
of  all  sho\**n  in  the  photographs.  This  lies  a  little  further 
from  the  central  one  than  does  the  first  on  the  other  side 
of  it.  On  the  assumption  before  stated  its  wave-length 
lies  somewhere  near  3957.  This  number,  of  course,  is  only 
an  approximate  one,  but  the  region  occupied  by  the  line 
was  obviously  so  near  the  boundary  of  the  visible  spectrum, 
that  a  long  series  of  experiments,  in  which  we  called  in  the 
aid  of  photography  and  fluorescence,  was  made  in  order  to 
determine  whether  an  unrecorded  hydrogen  line  existed  in 
that  region.  All  I  can  say  is  that  the  point  may  be  said  to 
be  yet  undetermined.  It  is  quite  true  that  in  several  vacuum 
tubes  which  Dr.  Schuster  and  myself  employed,  a  strong 
line  more  refrangible  than  H  was  seen,  but  then  these 
same  tubes  unfortunately  showed  us  lines  in  the  visible 
spectrum,  which  beyond  all  doubt  did  not  belong  to 
hydrogen.  The  elimination  of  impurities  is  such  a  delicate 
matter,  and  one  requiring  such  a  large  expenditure  of 
time,  that  our  report  was  sent  in  leaving  this  point  sub 
judice.  We  tried  hydrogen  at  atmospheric  pressure  in 
order  to  get  such  a  predominance  of  the  hydrogen  vibra- 
tions as  to  mask  the  impurities,  but  this  did  not  serve 
us,  for  the  continuous  spectrum  was  so  bright  in  the 
violet  and  ultra-violet  as  to  render  observations  of  lines 
next  to  impossible.  Owing  to  many  reasons,  Dr.  Schuster's 
absence  from  London  being  one  of  them,  we  have  not 
been  able  to  renew  the  search. 

The  near  coincidence  of  this  spectral  image  with 
the  H-line  leads  us  to  ask  the  question  whether  Young's 
beautiful  work  in  his  mountain  observatory  might 
not  help  us  on  this  point.  Young  found  the  calcium 
lines  always  reversed  in  the  penumbra  and  near  every 
large  spot.  This  important  statement  shows  us  that 
calcium  is  one  of  the  metallic  vapoiu's  which  is  most 
frequently  ejected  from  below  into  the  prominences ;  it 
is  possible,  therefore,  that  the  prominences,  the  spectral 
images  of  which  were  photographed,  may  have  been  due 


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to  an  eruption  of  calcium.  This,  of  course,  is  only  a 
suggestion,  but  the  fact  that  it  is  a  suggestion  merely 
shows  how  important  it  is  that  this  point  should  engage 
attention  next  July.  If  the  prominences  are  then  con- 
stituted as  they  were  in  '75,  this  violet  line  will  doubtless 
tiu-n  up  again,  and  that  is  why  I  have  been  most  anxious 
to  point  out  not  only  the  conclusions  to  which  we  have 
been  led,  but  the  extreme  difficulty  of  arriving  at  any 
conclusion  whatever,  imless  by  one  method  or  another 
we  have  an  absolute  comparison  of  the  spectrum  of  the 
prominences  with  that  of  the  sun  itself. 

I  have  before  referred  to  the  fact  of  the  registration 
on  the  plates  of  a  continuous  spectrum.  If  we  were  to 
suppose  the  whole  light  of  the  corona  to  be  due  to  1474 
light,  for  instance,  we  should  expect  to  get  just  as  definite 
an  image  of  the  corona  in  the  prismatic  camera  as  in  an 
ordinary  one.  And  if  everything  outside  the  moon  gave 
us  nothing  but  a  line  spectnun,  the  moon's  limb  would 
have  a  perfectly  defined  edge.  Now  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
only  one  such  edge  is  seen  in  the  photographs.  We  have 
only  one  complete  ring  with  a  thoroughly  defined  hard 
outline,  such  as  that  to  which  reference  has  been  made. 
This  hard  ring  corresponds  to  the  second  spectral  image  of 
the  prominences,  and  is  a  continuation  of  it.  Supposing 
we  were  right  about  the  prominences,  the  ring  would  be 
due  to  the  high  temperature  h  line  of  hydrogen  (supposing 
us  wrong  it  might  be  a  companion  line  to  1474) ;  as  the 
observations  of  Respighi,  Janssen,  and  others,  in  the 
Indian  eclipse  of  '71  endorsed  the  American  observations 
of  '69  that  the  hydrogen  lines  are  the  strongest  in  the 
photographic  parts  of  the  corona,  we  may  very  possibly 
be  really  dealing  with  hydrogen. 

Now  the  edge  of  the  corona,  or  the  upper  part  of  it 
considering  if  as  the  sun's  atmosphere,  as  seen  on  our 
photographs,  is  precisely  such  as  would  be  given  by 
homogeneous  light ;  that  is,  there  is  a  distmct  image, 
and  there  is  one  image  and  not  three  or  any  other 
number.  Have  we  any  means  of  determining  the 
wave-length  of  the  light  by  which  this  image  has 
been  produced?  Let  me  give  an  idea  of  one  method 
which  we  employed: — ^A  circle  of  the  same  size  as 
the  image  of  the  moon  on  a  photographic  enlargement  of 
the  original  negative  was  cut  in  paper  and  placed  over 
the  enlargement  until  the  corona  was  synmietrical  roimd 
it,  as  we  know  it  to  have  been  synmietrical  roimd  the 
moon's  body,  or  nearly  so,  at  that  phase  of  the  eclipse. 

We  foimd  as  a  considerable  endorsement  of  the  assump- 
tion which  we  made  regarding  the  hydrogenic  origin  of 
the  chromospheric  images,  that  the  paper  circle  in  this 
position  had  its  circumference  coincident  with  the  hard 
ring  to  which  I  have  referred  as  being  a  continuation  of 
the  middle  spectral  image  of  the  prominences.  Next, 
one  of  the  ordinary  photographs  of  the  corona  was  en- 
larged to  the  same  size  as  that  of  the  one  produced  in  the 
prismatic  camera.  When  these  were  superposed  so  that 
the  outlines  of  both  coincided  as  much  as  possible,  it  was 
again  found  that  the  edge  of  the  moon  lay  along  the  ring. 

Now  then  for  the  continuous  spectrum.  The  general 
woolliness  of  the  photographs  which  at  first  sight  gives  rise 
to  the  idea  that  they  were  out  of  focus,  and  that  there  is 
nothing  to  be  got  out  of  them,  is  of  course  only  in  one 
direction,  that  at  right  angles  to  the  edge  of  the  prism 


employed.  There  is  a  well-defined  structure  running 
parallel  to  this  direction,  which  of  course  is  the  line  of 
dispersion;  this  structure  is  doubtless  due  to  irregularities 
in  the  corona,  drawn  out  by  the  prism  into  bands ;  it  is 
easy  to  determine  the  limits  of  this  continuous  spectrum. 

Examining  the  centre  of  the  photographs  we  find  tliat 
on  one  side  the  structure  stops  short  at  F,  on  the  other  it 
extends  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  prominence 
image  in  the  ultra-violet,  spaces  of  light  being  visi1>le 
beyond  353a 

From  these  data  we  concluded  that  the  continuous 
spectrum-giving  region  extends  at  least  to  a  distance  of 
3'  of  arc  from  the  sun's  limb.    This  continuous  spectrum 
is  well  shown  on  photographs  taken  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  eclipse.    One  of  the  plates  of  the  prismatic 
camera  was  exposed,  until  the  signal  for  the  end   of 
totality  was  given.      Dr.   Schuster  states  that  all  the 
observers  agreed  that  the  signal  was  given  rather  too 
late,  and  the  fog  on  the  plate  indicates  an  intense  illu- 
mination ;  nevertheless,  the  edge  of  the  sun  is  not  drawn 
out  into  a  continuous  band  but  rather  into  three  distinct 
bands.    It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  when  the  plate  was 
exposed,  only  the  lower  part  of  the  chromosphere  had 
appeared,  and  that  it  gave  out  light  of  such  intensity  that 
everybody  imagined  that  the  sun  itself  had  come  out  of 
eclipse.     I  observed  this  myself  in  1871,  and  a   very 
striking  fact  it  is. 

So  much  then  for  the  results  obtained  by  the  prismatic 
camera  in  '75.  When  the  report  is  issued — and  its  issue 
cannot  be  much  longer  delayed — it  will  be  seen  that  the 
hasty  sketch  I  have  now  given  can  be  followed  in  greater 
detaiL 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  points  about  the  expe- 
dition to  Siam  was  the  failure  to  obtain  even  spectra  of 
the   sun  with  the  ordinary   telespectroscopic    cameras 
employed.     No  doubt  the  unforeseen  delays  which  left 
very  little  time  for  the  adjustment  of  instruments,  have  a 
great  deal  to  answer  for.     I  have  little  doubt  that  if  the 
attempt  is  made  next  July,  when  any  quantity  of  skilled 
help  will  be  at  hand,  and  any  amount  of  rehearsal  will 
be    possible,  that  a  full  measure    of   success  will  be 
obtained,  at  all  events  for  the  most  photographic  part 
of  the  spectrum.     An  ordinary  photograph  of  the  corona 
was  obtained  by  Dr.  Schuster  in  two  seconds ;  and  my 
experience  with  photographic  spectra  enables  me  to  say 
that  this  photograph  was  taken  by  means  of  an  almost 
monochromatic  light — that  near  G.     Now  as  the  coming 
eclipse  will  enable   an    exposure  of  almost  100  times 
longer  than  this  to  be  employed,  I  do  not  think  that 
the  imdoubted  feebleness  of  the  object  need  be  feared. 
Besides,  this  method  would  enable  us  to  pick  up  the 
light  of  those  lower  reaches  of  the  chromosphere  which, 
as  has  been  already  stated,  are  of  such  extreme  bril- 
liancy as  to  have  been  mistaken,  on  many  occasions,  for 
the  sun  itself. 

Up  to  the  present  time  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
obtain  a  photographic  record  of  the  polarisation  of  the 
corona.  The  difference  of  colours  indicating  radial  polari- 
sation observed  by  me  when  I  used  the  biquartz  in  1871, 
certainly  have  left  the  impression  on  my  mind  that  it 
would  be  quite  easy  to  obtain  a  permanent  record  of 
them.     This  would  be  a  very  valuable  result,  and  one 


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which  would  set  at  rest  a  question  which,  though  I  con- 
sider it  settled  in  my  own  mind,  is  yet,  I  believe,  held  to 
be  still  doubtful  by  many  interested  in  these  matters* 

In  what  I  have  written  I  have  touched  only  upon 
obvious  work  suggested  by  the  previous  observations.  I 
have  little  doubt  that  the  preparations  of  the  skilled 
astronomers  of  the  United  States  include  many  surprises 
and  daring  attempts  among  the  solid  work  which  we  are 
quite  certain  of. 

All  here  wish  them  the  extremest  measure  of  success, 
which  I  am  sure  their  efforts  will  do  more  than  command. 

J.  Norman  Lockyer 


ATLANTIC  SHELLS 
Testacea  Atlanticaj  or^  the  Land  and  Freshwater  Shells 
of  the  Azores^  Madeiras^  Salvages^  Canaries^  Cape 
VerdeSy  and  Saint  Helena,  By  T.  Vernon  WoUaston, 
M.A.,  F.L.S.  Royal  8vo,  pp.  588.  (London :  L.  Reeve 
and  Co.,  1878.) 

IT  is  with  a  saddened  feeling  we  take  up  our  pen  to 
notice  this  valuable  contribution  to  malacology ;  for 
ere  its  pages  had  left  the  hands  of  the  binder,  its  talented 
author  had  passed  "  into  the  shadowy  land.** 

The  name  of  WoUaston  is  connected  ancestrally  with 
more  than  one  department  of  science,  and  the  author  of 
the  present  work  has  well  maintained  the  honoimible 
reputation  of  Dr.  WoUaston,  the  discoverer  of  paUadium 
and  rhodium,  and  the  founder  of  the  WoUaston  MedsU 
and  Award. 

CorapeUed  in  1847  to  visit  Madeira  on  account 
of  his  health,  he  commenced  to  collect  the  land- 
sheUs  of  the  various  outlying  islands  and  rocks  of  the 
Madeiran  Group ;  and  although  (as  he  tells  us)  insects, 
rather  than  mollusca,  formed  at  that  time  the  main  object 
of  his  researches,  he  was  able  to  add  a  considerable 
number  of  unmistakably  new  species  to  the  careful  and 
elaborate  catalogue  which  had  previously  been  compiled 
by  his  friend  and  companion,  the  late  Rev.  R.  T.  Lowe, 
then  chaplain  at  Funchal,  Madeira,  and  to  whom  the 
present  work  is  dedicated. 

So  interested  did  he  become  in  the  insects  and  land 
snails  of  Madeira,  that,  although  no  longer  compeUed  to 
submit  to  exile  on  account  of  his  health,  yet  he  returned 
again  and  again  to  Madeira  and  spent  many  weeks  under 
canvas  high  up  among  the  mountains  coUecting. 

In  1858  he  visited  the  Canaries  in  the  yacht  of  his 
friend,  Mr.  John  Gray,  and  again  in  1859.  On  both 
these  expeditions  he  was  accompanied  by  Mr.  Lowe. 
He  was  thus  enabled  thoroughly  to  explore  the  numerous 
and  widely-scattered  islands  of  the  Canarian  group  imder 
the  most  fortunate  circumstances  for  coUecting. 

Under  the  same  happy  auspices  he  visited  the  Cape 
Verdes  in  1866,  Mr.  Lowe  again  being  his  companion. 
In  1875  Mr.  WoUaston  sailed  for  St.^  Helena  with  Mr. 
Gray,  where  he  spent  six  months  in  investigating  the 
natural  history  of  that  remote  Uttle  oceanic  rock,  being 
on  this  occasion  accompanied  by  Mrs.  WoUaston ;  the 
Rev.  R.  T.  Lowe,  his  friend  of  many  past  years,  having 
lost  his  life  in  1874  on  his  outward  voyage  to  Madeira. 

Mr.  WoUaston  has  felt  it  desirable  to  place  these  facts 
on  record,  in  order  to  show  that  the  several  islands  and 
archipelagos  treated  of  in  the  volume  before  us— with  the 


exception  of  the  Azores— had  all  been  visited  personaUy 
by  himself. 

Although  this  book  contains  descriptions  of  no  fewer 
than  558  species  and  varieties  of  land  and  freshwater 
moUusca,  the  author  does  not  claim  for  it  the  position  of 
a  monograph,  but  rather  a  critical  enumeration  of  aU  the 
forms  hitherto  recorded,  with  special  reference  to  habitat 
in  the  several  Atlantic  archipelagos. 

Out  of  the  large  number  of  species  and  varieties 
described  in  this  work,  there  are  only  twenty-nine  which 
are  claimed  by  the  author  as  actual  novelties  j  sixteen  of 
these  are  from  the  Canaries,  nine  from  Madeira,  two 
from  St.  Helena,  one  from  the  Salvages,  and  one  from 
the  Cape  Verdes.  Mr.  WoUaston  would  have  conferred 
a  still  greater  service  on  his  fellow-workers  had  he  given 
short  diagnostic  characters  of  all  the  species  enumerated. 
This  would  greatly  have  facUitated  the  identification  of 
the  various  forms  and  saved  the  student  much  time  and 
avoided  the  necessity  of  referring  in  many  instances  to 
other  works.  It  is  also  much  to  be  regretted  that  refer- 
ences are  not  given  to  the  exceUent  published  figiures  of 
most  of  the  species  which  are  to  be  found  in  Reeve*  s 
*«  Conchologia  Iconica**  and  the  second  edition  of 
Martini  and  Chemnitz's  "  ConchyUen  Cabinet*'  by 
Kiister.  WeU-drawn  and  correctly-coloured  figures  are 
almost  indispensable  for  the  accurate  determination  of 
land-sheUs  where  form  and  colour  are  dominant  charac- 
ters. It  is  easy  to  see  and  identify  the  form,  when  care- 
fuUy  delineated,  but  almost  an  impossibility  to  convey  it 
to  the  mind  in  words. 

Mr.  WoUaston  has  shown  throughout  the  strongest 
preference  for  the  limitation  of  species — at  times  be- 
coming extremely  hypercritical — and  in  some  instances 
he  seems  to  be  altogether  in  doubt  as  to  what  constitutes 
specific  rank.  For  example,  under  Helix  bicarinata 
{vide  p.  161),  he  states  that  he  is  far  from  certain  that  it 
is  more  than  a  phasis  of  H,  echinulataj  yet  a  few  lines 
below  he  observes  that  he  has  never  found  a  single 
example  among  thousands  which  could  be  strictly 
regarded  as  intermediate. 

Again  (p.  209)  Pupa  fanalensisy ,"  this  may  be  only  a 
depauperated  state  of  the  var.  /3.  anconostoma  of  the 
Pupa  unibiUcata^  which  the  latter  has  gradually  assumed 
through  having  found  its  way  into  the  higher  regions, 
nevertheless  I  beUeve  it  to  be  truly  distinct*' 

It  is  strange  to  find  a  man  with  WoUaston*  s  admitted 
talents  and  vast  opportunities  for  observation  strugglmg 
hard  against  the  accumulated  evidence  of  more  thaii 
thirty  years,  and  clinging  tenaciously  to  the  last  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  immutabUity  of  species.  Thus  in  his 
Summary  (p.  561),  when  commenting  on  the  difficulties 
which  arise  in  defining  what  is  a  "species**  and  what  a 
"variety,**  he  adds,  "these  remarks  are  by  no  means 
intended  to  insinuate  that  the  Unes  of  demarcation 
between  species,  when  correctly  mterpreted,  are  ever,  in 
my  opinion,  really  confused  or  doubtful,  the  exact  oppo- 
site having'always  been  my  firm  belief.** 

Eliminating  what  WoUaston  caUs  "the  European  or 
more  distinctly  Mediterranean  forms**  from  the  cata- 
logue, so  that  only  "the  Atlantic  element'*  remains, 
"the  actual  species  which  range  beyond  the  limits  of  a 
single  archipelago  are  marveUously  few— about  four  or 
five  being  common  to  the  Madeiras  and  Azores,  about 


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{April  2<^^  1878 


five  or  six  to  the  Madeiras  and  Canaries,  and  about  one 
to  the  Canaries  and  Cape  Verdes ;  whilst  between  the 
Azores  and  Canaries  there  are  only  about  fire,  and  be- 
tween the  Madeiras  and  Cape  Verdes  about  one.  Moreover 
there  are  strong  reasons  for  suspecting  that  some  even 
of  these  (perhaps,  indeed,  most  of  them)  may  have  been 
accidentally  transported  amongst  the  islands,  through 
indirect  human  agencies,  at  a  comparatively  recent  date ; 
so  that  we  are  driven  to  conclude  that,  so  far  as  the 
absolute  species  are  concerned,  of  which  their  aboriginal 
faunas  are  respectively  made  up,  the  groups  are  practi- 
cally almost  independent  of  each  other.  And  yet,  in 
spite  of  this,  I  have  had  occasion  to  insist  more  than  once 
upon  the  many  characteristic  typts  which,  under  the 
aspect  of  totally  different  but  nevertheless  allied  species, 
permeate  to  a  greater  or  less  eicttnt  the  entire  'province,' 
giving  to  it  an  amount  of  unity y  through  its  several  com- 
ponent parts,  which  it  is  scarcely  possible  not  to  recog- 
nise.*'    (P.  563.) 

The  ^^ Atlantis  hypothesis"  was  clearly  present  to 
WoUaston  when  he  wrote : — 

"There  may  doubtless  be  many  explanations,  perhaps 
equally  plausible,  of  these  phenomena,  but  I  must  con- 
fess that  none  commends  itself  so  thoroughly  to  my  mind 
as  the  possible  breaking  up  of  a  land  which  was  once 
more  or  less  continuous,  and  which  had  been  inter- 
colonised  along  ridges  and  tracts  (now  lost  beneath  the 
ocean)  which  brought  into  comparatively  intimate  con- 
nection many  of  its  parts,  even  whilst  others,  though 
topographically  near  at  hand,  were  separated  by  channels 
which  served  practically  to  keep  them  very  decidedly 
asunder.  It  is  on  some  such  principle  as  this  that  I 
would  account  for  the  Canaries  appearing  to  be  not  only 
as  widely  removed  from  Madeiras  as  perhaps  even  the 
Cape  Verdes  are,  but  (whilst  further  to  the  south)  to  pos- 
sess a  fauna  of  which  the  *  Mediterranean  *  element  is 
much  more  traceable.  This  latter  circumstance,  which  is 
shadowed  forth  likewise  by  the  Coleopterous  statistics,  is 
by  no  means  a  fanciful  one,  whole  groups  which  are  indi- 
cative (more  or  less)  of  Mediterranean  countries,  but 
which  have  no  single  representative  elsewhere  in  these 
Sub-African  archipelagos,  being  quite  at  home  at  the 
Canaries.''     (P.  505.) 

An  evolutionary  phase  of  mind  must  have  prevailed 
with  Wollaston  when  he  penned  the  following  sen- 
tence ; — 

"  It  is  quite  clear  that  the  depression  of  certain  tracts, 
and  the  upheaval  of  others,  would  produce  an  amount  of 
disturbance  in  the  fauna  which  could  not  fail  to  show 
itself  in  some  one  way  or  other  which  would  afterwards 
become  more  or  less  decipherable;  and  I  cannot  con- 
ceive much  difficulty  in  picturing  the  kind  of  change 
which  might  be  brought  about  by  the  isolation  of  a 
cluster  of  individuals  on  a  small  rock,  destined  hence- 
forth to  become  the  habitat  of  a  race  which  would,  we 
may  feel  well  nigh  certain,  rapidly  mature  for  itself  some 
slight  distinguishing  mark."     (P.  566.) 

But  he  quicldy  returns  to  his  former  state,  and 
adds  :— 

"  "Considering  how  unmistakable  the  evidence  is  for 
the  variability  (in  this  particular  sense)  of  many  of  the 
Atlantic  types— a  'variability'  so  decided  that  a  slightly 
different  phasis  has  been  assumed  in  certain  of  the 
Archipelagos,  for  nearly  every  separate  island  and  iso- 
lated rock,  it  may  sound,  perhaps,  somewhat  paradoxical 
to  speak,  nevertheless,  of  their  apparent  freedom  from 
further  change ;  and  yet  if  there  is  one  fact  more  dis- 


tinctly shadowed  forth  than  another  it  is,  without  doubt^ 
their  present  stability ^     (P.  566.) 

Further  on  he  continues : — 

"  After  the  most  rigid  and  conscientious  inquiry,  I  am 
bound  to  add  that  the  'developments,'  so  caUed,  which 
might  well  be  supposed  to  have  been  slowly  elaborated, 
are  (if  any)  simply  fifa/^r<^aa^i>."     (P.  567]!. 

However  widely  we  may  disagree  with  Mr.  Wollaston*  s 
conclusions  on  the  qucestio  vexata  of  species  and  va- 
rieties, his  critical  remarks  are  of  great  importance  from 
the  large  series  of  specimens  examined  by  him,  and  the 
fact  that  the  types  themselves  were,  in  many  cases,  in 
his  possession. 

In  an  admirable  lecture  "On  Insular  Floras,"  by  Sir 
Joseph  Hool;er,  delivered  before  the  British  Association 
at  Nottingham  in  1868,  he  described  the  Madeiran  flora 
as  composed  of  two  elements,  the  one  clearly  allied  to 
that  of  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  other  totally 
different,  and  allied  to  none  other  but  what  is  found  in 
the  Canaries  and  Azores,  which  he  designated  "  the 
Atlantic  Element." 

That  Sir  Joseph  Hooker's  researches  on  the  flora  and 
Wollaston' s  observations  on  the  insect  and  molluscan 
fauna  of  these  Atlantic  islands  should  bring  out  precisely 
similar  results,  will  seem  the  less  surprising  when  we 
remember  the  direct  connection  and  interdependence 
existing  between  plants  and  insects,  the  latter  acting  as 
the  great  fertilising  agents  to  the  former ;  whilst  the 
dependence  of  land  snails  upon  plants  is  equally  manifest. 

All  the  difficulties  raised  by  Wollaston  as  to  the  rare, 
peculiar,  and  isolated  forms  described  by  him  were  met 
and  answered  by  Sir  Joseph  Hooker  ten  years  ago. 
Assuming  these  minute  islands  to  be  relics  of  an  older 
and  once  larger  land-area  which  had  been  gradually 
reduced  by  subsidence,  he  pointed  out  that  such  a 
change,  by  contracting  the  area  would  intensify  the 
struggle  for  existence.  He  showed  that  they  were  not 
new  forms  likely  to  increase  and  multiply,  but  rather  old 
forms  dying  out.  Also  that  in  this  exterminating  process 
man  was  even  a  more  destructive  agent  than  the  sub- 
sidences of  land.  For  instance  Madeira  when  discovered 
was  so  densely  wooded  that  the  settlers  set  fire  to  the 
forest  and  the  fire  raged  for  seven  years,  no  doubt  exter- 
minating many  species  and  reducing  the  number  of 
others  proportionately. 

In  Porto  Santo  rabbits  had  proved  even  more  destruc- 
tive than  man ;  whiht  in  St.  Helena,  the  introduction  of 
goats  in  15 13,  had  almost  e.xterminated  the  forests  and 
the  subsequent  replanting  of  the  island  with  exotic  plants 
prevents  the  remaining  indigenous  vegetation  from 
resuming  its  sway. 

Whatever  be  the  extent  of  area  which  we  reclaim  from 
ocean  for  our  ancient  "Atlantis,"  it  is  evident  that 
formerly  intercommunication  existed  between  the  Azores, 
Madeira,  the  Canaries,  the  Cape  Verdes,  and  Southern 
Europe  in  Miocene  times,  for  Prof.  O.  Heer  considers 
some  of  the  Helices  of  Porto  Santo  to  agree  with  those 
of  the  Swiss  molasse. 

The  poet's  dream  may  therefore  well  be  realised  by  the 
geologist : — 

"  Which  tells,  great  pictured  Continent,  of  thee 
O  blest  Atlantis  I  can  the  legend  be 


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505 


Built  on  wild  fancies  which  thy  name  surround  ? 
Or  doth  the  story  of  thy  classic  ground 
With  the  stern  facts  of  Nature's  face  agree? 
What  if  no  tongue  tobj  tell !— thy  halo  fair 
Still  lingers  round  the  isles  which  slumber  there." 

(**  Lyra  Devoniensis,"  p.  135). 


LETTERS  TO  TH£  EDITOR 

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short  as  possible.  The  pressure  on  his  space  is  so  great  that  it 
is  impossible  otherwise  to  ensure  the  appearance  even  of  com' 
munications  containing  interesting  and  novel  facts, 1 

Indian  Rainfall 

As  Dr.  Hunter  has  been  good  enough  to  mention  my  name  in 
his  letter  to  Nature  (vol.  xvii.  p.  59)  in  connection  with  a 
comparison  of  the  rainfall  of  Northern  India  and  the  sun-spot 
period,  I  mav,  I  trust,  be  allowed  to  express  my  opinion  re^^ard- 
ing  the  validity  of  some  of  the  conclusions  be  draws  theren'om. 
In  the  first  place  I  would  remark  that  Dr.  Hunter's  idea  of  the 
fM>f/^  rainfall  of  Northern  India  being  due  to  the  immediate 
rebound  of  the  summer  monsoon  from  the  Himalayan  barrier  is 
at  variance  with  facts  in  the  meteorology  of  the  country.  The 
rebound  ought  to  take  place  directly  the  monsoon  vapour-current 
impinges  upon  the  Himalaya,  i.e.^va.  the  summer.  In  fact,  it  is 
by  a  succession  of  oblique  rebounds  from  this  impassable  barrier 
that  the  monsoon  is  gradually  reflected  towards  the  N.  W.P.  and 
the  Punjab. 

The  winter  rains,  on  the  contrary,  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
monsoon,  being,  as  is  well  known,  due  to  a  branch  of  the  anti- 
trade, which,  descending  in  the  Punjab,  is  deflected  by  the 
Himalayas  towards  Behar  and  Bengal,  occasionally  reaching 
Calcutta,  lat.  22'  35'  N. 

Now  between  the  rains  of  the  summer  monsoon  and  those  of 
the  anti-trade  (or  anti-monsoon  as  it  is  occasionally  called),  there 
is  a  well-marked  interval  of  bright,  clear,  settled  weather  for 
two  or  three  months  throughout  Northern  India.  After  this 
interval  the  skies  again  become  clouded,  and  about  Christ- 
mas, or  shortly  after,  the  gentle  but  soaking  rain  of  the  cold 
weather  sets  in,  and  is  repeated  at  intervals  up  to  the  end 
of  March.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  two  currents, 
monsoon,  and  anti-trade,  are  totally  unconnected  with  each 
other ;  and  hence  arises  the  desirabilitv,  especially  in  a  ques- 
tion like  the  present,  in  which  its  secular  variations  are  being 
discussed,  of  completely  separating  the  rain  of  the  former  from 
that  of  the  latter  vapour  current.  I  cannot  but  think  that  it  is 
his  omission  to  allow  for  these  vapour  currents  that  has  led 
Dr.  Hunter  to  ofier  such  an  erroneous  explanation  of  the  re- 
sults obtained.  According  to  him,  copious  precipitation 
should  take  place  in  the  interval  (October  to  December)  between 
the  two  seasonal  falls,  during  which  clear  weather  is  invariably 
present.  It  may  be  added  that  the  period  (December  to  April) 
which  I  took  to  comprise  the  winter  fall,  commenced  after  this 
interval. 

The  real  explanation  of  the  direct  variation  of  the  summer, 
and  the  inverse  variation  of  the  winter  rainfall  of  North  India, 
with  the  sun-spot  period,  is  the  hypothesis  which  first  led  to  its 
verification  coinddently  and  independently,  by  Mr.  Hill  and 
myself. 

To  enter  upon  a  complete  exposition  of  this  hypothesis  would 
occupy  too  much  of  your  valuable  space,  but  as  it  has  been  found 
to  explain  most  of  the  anomalies  which  have  hitherto  proved  such 
powerful  obstacles  (especially  in  extra-tropical  regions)  to  the 
universal  extension  of  tne  theory  of  sun-spot  influence  (I  use  the 
term  advisedly)  on  the  different  elements  of  terrestrial  meteoro- 
logy, I  will  here  briefly  indicate  its  general  outlines  for  the 
benefit  of  other  workers  in  the  same  field  of  investigation. 

The  hypothesis,  to  start  with,  assumes  the  solar  radiation  to 
vary  invmrsdy  with  the  sun-spot  frequency. 

It  then  takes  account  of  the  probable  effects  of  such  a  varia- 
tion upon  the  vapour-bearing  currents  throughout  the  globe  with 
respect  to  velocity,  direction,  season,  and  ktitude.  According 
as  trade,  anti-trade,  monsoon,  or  anti-monsoon,  prevail  (i)  at 
different  places  at  the  same  season,  (2)  at  the  same  place  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  so  wUl  spedfically  distinct  effects  anse  both  from 


the  amount  of  vapour  brought  and  its  conditions  of  precipita- 
tion, to  determine  which,  not  only  the  general  conditions  intro- 
duced by  latitude  and  season,  but  the  local  and  peculiar 
meteorological  functions  of  the  region  must  be  carefully  studied. 

Now  as  the  principal  effect  of  a  secular  change  in  solar 
radiated  heat  must  be  to  cause  a  similar  direct  secular  change  in 
the  normal  convection  currents  of  the  atmosphere,  we  may 
expect  the  tropical  trade-wind  and  monsoon  regions  to  furnish 
us  with  some  evidence,  whether  direct  or  indirect,  in  favour  of 
the  above  hypothesis. 

Little  direct  evidence  has  at  present  been  adduced  besides  that 
given  by  Mr.  Hill  from  a  comparison  of  wind  velocity  in  the 
N.W.P.  (Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  505).  A  good  deal  of  indirect 
evidence,  however,  is  furnished  in  the  monsoon  regions  by  the 
occurrence  of  abnormal  droughts  and  floods  in  contiguous  dis- 
tricts (the  drought  in  the  N.W.P.  and  floods  in  Assam  and 
Burmah  last  year  were  good  examples  of  this  kind)  at  the  tune 
of  minimum  sun-spot,  when  the  velocity  of  the  cmrent  being 
increased  it  travels  in  a  more  contracted  channel,  and,  by  a  more 
equable  distribution  of  rain  at  the  time  of  maximum  sun-spot, 
when  the  velocity  of  the  current  being  decreased,  it  is  more 
liable  to  extend  laterally.  In  the  trade-wind  regions  similar 
evidence  is  furnished  by  the  fact  of  a  deficiency  of  rain  and 
cyclones  at  the  time  of  minimum  sun-spot,  with  a  corresponding 
excess  of  both  at  the  time  of  maximum  sun-spot.  The  augmented 
velocity  of  the  wind  currents  at  the  former  epoch,  preventing  the 
formation  of  local  areas  of  condensation  and  precipitation,  and 
therefore  (according  to  Messrs.  Blanford  and  Eliot's  theory  of 
cyclone  generation)  of  cyclones  and  their  accompanying  down- 
pours ;  while  the  diminished  velocity  at  the  latter  epoch  favours 
the  same. 

Finally,  the  anti-trade  which  in  its  seasonal  shifts  north  and 
south  traverses  the  entire  temperate  zone,  in  the  winter  bringii^ 
rain  to  North  India,  Palestine,  Madeira,  California,  &c.,  and  in 
the  summer  to  Northern  Europe  and  Siberia,  should  give  signs 
of  a  secular  change  in  intensity  and  humidity,  corresponding 
according  to  the  hypothesis  inversely  with  the  sun-spots.  In  the 
summer,  when  large  continental  areas  like  Europe  are  more 
immediately  under  die  direct  influence  of  solar  heat,  local  con- 
vection currents  being  set  up  will  tend  to  disturb  and  complicate 
the  effect  of  any  genml  change  in  the  strength  of  the  anti-trade. 
In  the  winter,  on  the  other  h»id,  the  obliquity  of  the  incidental 
solar  rays  leaves  the  anti-trade  in  undisputed  possession  of  the 
field.  At  this  season,  therefore,  there  should  be  a  marked  varia- 
tion in  the  rainfall  of  the  temperate  zone,  more  particularly  in  those 
regions  between  25**  and  ^  N.  and  S.  lat.,  where  the  rainfall 
of  this  season  is  the  chief  rainfall  of  the  year,  corresponding 
inversdy  with  the  sun-spots.  Even  in  those  r^ons  where  the 
rain  faUs  at  all  seasons,  if  we  pick  out  the  winter  from  the  total 
annual  falls,  as  was  done  by  Mr.  Draper,  for  New  York 
(Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  15)  in  accordance  with  Mr.  Hill's  admir- 
able su^^estion  (vol.  xvi.  p.  505),  the  results  favour  the  hypothesis. 
But  they  do  this  in  a  far  more  marked  manner  where  the  rain 
of  the  entire  year  falls  during  the  winter  months,  as  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  at  Jerusalein,  which  have  consequently  hitherto 
been  considered  by  Dr.  Jelinek  and  Mr.  Meldrum  to  afford 
strong  evidence  against  the  theory  of  a  direct  connection  between 
rainfall  and  sun-spots.  The  inverse  variation  of  the  winter  rain- 
fall of  Northern  India  is  only  another  example  of  the  same  law, 
and  shows  how  extremely  important  it  is  to  analyse  the  seasonal 
variations  separately  before  deciding  the  question  by  a  mere  cursory 
glance  at  the  total  ann$ial  falls.  The  apparent  anomalies  which 
Dr.  Hunter  finds  presented  in  the  North  American  rainfalls  are,  I 
think,  due  to  his  having  compared  the  total  annual  falls.  If  he 
and  other  investigators  will  only  take  the  hint  dropped  by  Mr. 
HiU,  and  which  I  cordially  endorse,  of  comparing  the  seasonal 
falls  separately,  they  will  find,  I  think,  that  while  the  summer  rain- 
falls of  the  temperate  zone  show  either  a  non-periodic  variation, 
or  symptoms  of  one  coinciding  directly  with  the  sun-spots, 
the  winter  falls  will  in  general  show  unmistakable  signs  of  a 
variation  coinciding  inversely  with  that  of  sun-spot  frequency  and 
area.  E.  D.  Archibald 

Sun-spots  and  Rainfall 

I  have  read  with  much  interest  Dr.  Meldrum's  paper  on 
Sun-spots  and  Rainfall  in  Nature  (vol.  xvii.  p.  448),  particu- 
larly that  part  of  it  in  which  Dr.  Hunter's  method  of  discussing 
the  rainfaU  of  Madras  is  criticised,  and  a  method  of  inquiry  in 
sun-spot  researches  is  proposed.  This  method  is,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  a  new  one,  and  as  such,  is  deserving  of  careful  ezamina- 


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tion  as  to  how  far  it  is  applicable  to  the  data  submitted  for 
discussion. 

Dr.  Hunter  published  the  data  for  discussing  the  rainfall  at 
Madras  during  the  six  sun-spot  cycles,  ending  1876,  these  being 
all  the  available  data  for  Madras.  As  regards  the  sun-spots,  we 
certainly  have  no  positive  data  earlier,  at  least,  than  these  cycles, 
whatever  value  may  be  attached  to  the  approximate  earlier 
figures  supplied  by  Dr.  Wolf,  As  regards,  therefore,  both  the 
elements  under  discussion,  viz.,  the  sun-spots  and  the  rainfall,  the 
period  discussed  by  Dr.  Hunter  represents  the  whole  of  the 
cycles  for  which  material  is  available. 

In  dealing  with  this  period.  Dr.  Hunter  divides  it  into  six 
equal  cycles  of  eleven  years  each,  this  being  substantiallv  the 
average  duration  of  the  sun-spot  cycles.  I  have  arranged  the 
relative  numbers  published  in  Wolf's  last  list  ( Wolf,  Astrono- 
mische  AfUtheilun^en,  pp.  35-37),  according  to  the  cycles  adopted 
by  Dr.  Hunter,  with  the  result  that  all  the  six  minimum  years  of 
sun-spots  occurred  either  in  the  first  year  of  the  cycle,  or  in  one  of 
the  inmiediately  adjoining  ones  on  either  side  of  it,  viz.,  in  the 
second  or  in  the  eleventh  years.  As  regards  the  years  of  maximum 
sun-spot,  five  out  of  the  six  occurred  in  the  fifth  or  sixth  years  of 
the  cycle,  and  the  remaining  year  of  maximum  sim-spots  occurred 
in  the  eighth  year. 

In  his  paper  Dr.  Meldrum  states  that  as  the  sun-spot  cycles 
are  not  all  of  the  same  length,  it  is  evident  that,  by  starting 
from  any  one  year  and  going  backwards  over  a  long  period, 
always  using  the  same  fixed  number,  a  maximum  and  a  minimum 
year  might  fall  into  the  same  group,  and  it  was  to  obviate  the 
occurrence  of  this  contingency  which  the  above  analysis  of  Dr. 
Hunter's  method  shows  did  not  occur  during  the  period  discussed 
by  him,  that  Dr.  Meldmm  has  proposed  his  new  method  as  a 
more  accurate  mode  of  discussing  the  data. 

To  test  the  value  of  this  new  method  of  inquiry,  I  have 
arranged  Wolfs  relative  numbers  of  sun-spots  m  accordance 
therewith,  the  xnaximum  year  of  sun-spots  of  each  cycle  being 
placed  in  the  sixth  3rear,  the  minimum  years  being  marked  with 
an  asterisk,  and  the  ''mean  cycle"  of  eleven  years  being  calcu- 
lated from  the  thirteen  years  in  the  manner  described  by  Dr. 
Meldrum : — 


Year. 

1811-23 

1824-36 

i83a-44 

1843-55 

1855-67 

X865-77 

Means 

Mean 
cycle. 

Year 

of 
cycle. 

X 

x-6 

8-1 

a6-3 

•i3-i 

7*7 

3«*4 

»4'7 

a 

^'% 

i6« 

V4 

n 

•5-1 

>4*7 

XI -6 

14*9 

X 

3 

13*6 

350 

X3*3 

22*9 

•8-8 

21-8 

a5*4 

2 

4 

x6a 

51a 

59*0 

596 

562 

368 

46-5 

48-8 

3 

5 

35a 

62X 

"9*3 

97'4 

94*8 

786 

8o-5 

770 

4 

6 

469 

67-2 

«36'9 

X24'9 

X3i*8 

ioo'4 

9X-X 

5 

I 

39*9 

670 

xo4*x 

95'4 
69? 

77*7 

XX3-8 

83-0 

83*0 

6 

29-7 

!?'-♦ 

?3'i 

61 'o 

99*7 

657 

656 

7 

afS 

26-3 

61*8 

632 

45*4 

677 

48-0 

49*o 

8 

xo 

i6'a 

•9'4 

3«-5 

52-7 

45a 

x8-9 

34*9 

34-6 

9 

XX 

61 

13*3 

23-0 

3«-5 

3»'4 

21-9 

246 

xo 

X9 

-3'9 

59"o 

•x3x 

ax'o 

147 

•8-§ 

XX  3  '    ao*5 

22-5 

XX 

X3 

*r6 

"9*3 

>9*3 

7*7 

•7*0  1     27-5 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that  with  this  arrangement  the 
year  of  minimum  sun-spots  has  occurred  on  the  tenth,  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  first,  second,  and  third  years.  By  Dr.  Hunter's 
arrangement  the  minimum  years  feU  within  a  compact  group  of 
three  consecutive  years  out  of  a  cycle  of  eleven,  whereas  by  Dr. 
Meldrum's  arrangement  they  are  scattered  over  seven  years  out  of 
a  cycle  of  thirteen.  Further,  I  find  that  in  the  second  cycle 
what  is  virtually  a  maximum  year  (viz.,  1836  with  119*3  ^^ 
sun-spots)  fell  within  his  minimum  group,  or  in  the  thirteenth 
year.  This  is  precisely  the  result  which  the  method  was  designed 
to  avoid,  but  as  to  the  occurrence  of  which  there  was  not  an 
approach  under  Dr.  Hunter's  arrangement. 

Again,  if  the  same  rebtive  numbers  of  Wolf  be  arranged  as 
Dr.  Meldrum  proposes,  so  that  the  year  of  xnmimi^m  stm-spots 
of  each  cycle  be  placed  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  thirteen  years, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  maximum  years  are  scattered  over  the 
twelfth,  thirteenth,  first,  second,  third,  and  fifth  years  of  the 
series.  By  Dr.  Hunter's  method  of  arrangement  five  out  of  the 
six  maximum  years  fell  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  years  of  the  series, 
while  the  remaining  one  fell  in  the  eighth  year,  thus  again  pre- 
senting a  compact  group,  whereas  Dr.  Meldrum's  method 
scatters  them  over  more  than  half  of  his  series  of  thirteen 
years. 

An  objectioiiAble  feature  of  this  new  method  is  the  necessary 


repetition  of  figures  which  it  involves.  Thus,  in  the  table  given 
above,  embracing  six  cycles,  nine  minimum  years  occur ;  and  in 
the  table  in  which  all  the  minimum  years  are  so  arranged  as  to 
stand  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  cycle,  nine  maximum  years  also 
occur,  so  that  if  the  Madras  rainfall  were  discussed  by  this 
method,  the  averages  would  be  computed  from  tables  in  which 
the  maximum  and  minimum  years  occur  eighteen  instead,  of 
twelve  times. 

Mr.  Meldrum's  method  might  be  improved  if  he  entirely 
struck  out  the  first  and  thirteenth  years  of  the  thirteen  years 
series,  and  simply  **  bloxamed  "  the  remaining  eleven  years  for 
the  years  of  his  **  Mean  Cycle ; "  that  is,  made  the  first  of 
these  years  the  mean  of  the  eleventh,  first  and  second ;  the 
second  year  the  mean  of  the  first,  second  and  third.  Even, 
however,  with  this  change  the  method  is  inferior  to  that 
employed  by  Dr.  Hunter,  and  the  force  of  this  statement  will 
be  the  more  readily  recognised  if  it  be  kept  in  mind  that  we 
have  no  positive  data  from  which  the  relative  numbers  of  the 
sun-spots  can  be  calculated  prior  to  the  time  when  Schwabe 
began  his  great  work  of  sun-spot  observation. 

Edinburgh,  April  22  Alexander  Buchah 

Trajectories  of  Shot 

Mr.  Niven  was  perfectly  welcome  to  make  use  of  my  experi 
ments  and  tables,  as  he  has  done,  in  trying  to  devise  new  methods 
of  calculating  trajectories  of  shot.  And  when  he  had  satisfied 
himself  that  his  methods  possessed  some  advantages  over  others, 
he  required  no  excuse  whatever  for  their  publication.  But  I 
altogether  object  to  Mr.  Niven's  rule  for  finding  v^  being  con- 
nected in  any  way  with  the  mode  of  calculation  adopted  by  me. 
I  beg,  therefore,  to  place  side  by  side  Mr.  Niven's  rule,  to  which 
I  object,  and  my  rule,  which  I  make  use  of,  and  so  leave  the 
matter.     Mr.  Niven  says  respecting  V/t : — 

**  The  first  steps  in  our  work  must  be  to  guess  at  it.  The 
practised  calculator  can,  from  his  experience,  make  a  very  good 
estimate.  Having  made  his  estimate  he  determines  /.  He 
uses  the  value  of  k  in  equation  (a),  and  if  he  gets  the  velocity 
he  guessed  at,  he  concludes  that  he  guessed  rightly,  and  that  he 
has  got  the  velocity  at  the  end  of  the  arc.  If  equation  (a)  does 
not  agree  with  him  he  makes  another  guess,  and  so  on  dU  he 
comes  right." 

The  following  is  the  coiuse  I  pursue  to  find  v/t.  Refer  to  the 
table  of  coefficients  and  take  out  the  value  of  k^  corresponding 
to  the  initial  velocity  t/«.  Substitute  in  equation  (a)  and  find  a 
first  approximate  value  of  Vfi,  Now  determine  the  mean  value 
of  k  between  v.  and  Vfi  just  found,  substitute  in  equation  (a),  and 
thus  find  a  second  approximate  value  of  v^,  which  will  generally 
be  found  sufficient.    Otherwise  adjust  by  proportional  parts. 

In  this  way  the  value  of  Vfi  is  found  accurately  on  the  supposi- 
tion that  k  has  remained  constantly  at  its  mean  value  between 
v^  and  vp.  Here  the  operations  are  of  the  simplest  kind,  and 
no  guessii^  or  practised  calculator  is  required.  And  with  a 
view  to  diminish  the  tedium  of  making  these  <^culations,  tables 
of  %  [k),  'X{k  -r-  g)t  (1000  -*-  t/)'.,  &c,  have  been  calculated  and 
printed,  but  their  publication  has  been  delayed  on  account  of 
the  experiments  proposed  to  be  made  with  low  velocities. 

Since  Mr.  Niven  described  the  process  of  guessing  as  **ex 
tremdy  dangerous,"  there  can  be  i>o  doubt  that  the  epithet  was 
"extreme.'*^  As  I  supposed,  he  is  not  prepared  to  supply  me 
with  a  single  practical  case  where  his  condition  of  danger  is 
satisfied.  And  if  a  case  cannot  be  found  then  the  ol^ection  falls 
to  the  ground.  Whether  we  consider  the  range  of  values  of  k 
for  spherical  or  ogival-headed  shot,  for  velocities  above  1,200  f  .s., 

we  shall  find  that  ~   Ues  between  the  limits  o  and  -  0*09,  or, 

where  ^  is  a  mean  over  an'arc,  between  o  and  -  o"05  about.  And 
it  Is  the  smallness  of  this  tabular  value  which  renders  it  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  satisfy  Mr.  Niven's  condition  of  dai^r.  But 
if  this  quantity  had  not  been  small,  then  the  cubic  law  could  not 
have  been  used  even  approximately.  Mr.  Niven  is  at  liberty 
to  take  shot  of  any  size  used  in  practice,  moving  at  any  attain- 
able velocity  beyond  1,200  f.s.,  and  the  coefficients  of  resistance 
for  either  sphencal  or  ogival-headed  projectiles.  The  objection 
is  Mr.  Niven's,  and  he  must  take  the  onus  of  supporting  it  if 
he  still  thinks  it  of  value. 

I  regret  to  have  to  write  anything  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Niven's 
paper,  because  in  all  other  respects  it  appears  to  me  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  science  of  ballistics.  F.  Bashfokth 

Minting  Vicarage,  April  17 


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NATURE 


507 


"Mimicry"  in  Birds 

If  Mr.  Young  will  look  at  the  fourth  edition  of  Yarrell's 
"  British  Birds,  he  will  find  that  the  fact  he  mentions  [anU^ 
p.  4)S6)  has  already  attracted  notice,  for  he  will  there  read  (vol.  i. 
p.  616)  :- 

"In  places  near  Thetford,  where  the  ringed  plover  is 
common,  skylarks  often  imitate  the  note  of  that  bird,  making  it 
part  of  their  own  song."  Alfred  Newton 

Magdalene  Collie,  Cambridge,  April  19 


Our  starlings  here,  which  are  a  numerous  and  accomplished 
colony,  have  acqiured  the  following  notes  of  other  birds  :— Cur- 
lew, red-shank,  blackbirdi  thrush,  magpie,  swallow,  swift, 
chaffindi,  house  sparrow,  hedge  sparrow.  The  most  successful 
imitations  are  those  of  the  curlew,  red -shank  (the  note  uttered 
by  the  latter  on  taking  wing),  and  the  swallow.  I  have  several 
times  this  year  been  certain  that  I  heard  a  swallow  twittering  on 
the  house-top,  and  found  that  the  note  proceeded  from  a 
starling. 

The  jays  also  in  this  neighbourhood,  which  are  very  plentiful, 
are  very  able  mimics;  the  note  of  the  carrion  crow  is  about 
their  most  successful  effort.  H.  H.  S. 

Riding  MiU-on-Tyne,  April  22 

The  Westinghouse  Brake 

Under  the  heading,  "Notes,"  in  Nature,  vol.  xvii.  p.  140, 
there  is  a  paragraph  describing  the  automatic  brake  of  the 
Westinghouse  Brake  Company,  St.  Stephen's  Palace  Chambers, 
Westnunster,  the  latter  part  of  which  refers  to  a  boll  which 
performs  certain  functions  under  different  circumstances.  In  a 
previous  account  in  the  Timts^  three  balls  are  mentioned  as 
being  used  in  the  experiment ;  it  also  states  that  several  gentle- 
men were  investigating  the  mathematical  prindj^es  under  which 
these  functions  fell.  1  have  not  seen  any  results  of  their  work, 
neither  is  there  any  comment  upon  it  in  Nature.  I  therefore 
take  occasion  to  mention  it,  in  order  that  if  any  account  of  it 
has  passed  me,  I  may  be  informed  of  it,  or  that,  if  no  results 
have  appeared,  this  may  lead  to  the  subject  being  investi- 
gated by  some  of  the  mathematical  correspondents  of  your 
esteemed  paper.  G.  O.  K. 

Sound  and  Density 

Since  velocity  of  sound  does  not  vary  with  density  (Balfour 
Stewart,  Chap.  IV.,  **  Elementary  Physics  "),  would  you  kindly 
state  the  answer  that  should  be  given  to  the  question.  Why  does 
sound  travel  quicker  in  vHiier  and  wood  than  m  air,  and  what  is 
the  relation  between  density  and  velocity  of  sound  in  water ^  wood^ 
air?  J.  Cameron 

The  Academy,  Montrose,  April  18 

[The  velocity  of  sound  depends  on  the  ratio  between  the  mass 
and  the  elasticity,  and  in  air  (to  which  Prof.  Stewart  refers)  it 
does  not  vary  with  the  density  of  the  air  if  its  temperature  only 
remain  constant.  In  this  case  the  denser  the  air  the  greater  the 
mass,  but  the  greater  the  elasticity  in  the  same  proportion.  The 
ratio  between  mass  and  elasticity  is  thus  unaltered,  and  therefore 
the  velocity  remains  imder  these  conditions  the  same. — Ed.] 


OUR  ASTRONOMICAL  COLUMN 
The  Transit  op  Venus  in  i$82.— In  addition  to  inde- 
pendent calculations  of  the  circumstances  of  this  pheno- 
menon, founded  upon  Le  Verrier's  tables  of  the  sun  and 
planet,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made  in 
Nature,  we  have  to  record  the  publication  of  two 
memoirs  upon  the  same  subject,  the  first  by  Herr  Bruno 
Peter,  who  is  attached  to  the  Observatory  at  Lcipsic,  the 
second  by  Dr.  Karl  Friesacb,  of  Graz,  which  has  been 
received  within  the  last  week.  As  was  to  be  expected 
where  practised  calculators  are  working  upon  the  same 
data,  the  direct  results  from  the  tables  are  in  very  close 
accordance  with  those  previously  published ;  indeed  the 
advantage  of  so  many  repetitions  or  such  work  is  not  very 
evident.  The  differences  which  the  calculated  times  of 
the  geocentric  contacts  exhibit  are  almost  wholly  due  to 
the  employment  of  different  semi-diameters  of  sun  and 


planet.  Le  Verrier  suggested  (Annates^  voL  vi.  p.  40) 
that  for  the  present  the  values  to  be  employed  should  be 
respectively  9S8"'424  and  8^*305  for  the  mean  distance. 
Herr  Peter  has  used  96i"*2i  and  8" -472,  and  Dr.  Friesacb, 
960" 'o  and  8"'305.  Their  results  for  Paris  mean  times 
of  contacts  and  least  distance  of  centres  are  subjoined  : — 

Transit  of  Venus,  1882,  December  6. 


First  external  contact 

„  internal  „ 
Last  internal      „ 

„  external  „ 
Least  distance  of  centres  . 


peter. 
h.  m.    8. 
2     4  214 
2  2$     3*9 

8  I  56-5 
8  22  39*0 
5 


13  29-9  \   ...    5  13  27-3  { 


FRIESACH. 
h.  m.  s. 
2  4  52-8 
2  25  11*6 
8  I  42*6 
8  22  1*6 
5 


Encke's  Comet  in  1878.— Observers  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  may  be  reminded  that  this  comet  is  likely 
to  be  a  pretty  conspicuous  telescopic  object  in  their 
evening  sky,  in  the  first  days  of  August.  According  to 
Dr.  ron  Asten*s  latest  researches  on  the  motion  of  this 
comet,  the  period  of  revolution  at  the  last  perihelion 
passage  was  1200*8  days,  which,  without  taking  any 
accotmt  of  perturbations  (not  likely  to  be  very  materia 
during  the  present  revolution),  would  bring  it  again  to 
perihelion  on  July  27.  Mr.  Tebbutt,  of  Windsor, 
N.S.W.,  has  once  foimd  Encke's  comet  without  assist- 
ance beyond  his  own  calculations,  but  it  will  probably  be 
Dr.  von  Asten*s  intention  to  furnish  southern  observers 
with  a  reliable  ephemeris  conunencing  with  August  next. 
Observations  wiU  not  be  practicable  before  the  perihelion 
passage,  the  comet  being  too  near  to  the  sun's  place. 

The  "Berliner  Astronomisches  Jahrbuch **  and 
THE  Minor  Planets.— The  volume  of  this  ephemeris 
for  i88ohasjust  appeared  under  the  joint  editorship  of 
Professors  Fdrster  and  Tietjen.  The  general  contents 
are  similar  to  those  of  preceding  volumes.  The  ephe- 
meris of  the  moon  is  again  transferred,  with  full  acknow- 
ledgment from  the  Nautical  Almanac,  and  a  great 
amount  of  labour  of  computation  is  thereby  sauted,  which 
is  made  to  tell  upon  the  specialty  of  the  work,  the  pre- 
paration of  ephemerides  of  the  small  planets  as  far  as 
their  orbits  are  sufficiently  determined.  The  reader  who 
may  be  in  search  of  the  elements  of  these  bodies  will  find 
in  this  new  volume  of  the  Berliner  fahrbtich  the  most 
complete  and  reliable  table  yet  in  the  hands  of  astro- 
nomers. It  includes  orbits  of  all  the  minor  planets  to 
No.  172,  with  the  exception  of  No.  155,  Scylla,  for  which 
the  necessary  materials  for  calculation  are  wanting ;  and 
while  referring  to  Scylla,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the 
four  observations  on  November  8,  9,  22,  and  23,  1875, 
cannot  be  represented  by  an  elliptical  orbit,  which  raises 
a  suspicion  that  those  of  November  8  and  9  may  belong 
to  one  planet,  and  those  of  November  22  and  23  to 
another,  not,  so  far,  recognised  in  the  list.  On  examin- 
ing the  table  of  elements  it  is  seen  that  No.  153,  Hilda, 
has  by  far  the  longest  period,  while  No.  149,  Medusa,  is 
credited  with  the  shortest,  according  to  the  calculations 
of  Prof.  Tietjen.  The  observations  of  Medusa,  however, 
extend  over  a  period  of  eight  days  only,  but  they  appear 
very  exact,  and  it  has  happened  that  from  a  similar  short 
interval  of  accurate  observation,  very  close  approxima- 
tion to  the  true  elements  of  an  elliptical  orbit  has  been 
attained ;  we  may  especially  note  the  case  of  the  short- 
period  comet  of  De  Vico  in  1844 :  from  eight  days'  very 
precise  observations,  M.  Faye  deduced  an  orbit  which, 
as  was  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Briinnow,  was  almost  iden- 
tical with  the  result  of  his  own  elaborate  investigation  of 
the  elements  from  the  whole  extent  of  observation.  It  is 
unfortunate  that  Hilda  has  escaped  observation  at  the 
last  opposition,  since  of  all  the  small  planets  it  is  most 
desirable  to  keep  this  one  in  view,  from  the  fact  of  its 
orbit  allowing  of  a  very  much  closer  approach  to  the 
planet  Jupiter  than  is  possible  in  the  case  of  any  other. 


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The  best  orbit  is  by  Kuhnert,  but  it  is  probable  that  the 
want  of  observations  in  1877-78  is  not  wholly  attributable 
to  errors  of  elements,  but  in  a  certain  degree  to  the 
position  of  the  planet  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
ecliptical  belt  or  the  sky  for  which  charts  of  small  stars 
are  as  yet  published,  and,  in  addition,  to  its  faintness. 
Medusa^  which  appears  to  have  a  very  small  inclination, 
may  possibly  be  recovered  in  the  ensuing  summer. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES 

Tasmania. — The  prospects  of  Tasmania  are  reported 
to  be  improving,  owing  to  the  development  of  its  mineral 
resources.  Very  large  quantities  of  tin,  as  is  well  known, 
have  been  discovered  at  Mount  Bischoff,  and  quite 
recently  the  vast  tract  of  country  to  the  north-west, 
which  has  always  been  looked  upon  as  valueless,  has 
been  explored  with  more  care,  and  though  it  is  probably 
of  little  use  for  agricultural  purposes  it  has  been  found  to 
contain  enormous  quantities  of  iron  and  other  minerals. 
Traces  of  gold  have  been  met  with  in  the  beds  of  some 
of  the  rivers,  and  copper  has  also  been  found.  In  the 
dense  forests  which  are  common  in  this  region  specimens 
of  the  Eucalyptus  have  been  seen  which  are  said  to  be 
more  than  300  feet  in  height.  Further  exploration  is 
still  being  carried  on  with  a  view  to  the  accurate  deter- 
mination of  the  capabilities  of  this  part  of  Tasmania. 

African  Exploration.— Journalistic  enterprise  is 
again  contributing  to  the  exploration  of  Africa,  and  this 
time  Paris  is  vying  with  London  and  New  York.  M.  P. 
Soleillet,  who  has  been  equipped  imder  the  auspices  of  the 
Moniteur  Universel,  departs  soon  for  a  tour  of  explo- 
ration  in  Equatorial  Africa,  to  follow  in  the  footsteps  of 
his  fellow-journalist  Stanley.  The  development  of  open- 
ings for  French  commerce  is  to  form  a  prominent  feature 
in  the  undertaking. 

PARis.--The  Paris  Sociiii  de  GlographU  has  elected 
Baron  de  la  Ronci^re  Le  Noiu-ry  its  president  for  the 
ensuing  year. 

French  Guayana.— Dr.  Crevaux,  who  was  sent  out 
by  the  French  government  to  explore  the  interior  of 
French  Guayana,  has  returned  to  Paris  after  com- 
pleting one  of  the  most  arduous  journeys  in  the  annals 
of  South  American  discovery.  After  having  fulfilled  his 
instructions  to  penetrate  to  the  Tumuc-Humac  range,  he 
determined  to  make  the  passage  of  these  mountains,  and 
descend  into  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  an  attempt  which 
has  several  times  been  tried  in  vain  during  the  past  three 
centuries.  Although  deserted  by  all  his  attendants,  with 
the  exception  of  a  negro,  he  succeeded,  after  overcoming 
numerous  obstacles,  and  battling  with  famine  during  a 
march  of  sixteen  days  across  an  uninhabited  tract,  in 
reaching  the  head  waters  of  the  Vary,  from  whence  a 
canoe-voyage  brought  him  to  the  Amazon.  Of  the  500 
leagues  traversed  in  this  joiuney,  225  were  hitherto 
completely  unknown. 

Survey  of  New  York.— The  Second  Annual  Report  of 
the  State  Geographical  and  Topographical  Survey  of 
New  York,  in  charge  of  Mr.  James  T.  Gardner,  gives 
an  account  of  the  labours  of  the  commission  during  the 
year.  The  principal  work  of  the  year  has  been  the 
precise  determination  by  primary  triangulation  of  points 
in  eleven  counties,  embracing  an  area  of  about  3,000 
square  miles ;  167  points  were  located  in  an  area  of 
1,700  miles  in  seven  counties  alone;  the  average  has 
been  one  to  every  ten  square  mile?.  Fifty-one  monu- 
ments have  been  placed  in  defining  the  boundaries  of 
counties,  this  being  a  very  important  part  of  the  work  of 
the  survey.  The  report  is  accompanied  by  several  maps 
showing  the  progress  of  the  work,  the  position  of  the 
stations,  &c. 


BIOLOGICAL  NOTES 

A  New  Fruit.— Mr.  Hollister  has  introdaced  from 
Japan  to  San  Francisco  a  fruit,  which  is  said  in  its 
native  country  to  have  as  many  varieties  as  are  grown  in 
this  country  of  our  apple,  and  the  sweetness  of  the 
fruit  is  more  or  less  retamed  by  all  of  them.  It  is  known 
as  the  Japanese  Persimmon  and,  according  to  Mr. 
Hollister,  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  fruits  he  had 
ever  seen  and  the  most  delicious  to  the  taste — four  of  the 
fruits  which  ripened  with  him  wdghed  Uiree  quarters  of  a 
pound  each,  they  were  of  a  rich  yellow  colom^  and 
looked  like  balls  of  wax ;  these  were  pronounced  eqnal 
to  a  good  pear  or  peach.  The  tree  is  a  highly  ornamental 
one,  a  prolific  bearer,  and  as  hardy  as  a  pear.  Its  fruit 
season  is  from  October  to  March.  It  seems  quite  adapted 
to  the  soil  and  climate  of  California,  The  grafted  trees 
bear  in  four  years.  The  seedlings  require  double  that 
time,  and  are  not  reliable  (Proceedings^  Acad,  of  Science, 
California,  in  American  Naturalist  for  March,  1878). 
This  is  the  well-known  and  beautiful  fruit  of  Diospyros 
kaki^  Linn.,  fiL,a  near  ally  of  the  Persinmion  of  the  Southern 
United  States  of  America.  Mr.  Hiem  tells  us  in  his 
Monograph  of  the  Ebenacese  that  the  Chinese  preserve 
this  fruit  with  sugar,  and  that  it  has  for  a  lonc^  time  been 
in  cultivation  with  them  and  the  Japanese.  The  frnit  has 
a  thin  skin,  with  a  sweet  orange-scarlet  coloured  flesh, 
with  six  or  eight  dark  smooth  seeds.  It  was  beautifully 
figured  in  the  Gardener^  Chronicle  for  1872. 

Fossil  Insects.— Messrs.  S.  H.  Scudder,  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  F.  C  Bowditch,  of  Boston,  attached  to 
Hayden's  United  States  Geological  and  Geographical 
Survey,  spent  two  months  in  Colorado,  W^roming,  and 
Utah,  in  explorations  for  fossil  insects  and  in  collecting 
recent  coleoptera  and  orthoptera,  especially  in  the  higher 
regions.  They  made  large  collections  of  recent  insects 
at  different  points  along  the  railways  from  Pueblo  to 
Cheyenne,  and  from  Cheyenne  to  Salt  Lake,  as  well  as  at 
Lakm  (Kansas),  Garland  and  Georgetown  (Colorado), 
and  in  various  parts  of  the  South  Park  and ^  surrounding 
region.  Ten  days  were  spent  at  Green  River  and  vicinitv 
in  examining  the  tertiary  strata  for  fossil  insects,  with 
poor  results.  The  tertiary  beds  of  the  South  Park  yielded 
only  a  single  determinable  insect ;  but  near  Florissant 
the  tertiary  basin  described  by  Mr.  Peale  in  one  of  the 
annu£d  reports  of  the  Survey  was  found  to  be  exceedingly 
rich  in  insects  and  plants.  In  company  with  Rev.  Mr. 
Lakes,  of  Golden,  Mr.  Scudder  spent  several  days  in  a 
careful  survey  of  this  basin,  and  estimates  the  insect- 
bearing  shales  to  have  an  extent  at  least  fifty  times  as 
freat  as  those  of  the  famous  locality  at  CEningen  in 
outhem  Bavaria.  From  six  to  seven  thousand  insects 
and  two  or  three  thousand  plants  have  alreadv  been 
received  from  Florissant,  the  specimens  from  this  locality 
being  remarkable  for  their  beauty.  There  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  tertiary  strata  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  are  richer  in  remains  of  fossil  insects  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world,  and  that  within  a  few  months 
the  material  at  hand  for  the  elaboration  of  the  work  on 
the  fossil  insects  of  the  American  tertiaries  which  Mr. 
Scudder  has  in  preparation,  will  be  much  larger  than  was 
ever  before  subject  to  the  investigation  of  a  single  natu- 
ralist Mr.  Scudder  has  in  all  now  more  than  12,000 
specimens  of  fossil  insects. 

The  Climbing  of  the  Virginia  Creeper.— Mr. 
B.  D.  Halsted  has  studied  the  mechanism  of  clhnbing 
in  the  Japanese  Ampelopsis,  and  finds  that  the  clinging 
discs  terminate  tendrils  which  are  homologous  with 
main  stems.  Awhile  approaching  a  support,  these  discs 
flatten  themselves  on  the  inner  side.  The  surface  of  the 
disc  is  papillose,  and  excretes  a  sticky  substance ;  and 
the  irregular  contraction  of  the  tendril  draws  the  vine  to 
its  support  {Proc.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist,  Jannafy,  il  ^ 


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The  Earliest  Changes  in  Animal  Eggs.— The 
patient  researches  of  van  Beneden,  Grieff,  and  Oscar 
Hertwig  have  discovered  many  interesting  facts  in  the 
structure  of  simple  ova  when  laid,  the  mode  of  fertilisa- 
tion, and  the  first  segmentation.  Oscar  Hertwig's  last 
observations  are  on  the  starfish  Asteracanthion  i^Morpholo- 
gisches  Jahrbuchy  voL  iv.  Part  I.),  and  he  describes  the 
changes  as  follows  : — The  germinal  spot  of  the  unfertilised 
ovum  first  shows  a  separation  into  two  portions,  while 
part  of  the  germinal*  vesicle  contributes  material  out  of 
which  first  one  and  then  a  second  ''  directive  corpuscle  " 
is  formed.  By  this  time  the  germinal  Vesicle  is  undis- 
tinguishable,  having  left  a  small  portion  as  the  orinucleus 
(eiktm).  When  fertilisation  takes  place,  the  spermatozoon 
gives  rise  to  a  small  body,  the  sperm-nucleus  {sperma- 
kern) ;  this  body  approaches  the  ovinucleus,  and  they 
fuse  to  form  the  segmental  nucleus  (Jurchun^skem) ;  this 
precedes  the  division  of  the  whole  tgg  into  two  cells.  If 
such  observations  are  extended  to  many  species  and  con- 
firmed by  other  observers,  we  shall  have  an  important 
gain  in  our  knowledge  of  the  residts  of  fertilisation. 

Glacial  and  Post-Glacial  Fishes  of  Norway.— 
We  learn  from  the  Danish  Naturen  the  appearance 
in  the  third  part  of  the  Nyt  Ma^azin  for  Natur- 
videmkabeme^  of  a  paper,  by  M.  Robert  CoUett,  on 
the  glacial  and  post-glacial  fishes  of  Norway.  These 
fishes,  which  are  most  perfectly  preserved  in  chalk-lumps, 
the  outer  shapes  of  which  more  or  less  perfectly  exhibit 
the  outer  shapes  of  the  included  fishes,  are  found  in  clay 
deposits  some  360  feet  above  the  sea ;  the  fishes  belong 
all  to  the  existing  fauna,  displaying  at  the  same  time  their 
Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  origin.  Out  of  twelve  species, 
described  by  the  authors,  the  most  common  is  the  MaU 
lotus  villosus^  which  is  found  everywhere  ;  one  species, 
the  Clupea  sprattusy  is  worthy  of  notice,  because  it  is  now 
a  native  of  more  southern  waters. 

Poaching  Birds. — Mr.  N.  B.  Moore  has  made  obser- 
vations at  the  Bahamas  on  the  Certhiola  flaveola^  which 
obtains  nectar  from  the  flower  of  Verea  crenaia  by  thrust- 
ing its  bill  at  once  through  the  petals  into  the  nectary. 
It  is  only  after  the  bird  luu  made  an  opening  that  small 
black  ants  and  other  small  insects  are  found  in  the 
nectary.  But  these  birds  also  poach  on  the  woodpecker's 
preserves.  One  day  Mr.  Moore  observed  a  Picus  varius 
extracting  sap  from  a  logwood  sapling,  and  as  the  wood- 
pecker flew  away,  two  Certhiolae  appeared,  perched  near 
the  sap-pits  from  which  the  juice  was  oozing,  and  by 
cunningly  thrusting  in  their  penicillate  or,  bristle-tipped 
tongues,  commenced  to  lap  or  suck  the  fluid  into  their 
mouths.  This  practice  was  constantly  observed  after- 
wards. Mr.  Moore  fixed  the  bowl  of  a  teaspoon  in  a  fork 
of  the  same  tree,  and  placed  some  strained  honey  in  it. 
In  three  days  the  Certhiolae  found  this,  and  commenced 
to  feed  on  it.  They  were  followed  by  another  bristle- 
tongued  bird,  Dendroeca  tigrina^  and  other  species,  who 
also  attacked  the  woodpecker's  sap-pits.  These  are 
interesting  instances  of  apparent  intelligence  on  the  part 
of  birds  (J^roc,  Boston  Soc.  Nat  Hist,  January,  1878). 


GEOLOGICAL  TIME^ 

IF  a  rigid  body  be  in  rotation  about  an  axis  of  symmetry 
it  will  continue  to  rotate  about  that  axis,  but  if  it  be 
set  spinning  about  an  axis  inclined  to  that  of  symmetry 
the  axis  about  which  it  spins  will  be  continuously  dis- 
placed relatively  to  the  body ;  in  other  words,  it  will 
wabble.^  This  wabbling  is  well  illustrated  by  the  motion 
of  a  top  whilst  it  is  *'  going  to  sleep." 

As  the  rotating  body  approaches  more  and  more  nearly 
the  spherical  shape,  so  does  the  wabbling  become  slower 
and  slower.     If  the  earth,  which  is  nearly  spherical,  were 

>  Abstract  of  a  paper  read  before  tbe  Royal  Society  oa  March  14. 
*  I  follow  Dr.  Uaughton  in  the  use  of  this  very  expressive  word. 


to  wabble  in  its  diurnal  rotation  it  would  do  so  in  about 
305  or  306  days. 

Dr.  Haughton  has  lately  published^  an  ingenious 
speculation,  founded  on  the  possibility  of  the  wabbling  of 
the  earth,  in  which  he  seeks  to  determine  limits  to  the 
duration  of  geological  time  from  the  observed  absence  of 
any  motion  of  this  kind. 

The  object  of  the  short  paper,  of  which  I  am  here 
giving  an  account,  was  to  combat  the  applicability  to  the 
case  of  the  earth  of  Dr.  Haughton's  results. 

The  method  pursued  by  him  may  be  shortly  described 
as  follows  : — If  a  continent  were  to  be  suddenly  upheaved 
the  earth's  axis  of  figure  (or  strictly  speaking,  the  principal 
axis  of  greatest  moment  of  inertia)  would  be  displaced 
from  its  previous  position ;  immediately  after  the  earth- 
quake, the  axis  of  rotation  being  where  it  was  just  before 
the  earthquake,  is  no  longer  coincident  with  the  axis  of 
figure,  and  therefore  a  wabble  is  set  up  in  the  earth's 
motion.  If  it  were  not  for  frictional  resistances  that 
wabble  would  continue  for  ever  after.  But  it  is  easy  to 
see  that,  as  the  ocean  is  not  rigidly  connected  with  the 
earth,  a  tide  of  306  days  period  would  be  set  up.  This 
tide  would  then  rub  on  the  sea-bottom,  and  would 
gradually  reduce  the  wabble  and  bring  the  earth  ''to 
sleep  "  again  like  a  top. 

By  reference  to  the  estimate  of  'Adams  and  Delaunay 
of  the  effects  of  tidal  friction  in  retarding  the  earth's 
rotation.  Dr.  Haughton  endeavours  to  find  a  numerical 
value  for  the  frictional  effect  of  such  a  306-day  tide  as 
above  explained.  He  then  finds  how  long  it  would  take 
to  reduce  a  wabble  of  given  amount  to  one  of  any  smaller 
amount. 

In  a  previous  paper  he  had  already  shown  that  the 
elevation  of  the  continents  of  Europe  and  Asia  must  have 
shifted  the  earth's  axis  of  figure  by  69  miles  at  the  earth's 
surface.  If,  therefore,  such  an  elevation  took  place  suddenly, 
it  must  have  started  a  wabble,  in  which  the  axis  of  rotation 
described  a  circle  of  69  miles  radius  round  the  axis  of 
figure. 

But  Dr.  Haughton  b  of  opinion  that  astronomical 
instruments  are  now  so  perfect,  that  a  wabble  of  5  feet  in 
radius  would  be  detected,  and  that  it  is  not,  therefore, 
permissible  to  suppose  that  the  present  actual  wabble  has 
a  radius  of  even  5  feet.  His  numerical  calcidations,  then, 
show  that  it  would  take  641,000  years  to  reduce  the  radius 
from  69  miles  to  5  feet  by  means  of  the  tidal  friction,  and 
he,  therefore,  concludes  that,  if  Europe-Asia  were  manu- 
factured per  saltum^  that  event  cannot  have  taken  place 
less  than  641,000  years  ago,  and  that  it  may  have  been  at 
a  much  more  remote  epoch. 

The  improbability  of  this  supposition  induces  him  to 
consider  the  case  of  elevation  by  69  geological  convul- 
sions, each  of  which  displaced  the  axis  through  one  mile, 
and  where  the  radius  of  the  wabble  is  reduced  to  five  feet 
between  two  successive  convulsions.  He  here  finds  that 
the  elevation  of  Europe- Asia  must  have  occupied  27^ 
million  years,  and  that  no  geological  change  altering  the 
position  of  the  earth's  axis  through  one  mile  can  have 
taken  place  within  the  past  400,000  years. 

He  lastly  supposes  that  the  wabble  has  a  radius  of 
5  feet,  and  that  the  geological  changes  take  place  at  such 
a  rate  that  the  increase  of  the  radius  is  exactly  destroyed 
by  friction  during  each  wabble,  so  that  the  radius  of 
5  feet  remains  constant  On  this  supposition  he  finds 
that  the  time  required  was  4,170  million  years. 

Now  it  appears  to  me,  from  this  method  of  treatment, 
that  Dr.  Haughton  is  of  opinion  that  a  second  earthquSdce 
of  elevation  following  a  first  would  necessarily  increase 
the  radius  of  the  wabble.  For  if  not,  why  does  he  pos- 
tulate a  lapse  of  time  between  successive  earthquakes, 
and  in  the  last  case  make  the  supposition  of  the  increase 
of  radius  be  exactly  destroyed?     It   is   on  this  point 

'  Notes  on  Physical  Geology,  No.   III.,  Proc.  Roy.  Sac.,  voL  zxvL 


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[April  25,  1878 


that  I  venture  to  differ  from  him,  for  it  seems  to  me, 
from  dynamical  considerations,  that  a  second  equal  im- 
pulse following  a  first,  at  some  time  within  306  days, 
might  either  aouble  the  wabble,  alter  its  amount,  or 
annihilate  it,  according  to  how  it  was  timed  to  take 
place. 

If  I  am  correct  in  this  view,  I  cannot  but  think  that 
the  estimate  of  geological  time  falls  to  the  ground.  For 
even  if  the  elevation  of  continents  took  place  impulsively, 
we  can  have  no  possible  data  for  judging  of  how  the 
earthquakes  were  timed  with  reference  to  the  position 
of  the  axis  of  rotation,  and  unless  they  were  properly 
timed  the  radius  of  the  wabble  could  not  increase ;  and 
the  increase  of  the  radius  is,  I  imagine,  essential  to  Dr. 
Haughton's  method. 

But  if  we  set  aside  the  impulsive  theory  of  elevation, 
the  work  contained  in  my  paper,  "  On  the  Influence  of 
Geological  Changes  on  the  Earth's  Axis  of  Rotation,"  ^ 
will  be  applicable ;  for  I  there  considered  the  effects  of 
a  slow  continuous  elevation  of  continents.  In  that  paper 
I  show  that  such  a  mode  of  elevation  would  set  up  a 
wabble  of  306  days'  period  in  the  earth's  motion.  But 
this  wabble  is  of  quite  a  different  character  from  that 
contemplated  by  Dr.  Haughton,  for  it  is  unsymmetrical, 
so  that  the  axis  of  rotation  coincides  with  the  axis  of 
figure  every  306th  day. 

By  a  vei^  simple  application  of  a  formula  given  in  diat 
paper,  it  will  be  found  that,  supposing  the  continuous 
elevation  to  take  place  at  such  a  rate  that  the  axis  of 
rotation  is  5  feet  distant  from  that  of  figure  when  at 
its  greatest  distance,  then  the  axis  of  figure  must  be 
travelling  with  reference  to  the  solid  earth  at  the  rate  of 
^^  of  a  second  of  arc  per  annum.  Thus,  in  19,200  years 
it  will  have  travelled  over  i^  or  69  miles.  That  is  to  say, 
Europe- Asia  might  have  been  elevated  in  19,200  years 
without  the  axis  of  rotation  ever  having  described  a  circle 
of  more  than  5  feet  in  diameter.  If  the  elevation  were 
then  to  stop  suddenly  a  symmetrical  wabble  would  be  set 
up  (such  as  that  considered  by  Dr.  Haughton),  and  the 
radius  of  this  wabble  could  not  be  greater  than  5  feet,  and 
might  be  zero,  according  to  the  exact  time  of  the 
stoppage. 

This  investigation  makes  no  reference  whatever  to  the 
effects  of  tidal  friction,  and  there  are  certain  considera- 
tions which  lead  me  to  believe  that  even  Uie  above 
estimate  of  time  might  be  largely  reduced. 

The  conclusion  at  which  I  arrive  therefore  is  that  the 
elevation  of  Europe  and  Asia  might  have  taken  place  in 
very  much  less  than  20,000  years  without  leaving  behind 
any  wabbling  in  the  earth's  motion  traceable  by  astro- 
nomical observations.  Dr.  Haughton's  views,  if  generally 
accepted,  are  of  the  very  greatest  interest  to  geologists, 
and  they  therefore  merit  the  strictest  examination  ;  as  I 
have  devoted  a  good  deal  of  time  to  this  subject  I  thought 
it  might  perhaps  be  useful  to  write  this  note.  Should  my 
present  cr  ticism  be  incorrect,  there  is  little  doubt  but 
that  it  will  meet  its  just  fate  of  refutation.* 

G.  H.  Darwin 


EARLY  ELECTRIC  TELEPHONY 

IN  1S61  the  first  successful  attempt  at  the  construction 
of  an  dectric  telephone  was  made  by  Philip  Reis,  a 
teacher  in  a  school  at  Friedrichsdorf,  near  Homburg. 
On  October  26,  1861,  Reis  showed  his  instrument,  which 
he  termed  a  "telephone,"  to  the  Physical  Society  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main ;  and  on  that  occasion  he  suc- 

»  Phil  Ttans.,  vol  167,  Pt.  x. 

'  Since  this  has  been  in  type  Dr.  Haughton  has  read  another  paper 
before  the  Royal  Society,  in  which  he  concludes,  from  purely  geological 
evidence,  that  "the  hypothesis  of  a  shifting  pole  (even  if  permitted  by 
mechanical  considerations)  is  inadmissible  to  account  for  changes  in 
geological  climates."  Therefore  whether  he  agrees  or  not  in  the  justice  of 
my  mechanical  criticisra,  he  seems  to  be  of  opinion  that  the  wabbhng  of  the 
earth  will  not  give  geologists  much  light  as  to  the  duration  of  geological 


ceeded  in  electrically  transmitting  various  melodies, 
which  were  distinctly  heard  throughout  the  room.  In 
the  paper  he  read  before  this  Physical  Society,  pub- 
lished in  the  annual  report  of  the  Society  for  i86t, 
Reis  states : — ''  Melodies  were  sung,  not  loudly,  into  the 
transmitting  apparatus  placed  in  a  hospital  some  300  feet 
away  from  the  audience,  care  being  taken  that  no 
sound  could  be  heard,  by  direct  transmission,  or  by  con> 
duction  aloi^g  the  wires.  The  sounds  of  various  music^ 
instruments  were  clearly  reproduced,  as  the  clarionet, 
horn,  organ- pipe,  and  even  harmonium  and  pianofone 


Fic.  X. — This  and  Fig.  a  khow  the  usual  but  imperfect  form  oi  Reis*s  tele- 
phone. Fig.  X  is  the  transmitting  apparatus.  T  represents  the  mouth- 
piece, m  the  membrane  closing  the  upper  portion  of  the  box  k,  a  poartkm 
of  which  is  cut  away  to  show  the  movable  lever,  aSc,  resting  hy  a 
projtciing  point  6,  on  the  platinum  disc  o,  fixed  to  the  centre  of  the 
membrane  and  connected  with  the  binding  screw  a.  The  arm  a  S  r  h 
metallidy  connected  with  the  binding  screw  a.  The  key  /  closes  tbe 
circuit  when  the  instrument  is  in  use,  and  the  electro-magnet  K  b  is  for 
the  purpose*of  receiving  communications. 

when  the  transmitter  was  placed  on  their  sound-boards, 
provided  the  tones  were  within  the  compass  of  /  to  f^. 
Articulation  was  not  reproduced  equally  well.  Conso- 
nants, however,  were  in  general  pretty  clearly  heard,  but 
not  the  vowels."  In  this  report,  which  is  entitled 
"  Telephony  by  Means  of  Electnc  Currents,"  Reis  shows 
how  he  was  led  to  the  construction  of  his  instrument  by 
a  study  of  the  mechanism  of  the  organ  of  hearing,  and  of 
the  manner  whereby  sounds  are  perceived  by  the  human 
ear,  and  he  gives  a  series  of  diagrams  representing  the 
resultant  curves  that  would  be  produced  by  the  combina- 


Fig.  a  is  the  receiving  apparatus,  b  and  d  are  resonant  boxes,  £■  is  tlie  coil 
through  which  the  current  parses  magnetising  the  iron  wire</,  ->  and  4 
are  binding  screws  to  which  the  line  and  return  wire  are  atUchcd.  the 
cuxuit  being  closed  by  the  key  x. 

tion  of  various  concords  and  discords.  Thus,  he  was  led 
to  perceive  that  "  if  it  were  possible  to  create,  in  any 
manner,  a  mode  of  vibration  whose  curve  resembles  that 
of  any  tone  or  chord,  then  a  sensation  would  be  produced 
similar  to  that  given  by  the  tone  or  chord  itselt"  This 
principle,  he  affirms,  guided  him  onwards. 

The  first  instrument  he  made  was  constructed  of  very 
homely  materials.  The  bung  of  a  beer-barrel  was  pierced 
through  with  a  conical  hole,  the  smaller  end  was  then 
covered  by  a  membrane,  the  skin  of  a  German  sausage 
being  used  for  this  purpose ;  to  this  was  fixed,  with  a  drop 
of  sealing-wax,  a  little  strip  of  platinum  joined  up  to  one 


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end  of  a  small  battery ;  a  wire  was  adjusted  near  to,  bat 
not  touching,  Uie  platinum  strip ;  this  wire  led  to  the 
receiving  instrument,  and  thence  back  to  the  other  pole 
of  the  battery.  On  speaking  into  the  conical  <mfice  in 
the  bung  the  membrane  was  thrown  into  vibration,  and 


the  attached  metal  strip  coming  into  contact  with  the 
adjoining  wire,  momentarily  completed  the  electric  ca- 
cttit.  The  vibrations  of  the  membrane  thus  sent  a 
corresponding  series  of  intermittent  currents  into  the 
receiver,  which,  in  the  first  instance  consisted  simply  of 


,  3  —Sketch  of  improved  forin  of  traouaitttr 


a  knitting  needle  surrounded  by  a  coil  of  wire,  and  placed 
on  a  violin  to  serve  as  a  sound-board.  Though  Reis  after- 
wards considerably  improved  upon  his, earlier  instru- 
ments, the  improvements  do  not  seem  generally  known, 
and  the  arrangement  just  described  is  substantially  that 
usually  constructed  and  figured  as  Reis's  telephone  (see 
(Figs.  I  and  2.) 


by  Reu  in  hit  telephonic  expenmtnt  (i86aX 


In  Dingler's  PolyUchnisches  Journal,  vol.  169  (1863),  p. 
29,  is  a  report  on  Reis's  improvedtelephone  by  Legat,  inspec- 
tor of  telegraphs  in  Cassel,  &c  This  report  was  originally 
printed  in  the  7'^'^'^^^/ of  the  East  German  Telegraph  Com- 
pany for  1862.  Considerable  modifications  are  here  shown 
m  both  transmitter  and  receivei .  The  membrane  is  formed 
of  a  collodion  film  and  is  not  loaded  with  any  metal 


Fig.  4*— Sketch  of  improved  toxmk.  of  receiver  made  by|Reis  in  his 


ejcperimenti  (t86a)» 


contact-breaker.  A  light  8  -shaped  arm,  supported  a  little 
above  its  centre,  so  as  to  move  freely  in  a  vertical  plane, 
abuts  at  the  lower  end  against  the  membrane,  and  at  the 
upper  a^inst  the  contact  pin  (Fig.  3).  The  circuit  is  com- 
pleted through  the  cross-piece  which  supports  the  8-shaped 
lever ;  the  least  outwara  motion  of  the  membrane  would 
thus  break  the  contact,  and  ih  this  way  very  feeble  Tibra- 


tions  were  able  to  be  transmitted.  The  receiver  consisted 
of,  practically,  a  horse-shoe  magnet  fixed  horizontally  on 
a  sound  board ;  the  movements  of  a  light  iron  keeper, 
adjustible  by  a  spring  before  the  poles  of  the  magnet,  repro- 
duced the  original  sounds  (Fig.  4).  Here  it  will  be  noticed 
a  molar  motion  of  the  iron  has  replaced  the  molecular 
motion  fii^t  employed.    A  much  louder  sound  is  thus 


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{April  25,  1878 


obtained,  and  by  bringing  the  iron  keeper  near  to,  or 
even  into  gentle  contact  with  the  magnet,  every  grade  and 
rate  of  simple  vibration  could  be  reproduced,  as  the 
present  writer  is  able  to  testify. 

With  this  instrument  Reis  obtained  better  results  and 
even  transmitted  imperfect  articulation.  Legat  speaks  of 
single  words  in  reading  and  speaking  being  indistinctly 
heard ;  but  any  sudden  modulation  of  the  voice  as  in 
surprise,  interrogation,  &c.,  was  clearly  reproduced.  Still 
more  definite  is  the  following  statement,  occurring  in  an 
article  on  Reis's  improved  telephone  in  No.  15  of  B5ttger's 
Polytechnisches  Notizblatt  (1863): — "The  experimenters 
could  even  communicate  to  each  other  words,  only  such, 
however,  as  they  had  already  heard  frequently."  In  con- 
firmation of  this  the  present  writer  has  received  a  letter 
from  Dr.  Messel,  a  name  well  known  to  chemists,  who 
was  a  former  pupil  of  Philip  Reis  and  an  eye-witness  of 
his  early  experiments.  Dr.  Messel  states — ^^  There  is  not 
the  shadow  of  a  doubt  about  Reis  having  achieved  im- 
perfect articulation  ;  I  personally  recollect  this  very  dis- 
tinctly and  could  find  you  many  others  who  were  witnesses 
of  the  same  facL"  ^ 

As  an  interesting  sequel  to  this  historical  note  it  should 
be  mentioned  that  in  1865  Mr.  S.  Yeates,  the  skilful 
instrument  maker  of  Dublin,  introduced  some  modifica- 
tions in  one  of  Rds's  instruments  he  had  purchased,  of 
the  usual  early  form,  which  enabled  him  to  obtain  the  dis- 
tinct articulation  of  several  words.  The  modifications 
were  twofold  :  (i)  the  knitting  needle  receiver  was  re- 
placed by  an  electro-magnet  and  movable  keeper,  as  Reis 
had  already  done,  though  unknown  to  Mr.  Yeates  (see 
Fig.  5) ;  and  (2)  a  drop  of  very  slightly  acidulated  water 


Fig.  5  — Veates's  receiver  for  Reis's  telephone.  Upon  the  soundin|f  hoz  h 
an  electro-magnet  cc\s  supported  by  the  brass  pillar  seen  behind  A 
li^ht  iron  keeper  k  is  fastened  at  one  end  by  a  steel  spring  to  a  wooden 
bndge,  which  can  be  rai«'ed  or  lowered  by  the  screw  d,  so  that  the 
keeper  can  be  brought  almost  into  contact  with  the  electro-magnet.  The 
cucttit  is  completed  by  the  binding  screws  ««. 

was  placed  between  the  contact  pin  and  the  metal  disc  on 
the  membrane.  The  intermittent  character  of  the  current 
was  thus  abolished,  and  a  very  near  approach  made  to 
the  true  principle  of  an  articulating  telephone,  namely, 
the  employment  of  a  continuous  current  of  varying 
strength.  This  instrument  was  shown  in  November, 
1865,  at  a  meeting  of  the  Dublin  Philosophical  Society, 
and  some  members  of  that  society  who  were  then  present 
have  testified  to  their  remembrance  of  the  fact  that  several 
words  were  transmitted  fairly  well.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  at  the  time  Mr.  Yeates  did  not  pursue  the  matter 
further,  nor  give  a  wider  publication  to  the  success  he 
obtained. 

But  between  the  best  of  the  results  obtained  by  Reis 
and  others  in  the  direction  of  articulation,  and  the  splen- 
did achievements  of  Prof.  Graham  Bell,  there  is  unques- 
tionably a  very  wide  step.  In  the  sensitive  and  beautiful 
instrument  discovered  by  Prof.  Bell,  the  voice  of  the 
speaker  generates  thrills  of  magneto-electricity,  which, 
being  strictly  proportional  to  the  sonorous  vibrations, 
reproduces  the  voice  and  its  expression  in  the  receiver  in 
a  fairy-Uke  far-away  whisper.  Nevertheless  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  it  is  unlikely  the  telephone  of  the 
future  will  employ  the  voice  to  generate  the  driving 
power,  but  only  to  modulate  the  flow  of  a  current  ol^ 

*  My  best  thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  Messel  for  much  information  concerning 
Rets  and  for  a  reference  to  his  papets  in  the  journals  alluded  to. 


tained  by  coarser  means.  It  is  in  Uiis  direction  that  Rets 
worked,  and  though  his  method  was  faulty  in  the  employ* 
ment  of  an  intermittent  current,  the  same  cannot  be  said 
of  the  arrangements  adopted  by  Mr.  Edison,  of  New 
Jersey.  And  inasmuch  as  Mr.  Edison  has  already  dis- 
covered and  brought  to  a  practical  issue  such  remarkable 
additions  to  our  knowledge  as  quadruplex  telegraphy,  the 
electro-motograph,  and  the  phonograph,  we  have,  in  these 
achievements,  the  earnest  of  success  to  those  excellent 
telephonic  investigations^wherein  Mr.  Edison  has  already 
won  an  enduring  ^sune.  W.  F.  Barrett 

P.S. — Since  writing  the  foregoing  article,  the  publication 
of  which  has  been  for  some  time  delayed  owing  to  the 
crowded  state  of  the  columns  of  Nature,  my  attention 
has  been  drawn  to  a  daim  made  by  Mr.  John  Cammack, 
to  be  the  first  inventor  of  the  electric  telephone.  From 
this  it  would  appear  that  in  the  early  part  of  i860  Mr. 
Cammack  made  and  exhibited  an  electric  telephone, 
whilst  a  student  in  the  Royal  School  of  Medicine, 
Manchester.  A  photographic  copy  of  the  original 
drawing  of  the  instrument  has  reached  me,  and  so  far 
as  this  goes  it  embraces  not  only  the  intermittent  current 
used  by  Reis,  but  the  principle  of  the  continuous  current 
of  varying  strength  employed  by  Bell  and  Edison.  In 
fact,  it  Mr.  Cammack  can  furnish  historical  proof,  the 
arraneement  shown  in  his  drawing,  with  its  explanatory 
note,  IS  identic^dly  the  same  as  the  method,  long  after 
independently  invented  and  patented  by  Prof.  Graham 
BelL»  W.  F.  B. 


ACTION    OF   LIGHT    ON   A    SELENIUM 
{GALVANIC)  ELEMENT 

IN  the  course  of  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  electri- 
cal behaviour  of  selenium,  undertaken  with  a  view  to 
remove,  if  posgible,  the  difficukies  in  the  way  of  con- 
structing constant  resistances  of  this  material,  I  have  had 
occasion  recently  to  investigate  the  effects  of  surface  ten- 
sion due  to  light. 

I  find  that  the  action  of  light  on  crystalline  selenium 
(annealed  at  200**  C.)  is  much  more  striking  when  the 
selenium  forms  one  element  of  a  galvanic  couple  than 
when  it  acts  as  a  resistance. 

The  most  convenient  arrangement  which  I  have  found 
for  observing  this,  is  to  make  up  a  couple  consisting  of  (i) 
a  plate  of  selenium  hanging  suspended  by  means  of  a 
platinum  wire,  and  (2)  a  strip  of  platinum  foil,  in  distilled 
water.  The  potentials  of  the  two  poles  are  not  very 
different,  and  any  change  in  the  electro-positiveness  of 
the  selenium  is  at  once  very  apparent. 

The  first  selenium-platinum  element  which  I  constructed 
behaved  as  follows : — 

In  the  dark  the  element  gave  a  steady  electromotive 
force  of  about  0*1  volt,  the  selenium  hQing positive  to  the 
platinum.  On  admitting  daylight  to  the  selenium  plate 
it  instantly  became  electro-negative  to  the  platinum,  show- 
ing an  electromotive  force  of  0*05  volt  in  that  direction. 
That  is  to  say  the  selenium  had  become  015  volt  more 
electro-negative  by  the  action  of  the  light  than  it  was 
in  the  dark. 

>  Perhaps  the  word  "claim"  is  too  strong,  as  I  observe  Mr.  Cammadc 
speaks  very  modestly  o£  the  idea  he  so  early  sketched  out.  Such  ideas  are 
oir  course  valueless  in  a  practical  sense,  unless  brought  to  the  test  of  experi* 
ment,  and  this  Mr.  Cammack  seems  only  partly  to  have  done;  this  too  is 
just  where  Prof.  Bell  succeeded ;  by  his  persistent  experimenu  overcoming 
all  obstacles  and  affording  by  the  wa^  a  striking  illustration  that  facts  may 
after  all  upset  the  strongest  d  *riort  conclusims.  In  connection  with  this 
remark  the  following  passage  from  the  last  edition  of  a  well-known  work  on 
MenUl  Physiology  (p.  63a),  is  not  without  interest:—**  Everyone  who  accepts 
as  facts,  merely  on  the  evidence  of  his  senses,  or  on  the  testimony  of  others 
who  partake  of  Jiis  own  beliefs,  what  Common  Sense  [with  a^>itals]  telb 
him  to  be  much  more  probably  the  fiction  of  his  own  imagination — even 
though  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  hundreds  affected  w.th  the  same 


?»idemic  delusion — must  be  regarded  as  the  subject  of  a  *  diluted  insanity.'  " 
et  Baron  Munchausen's  trumpet  has  been  outd(  ne  by  the  phonograph :  the 
"fiction  of  imagination"  by  a  fact  " confirmed  by  tne  testimony  of 
hundreds."  However  as  these  latter  have  "  merely  the  evidence  of  their 
senses  to  offer,"  we  prestune  they  are  all  the  victims  of  *'  a  diluted  insanity," 
if  the  reasoning  of  the  eminent  author  be  accepted. 


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After  the  first  impulse  this  extreme  electro-negatire- 
ness  of  the  selenium,  due  partly  to  polarisation,  gave 
way  and  it  gradually  passed  again  to  the  electro-positive 
side,  where,  after  a  few  minutes,  it  settled  to  a  constant 
value,  but  still  electro-negative  to  its  condition  in  the 
dark. 

I  found  that  the  slightest  shadow  or  other  variation  in 
the  intensity  of  the  light  caused  a  considerable  variation 
in  the  electromotive  force  of  the  couple  and  a  conse- 
quent indication. 

On  excluding  the  light  the  selenium  instantly  increased 
in  electro-positiveness,  and  soon  settled  to  its  original 
position. 

A  couple  in  which  two  plates  of  selenium  were  opposed 
to  each  other,  light  being  excluded  from  one  and  admitted 
to  the  other,  gave  identical  results,  only  the  resistance  of 
the  element  was  much  greater. 

The  effect  of  light,  therefore,  in  modifying  the  surface 
tension  of  selenium  is  evidently  to  render  it  more  electro- 
negative and  presumably  not  more  metallic,  as  has  been 
suggested  in  explanation  of  its  increased  conductivity. 

I  am  endeavouring  to  construct  a  combination  of 
selenium  elements  which,  with  a  mirror  galvanometer 
and  photographic  arrangement  may  be  used  to  give  a 
trustworthy  record  of  the  intensity  of  daylight.  The 
practical  difficulties  in  the  way  at  present  I  have  hopes 
will  not  be  insurmountable.  Robert  Sabine 


NOTES 

We  regret  to  notice  the  death,  on  the  i8th  inst.,  of  Dr. 
Thomas  Thomson,  F.R.S.,  for  some  years  Superintendent  of 
the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Calcutta,  and  joint  author  of  Hooker 
and  Thomson's  *'  Flora  Indica."  He  was  also  a  contributor  to 
Sir  J.  D.  Hooker's  "  Flora  of  British  India,"  now  in  jn'ogress. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  those  whom  the  Council  of 
the  Royal  Society  have  recommended  for  election  on  June  6 
next  as  appointed :— J.  G.  Baker,  F.  M.  Balfour,  Rev.  T.  G. 
Bonney,  Prof.  J.  H.  Cotterill,  Sir  W.  Elliot,  Canon  W.  Green- 
well,  T.  Hawksley,  C.E.,  J.  Hopkinson,  D.Sc,  J.  Hughlings 
Jackson,  M.D.,  Lord  Lindsay,  P.R.A.S.,  S.  Roberts,  E.  A. 
Schafer,  H.  Sprengel,  G.  J.  Symons,  and  C.  S.  Tomes. 

The  sdentific  world  has  sustained  a  loss  by  the  decease  of  the 
Rev.  James  Booth,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Vicar  of  Stone,  near  Ayles- 
bury, which  occurred  on  the  15th  inst,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
one.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he 
obtained  several  prizes  and  graduated  in  honours.  He  was 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1846,  to  a  very  great 
extent  in  recognition  of  his  earliest  publication,  **  A  New 
Method  of  Tangential  Co-ordinates,"  and  also  as  the  inventor 
of  a  new  system  of  parabolic  trigonometry.  In  1852  and  1853 
he  contributed  to  the  Philosophical  Transactions  two  memoirs  on 
**  The  Geometrical  Properties  of  Elliptic  Integrals."  He  was 
also  known  as  the  contributor  of  several  papers  on  mathematical 
subjects  to  the  Philosophical  Magatine,  and  not  a  few  of  these, 
we  believe,  have  found  their  way  into  other  languages.  In  1859 
he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Stone  by  the  Royal  Astrono- 
mical Society,  to  whom  the  advowson  belongs. 

Dr.  Frederick  Kampf,  who  has  been  the  astronomer  of 
Lieut.  Wheeler's  U.S.  exploring  expedition,  died  in  Washington, 
on  March  30,  at  the  age  of  thirty-six.  Dr.  Kampf  was  educated 
at  Bonn,  and  emigrated  to  the  United  States  in  1870,  securing 
a  position  in  connection  with  the  United  States  Coast  Survey 
until  1873,  when  he  joined  the  party  of  Lieut.  Wheeler  as 
already  mentioned.  He  promised  to  attain  to  much  distinction 
as  an  astronomer  and  observer,  and  his  untimely  death  is  much 
to  be  lamented. 

The  coUecUon  of  shells  of  the  late  Dr.  P.  P.  Carpenter,  of 
Montreal,  is  for  sale.    The  opportunities  of  Dr.  Carpenter  for 


making  this  collection  of  desirable  specimens  were  very  great, 
especially  from  the  great  Reigan  collection  of  Mazatlan  shells, 
which  he  purchased  many  years  ago,  and  after  investigation  de- 
posited duplicate  series  in  several  museums  in  Europe  and  America. 
The  collection  embraces  about  4,000  species  and  varieties,  for 
the  most  part  original  types.  The  collection  is  deposited  for 
the  present  in  the  museum  of  M  'Gill  College,  Montreal. 

Dr.  Rud.  Falb,  of  Vienna,  who  is  engaged  in  stud)ring  the 
earthquake  region  in  South  and  Central  America,  has  left  Chile 
and  announces  his  arrival  at  Arequipa.  He  intends  to  ascend 
the  volcano  of  Misti,  near  Arequipa,  which  is  some  17,600  feet 
in  height.  He  also  reports  that  at  the  southern  part  of  the 
Peruvian  coast  the  shocks  of  earthquake  continue  >vith  unabated 
violence,  and  that  a  violent  eruption  occurred  recently  from  the 
Cotopaxi  Volcano  in  the  Andes  of  Quito,  without,  however, 
doing  much  damage. 

An  Ethnographical  Coi^ess  will  assemble  in  Paris  on  June 
24,  and  continue  for  three  days.  The  head -quarters  of  the 
Commission  are  rue  Monsieur,  19. 

The  Chair  of  Sxurgery  at  the  Collie  de  France,  occupied  by 
the  late  Claude  Bernard,  has  been  offered  to  Prof.  Charrot.  It 
has  been  decided  to  erect  the  statue  of  the  distmguished  physio, 
logist  immediately  before  the  Collie  de  France. 

Dr.  E.  Baumann,  one  of  the  most  promising  of  the  youi^ 
physiological  chemists  of  Germany,  has  received  a  Professorship 
in  the  Berlin  University. 

We  notice  the  death  of  Prof.  H.  Girard  at  Halle,  on  April 
12.  He  was,  until  a  recent  date,  director  of  the  Mineralogical 
Museum  of  the  University  of  Halle,  and  his  name  is  associated 
with  several  mineralogical  researches,  more  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Stassfurt  deposits. 

Amateurs  of  spectrum  analysis  will  thank  Mr.  Browning 
for  a  little  pocket  case  he  is  now  selling  which  permits  a  study 
of  absorption  phenomena  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner. 
Various  substances,  which  give  very  characteristic  band  absorption, 
have  been  mixed  with  gelatine  so  as  to  form  a  thin  transparent 
coloured  film.  In  that  we  have  received,  roseine,  eosine, 
cochineal,  indigo,  aniline  blue,  Hofmann's  violet,  and  other 
colouring  matters  have  .been  treated  in  this  way.  There  are 
twelve  differently  coloured  films  in  all,  and  the  variations  in 
the  spectra  are  very  striking.  On  holding  the  films  horizontally 
close  to  the  slit  so  that  one  film  falls  on  the  upper  and  the 
next  on  the  lower  part  of  it,  a  capital  idea  of  the  use  of 
comparison  spectra  can  be  gained. 

M.  Dabry  de  Thiersant,  a  French  Chargi  d* Affaires,  who 
has  been  instrumental  in  introducing  a  number  of  Chinese  plants 
and  animals  into  his  native  country,  is  now  making  arrange- 
ments for  importation  in  quantities  of  the  setz,  one  of  the  most 
valued  fish  found  in  Chinese  waters.  The  fish  belongs  to  the 
carp  family,  and  when  fed  on  sea-plants  in  ponds,  attains  with 
great  rapidity  a  weight  of  about  forty  pounds.  During  the  past 
three  years  experiments  made  on  the  fish  in  the  Jardin  d'Accli- 
matation  have  shown  it  to  be  well  adapted  to  a  European 
climate,  and  as  it  increases  rapidly,  it  is  hoped  that  within  a 
few  years  it  can  be  introduced  extensively  throughout  Europe. 

A  little  village  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Draguignan, 
France,  has  lately  been  the  scene  of  a  remarkable  subsidence 
which  has  attracted  the  curious  from  all  directions.  An  elliptical 
tract  of  ground,  containing  over  10,000  square  feet,  sank 
gradually  one  day,  accompanied  by  loud  noises,  until  it  left  an 
orifice  of  over  100  feet  in  depth,  with  water  at  the  bottom. 
Numerous  trees  and  vines  disappeared  completely  in  the  depths 
of  the  new  lake.  A  similar  depression  on  a  smaller  scale 
occurred  in  the  same  vicinity  a  century  ago,  and  both  the 
phenomena  are  attributed  to  the  action  of  subterranean  streams. 


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\April2S*  1878 


The  Central  Society  of  Agricnlture  of  France  took  possession, 
on  March  13,  of  a  splendid  hotel  which  has  been  built  for  its 
use  and  presented  to  it  by  M.  Behague,  one  of  its  most  active 
members.  This  society  b  one  of  the  oldest  in  Europe,  having 
been  established  more  than  a  century  ago,  under  the  reign  of 
Louis  XV.  It  has  never  been  suppressed  or  interrupted  in  spite 
of  the  several  changes  and  revolutions  the  French  Government 
has  undergone  during  that  eventful  period. 

The  International  Congress  of  Medical  Sciences,  which  was 
to  be  held  at  Amsterdam  in  September,  187S,  has  been  postponed 
to  1879,  in  order  to  avoid  a  coincidence  with  the  Paris  Interna- 
tional Fxhibition. 

M.  Bardoux,  the  French  Minister  of  Public  Instruction, 
having  established  an  observatory  for  astronomical  and  me- 
teorological purposes  at  Besan9on,  the  general  coimcil  of  the 
Doubs  department  have  voted  a  sum  of  5,000  francs  for 
meteorological  observations  to  be  conducted  in  the  building. 

The  private  view  of  Winkler's  Lunar  Landscape,  which  we 
recently  described,  will  be  on  Saturday  and  Monday  next,  at  the 
new  premises  of  the  Belgian  Gallery,  112,  New  Bond  Street. 
The  picture  will  be  lighted  by  artificial  light,  this  having  been 
found  to  be  most  suitable  to  the  nature  of  the  subject. 

Kew  Gardens  were  opened  to  the  Public  on  Easter  Monday 
at  10  A.M.,  and  will  be  opened  at  the  same  hour  on  future  bank 
holidays.  Of  the  necessity  of  this  step  some  idea  may  be  formed 
from  the  following  statement  of  the  number  of  visitors  on 
Monday :— From  10  to  I,  3,352;  from  I  to  7,  42,833;  total, 
46,185. 

'  Macmillan  and  Co.  are  about  to  publish  a  little  manual  of 
"  Practical  Chemistry,  for  the  Use  of  Medical  Students,"  &c.,  by 
Mr.  M.  M.  Pattison  Muir,  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge. 

A  TERRIBLE  hurricane  is  reported  to  have  occurred  at  Tahiti, 
on  February  7,  in  which  120  persons  were  killed,  and  much 
property  destroyed. 

Hitherto  we  have  had  no  occasion  to  say  anything  concern- 
ing the  disturbances  in  the  East}  but  during  the  past  week 
there  was  a  commotion  at  that  now  historical  place  St.  Stefano, 
which  we  cannot  let  pass  without  reference.  Happily  the  com- 
motion was  only  seismic  and  did  no  damage.  It  occurred 
on  Friday  evening  last  and  was  strongly  felt  at  Pera,  while  at 
Ismid  and  Broussa  damage  is  said  to  have  been  done.  The  sea 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  British  fleet  was  so  agitated  that  the 
commander  of  a  g^boat  sent  a  request  to  Admiral  Hornby  to 
give  him  previous  notice  on  the  next  occasion  of  torpedo 
practice. 

In  connection  with  our  recent  note  on  chemical  dictionaries 
we  notice  the  completion  of  the  second  volume  of  the  German 
"  Handworterbach  der  Chemie,"  ending  with  the  article  on 
Electricity  from  the  pen  of  Prof.  Wiedemann,  of  Leipzig. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  French  Academy,  M.  Gaiffe 
presented  an  apparatus  with  which  one  may  determine  imme- 
diately, and  by  a  simple  reading,  the  electromotive  force  of  any 
electro-generator.  It  is  based  on  Fechner*s  method  of  measur- 
ing such  forces,  and  the  measures  are  read  in  volts.  M.  Gaiflfe 
employs  a  very  resistant  multiplier,  and  a  small  rheostat,  by 
means  of  which  introducing  resistances,  greater  or  less,  into  the 
circuit,  the  instrument  may  be  adapted  for  very  different 
measures  of  electromotive  force,  the  same  divided  scale,  how- 
ever, being  always  employed.  On  introducing  such  and  such  a 
resistance  you  divide  or  multiply,  in  a  proportion  marked  on  the 
contacts  of  the  rheostat,  the  electromotive  force  indicated  by  the 
galvanometric  needle.  Forces  may  thus  be  measured  by  the 
instrument  from  ^  volt  up  to  150  volts. 


}.  E.  Peijsmann  has  just  published,  in  Batavia,  an  account 
of  a  scientific  tour  through  the  island  of  Amboina,  one  of  the  most 
important  spice  islands  in  Malaysia.  In  addition  to  a  variety  of 
valuable  and  novel  observations,  M.  Peijsmann  collected  over 
1,000  varieties  of  plants  and  300  specimens  of  the  fauna,  wliidi 
are  to  be  transmitted  to  the  museums  of  the  University  of 
Leyden. 

A  NEW  bridge  across  the  Rhine  is  now  in  course  of  constnic- 
tion  at  Basel ;  it  will  rest  on  five  {nllars. 

The  Dutch  Government  intends  to  construct  a  canal  fn^n 
Amsterdam  through  the  so-called  Geklem  Valley  to  the  Upper 
Waal  (the  southern  branch  of  the  Rhine),  and  also  additional 
canab  in  the  provinces  of  Drenthe  and  Overijssd.  Both  projects 
are  of  great  commercial  importance  with  regard  to  navigation 
on  the  Rhine  and  the  conmiimication  by  water  between  Germany 
and  Holland. 

Dr.  Schomburgk,  the  director  of  the  Botanic  Garden,  Ade- 
laide, South  Australia,  has  issued  a  very  brief  report  relatiTe  to 
the  economical  value  .of  the  various  species  of  South  AnstralisB 
'*  Eucalyptus."  He  shows  that  out  of  the  large  number  of  spedet 
of  Eucalyptus  spread  over  Australia  and  Tasmania,  only  thirty 
appear  in  the  extra-tropical  part  of  South  Australia.  The  Sooth 
Australian  species  do  not  r^ich  so  great  a  height  as  those  of  the 
east,  north,  and  south,  and  only  about  ten  species  yield  timber 
that  is  much  valued  and  used,  though  Dr.  Schombvgk  thinks 
many  more  might  be  utilised.  The  most  valuable  timber  in  the 
colony  is  stated  to  be  the  red  gum  [^Eucalyptus  rostrata^  Schledt). 
It  is  the  most  durable  of  all  the  South  Australian  woods,  and  is 
mostly  used  for  underground  work,  bridges,  jetties,  railway- 
sleepers,  and  for  shipbuilding  ;  moreover,  it  has  the  repataiioa 
of  being  proof  against  the  attacks  of  white  ants.  This  tree 
grows  to  a  height  of  from  100  feet  to  130  feet  The  next  most 
important  speciej  is  the  white  gum  [^Eucalyptus  stuartiana^  F. 
Muell.),  the  blue  gum  [E,  vincinalis^  Las.),  and  the  stringy 
bark  (E,  obliqua^  L'Herit).  Dr.  Schomburgk  points  out  that 
the  woods  are  not  the  only  useful,  products  of  the  Eucalypti, 
From  E,  obliqua^  /T,  Icucoxylon^  and  E.  rostrata^  acetic  acid  is 
obtained ;  wood-spirit  is  also  procured  from  the  first  two,  essen- 
tial oils  are  produced  from  the  leaves  of  E,  vincinalu^  E, 
stuartiana,  and  E,  cUriodora  ;  tar  from  woods  of  E,  rostra/ay 
E.  leucoxylon^  and  E.  obliqua ;  and  from  the  barks  of  several 
other  species  paper  has  been  mode. 

It  is  announced  by  M.  Tuselli,  that  through  successive 
improvements  of  his  refrigerating  apparatus,  he  can  now 
produce  one  kilogramme  of  ice  in  the  space  of  two  minutes. 

TuE  announcement  of  the  intended  publication,  in  a  short 
time,  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  of  a  complete  catalogue 
of  the  plants  of  North  America,  will  be  hailed  with  great  satis- 
faction by  botanists.  The  region  covered  extends  from  Green- 
land and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  north,  to  the  borders  of 
Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  species  are 
enumerated  in  their  systematic  sequence,  with  their  synonyma. 
The  work  will  be  published  in  two  parts,  the  first,  on  the 
polyptalae,  constituting  a  volume  of  about  480  pages.  It  covers 
the  ground  of  volume  i.  of  Torrey  and  Gray*s  **  Flora  of  North 
America.'*  The  title  of  the  work  will  be  "  Bibliographical  Index 
of  North  American  Botany,"  by  Sereno  Watson. 

The  increase  of  volume  of  liquids  through  absorption  of  gases 
has  lately  been  investigated  by  Messrs.*  Mackenzie  and  Nichols, 
in  the  Physical  Laboratory  of  Berlin  University.  Experimenting 
in  the  first  instance  with  carbonic  add  and  water  only,  and 
employing  two  different  methods,  they  reach  the  same  resnlt« 
viz.,  that  the  expansion  is  directly  proportional  to  the  quantity  of 
gas  absorbed.  They  further  examined  the  expansion  of  water 
saturated  with  carbonic  add  by  heat,  and  got  a  curve  having 


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about  the  same  course  as  that  for'pure  water,  except  that  the 
maximum  of  density  was  reached,  not  at  4^,  as  in  the  case  of 
pure  water,  but  under  3%  as  is  the  case  with  salt  substances. 

Recent  observations  by  M.  Ebermayer  demonstrate  (i)  that 
the  air  in  a  large  forest  is  in  summer  nearly  twice  as  rich  in 
carbonic  acid  as  free  open  air  ;  (2)  that  forest  ground  in  summer 
contains  much  less  CO,  than  unwooded  ground  (the  CO,  formed 
by  slow  decomposition  of  humus  in  the  close  forest  seems  mostly 
to  pass  into  the  air,  and,  is  probably  utilised  by  the  leaves  for 
assimilation) ;  (3)  that,  wiUi  rise  of  temperature,  the  increase  of 
CO,  in  arable  ground  is  very  much  greater  than  in  forest  ground ; 
and  (4)  that  the  spread  and  motion  CO2  in  the  ground  seems 
^  to  take  place  very  slowly,  for  in  two  places  quite  near  together 
the  amount  of  CO,  may  be  very  different  Among  other  bear- 
ings of  these  facts,  the  ground  covering  of  a  forest  can  have  no 
important  influence  on  the  amount  of  COg  and  lime  in  spring 
water,  and  unwooded  ground  may  have  a  greater  action  in  this 
respect  Again,  animals  living  underground,  e,g.  foxes,  natu- 
rally prefer  the  ground  air  of  the  forest,  with  its  little  CO„  to 
to  the  ground  air  of  the  open  field,  which  has  much  more. 

The  influence  of  concentration  of  liquids  on  their  electromo- 
tive force  has  lately  been  investigated  by  M.  Moser  (Monatsb, 
der  Berliner  Acad,  der  fViss,)  who  connected  two  glasses  of 
differently  concentrated  solutions  of  the  same  salt  by  a  siphon, 
and  completed  the  circuit  by  wires  with  electrodes,  which  were 
always  of  the  same  metal.  In  all  such  cases  a  current  arises, 
I  passing  in  the  liquid  from  the  dilute  to  the  more  concentrated 

I  solution.    M.   Moser  used  zinc  sulphate,  nitrate,  chloride,  and 

acetate,  copper  sulphate  and  nitrate,  iion  chloride,  silver  acetate 
and  nitrate,  and  other  salts.  The  highest  electromotive  force 
was  I  Daniell,  and  was  got  with  very  dilute  and  concentrated 
zinc  chloride  solution.  The  various  effects  are  arranged  in 
tension-series.  By  the  currents  referred  to,  metal  is  dissolved  in 
the  dilute  solution,  separated  out  in  the  concentrated  one.  The 
equivalent  of  the  work  done  by  the  current,  M.  Moser  considers, 
is  the  work  of  attraction  force  between  the  salt  and  the  water. 
The  current  is  to  be  r^arded  as  a  reaction  current  against  pas- 
sage of  the  ions,  as  the  polarisation  current  is  the  reaction  current 
against  the  decomposition  current 

The  subject  of  acoustic  repulsion  continues  to  be  studied  by 
M.  Dvorak  (Wied,  Ann.j  No.  3).  Among  other  things  he 
constructs  an  acoustic  reaction  wheel  and  an  acoustic  torsion 
balance.  The  former  consists  of  four  light  paper  or  glass  reso* 
nators  placed  tangentially  at  the  four  ends  of  two  thin  cross-bars 
of  wood,  pivoted  at  their  intersecting  point  by  means  of  a  glass 
cap.  The  mouths  of  the  resonators  are  all  in  the  same  relative 
position.  The  wheel  is  placed  before  the  open  end  of  a  tuning- 
fork  resonator,  and  enters  into  rotation  when  the  fork  is  sounded. 
In  another  case  the  sound  from  the  large  resonator  is  transmitted 
through  a  conical  tube  beyond  whose  thin  end  is  a  wheel  with 
square  pieces  at  the  end  of  the  cross-arms.  In  the  acoustic 
torsion  balance  a  wooden  bar  furnished  with  a  resonator  is 
hung  by  a  wire  (as  in  Coulomb's  balance)  within  a  case,  which 
has  on  the  resonator  side  an  opening  for  admission  of  sound. 
By  repulsion  of  the  resonator  the  strength  of  tones  of  the  same 
number  of  vibrations  maybe  compared. 

Lecturing  at  the  Sorbonne  -lately  on  atmospheric  clectri* 
city,  M.  Mascart  sought  to  reproduce  the  phenomena  of 
thunderstorms.  The  dull  explosions  of  thunder  and  the 
fulgurations  in  the  heart  of  clouds  preceding  fulminant  dischargesi 
as  also  the  latter,  were  imitated  by  means  of  a  powerful  Holtz 
machine,  charging  batteries,  and  condensers  suitably  arranged. 
The  singular  movements  of  thunder-clouds,  which,  obeying 
electric  attractions  and  repulsions,  are  often  observed  to  move  in 
the  atmospheric  ocean  in  counter*currents,  were  illustrated  with 
the  aid  of  a  balloon  of  hydrogen  gas,  to  which  was  suspended  a 


piece  of  metallic  wire.  The  weight  of  the  wire  was  such  that 
the  small  aerostat,  rendered  slightly  heavier  than  the  displaced 
air,  would  descend ;  but  when  it  was  electrified,  it  rose  again, 
as  if  freed  from  its  burden.  M.  Mascart  did  not  attempt  an 
explanation  of  this  curious  phenomenon,  which  has  not  been 
repeated  since  the  time  of  van  Marum. 

In  a  recently-published  report  by  M.  Kellner  to  the  Natur- 
forscher  Versammlung  at  Munich,  he  describes  experiments 
made  along  with  some  others  on  an  eleven-year  old  Wallachian 
horse  of  434  kilo,  weight,  with  r^ard  to  the  relation  of  work 
done  and  decomposition  of  albumen.  In  five  successive  periods 
of  thirteen  to  fourteen  days  the  animal  was  fed  with  5  k- 
meadow-hay,  5  k.  oats,  and  I'S  k.  chopped  wheat  straw,  and 
did  work  to  the  extent  of  500,000,  1,000,000,  1,500,000, 
1,000,000,  and  500,000  kilogrammetres  in  the  five  periods  re- 
spectively. In  periods  I.  and  V.  the  work  done  was  the  same, 
in  II.  and  IV.  doubled,  and  in  III.  tripled  ;  in  II.  and  HI.  the 
course  was  doubled  and  tripled,  and  in  IV.  the  weight  doubled. 
Of  the  dry  substance  of  the  fodder  were  digested  in  period  I.  56*53 
per  cent.,  II.  56*45  per  cent..  III.  56*49  per  cent.,  IV.54*oi 
per  cent.,  V.  53*07  per  cent.  The  horse's  weight  varied  as 
follows  :— I.  534*1,  II.  529*1,  III.  522*3,  IV.  508*8,  V.  518 
kilo.  The  excretion  of  nitrogen  was  on  an  average  of 
the  last  six  to  nine  days  of  each  experimental  series,  I.  98*81  k., 
II.  109*16,  III.  119*82,  IV.  I07S3,  V.  101*88.  These 
numbers  show  strikingly,  in  opposition  to  Volt's  and  Petten- 
kofer's  results,  that  with  increase  of  work  done,  is  associated  a 
not  inconsiderable  increase  of  decomposition  of  albumen. 

The  additions  to  the  2^1ogical  Society's  Gardens  during  the 
past  week  include  an  Indian  Leopard  (Felispardus)  from  India, 
presented  by  Major  Tubbs;  a  Red  Deer  {Cervus  elaphus)^  a 
Common  Fox  (Cams  imlpes),  European,  presented  by  Mr. 
Carroll  W.  Ansdell ;  two  Spotted  Ichneumons  (Herpestes  auro- 
punctaius)  from  Nepal,  presented  by  Mr.  J.  Mcintosh ;  a  Suri- 
cate  (Suricata  zemk)  from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Mr.  Percy 
Howard  ;  an  Azara's  Fox  (Cants  atara)  from  Brazil,  presented 
by  Dr.  A.  Stradling;  a  SXAvlty  QroxiC  (Teirapteryx  paradUea) 
from  South  Africa,  presented  by  Capt.  A.  F.  Lendy ;  a  Lead- 
beater's  Cockatoo  (Cacaiua  leadheateri)  from  Australia,  presented 
by  Mr.  W.  Ruston ;  a  Collared  Fruit  Bat  (Cynonycteris coUaris), 
four  Common  Foxes  (Cams  vulpa\  bom  in  the  Gardens. 

THE  DETERIORATION  OF  OIL  PAINTINGS' 
II. 

IF  we  compare  the  pictures  of  the  Italian  and  Dutch  schools  of 
the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centiuries,  with  those 
of  the  French  and  English  schools  of  the  last  hundred  years,  we 
are  struck  by  the  great  difference  in  the  nature  of  their  diseases. 
We  may  divide  those  diseases  into  constitutional  ones — that  is  to 
say,  such  as  are  based  on  the  method  and  the  material  used  for 
painting,  and  into  those  produced  by  external  influences. 

The  Dutch  pictures  of  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  and  the  Italian  pictures  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  seem  to  me  perfectly  free  from  constitutional  dbeases. 
It  is  only  in  the  seventeenth  century  that  the  Italian  pictures 
show  a  special  constitutional  alteration,  caused  by  the  practice 
of  the  Bologna  school. 

The  pictures  of  the  last  hundred  years  of  the  French  school, 
of  a  part  of  the  English  sdiool,  and  some  painters  of  other 
schookThave  been  attacked.by  a  constitutional  disease  perfectly 
deflned  and  characteristic  of  this  period. 

Among  external  influences  injurious  to  oil  painting,  we  have 
to  consider  dampness,  heat,  bad  air,  dust,  smoke,  mechanical 
imuries,  and  last,  not  least,  the  destructive  or  *•  altering  "  hand 
of  the  picture-restorer. 

Pettenkofer*8  scientific  researches  first  clearly  defined  the 
influence  of  humidity  on  oil  paintings,  showing  that  it  produced 
a  discontinuity  of  the  molecules  of  the  vehicle  and  the  resinous 
substances.  As  glass,  when  pulverised  and  thereby  mixed  with 
air,  loses  its  transparency,  and  water,  when  mixed  with  oil, 

*  Paper  read  at  the  Royal  Institution,  Friday,  March  i,  by  R.  Liebreich, 
^  M.D.,  M.R.CS.,  M.RI.    Cootinued  from  p.  495* 


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[Aprz/2S,  1S78 


becomes  of  a  milky  aspect,  so  the  oily  and  resinous  substances 
contsdned  in  paintings  will  become  dim  as  soon  as  air  penetrates 
between  their  partides.  The  picture  thus  assumes  a  greyish, 
dim  appearance,  and  the  pigments  seem  to  have  been  fading. 
TTiat  this  is  not  really  the  case  has  been  proved  by  the  influence 
of  a  process  invented  by  Pettenkofer,  which  he  calls  r^ene- 
ration.  In  a  flat  box  the  picture  is  exposed  to  air  impregnated 
with  alcohol.  Of  this  latter  the  resinous  elements  or  the  pic- 
ture absorb  a  certain  quantity,  swell  and  fill  up  the  interstices 
between  the  separated  particles  so  as  to  reumte  them  into  an 
optically  homogeneous  transparent  substance. 

The  alcohol  does  not  aflect  in  the  same  way  the  hardened  oil. 
If  the  interstices  between  its  particles  are  not  filled  up  by  the 
swelling  resin,  it  becomes  necessary  to  introduce  a  new  substance 
into  the  picture,  and  this  is  called  nourLshing  a  picture. 

Pettenkofer  has  the  great  merit  of  having  clearly  proved  that 
the  nourishing  of  a  picture  with  oils,  as  the  custom  was  formerly, 
and  still  b  to  some  degree,  is  a  very  objectionable  proceeding, 
as  it  has  the  effect  of  darkening;  the  colours  for  ever.  He 
recommends,  instead  of  oil,  balsam  of  copaiva,  which  has 
become  since  an  invaluable  means  for  preserving  and  restoring 
oil  paintings,  and  will  be  more  and  more  extensively  used. 

I  have  frequently  applied  Pettenkofer's  method,  and  with 
very  beneficial  effect ;  but  whenever  I  mentioned  it  to  profes- 
sional picture-restorers,  here  as  well  as  on  the  Continent,  I 
always  found  them  to  reject  it,  either  ^  priori,  or  after  experi- 
ments incorrectly  made. 

In  Munich,  it  seems,  the  pictures  of  all  periods  and  of  all 
schools  have  had  to  suffer  under  local  influences  and  through  the 
changes  in  the  humidity  of  the  air.  This  accounts  for  Petten- 
kofer having  principally  described  this,  so  to  say,  endemical 
disease.  In  other  galleries  this  affection  does  not  appear  so 
frequently,  and  Pettenkofer's  method,  therefore,  will  not  find 
everywhere  the  same  extensive  application  as  at  Munich.  I 
think,  however,  that  with  some  modifications  it  may  be  employed 
a^inst  some  other  alterations.  I  have,  for  instance,  found  it 
efficacious  with  paintings  which  had  been  injured  by  exposure  to 
great  heat.  I  shall  show  you  a  small  picture  which  had  been 
hanging  for  a  long  time  so  near  a  gas  fUune  that  it  was  almost 
completely  scaling  off,  and  so  entirely  faded  that  it  scarcely 
looked  like  an  oil  painting  at  all.  In  that  state  it  was  exposed 
to  alcoholised  air,  then  nourished  with  balsam,  and  its  back 
sli;3fhtly  varnished ;  and  the  scales  starting  from  the  canvas  were 
refixed  by  pressure.  And  now  it  appears  fresh  in  colour,  firm 
in  substance,  and  perfectly  smooth  on  its  surface.  The  old, 
cracked  varnish,  melted  together  by  the  alcohol,  looks  as  if  fresh 
laid  on. 

Humidity  sometimes  favours  the  development  of  fungus.  The 
round,  black,  small  spots  which  pass  through  the  canvas  and  the 
painting  of  these  two  pictures  are  produced  by  the  same  little 
plant  which  Prof.  Tyndall  showed  you  when  he  spoke  on  the 
highly  interesting  subject  of  spontaneous  generation. 

Oil  and  water,  so  injurious  to  oil  paintings,  enter  both  into 
the  material  used  for  lining.  Anxious  to  exclude  these  sources 
of  danger,  and  to  simplify  the  whole  process,  I  have  endeavoured 
to  replace  it  by  a  new  method  which  I  shall  submit  to  you  this 
evening. 

How  paintings  may  be  disfigured  by  restorers  you  see  in  this 
picture,  which  was  renovated  with  oil  colours  according  to  the 
practice  only  abandoned  about  thirW  years  ago,  when  it  was 
advantageously  replaced  by  the  use  of  varnish  colours. 

The  amount  of  external  injury  oil  paintings  sometimes  endure 
and  stand  is  perfectly  amazing.  Pictures  in  the  course  of  cen- 
turies, during  the  destructive  fury  of  wars  and  revolutions,  may 
have  been  torn  out  of  their  frames,  rescued  from  below  the  ruins 
of  burned  monasteries,  may  subsequently  have  passed  from  one 
l^tc-d-brac  shop  to  another,  where  they  have  been  piled  up,  to 
be  pulled  about  at  each  new  inspection,  and  literally  trodden 
under  foot,  whereby  they  have  finally  been  reduced  to  a  state  of 
colourless,  greybh,  or  black  rags.  Still  such  pictures  may  not 
unfrequentlv  be  awakened,  as  it  were,  to  new  life,  to  their 
original  brilliancy  of  colour,  if,  with  all  necessary  care,  their 
injured  limbs  are  put  together  again,  their  wounds  are  healed, 
and  fresh  nourishment,  air,  and  thorough  cleansing,  are  adminis- 
tered to  their  lacerated  bodies. 

A  sound  constitution  is,  of  course,  a  necessary  condition  for 
obtaining  any  such  result,  without  it  we  can  ovXy  obtain  a  partial 
cure.  We  see  this  with  reference  to  the  Bolognal  school  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  pictures  which  you  sec  here  are 
instances  of  this.    From  the  state  of  rags  to  which  they  were 


reduced  they  have  passed,  by  appropriate  treatment,  into  the 
state  of  firm,  even,  well-conditioned,  and  clean  pictures.  The 
constitutional  alteration  characteristic  of  their  time  and  school, 
however,  could  not  be  cured.  You  will,  therefore,  perceive  that 
the  contrast  is  too  great  between  light  and  shade,  that  the  half 
tones  are  too  weak  and  that  the  glazings  spread  on  dark  gromid, 
which  certainly  existed  formerly,  have  been  destroyed  by  the 
growing  of  bolus  and  umber  of  the  priming.  Thsit  this  is  not 
the  fault  of  the  method  of  restoration  is  dearlv  proved  by  the 
state  in  which  you  will  find  all  the  pictures  of  this  school,  even 
those  best  preserved  in  the  best  galleries  of  all  countries. 

The  constitutional  diseases  of  pictures  bdoi^ng  to  the  Frendi 
and  to  the  English  school  of  the  last  hundrea  years  are  of  still 
more  serious  nature,  and  much  more  difficult  to  cure.  Many  of 
them,  though  they  were  never  exposed  to  any  injury  whatever, 
nor  are  likely  ever  to  be  so  in  our  present  state  of  civilisation, 
cannot  be  guarded  from  premature  decay  in  spite  of  all  possiUe 
care  with  which  they  are  kept. 

The  principal  symptoms  of  their  bad  constitution  are  : — 

1.  Darkening  of  the  opaque  bright  colours. 

2.  Fading  of  the  transparent  brilliant  colours. 

3.  Darkening,  and  above  all,  cracking  of  the  transpcuent  dark 
colours. 

The  best  opportunity  to  study  these  several  appearances  is 
given  us  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre,  which  contains  a  great 
number  of  such  pictures  in  the  section  occupied  by  the  French 
school.  I  have  paid  particular  attention  to  the  cracks  in  th^e 
pictures,  as  I  find  that  in  shape,  in  size,  in  position,  as  well  as 
m  relation  to  the  various  colours,  they  differ  dbtinctly  from  the 
cracks  in  older  pictures  and  in  those  of  other  schools.  This,  of 
course,  is  of  importance,  not  only  for  the  explanation  of  the 
reasons  which  produced  them,  but  as  a  symptom  which,  in  a 
given  case,  might  determine  the  diagnosis,  whether  a  picture  be 
an  original  or  onlv  a  copy.  The  special  diaracteristics  of  these 
cracks  are  the  following  : — 

They  are  all  but  exclusively  found  in  the  thicklv  laid  on  trans- 
parent dark  colours,  and  they  are  the  deeper  and  Uie  more  gaping 
m  proportion  to  the  thickness  of  the  layer  of  the  colour  and  the 
extent  of  the  dark  surface.  The  chief  cracks  run  parallel  to  the 
outlines  of  surfaces  painted  with  bright  opaque  colours,  such,  for 
instance,  as  are  used  for  the  flesh  tints,  and  which  are  more  or 
less  thickly  laid  on.  But  there  is  generally  a  slight  distance 
between  the  bright  colours  and  the  cracks. 

Lateral  branches  of  these  cracks  pass  into  the  white,  but  they 
do  not  gape,  provided  the  white  colours  had  been  laid  on  directly 
upon  the  priming,  and  not  upon  a  layer  of  dark  transparent  aiKi 
not  sufficiently  dried  colour. 

This  examination  of  the  cracks  of  pictures  has  sometimes 
afforded  me  a  peculiar  insight  into  the  practice  used  for  the 
picture.  In  the  well-known  picture^  for  instance,  by  Go^ri- 
cault,  of  "The  Wreck  of  the  Medusa,"  in  the  Gallery  of  the 
Louvre,  the  cracks  follow  exactly  the  outlines  of  the  bright 
flesh-tints.  The  arm  of  one  of  the  dead  bodies  han^^ing  in  the 
water  is  so  covered  by  planks  and  water  that  nothing  of  the 
forearm  is  to  be  seen.  It  is,  however,  very  easy  to  prove  that 
originally  that  arm  was  painted  in  all  its  length,  for  the  cracks 
do  not  only  follow  the  outline  of  the  visible  upper  arm,  but  also 
the  no  longer  visible  forearm,  and  all  the  five  fingers.  This 
proves  that  the  fore  yfii  of  the  arm  and  the  hand  were  origin- 
ally painted  in  flesh-tints  before  they  were  covered  over  by  the 
planks,  and  the  water  painted  afterwards.  In  Ingres'  portrait 
of  Cherubini,  the  face  of  the  latter  is  beautifully  preserved, 
while  that  of  the  Muse,  as  well  as  her  drapery,  is  covered  with 
cracks.  In  the  depth  of  the  cracks  of  the  white  drapery  an 
intense  blue  tint  is  to  be  seen.  Mr.  Henry  Lehmann,  ot  Paris, 
the  favourite  pupil  of  Ingres,  who  knows  the  history  of  this 
picture  as  an  eye-witness,  and  whom  I  consulted  about  this  very 
striking  appearance,  gave  me  the  following  information : — 
Ingres  painted  the  head  of  Cherubini  in  Paris,  and  then  took  it 
with  him  to  Rome.  There  it  was  pieced  into  a  new  canvas  and 
lined.  Then  the  Muse  was  painted,  and  before  the  colours  were 
perfectly  dry,  another  model  was  chosen,  and  a  new  Muse 
painted  over  the  old  one.  The  colour  of  Uie  drapery  was  like- 
wise altered,  and  this  explains  the  cracks  in  the  white  colour, 
and  explains  also  why  the  blue  appears  in  the  depth  of  the 
cracks  of  th<  drapery. 

Among  the  English  artists  of  the  last  hundred  years,  some 
have  painted  with  the  same  material  and  by  the  same  process  as 
their  French  contemporaries,  and  consequently  with  the  same 
unfortunate  results.    Others  avoided  these  by  using  the  same 


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material  with  more  precantions.  Others,  again,  and  among 
them  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  have  in  their  different  works  followed 
various  practices,  and  consequently  had  varied  results.  Thus, 
some  of  Sir  Joshua's  pictures  have  kept  perfectly  sound.  Others 
are  cracked  in  the  characteristic  way  just  mentioned.  Others, 
again,  are  cracked  in  an  absolutely  irregular  way.  We  can 
easily  form  an  idea  of  it  if  we  read  in  his  **  Diary  Notes,"  for 
instance,  the  way  in  which  he  painted  the  portrait  of  Miss 
Kirkman,  which  he  began  with  whiting  and  gum  tragacanth, 
then  covered  it  successively  with  wax,  then  white  of  ^gs,  and 
then  varnished  it. 

The  study  of  the  alterations  already  fully  developed  in  pictures 
painted  within  the  last  hundred  years  only,  and  their  comparison 
with  the  works  of  the  old  masters,  would  suggest  the  following 
rules  for  the  process  of  painting : — 

1.  The  oil  should  in  all  colours  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
under  no  form  should  more  of  it  than  absolutely  necessary  be 
introduced  into  a  picture. 

2.  All  transparent  colours  which  dry  very  slowly  should  be 
ground,  not  with  oil  at  all,  but  with  a  resinous  vehide. 

3.  No  colour  should  be  put  on  any  part  of  a  picture  which  is 
not  yet  perfectly  dry;  and,  above  all,  never  a  quick-drying 
colour  upon  a  slow-drying  one,  which  is  not  yet  perfectly 
dry, 

4.  White  and  other  quick-drying  opaque  colours  may  be  pat 
on  thickly.  On  the  contrary,  transparent  and  slow-drying 
colours  should  always  be  put  on  in  thin  layers. 

If  the  effect  of  a  thick  layer  of  these  latter  is  required,  it 
must  be  produced  by  laying  one  thin  layer  over  another,  taking 
care  to  have  one  completely  dry  before  the  next  is  laid  on.  If 
transparent  colours  are  mixed  with  sufficient  quantity  of  white- 
lead,  they  may  be  treated  like  opaque  ones. 

We  come  now  to  the  last  layer  of  the  picture,  to  that  one 
which  b  spread  over  its  surface  in  order  to  equalise  optical 
irregularities,  and  to  protect  it  at  the  same  time  from  the  air. 
I  mean  the  varnish. 

The  varnish  may  crack  or  get  dim ;  then  it  should  be  treated 
with  Pettenkofer's  method ;  but  it  may  become  dark  yellow, 
brown  and  dirty,  and  so  hide  the  picture  that  it  becomes  neces- 
sarv  to  take  it  off  and  to  replace  it  by  a  ti^in  layer  of  new  var- 
nish. It  is  here  that  picture-restorers,  or  we  may  say  picture- 
cleaners,  display  their  beneficial  skill,  and  also  tneur  very 
destructive  activity. 

If  a  picture  is  throughout  painted  in  oil,  if  its  substance  has 
remained  sound  and  even,  and  varnished  with  an  easily  soluble 
mastich  or  dammar  varnish,  then  there  will  be  ndther  difficulty 
nor  danger  in  removing  the  varnish.  This  can,  in  such  a  case, 
be  done  either  by  a  dry  process,  that  is,  by  rubbing  the  surface  with 
the  tips  of  the  fingers,  and  thus  reducing  the  varnish  by  dcsprees  to  a 
fine  dust,  or  by  dissolving  the  varnish  by  application  of  liauids, 
which,  when  brought  only  for  a  short  time  into  contact  with  the  oil 
painting,  will  not  endanger  it.  We  have,  however,  seen  that  the 
works  of  the  old  masters  are  not  painted  with  oil  colours  like  those 
used  by  modem  pointers,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  certun 
pigments,  and  especially  the  transparent  colours  used  for  glazing, 
were  ground  only  with  resinous  subsUnces.  These  latter  have, 
in  the  course  of  time,  been  so  thoroughly  united  with  the 
layer  of  varnish  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  picture,  that 
there  no  longer  exists  any  decided  limit  between  the  pcture  and 
the  varnish.  It  is  in  such  pictures  that  a  great  amount  of 
experience,  and  knowledge  of  the  process  used  for  the  pcture, 
as  well  as  precaution,  are  required  in  order  to  take  away  from 
the  varnish  as  much  only  as  is  indispensable,  and  without  inter- 
fering with  the  picture  itself.  Numberless  works  of  art  have 
been  irreparably  injured  by  restorers,  who,  in  their  eagerness  to 
remove  dirt  and  varnish,  attacked  the  pamting  itself.  They 
then  destroyed  just  that  last  finishing  touch  of  the  painting, 
without  which  it  b  no  longer  a  masterjnece. 

The  difficulty  and  danger  are  mudi  greater  in  cleaning  those 
pictures  which  have  not  been  varnished  with  the  ordinary  easily- 
dissolved  mastich  or  dammar  varnish,  but  have  been  painted 
over  with  oil,  oil-varnish,  or  oleo-resinous  varnish.  It  seems 
incredible  that  these  substances  should  ever  be  used  for  such 
purposes ;  it  b,  however,  a  fact  that  there  are  still  people  who 
fancy  that  it  will  contribute  to  the  good  preservation  of  their 
pictures  to  brush  from  time  to  time  a  little  of  those  liquids  over 
their  surface.  They  recognise  too  late  that  the  varnish  becomes 
more  and  more  dark,  of  a  brownish  colour,  and  opaque.  If 
such  varnish  has  afterwards  to  be  removed,  then  we  meet  with 
the  great  difficulty,  that  thb  can  be  done  only  with  substances 


which  would  just  as  easily  dissolve  the  whole  picture  as  the 
hardened  layers  spread  over  it. 

Thb  shows  what  can  be  the  value  of  those  universal  remedies 
which  from  time  to  time  appear,  and  are  praised  for  the  inno- 
cuous wajr  in  which  pictures  by  their  means  may  be  cleaned. 

There  is  at  this  moment  a  great  discussion  going  on  in  Italy 
about  Luporini's  method.  Luporini  b  a  painter  and  picture- 
restorer  in  Pisa,  who  believes  himself  to  have  invented  a  new 
means  of  cleaning  pictures  without  any  danger.  Some  months 
ago,  in  Florence,  I  examined  a  large  number  of  pictures  cleaned 
by  him.  Those  of  the  Gallery  of  St.  Donato,  belonging  to 
Prince  Demidoff,  mostly  Flemish  and  Dutch  landscapes,  are 
cleaned  very  well  and  without  any  injury  to  the  painting.  On 
the  contrary,  the  St.  John,  \n  Andrea  del  Sarto,  one  of  the 
finest  pictures  of  the  Palazzo  Pitti,  I  found  very  much  altered 
by  the  restoration  of  Luporini.  I  had  studied  that  picture  very 
closely  the  year  before,  and  should  now  sooner  believe  it  to  be  a 
modem  copy  than  the  cleaned  original.  It  has  lost  all  softness 
of  outline  and  the  characteristic  expression  of  the  face.  The 
change  in  the  flesh  tints  can  scarcely  be  explained  otherwise  but 
by  an  entire  removal  of  the  glazing. 

I  think  it  b  taking  a  heavy  responsibility  to  allow  a  new 
experiment  to  be  tri^  upon  such  an  invaluable  work  of  art. 
Even  private  persons,  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  be  in  possess- 
sion  of  such  treasures,  ought  to  feel  responsible  for  the  good 
preservation  of  masterpieces,  which  are,  it  is  tme,  their  material 
property,  but  which  intellectually  belong  to  the  whole  dviUscd 
world  of  the  present  and  of  the  future. 


UNIVERSITY  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
INTELLIGENCE 

Cambridge. — Messrs. -Mackren,  Robbs,  and  Hichens,  have 
been  appointed  to  Scholarships  in  Natural  Science  at  Gonville 
and  Caius  College. 

Edinburgh. — At  the  Graduation  Ceremonial  on  Tuesday 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Sdence  in  the  Department  of  Mental 
Sdence,  was  conferred  on  Jacob  Gould  Schurman,  B.A. ;  in 
the  Department  of  Mathematics  on  Alexander  Macfarlane,  M.  A., 
B.Sc. ;  in  the  Department  of  Chembtry  on  William  Inglis 
Clark,  B.Sc.  The  degree  of  Bachdorof  Sdence  was  conferred 
on  William  Thomson  in  the  Department  of  the  Mathematical 
Sciences  ;  on  John  Adrian  Blaikie  and  James  Johnstone  Dobbie  in 
the  Department  of  the  Physical  Experimental  Sdences;  on 
William  A.  Haswell  in  the  Department  of  the  Natural  Sdences ; 
on  James  Alfred  Ewing  and  John  Gray  in  the  Department  of 
Engineering ;  and  on  John  Brown,  M.D.,  John  Berry  Haycmft, 
M.B.,  CM.,  and  JohnTrehame,  M.B.,  CM.,  in  the  Department 
of  Public  Health.  The  Hope  Prize  Scholarship  in  Chemistry 
was  awarded  to  Mr.  Lewb  Johnstone,  and  the  Falconer  Memorial 
Fellowship  for  the  encouragement  of  the  study  of  Palaeontology 
and  Geology,  of  the  annual  value  of  100/.,  tenable  for  two 
years,  and  conditionally  for  four  years,  was  awarded  to  R.  A. 
Lundie,  M.A.,  B.Sc. 

Baltimore.— We  recently  referred  to  the  sjrstem  of  fellow- 
ships at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore.  From  a 
statement  on  the  subject  which  has  come  to  hand,  we  leara  that 
twenty  fellowships,  each  yielding  500  dob.  a  year,  are  annually 
open  m  the  University.  They  are  awarded  hf  the  trustees  on 
the  nomination  of  the  Faculty,  as  nearly  on  the  first  of  f  June  as 
may  be  found  practicable.  Candidates  are  invited  .from  any  part 
of  the  country.  The  object  of  thb  foundation  b'  to  give  to  a 
few  scholars  of  promise  the  opportunity  to  prosecute  further 
studies,  under  favourable  circumstances,  and  likewise  to  open  a 
career  for  those  who  propose  to  follow  sdentific  and  literary 
callings.  The  Universitv  expects  to  be  benefited  by  the  presence 
and  influence  of  the  Fellows,  and  by  their  occasional  services ; 
from  among  the  number  it  hopes  to  secure  from  time  to  time 
some  of  its  teachers.  Three  of  the  twenty  fellowships  are 
allotted  this  ^ear  to  each  of  the  five  departments,  Greek,  mathe- 
matics, chemistrjr,  physics,  and  biology ;  and  the  remaining  five 
will  be  allotted  either  in  these  departments  or  in  others,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  Faculty.  Appointments  are  made  by  a  careful 
consideration  of  all  the  evidence  submitted  to  the  Faculty. 
Every  candidate  in  presenting  his  name  b  expected  to  address  a 
letter  to  the  president  indicating  the  course  of  hb  previous 
reading  and  study,  and  hb  general  purposes  with  reference  to 
future  work.  It  b  desirable  for  him  to  present  in  printing  or 
manuscript  an  essay  or  thesb  which  may  have  been  wntten  either 


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for  this  occasion  or  for  any  other  purpose.  If  he  has  been 
engaged  in  any  scientific  or  literary  research  he  should  indicate 
its  character,  and  generally  give  evidence  as  to  his  previous 
career  and  dond  J&s.  The  holders  of  the  fellowships  are 
required  to  reside  in  Baltimore  during  the  entire  academic  ses- 
sion, and  they  are  not  permitted  to  engage  in  teaching,  out  of 
the  walls  of  the  University,  unless  for  exceptional  reasons  in 
other  colleges  which  may  ask  for  some  temporary  service.  They 
are  expect^  to  devote  all  their  time  to  study  under  the  guidance 
of  one  of  the  professors,  or  if  there  be  no  professor  in  the  chosen 
department,  under  the  general  approbation  of  the  Faculty. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  Academic  year  a  report  of  his  work  is 
expected  from  each  Fellow.  As  opportunities  offer,  the  Fellows 
are  encouraged  to  prepare  and  read  lectures  or  essays  on  subjects 
to  which  they  have  given  special  attention.  TTiey  are  also 
required  to  render  occasional  services  as  examiners  or  as 
assistants  in  the  laboratories  ;  but  those  ser\'ices  are  not  burden- 
some, unless  they  are  compensated  by  additional  stipends. 
Those  who  become  distinguished  by  their  attainments  may  be 
assured  of  the  constant  encouragement  of  the  Faculty.  With 
all  these  precautions  there  seems  little  chance  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University  being  eaten  up  by  idle  Fellows. 


SOCIETIES  AND  ACADEMIES 
London 

Royal  Society,  April  11.— ^*  The  Acceleration  of  Oxidation 
caused  by  the  Least  Refrangible  End  of  the  Spectrum,"  by 
Capt.  Abney,  R.E.,  F.R.S. 

In  a  paper  contributed  to  the  Philosophical  Magazine  in 
January  last,  the  author  expressed  an  opinion  that  Chastaing's  idea 
regarding  an  acceleration  of  oxidation  being  caused  by  red  light 
might  prove  true  in  rM;ard  to  the  oxidation  of  the  photographic 
image,  and  elsewhere^  that  Becquerel's  coloured  spectra  might 
be  explained  on  the  same  principles,  and  this  he  finds  to  be  true 
as  regards  oxidation  of  the  photographic  image. 

A  silver  bromide  film  was  exposed  to  diffi^d  light.  It  was 
then  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  solar  spectrum,  wliilst 
immersed  in  a  solution  of  potassium  permanganate,  hydroxyl, 
potassium  bichromate,  or  nitric  acid,  or  in  ozone.  When  the 
strength  of  these  was  correct,  a  reversed  image  of  the  least 
refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum  was  obtained,  an  increase  in 
oxidation  taking  place  where  the  red  rays  acted,  the  reversal 
commencing  somewhere  near  D,  and  extending  into  the  ultra-red. 

The  accelerating  effect  of  the  red  rays  is  most  marked  when 
the  solutions  are  weak;  but  there  is  a  limit  to  the  dilution 
caused  by  the  fact  that  in  the  films  employed  the  silver  salt  is 
sensitive  as  far  as  the  wave  length  10,000,  and  there  must  be 
sufficient  strength  to  oxidise  the  invisible  image  as  it  is  formed, 
besides  gradually  destroying  the  effect  of  the  preliminary 
exposure.  With  silver  iodide,  as  there  is  no  reduction  by  the 
red  rays,  the  reversed  action  is  much  more  readily  obtained. 

A  reversed  image  of  the  least  refrangible  end  of  the  spectrum 
can  thus  be  produced  by  using  solutions  of  a  certain  strength, 
whilst  if  made  more  dilute  an  unreversed  image  is  obtained.  This 
throws  a  light  on  Draper's  photographs  of  this  region  of  the 
spectrum. 

Geological  Society,  March  6.— Henry  Clifton  Sorby, 
F.R.S.,  president,  in  the  chair. —Henry  Edward  Richard 
Bright,  George  James  Cotton  Broom,  William  James  Farrer, 
George  Scamell,  and  Joseph  Fletcher  White  were  elected 
Fellows  of  the  Society. — The  following  communications  were 
read  :— On  the  geology  of  Gibraltar,  by  Prof.  A.  C.  Ramsay, 
F.R.S.,  and  James  Geikie,  F.R.S.  In  this  paper  the  authors, 
after  giving  some  account  of  the  physical  features  of  Gibraltar, 
descnbed  m  detail  the  various  rock-masses  of  which  the  peninsula 
is  composed.  The  chief  rock  is  a  pale  grey,  bedded  hmestone, 
overlam  by  shales  containing  beds  and  bsmds  of  grit,  mudstone, 
and  limestone.  Fossils  are  very  rarely  met  with  in  the  limestone, 
and  have  never  as  yet  been  found  in  tiie  shales.  The  only 
recognisable  fossil  they  obtahied  from  the  limestone  was  a 
Rhynchorulla^  which  Messrs.  Etheridge  and  Davidson  think  is 
most  likely  Rh,  concinna.  This  would  make  the  beds  of  Jurassic 
age.  The  limestone  forms  the  great  eastern  escarpment,  and 
dips  west  under  the  shales,  which  form  the  lower  slopes  upon 
which  the  town  is  built  The  dips  vary  from  12°  or  20**  up  to 
vertical.  The  connection  of  these  strata  with  the  locks  of  the 
adjoining  districts  in  Spain  and  the  opposite  coast  of  Afiica  was 
I  "Treatise  on  Photography,"  p.  225.    Longmans. 


traced,  and  it  was  shown  that  the  Gibraltar  limestone  reappears 
in  Ape's  Hill  in  Barbary,  while  the  overlying  shales  and  the 
sandstones  of  Queen  of  Spain's  Chair  form  all  the  ground,  to  the 
west  of  Ape's  Hill  up  to  Cape  Spartel.  The  Jurassic  strata  of  Gib- 
raltar are  overlain  by  various  superficial  accumulations,  the  oldest 
of  which  is  a  great  mass  of  limestone  agglomerate,  ^rhich  is 
unfossiliferous,  and  shows  as  a  rule  no  trace  of  stratificatioii.      It 
is  made  up  of  angular  blocks  of  limestone  of  all  shapes  and  \ 
and  rests  upon  an  uneven  surface  of  limestone  :  it  also  < 
wide  areas  underneath  which  only  shales  are  present.       It  is 
excessively  denuded,  being  worn  into  ravines  and  gullies^  and 
presents  generally  a2,highly  honeycombed  surface.     Terraces  of 
marine  erosion  have  al^  been  excavated  in  it    It  is  not  now 
accreting,  and  could  not  have  been  formed  under  present  con- 
ditions  of  climate  and  surface.    The  authors  gave  at  length  their 
reasons  for  believing  it  to  have  been  the  result  of  a  sevoe  ^i^F»^tr 
The  blocks  were  w^ged  out  by  the  action  of  frost,  and  the  heaps 
of  angular  dibris  thus  formed  were  saturated  by  water  derived 
from  melting  snows,  and  so  were  caused  to  flow  en  masse  down 
the  mountain  slopes  and  over  the  gently  inclined  ground  at  their 
base.    The  caves  and  fissures  of  Gibraltar  were  Uien  described. 
It  was  shown  that  the  true  bone-breccias  were  confined  to  these. 
Many  of  these  fossiliferous  breccias  are  of  later  date  than  the 
great  agglomerate,  shice  they  are  met  with  in  fissures  and  cares 
that  intersect  the  limestone  and  limestone  agglomerate  alike. 
When  the  mammalia  tenanted  Gibraltar,  Africa  and  Europe  were 
united,  and  the  climate  was  genial.     All  round  the  rock  occor 
platforms,  ledges,  and  plateaus,  which  are  evidently  the  work  of 
the  sea.    Th^  erosion-terraces  are  covered  in  many  places  with 
calcareous  sandstones  containing  recent  species  of  Mediterranean 
shells.    Such  marine  deposits  occur  up  to  a  height  of  700  feet. 
The  movement  of  depression  was  interrupted  t^  panses  of  longer 
or  shorter  duration,  and  the  climatic  conditions  were  probably 
much  the  same  as  at  present.     After  the  rode  had  been  re- 
elevated,  the  subaerial  forces  modified  the  surface  of  the  marine 
sands  that  covered  the  limestone  platforms,  so  that  they  came  to 
form  long  sand  slopes.    The  land  at  this  period  was  uf  greater 
extent  than  it  is  now,  and  some  grounds  exist  for  bdering 
Europe  to  have  been  again  united  to  Africa,  for  mammalian  re- 
mains occur  here  and  there  in  the  deposits,  that  overlie  the  lime- 
stone platforms.    These  reUcs^  however,  it  is  just  possible  may  be 
derivative.  The  climate  was  probably  still  genial  kke  Uie  pxesent. 
Overlying  the  marine  and  subaerial  deposits  just  referred  to  occurs 
an  upper  and  younger  accumulation  of  massive  unfossiliferons  lime- 
stone agglomerate.    This  deposit  the  authors  believe  to  owe  its 
origin  to  severe  climatic  conditions*  After  the  marine  deposits  that 
cloak  so  much  of  the  eastern  side  of  the  rock  had  been  weathered 
into  fiubaerial  sand-slopes,  large  blocks  were  detached  fram  the 
cliffs  and  steep  slopes,  and  these  dropped  down  upon  the  sand 
and  were  soon  drifted  over.     By  and  by  the  blocks  fell  in  sadi 
quantities  that  the  sand-slopes  in  many  places  were  comf^^y 
buried  under  a  talus  of  limestone  dibris.    This  was  sulraequently 
consolidated  by  infiltration  into  a  solid  agglomerate,  in  the  same 
way  as  the  underlying  sands  were  h^ened  into  sandstone. 
These  sandstones  contain  a  few  blocks  of  limestone  only  in  their 
upper  portions.     In  their  horizontally-bedded  and  lower-lying 
portions  no  limestone  blocks  occur.    This  later  agglomerate 
bears  every  stamp  of  great  antiquity,  and  could  not  have  been 
formed  under  present  geographical  and  climatic  conditions.   The 
surface  is  honeycombed  and  wom,  just  like  that  of  the  solid 
limestone  and  the  older  limestone  ageiomerate.     Since  its  accu- 
mulation the  climate  has  greatly  changed,  the  present  being 
characterised  by  the  absence  of  frost  In  concluding,  the  authors 
discussed  at  length  the  cause  of  the  cold  conditions  that  gave 
rise  to  the  great  limestone  agglomerates,  and  argued  that  this 
cause  could  not  have  been  elevation  of  the  land.     They  also 
pointed  out  that  a  submergence  of  the  Hahara  would  be  equally 
mcompetent  to  bring  about  the  desiderated  climatic  conditions, 
and  that  even  a  former  much  greater  elevation  of  the  land,  com- 
bined with  the  appearance  of  a  Sahara  sea,  would  fail  to  supply 
us  with  the  severe  winter  climate  that  was  necessary  to  proauce 
the  great  agglomerates.    They  thought  that  the  most  probable 
explanation  of  the  phenomena  described  is  that  the  cold  con- 
ditions referred  to  were  contemporaneous  with   that  general 
refrigeration  of  climate  which  took  place  over  so  vast  an  area  in 
our  hemisphere  during  pleistocene  times.    The  limestone  agglo- 
merates they  look  upon  as  the  equivalents  of  those  gu^lal 
deposits  that  occur  so  plentifully  in  our  own  and  other  countries, 
and  the  bone  breccias^  which  are  intermediate  in  date  between 
the  lower  and  upper  limestone  a^lomentes,are  paralleled  by 
the  mtezgladal  beds  of  the  British  blands,  Sweden,  Switzerlsnd, 


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April  2^,  1878] 


NATURE 


519 


&C. — Notes  on  the  geologr  of  Japan,  by  J.  G.  H.  Godfrey, 
F.G.S. 

Physical  Society,  March  16. — Prof.  W.  G.  Adams,  pre- 
sident, in  the  chair. — A  special  general  meeting  was  hdd  for 
the  election,  as  an  ex  officio  honorary  member  of  the  Society,  of 
the  President  of  the  Physical  Society  of  Paris. — ^The  following 
candidates  were  then  elected  Members  of  the  Society :— J.  S. 
Bergheim,  W.  M.  Hicks,  M.A.,  Dr.  J.  Hopkinson,  M.A., 
D.Sc,  Miss  E.  Prance,  and  T.  Wills.— The  Secretary  read  a 
paper  by  Mr.  W.  J.  Millar,  C.E.  on  the  transmission  of  vocal 
and  otlier  sounds  by  wires.  The  author  was  led,  mainly  by  a 
consideration  of  the  manner  in  which  sounds  are  conveyed 
through  walls  and  partitions^  to  make  an  extensive  series  of 
ezpenments  on  this  subiect,  from  which  he  concludes  that  con- 
versation can  be  carried  on  at  considerable  distances  by  simply 
employing  stretched  wires  provided  with  suitable  vibrating  discs. 
In  one  experiment  two  copper  wires  were  attached  to  pomts  on 
a  tdesraj^h  wire  150  yards  apart,  and  breathing,  singmg,  &&, 
were  distinctly  audible ;  by  stretched  wires  extending  through  a 
house  and  provided  with  mouth-  and  ear-pieces  in  the  several 
rooms,  conversation  could  be  carried  on  without  difficulty.  The 
materials  employed  for  terminals  were  very  varied,  and  the 
vibrating  disc,  whether  metal,  wood,  or  india-rubber,  &c.,  was 
generally  formed  as  a  drum-head,  the  wue  being  fastened  at  its 
centre.  The  volume  of  sound  appears  to  be  greater  with  a 
heavy  wire,  but  in  all  cases  it  requires  to  be  stretched. — The 
President  referred  to  the  experiments  of  Wheatstone  on  the  con- 
duction of  sound  by  vibrating  bodies,  especially  (long  wooden 
rods.  He  mentioned  that  in  ^1856  a  performance  was  given  at 
the  Polytechnic  at  which  numerous  experiments  connected  widi 
such  conduction  w^e  exhibited.  Some  years  ago  M.  Comu,  in 
conjunction  with  M.  Mercadier,  made  experiments  which  showed 
that  vibrations  can  be  transmitted  along  a  copper  wire  and  ren- 
dered visible  at  the  distant  end  on  a  rotating  blackened  dmm. 
The  free  end  of  the  wire  was  attached  to  a  piece  of  copperfoil  fixed 
at  its  base  and  provided  with  a  point  which  le»t  a  clear  trace  on 
the  drum  when  the  distant  end  was^attached  to,  say,  a  vibrating 
tuning-fork.  By  connecting  such  an  arrangement  with  different 
instruments  and  vanning  the  >  players  also,  M.  Comu  has  ascer- 
tained the  form  ana  extent  ot  vibration  corresponding  to  each. 
The  arrangement  adopted  by  him  was  exhibited  by  Prof.  Adams, 
and  in  conclusion  he  rdferred  to  a  passage  in  Hooke's  "  Micro- 
gmphia,"  which  clearly  showed  that  he  was  aware  of  the  facility 
with  which  sounds  can  be  transmitted  by  solid  bodies. — Mr.  W. 
H.  Preece  described  some  experiments  made  in  September  of  last 
year,  by  Mr.  A.  W.  Heaviside  and  Mr.  Nixon  at  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne  on  this  subject,  from  which  they  conclude  that  the  method 
might  certainly  be  applied  with  success  to  the  transmission  of 
speech  within  a  building.  They  find  that  a  No.  4  wire  gives 
the  best  results.  The  terminals  were  wooden  discs  about  \  in. 
thick,  and  to  these  the  wire  was  attached  "  end  on,"  but  speech 
could  be  dbtinctly  heard  by  laying  such  a  disc  on  any  mter- 
mediate  point  of  the  wire.  When  Uie  wire  was  particularly  still 
speech  was  audible  up  to  200  yards. — Mr.  G.  W.  von  Tunzel- 
mann  then  read  a  paper  on  the  production  of  thermo-electric 
currents  in  wires  subjected  to  mechanical  strain.  The  wire,  of 
iron,  steel,  or  copper,  was  stretched  vertically  between  two  cans 
which  could  be  maintained  at  different  temperatures.  It  was 
fixed  in  the  base  of  the  lower  can  and  held  in  the  upper  one  by 
a  clamp  attached  to  the  shorter  arm  of  a  lever,  to  the  longer  arm 
of  which  the  stretching  weight  was  applied.  The  free  ends  of 
the  wire  were  joined  to  copper  wires  wnich  led  to  the  Thomson 
galvanometer,  these  junctions  being  covered  with  cotton  wool. 
He  has  succeeded  in  reconciling  the  contradictory  conclu- 
sions arrived  at  by  Sir  W.  Thomson  and  M.  Le  Roux; 
whereas  the  former  only  used  moderate  strains,  the  latter  worked 
near  the  breaking  limit,  and  the  author  finds  that  if  the  weight 
be  gradually  increased  the  direction  of  the  current  changes,  and 
hence  these  two  authorities  found  the  currents  to  flow  in  oppo- 
site directions.  A  great  number  of  experiments  were  made, 
and  from  them  it  is  evident  that  on  appl]ring  a  strain  the  deflec- 
tion does  not  immediately  attain  a  maximum,  but  it  gradually 
rises  for  about  eight  minutes,  and  then  gradually  falls,  attaining 
a  stationary  point  at  the  end  of  about  twelve  minutes. — Prof. 
Adams  then  exhibited  a  simple  arrangement  for  projecting 
Lissajous'  figures  on  to  the  screen  which  has  been  made  by  his 
assistant,  Mr.  Furze.  It  consists  of  two  strong  straight  steel 
springs,  fixed  in  separate  heavy  iron  frames,  the  one  horizontally 
and  the  other  vertically.  The  latter  carries  at  its  end  a  double 
convex  lens  and  the  former  carries  a  blade  disc  perforated  with  a 


small  hole  and  is  so  mounted  that  its  length  may  be  varied  as 
recjuired.  If  now  the  disc  be  placed  before  the  lamp  and  the 
point  of  light  be  focussed  on  the  screen  by  means  of  the  lens  on 
the  vertical  spring,  the  two  springs  may  be  caused  to  vibrate 
and  the  spot  will  describe  a  figure  corresponding  to  their  rdative 
rates. — Dr.  Guthrie  exhibited  an  experiment  to  show  the  be- 
haviour of  colloids  and  crystalloids  in  relation  to  electrolysis.  A 
solution  of  gelatine  was  coloured  with  litmus,  made  add  and 
mixed  with  sulphate  of  soda ;  two  platinum  poles  of  a  6-cdl 
Groves*  battery  were  then  immersed  in  it  and  the  gelatine  was 
allowed  to  set  The  mass  became  comparativdy  dear  round 
the  positive  pole  and  red  and  blue  douds  were  formed  which 
met  across  a  space  of  about  i^  in.  in  three*quarters  of  an  hour. 
The  relative  advance  of  the  ions  was  indicated  by  the  brightenmg 
of  the  litmus  round  one  pole  and  by  the  blue  coloration*  pro- 
duced at  the  other. 

Chemical  Society,  April  4.— Dr.  Gladstone,  president,  in 
the  chair. — A  lecture  **  On  the  Application  of  the  Microscope  to 
some  S  pedal  Branches  of  Chemistry  "  was  delivered  by  Mr.  H. 
C.  Sorby,  F.R.S.  The  lecturer  confined  his  discourse  to  the 
application  of  the  microscope  for  determining  the  refractive 
indices  of  liquids  and  solids.  An  object  is  placed  on  the  stage 
of  a  microscope  and  the  focus  adjusted  accuratdy ;  on  covering 
the  object  with  a  plate  of  some  refracting  substance,  the  object 
will  be  invisible ;  to  bring  it  again  into  focus  the  body  of  the 
microscope  must  be  moved  fii^er  out.  If  this  distance  be 
**^"  and  the  ^thickness  of  the  plate  be  7^  then  the  index  of 

T 

refraction  =•  — — -.     This  distance  can  be  measured  either  by 

a  scale  and  vernier  attached  to  the  body  of  the  microscope  or 
by  graduating  the  head  of  the  screw  which  works  the  fine  adjust- 
ment. The  lecturer  then  described  the  various  methods  by 
which  the  two  quantities  7"  and  </ could  be  practically  measured 
to  Tinrpth  of  an  inch  ;  the  curious  and  diversified  images  seen  by 
observing  with  a  microscope  a  drde  or  a  grating  througn 
transparent  plates  of  various  substances  were  then  explain^. 
Minerals  having  no  double  refraction  are  unifocal,  ue,^  both 
systems  of  lines  in  a  grating  can  be  seen  at  the  same  focus. 
Minerals  having  double  refraction  are  bifocal,  1.^.,  only  one 
system  of  lines  can  be  seen  at  one  focus,  a  new  focus  having  to  be 
found  in  order  to  see  the  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  first  set. 
This  method  has  enabled  the  author  to  identify  various  minerals 
in  sections  -oifth  inch  thick  and  Trvth  inch  in  diameter.  Thus 
in  a  dolerite  ^^th  inch  thick,  a  zeolite,  labradorite,  caldte,  and 
augite  were  identified  with  almost  absolute  certainty.  In  sec- 
tions of  shells  TT^th  of  an  inch  thick  caldte  can  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  arragonite.  In  condusion  the  lecturer  referred 
to  the  connection  between  the  indices  of  refraction  and  chemical 
composition  ;  the  data  are  defective  at  present,  but  several  points 
have  already  been  made  out ;  thus  of  two  minerals  having  similar 
compositions,  but  one  containing  caldum  and  the  other  one  of 
the  alkalies,  the  first  has  a  higher  index  of  refraction ;  a  lime 
garnet  on  the  other  hand  has  a  lower  index  than  a  predous 
garnet  which  contains  iron  instead  of  caldum. 

Linnean  Society,  April  4. — W.  Carmthors,  F.R.S. ,  vice- 
president,  in  the  chair. — There  was  exhibited  by  Dr.  H.  Trimen 
the  base  of  the  stem  of  the  Water  Hemlock  (Cicuta  virosa^ 
Linn.)  in  its  floating  winter  state,  obtained  near  Yarmouth.  This 
was  well  figured  in  the  PhU,  TVans.  last  century,  bat  since  has 
seldom  been  referred  to  by  botanists. — Mr.  G.  Murray  showed 
under  the  microscope  specimens  of  growing  Saprolegnia,  exhi- 
biting terminal  and  interstitial  oogonia. — A  paper  on  some 
minute  hymenopterous  insects,  by  Prof.  J.  O.  Westwood  was,  in 
his  absence  read  by  Mr,  McLaduan.  Tliis  contains  descriptions 
of  the  following  new  forms  :  Mymar  taprohanicus,  M,  wolas- 
toniif  Alaptus  excisus^  Oligosita  sidfasciaia,  O.  stanforthiiy  O. 
nodieorniSf  and  Trichogramnta  erosicomis.  All  singular  insects 
alike  interesting  structurally  and  as  regards  habits,  &c. — A  short 
notice  was  made  by  Mr.  M.  C.  Cooke  on  a  collection  of  fungi 
from  Texas,  made  by  Mr.  Ravenel.  Adding  all  other  recorded 
species  the  series  shows  that  much  yet  remains  unknown  in  the 
mycologic  flora  of  what  probably  is  one  of  the  richest  States  of 
the  Union. — The  Secretary  read  some  remarks  on  the  peculiar 
properties  ascribed  to  a  fungus  by  the  Samoans,  by  the  Rev. 
Thos.  Powell.  The  natives  name  it  "  Limamea  " ;  spedmens  of 
which  have  been  forwarded  to  the  Rev.  M.  Berkeley  for  identi- 
fication. It  destroys  their  bread-fruit  trees  and  the  Chestnut 
(Ifwcarpus  edulis).  An  antidote  to  its  ravages  is  said  to  exist  in 
the  liliaceous  plant  Crinum  asmfuum,  which  the  natives  grow 


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between  the  trees  liable  to  be  affected. — The  following  gentle- 
men were  elected  Fellows  of  the  Society  : — Frederick  Manson 
Bailey,  Dr.  Archibald  Hewan,  George  Payne,  Jan.,  and  James 
R.  Reid. 

Zoological  Society,  April  2.— Prof.  Newton,  F.R.S.,  vice- 

Sesident,  in  the  chair. — A  communication  was  read  from  the 
arquis  of  Tweeddale,  F.R.S.,  containing  the  seventh  of  his  con- 
tributions  to  the  ornithology  of  the  Philippines.     The  present 

giper  gave  an  accoimt  of  the  collection  made  by  Mr.  A.  H. 
verett  in  the  Island  of  Panaon.— Mr.  A.  G,  Butler,  read  de- 
scriptions of  new  Lepidoptera  of  the  group  Bombycites  in  the  col- 
lection of  the  British  Museum. — A  communication  was  read 
from  M.  E.  Oustelet,  containing  the  description  of  a  new  species 
of  cassowary,  from  New  Guinea,  proposed  to  be  called  Coxn- 
arius  cdwardsi, — A  communication  was  read  from  Mr.  F. 
Nicholson,  F.Z.S.,  containing  the  description  of  an  apparently 
new  species  of  American  pipit  from  Peru,  which  he  proposed  to 
call  Anthus  peruvianus,—YTof,  A.  H.  Garrod,  F.K.S.,  read 
some  notes  on  the  placentation  of  Hyomoschus  aquaticus  as 
observed  in  the  preg^iant  uterus  of  a  fresh  specimen  of  this 
animal  recently  examined. 

Victoria  (Philosophical)  Institute,  April  i.— A  paper 
on  modem  geology  and  its  bearing  on  the  antiquity  of  man,  was 
read  by  ProC  Birkf,  of  Cambrid^ 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  April  9. — Mr.  Bateman, 
president,  in  the  chair. — The  paper  read  was  on  the  embank- 
ments of  the  River  Thames,  by  Mr.  Edward.  Bazalgette, 
Assoc.  Inst.  C.E. 

Edinburgh 

University  Chemical  Society,  March  13. — Mr.  W.  Inglis 
Clarke,  B.Sc,  vice-president,  in  the  chair. — A  paper  was  lead 
by  Mr.  Adrian  Blaikie  on  the  salts  of  trimethylsulphine,  con- 
taining the  results  of  a  joint  investigation  carried  on  by  Prof. 
Crum-Brown  and  himself.  They  find  that  the  oxalate  of  tri- 
methylsulphine crystallises  in  clear  hydroscopic  plates  with  one 
molecule  of  water  of  crystallisation,  {(CH,),s}sC,04  +  H,0. 
On  heating,  the  salt  at  no**  C.  gives  off  its  water  of  ciystallisa- 
tion,  uxl  at  140°  gives  off  sulphide  of  methyl,  leaving  pure 

oxalate  of  methyl,  {(CH,),s}jC,0^  =  (CH,),C,04  +  2(CH,),S. 
The  sulphide  of  trimethylsolpbine,  obtained  by  mixine  e<)nal 
quantities  of  sulphydrate  and  oxyhydrate  of  trimethylsdphue, 
can  CHoly  be  obtained  in  a  solution  which  when  evaporatea  over 
phosphoric  anhydride  in  an  atmosphere  of  coal  gat,  decomposes, 
after  a  certain  strength  of  solution  has  been  reached,  into  sulphide 

of  methyl,  {(CH,)3S},S  =  3(CH,)^.  The  hyposulphite  of  tri- 
methylsulphine is  obtained  either  by  oxidation  of  the  sulphide  or 
polysulphide  of  trimethylsulphine.  It  crystallises  in  dear  hydro- 
scopic four-sided  prisms  with  one  molecule  of  water  of  crystallisa- 
tion, ((CH,),s}tS,Os  +  H,0.  This  salt  has  all  the  charac- 
teristics of  an  alkaline  hyposulphite.  On  drying  over  phosphoric 
anhydride  it  gives  off  its  water  of  crystallisation,  and  on  heating 
the  anhydrous  salt  at  137®  C  it  eives  off  23*5  per  cent  sulphide 
of  methyl,  leaving  a  wmte  crystalline  substance,  soluble  in  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether,  which  is  at  present  under  investigation. — A 
paper  was  also  read  by  Mr.  fohn  Trehame,  M.B.,  CM.,  on 
some  phenomena  observed  in  the  cooling  of  fiUs. 

Paris 
Academy  of  Sciences,  April  15.— M.  Fizeauin  the  chair.— 
The  following  among  other  papers  were  read  :— Sun-spots  and 
magnetism,  by  M.  Faye.  Readying  to  Prof.  Piazzi  Sm3rth's 
question  (NATURE,  vol.  xvii.  p.  220),  M.  Faye  says :— i.  The 
periods  10*45  years  for  the  needle,  11*11  for  the  spots,  have  been 
well  determined  by  Mr.  Broun  and  M,  Wolf  respectively.  2. 
The  two  phenomena  are  not  related.  3.  A  combination  of 
favourable  circumstances,  reproduced  every  176  years,  has  led 
to  belief  in  their  connection.  4.  These  temporary  concomi- 
tances are  not  absolutely  rare  in  the  history  of  sciences. — On  a 
new  compound  of  palladium,  by  MM.  Sainte-Claire  Deville  and 
Debray.  This  relates  to  an  ammoniacal  sesquichloride  of  pal- 
ladium, obtained  bv  causing  chlorine  solution  to  act  in  the  cold 
state  on  yeUow  chloride  of  palladamine.  One  analysis  of  it 
gave  :  palladium,  42*6 ;  chlorine,  43*5 ;  ammonia,  12*9. — 
Experiments  tending  to  imitate  various  forms  of  foldings, 
contortions,  and  ruptures  met  with  in  the  earth's  crust 
(continued),  by  M.  Daubr^.  A  thin  layer  of  an  ad- 
hesive colouring  matter  is  applied]  to  the  surface  of  a  dis- 


tended bidloon  of  vulcanised  caoutchouc.    On  letting  some  o4 
the  air  escape  the  coated  portion  forms  a  protuberance  witli 
regular  and   parallel  wrinkles  in  certain  directions;    and   M^ 
Daubn^  finds  like  phenomena  in  the  earth's  crust. —  On  -th^' 
annual  temperature  of  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  water,  in  the 
Jaidin   des    Plantes  of   MontpeUier,   according  to  twenty-sijc 
years  of  observations,  by  M.  Martini.    The  mean  annual  tem^ 
perature  (of  the  air)  is  13*42* ;  at  Paris  and  Montsouris  Obser- 
vatories it  is  10*67*  for  t^€  same  twenty-six  years.     The  mean  ^ 
annual  temperature  at  o*iom.  depth  in  unsodded  grooikd  is  I 
inferior  to  that  of  the  air  (about  2<*)  if  only  momin|^  obser- 
vations are  taken ;  but  from  observations  morning  and  evening 
they  are  nearlv  the  same  (ground,  14*65*^,  and  air  14*11*,  in  the 
year  1863).     ^^  mean  temperature  of  the  subterranean  sheet 
of    water    b    12* 77*. — Report    on   a   memoir   by    M.    Jobcrt 
relating  to  aerial  respiration  of    some  Brazilian  fishes.      M. 
Tobert   has    found    several    fishes    in    the    Upper   Amazrai, 
having;  two  modes  of  respiration,  one  by  the  gills,  the  other  by 
the  alimentary  canal,  swallowing  air  and  evacuating  by  the  amis 
a  gas  which  has  more  CO.  and  less  O  than  air  has.     The  intes 
tine  has  a  number  of  filiform  appendices  composed  of  blood 
vessels,  which  doubtless  absorb  some  of  the  swallowed   oxygen. 
In  other  fishes  the  gas  returns  by  the  mouth  instead  of  the  anus. 
In  others  the  swimming-bladder  (which  has  nnmeroos  blood 
vessels  in  its  walls)  takes  the  (dace  of  the  lungs. — On  the  eqd- 
valent  of  gallium,  bv  M.  Lecoq  de  Boisbaudrsm.     From  calciitt- 
tion  of  the  alum  and  calcination  of  the  nitrate  the  mean  obtained 
for  the  equivalent  is  69*865.     This  agrees  closely  with  a  theo- 
retical number  g^t  for  a  body  between  aluminium  and  indium.— 
On  the  mode  of  formation  of  the  meteoritic  breccia  of  Santa 
Catharina,  Brazil,  by  M.  Meunier.  Four  phenomena  are  traced. — 
I.  Shattering  of  the  metallic  iron,  and  accumulation   of    the 
fragments  with  spaces  between.      2.  Penetration    of    snlpku* 
retted  hydrogen  into  these  spaces,  producing  sulphur,  and  a 
mixture  of  pyrrhotine  and  graphite.     3.  Mechanical  crushing 
of  the  mass.    4.  Production  of  new  graphitous  matter  filling  the 
fissures  of  the  second  formation. — On  the  dissociation  of  hydrate 
of  chloral,  by  MM.  Moitessier  and  Engd.     From  experimoa 
they  find  that  the  tension  of  the  vapour  of  the  substance,  when 
boilin|f,  is  superior  to  atmospheric  pressure,  hence  they  infer 
dissociation  of  the  hydrate  between  78^  and  100*  as  affirmed 
by  M.  Wurtz. — On  a  rare  form  of  the  hepatic  organ  in  worms, 
by  M.  Chatin.     In  a  nematoid  of  the  group  of  Agamomem*^ 
Dies,  an  exterior  glandular  mass  is  developed  round  the  middle 
intestine. — Experiments  proving  that  pure  urea   never   causes 
convulsive  disorders,  by  MM.  Feltz  and  Ritter. — On  tvro  rain- 
bows with  opposite  curvature,  by  M.    Fan^et.     This  was 
observed  at  Agen,  on  April  8.     The  bows  formed  a  figure  like 
jr. — M.  Tommasi  presented  a  new  system  of  relays  for  long  sub- 
marine cables. 


CONTENTS 


Pags 


Tmb  0>ming  Total  Solak  Ecupsb,  II. 
r.R.S. 


By  J.  NosMAN  Locam, 


Atlantic  Shblls 

Lbttbrs  to  thb  Eoitok  :— 

Indian  RainfalL— E.  D.  Archibald 

Sun-qpots  and  RainMl.— Albxanobr  Buchan 

Trajectories  of  Shot— Rev.  F.  Bashfortk 

"  Afimicry  "  in  Birds.- Prof.  Altrbd  Nbwton,  F.R.S. ;  H.  H.  S. 

The  Westinshouse  Brake.— G.  O.  K. 

Sound  and  Density.— J.  Cambron 

Our  Astronomical  Column  :— 

The  Transit  of  Venus  in  x88a 

Encke's  Comet  in  1878 

The  "  Berliner  Astronomisches  Jahrbuch  "  and  the  Mmor  Planets . 
Gmgrafhical  Notbs  :— 

Tasmania   1.    .    . 

African  Exploration 

Paris 


French  Guayana  , 
Survey  of  N«^  York 


Biological  Notbs  :- 

A  New  Fruit 

Fossil  Insects 

The  Climbing  of  the  Vtfginia  Creeper 

The  Earliest  Changes  in  Animal  E^EKS 

Glacial  and  Poot-Glacial  Fishes  of  Norway 

Poachbg  Birds 

Gbolocical  Timb.    By  G.  H.  Dakwin 

Early  Elbctric  Tblbphony.  By  Prof.  W.  F.  Barrbtt  iJVith  Illu*^ 

trations) 

Action  op  Light  on   a   Sblbnium  (Galvanic)   Elbmbnt.    By 

ROBBRT  SaBINB 

Notbs 

Thb  Dbtbrioration  op  Oil  Paintings,  II.   By  Dr.  R.  Libbrbich  . 
UNiVBRsmr  AND  Educational  Intblucbncb *'.    .    . 

SOCXBTIXS  and  ACADBMXBS 


503 

505 

506 
S06 

S07 
S07 
507 

507 
507 
507 

So8 

508 

508 

508 
S08 

509 
509 

509 


5" 

515 

SIS 


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No.  418,  Vol.  17] 


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LANCASTER    SCHOOL. 

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ELEMENTS  of  GEOLOGY,  by  Sir  Charles  LyeO.  price  oc,  hm  sa^: 
— **  As  it  is  impossible  to  enable  the  reader  to  recognise  rodca  aad  awe- 
rak  at  sight  by  aid  of  verbal  descriptions  or  figures,  he  wiU  do  wdl  ta 
obtain  a  weU-anranaed  collectSoo  of  specunens,  such  as  may  be  iawjwd 
from  Mr.  TENNANT  (149,  Strand),  Teacher  of  BCtnexmlogy  at  Kng't 
CoUege,  Loodon."    These  CoUectiont  are  supplied  on    m  foDoea^ 
terms,  in  plain  MahcMpny  Cabinets:— 
xoo  Specimens,  in  Cab|net,  with  3  Tray*    ^    ^    ««;£«•    o 
soo  Spedmeos,  in  Cabmet,  widi  5  Tray*    •«    •«    .^     550 
300  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  9  Drawers       ^    •«  so  so    o 
400  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  13  Drawers     .»    •«  ax    o    o 
More  extensive  Collections  at  50  to  5,000  Guineas  eadb. 


THE  POPULAR  SCIENTIFIC  POCKET  CABIMET 
SERIES, 

Illustrative  of  Mineralogy,  Palaeontology,  Petralofy,  Conchology,  Metal- 
lurgy,  &C.,  ananged  by  THOMAS  J.  DOWNING,  Geologise.  &c,  jS, 
Whisldn  Street,  London,  E.C 
as  Spedoens  to  iUustrate  Geikie's  "Geological  Primer,**  ia  Cafanet. 
21.  6d. ;  85  do.  to  iUustrate  the  Rev  T.  G.  Bonney's  *'  Elementary  Geologj,' 
ax.  6(&  ;  as  do.  British  Fossils,  in  Cabinet,  t.  6d.  ;  95  do.  Britiah  Socks, 
da,  ar.  6d. ;  as  do.  Earthy  Minerals,  da.  ax.  6d. :  as  da  Metallic  Miaetah, 
da,  ax.  &£  ;  as  da  RecentShells,  do.,  ax.  6d. ;  as  do.  Metals,  do ,  ac  6^. :  as 
da  Rough  Gems  and  Stones,  do.,  ax.  6d.  Catalogues  free.  N  B.  'P.O.0, 
or  Cheque  must  invariably  accompany  all  orden.    Trade  supplied. 

To  Geologists  and  Natuxahsta. 

ORPORD    CASTLE    FOSSILS. 

The  Catting  near  Oxford  Castle  in  which  theae  raxe  and  beautilul  Woauh 
have  been  found,  as  advertised  in  Natum  last  year,  is  still  open,  and  man 
than  twelve  thousand  Specimens,  aL  carefrdly  detennined  by  Mr.  Chaxk»- 
wotth,  have  been  distributed  amoogthe  Subsaibexa.  Papers  *^^f  *imtg  the 
particulars  of  Subscriptioa  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to  Thomas  Flotd, 
Esq.,  Snsaea  House,  Howaxd  Road.  South  Norwood,  S.S.,  (     '     ' 


MUSEUMS  AND  COLLECTORS. 
Mr.  DAMON,  of  WEYMOUTH,  wUl  forward  an 
abridged  Catalogue  of  his  Collections  in  SHELLS 
(British  and  Foreign),  FOSSILS,  MINERALS,  and 
other  NATURAL  HISTORY  Objects,  recent  and  fossil, 
and  of  which  he  has  typical  and  other  sets  in  the  Loan 
and  Educational  Museums  of  South  Kensington. 

W.    LADD    &    CO., 
Scientific  Instrument  Mannfactorers 

(Bjf  A^^oimimeui  U  ike  R0ymi  InetUmHm  ef  Grtmt  Britrnm,} 

II  &  12,  BEAK  STREET,  REGENT  STREET,  W. 

LADD»S  IMPROVED  SELFCHARQINQ  H0LT2  ELEC 
TRICAL  MACHINE,  with  4  to  12  Plates,  inclosed  in  a 
Mahogany  and  Glass  Case.  This  instniment  is  immediately 
available  in  any  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 

7^  above  improvemenU  can  he  applied  t»  Holt%  Machines  #/ 
old  form, 

MRS.  SPOTTISWOODrS  POCKET  POLARISING  APPA. 
RATUS,  complete  in  Case,  post  free  3/.  ^,  6d, 

CRYSTALS,  showing  Axis,  Dichroism,  &c,  mounted  for  above, 
in  similar  case. 


Philosophical  Apparatus  of  evexy  Description. 
lUmirmtM  CmtaUime,  Sixpeme, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Nov.  I,  1877] 


NATURE 


111 


i^aU  be  Siuctfon. 

Scientific  and  Miscellaneous  Property. 

Mr.  J.  C.  STEVENS  will  sell  by  Auction  at 

his  great  Rooms,  38,  King  Street,  Covent  Garden,  W.C,  on  FRIDAY, 
Nov.  9,  at  half-past  la  o'clock  precisely.  Scientific  and  Miscellaneous  Pro- 
perty, consisting  of  Plate,  Electrical  Machines,  and  a  variety  of  Appa- 
ratus, Dissolving-view  Lamtems  and  Slides,  Models  of  Steam  Engines, 
an  expensive  set  of  WheaUtone's  ABC  Telegraphs,  Telescopes,  Micro- 
scopes and  Objects  for  ditto.  Induction  Coils,  and  a  variety  of  miscella- 
neous articles. 

On  Vwm  Morning  of  Sale  and  Catalogues  had. 

NOTICE  TO  SCIENCE  TEACHERS,  &c. 

In  future  the  Publishers  ^Nature  will  insert  Adver- 
tisements of  Teachers^  &*c,^  seeking  appointments,  at  the 
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Office  :  29,  Bedford  Street,  Strand,  W.C. 

WANTED,  by  a    SCIENCE    TEACHER 

who  has  received  instruction  under  Professors  Huxley  and  Frankland, 
and  holds  Certificates  in  Chemistry,  GeoU^^.  &c..  Evening  Employ- 
ment— Address  J.  T.  U.,  63,  Lisson  Grove,  N.W. 

MR.  CAMERON   (Science    Schools,  South 

Kensington  Museum)  prepares  Students  in  Chemistry  and  Botany  for 
London  Examinations,  at  his  private  laboratory  every  evening,  7  to  xo. 
Highest  references.     Terms  on  application. 

KENSINGTON    MASTER  gives   efficient 

Lectures  in  Ladies'  Schools,  Ac.  Botany  (actual  specimens).  Physio- 
logy, Geology,  &c  Moderate  Terms.— J.  Mackrkll,  157,  L  Street, 
Queen's  Parle,  W 

CHEMISTRY,      PHYSICS,      GEOLOGY, 

MINERALOGY,  STEAM,  &c ,  by  a  most  successful  Teacher  from 
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Stanley  Terrace,  Paddington,  W. 


C.  TISLEY  (fe  n 


S. 


OPTICIANS, 


X72,    BROMPTON    ROAD,    S.W. 

(CIoM  to  Sooth  Kensinctoa  Museum). 

P&OF.  DEWAB'S  NEW  ELECTKOMETEB 

For  dtrelofmiK  and  measuring  minuto  quantitiet  of  BtoctramodT*  Forot. 

GALTON'S  WHISTLES 

For  testing  the  limits  of  audible  sound,  zof.  6d, 

TISLET'S  HABM0N06RAPH, 

For  drawbg  Lissajous*  and  Melde's  figures  (graphic  dnwings  of  Harmonic 

Vibrations)  on  cm.   or  on   blackened  glass—most  attractive  for  Clasi 

Demonstration — from  Zz  io«.  to  £n. 

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STEREOSCOPIC  Ditto, 

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of  Agriculture, 
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of  Agriculture  of  Great  Britain  (which  now  number  upwards  of  x8.ooo 
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The  London  Com,  S«Bd,  Hop,  Cattle,  and  other  Markets  of  Monday  axe 
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Published  by  W.  PiCKiERBid,  .1,  Arundel  Street,  Sinuid,  W.C 


THE    QUARTERLY    REVIEW, 

No.  288,  is  published  THIS  DAY. 

CONTBNTa. 

I.— ODILON-BARROT. 

II.-HISTORY  OF  THE  MONGOLS. 
Iir.-OESARISM,  ROMANISM,  SOCIALISM. 
IV.-CARRIAGES,  ROADS,  AND  COACHES. 

v.- CONTEMPORARY  ITALIAN  POETS. 
VI.— LOBSTER,  CRAB,  AND  OYSTER  FISHERIES. 
VII.— ALFRED  AUSTIN'S  POEMS. 
VIII.— THE  NEW  REPUBLIC  AND  MODERN  PHILOSOPHERS. 
IX.— ORDINATION  AND  CONFESSION. 

X.— THE  LIBERAL  PARTY  AND  FOREIGN  POLITICS. 

JOHN  MURRAY,  Albemarle  Street 

ERASE  R'S     MAGAZINE, 

No.  XCV.    NOVEMBER. 
Contents. 
Psychological  Curiosities  of  Spiritualism. 
Engli^  Orthography. 

Rambles.    By  Patricius  Walker,  Esq.— In  Devon  and  Cornwall 
Studies  in^  Russian  Literature.    XI L 
Garibaldi  in  France.    II. 
An  Old  Story  Now. 
Buddhist  Schools  in  Burmah. 
Three  Weeks  with  the  Hop-Pickers. 
The  West  India  Question. 

London:  LONGMANS  &  CO. 

"That  excellent  periodical  Tm  Gardbm."— Professor  Uwbm. 

THE    GARDEN  :  A   Weekly    Illustrated 

Journal  of  Gardening  in  all  its  Brandiea.    Founded  and  Conducted  by 

W.  ROBINSON,  r.L.&,  Antbor  of  "Alpine  Flow«n  far  Knghah 

Gardens,"  &c 

A  Coloured  Pbte  is  now  ianed  with  awy  number  of  Ths  GartUn, 
"Mr.   Rofainson'i  vahiabU  and  elegant  weekly."— «S«/wn^  Rovitv^ 
Aug.  loth,  187a. 

The  following  are  iob«  o<  111*  nttiecls  ragularly  treated  of  in  its  pagit 


The  Flower  Oardea. 
T^tiHar^p^  Oanlenios. 
The  Fnut  Garden. 
Garden  Structuret. 
Room  and  Window  OarJi. 
Notes  and  Questioot. 
Maricet  Gardening. 
Trees  and  Shniba. 

Professor  Asa  Gkat  tayt;  ' 


Hardy  Flowen. 

Town  Gardens. 

The  Conservatory. 

Public  Gardens. 

The  Greenhouse  and  StOft* 

The  Hovsehold. 

The  WiM  Garden. 

The  Kitchen  Garden. 


,_.    '  It  leenu  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  and 

tnstea  of  gentlemen  who  are  tnterested  in  rural  afiairs.  By  such  we  hear  it 
highly  spoken  of;  and  we  think  we  do  a  Cstout  to  those  of  that  data  wli^ 
Icnow  it  notes  yet,  by  caUing  attention  to  it* 

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digitized  by  VrrOOQlC 


IV 


NATURE' 


\N'(nK  I,   1877 


THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS'  MUSEUM  &  INSTITUTE  OF  PISCICULTURE  SOCIETY,  LIMITED. 

CAPITAL-^5,000  IN  5,000  SHARES  OF  jf  i  EACH. 
(With  power  to  increase.) 

This  Sociely  is  estab!i.«hed  on  an  entirely  scientific  basis,  with  the  object  of  fosterinK  and  promoting  the  science  of  Economic  Pisciculcure,  aad 
of  supijplying  EDRltsh  and  other  naturalists  and  natural  history  students  with  facilities,  not  hitherto  accessible,  for  pursuing  Marine  Biological  Investt^atxac 
The  aim  of  the  Society  is,  in  fact,  to  provide,  in  a  conveniently  accessible  and  suiuble  locality,  an  institution  which  shall  fulfil  for  the  entire  north  ii 
Europe  that^  sphere  of  utility  which  the  well-known  Naples  Aquarium  and  Zoological  Station  now  does  for  the  south.  Mature  consideratioa  has  led 
to  the  selection  of  a  most  eligible  and  advantageous  site  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Helier's,  Jersey,  for  this  purpose. 

As  with  the  Naples  Institution  there  will  be  embodied  in  this  undertaking  the  following  several  feattu-cs  of  utility  and  attract'on  : — Firstly,  for  c^ 
entertainment  of  the  public,  and  as  a  source  of  income  for  the  defrayment  of  the  general  working  expenses,  a  Saloon  will  be  set  apart  fear  the  fnbSc 
display  of  the  living  denizens  of  the  ocean,  and  of  which  it  may  be  said  that  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  produce  an  unparalleled  wealth  ofamben 
and  varety.  Adjoining  the  Saloon  there  will  likewise  be  a  Museum,  available  both  as  a  Lecture-room  and  for  the  exhibition  of  a  typical  Natural  Hiitary 
Collection,  more  especially  lepresentative  of  the  luxuriant  Marine  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  more  important  Technical  Department  will  include  Laboratories,  with  all  suitable  Apparatus  and  Instrumsnts,  Tanks  for  Kxperin^s!^ 
Pisciculture^  and  a  Library  of  Standard  Scientific  Works  and  Setials  for  the  use  of  naturalists  and  students  who  shall  repair  here  for  the  purpyi* 
of  prosecuting  Marine  Biological  Research.  With  the  Institution  will  also  be  associated  a  D^pot  for  the  supply  of  living  or  carefuUy.|weserred 
roarme  specimens  to  British  or  other  Universities,  Museums,  Science  Schools  and  Aquaria,  or  to  natiu-alists  that  may  require  the  same  for  museam  typo, 
class  demonstration,  or  for  private  investigation. 

In  view  of  a  desire  already  expressed  by  many  wishing  to  assist  in  the  establishment  of  this  Institution  without  becoming  SharehoMera,  the  Soci^ 
is  empowered  to  receive  Contributions  towards  the  establishment  and  further  development  of  the  Institution.  Such  moneys  contributed  will  be  devo^ 
entirely  to  the  uses  above-mentioned,  and  will  not  be  applicable  for  the  inirposcs  oi  a  Dividend  or  otherwise  for  the  personal  advantage  of  the  ordiatfj 
Shareholders.  Especial  privileges  wilfbe  granted  to  all  such  Donors ;  Subsaibers  of  £xo  and  upwards  receiving  in  return  the  advantage  of  a  Lrife-mesabo- 
ship  and  free  admission  to  the  Institution  upon  all  occasions  on  which  the  building  is  open  to  the  public 

The  technical  control  of  the  Institution  wiU  be  undertaken,  as  Naturalist  Director,  by  Mr.  W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  F.L.S  .  P.Z.S.,  &c.  fbn&srir 
Assistant  in  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the  British  Museum,  and  whose  experience  as  Naturalist  for  some  years  to  the  leadmg  English  Aqaxria 
eminently  qualifies  him  for  this  position. 

In  registering  the  Memorandum  and  Articles  of  Association  of  this  Society,  special  care  hu  been  taken  to  secure  for  the  tindertaking  a  puiciT 
scientific  status,  and  to  permanently  exclude  from  it  all  those  supplementary  attracticms  of  an  irrelevant  nature  usually  associate  1  with  public  exhibickaa 
of  the  living  wonders  of  the  deep.     It  is  only  under  such  restrictions  and  reservations  that  patronage  and  subscriptions  are  here  invited. 

For  Prospeauses and  further  particulars  apply  to  the  SECRRrARV  or  to  the  Naturalist  DiRscroR,  x6,  Royal  Squ%re,  St.  Helier's,  Jersey. 

Contributions  of  Books  and  Serial  literatuie  relating  to  Biological  Subjects  suited  for  the  Library,  of  Instrummts  and  Apparatus  for  the  Laborator;; 
or  of  Natural  History  Specimens  for  the  Museum,  will  be  most  gratefully  accepted 

An  especial  appeal  for  support  is  here  made  to  the  Fellows  and  Members  of  the  various  Metropolitan  and  Provincial  Scientific  Societies,  and  wlii 
have  now  placed  before  them  an  unprecedented  opportunity  of  advancing  the  prestige  and  interests  of  English  Marine  Biological  Science. 

JUST  PUBLIUHED, 

A    NEW    SYSTEM    OF    SHORTHAND. 

SHORTHAND    FOR    GENERAL 

BY   J.  D.   EVERETT, 

Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Queen's  College,  Belfast, 

Fcap.  8vo,  price  it.  bd. 

MARCUS  WARD,  AND  CO.,   London  and  Belfast 


USE. 


LINES   OF    ANIMAL    LIFE, 

AND 

LINES   OF   VEGETABLE   LIFE. 

The  first  being  a  Paper  read  before  the  Microscopical  Society  of  Liver- 
pool, December  a,  1876,  and  the  latter  the  Inaugural  Address  delivered  at 
the  Annual  Meetlrg  of  the  Society,  January  19,  1877,  by  the  Rev.  Henry 
H.  HiGGiNS.  A.M  ,  President. 

Price  One  Shilling. 
Liverpool :  G.  G.  WALMSLEY,  50,  Lord  Street 

THE   TELEGRAPHIC  JOURNAL 

AMD 

ELECTRICAL   REVIEW. 

Published  tm  th«  xtt  and  xsth  of  the  month,  price  41^  ;   Subacri|»tioB  per 
Aomtm,  post  firee  in  Great  Britain,  gt. 

CONTBNTS  POS  SbPTBMBBR   Z. 

T. — Electrical  Science  at  the  Britii^h  Association. 

2  — Au  Improved  Double  Current  Key.    (With  Illustrations. 

3.— India-rubber  considered  in  Reference  to  its  Application  to  Telegraphy. 

(Continued.) 
4.— Mowbray's  "  Powder-Keg**  Blasting  Battery. 
5.— Electricity  in  War. 

6.— TheiJer's  Patent  Relay.    (With  Illustratioa.) 
7. — Review. 
8.— Notes. 
9.— City  Notes. 
I  o*"- Correspcmdence. 

London:  HAUGHTON  &  CO^  zo.  Paternoster  Row. 
To  ii^MMoa  also  Commnnications  for  the  Editor  nay  be  sent. 

THE   BREWERS'   GUARDIAN: 

A  Fortnightly  Paper  devoted  to  the  Protection  of  Brewers'  Interests, 
Licensing,  Legal,  and  Parliamentary  Hatters. 
Rsvnw  OF  THS  Malt  and  Hor  Tsadss;  and  Wins  and  Snur  TkADR 
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GEMS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

MR.  BRYCE  M.  WRIGHT  begs  to  call  the  attention  of  Collectors  to 
his  Stock»  which  includes  White  Aquamarmes,  Andalusites,  CyuKvphase 
Cats'  Eyes,  Pink.  \elIow,  and  White  Topazes,  the  new  Green  G«niets. 
Spodumenes,  Red  and  Blue  Ipinels,  Alexandr  tes  (green  by  day  and  red  br 
night).  Star  Sapphires,  Iphenes,  Diopsides,  Phenakites,  and  other  oat-«^ 
the-way  (}ems.  

BBTCE    M.   WBIOHTi  F.R.aS.i  &c., 

90,    GREAT   RUSSELL  STREET,   BLOOMSBURY, 
LONDON,  W.C. 

THE     MICROSCOPE     IN     PRACTICAL 

MEDICINE.     By  LIONEL  S.  BEALE,  M.B.,  F.R.S. 
The  Fourth  Edition  will  be  ready  in  October.    Two  Hundred  Ihifcs  and 
Thirty  Plates  have  been  added  to  this  Edition,  and  the  woric  has  bea 
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and  H.  T.  Stainton,  F.R.S. 

This  Magazine,  commenced  in  1864,  contatns  standard  aiticlas  and  nolM 

on  all  subjecu  connected  with  Kntonudogy,  and  especially  00  tfks  Insects  of 

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Subscription—Six  Shilfings  per  Vohnne,  post-free.  Tlie  voIobms  cos^ 
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cal  Tkeatise  on  the  Physical  (Constitution  of  Musical  Sounds  and  Hafw 
mony,  including  the  Chief  Acoustical  Discoveries  of  fto£  Helahalbk 
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NATURE 


DIARY    OF    SOCIETIES. 


London 

THURSDA  K,  NovittiBER  i. 
LiNNSAN  SociBTV,  at  8.— On  the  Source  of  the  Winged  Cardamom  of 
Nepal :    Dr.    G.    KiDg.— Note    on    Australian    Finches   of  the    Genus 
Pofphila:  Capt.  W.  Armit— On  the  Self-Fenihsation  of  Plants :  Rev.  G. 
Henslow.— Revision  of  the  Hi^pidea  (a  Group  of  Anomourous  Crustacea) : 
Ed.  J.  Miers. 
Chemical  Socibtv,   at  8.— On  some  Hydrocarbons  obtained  from  the 
HomoIoRTQes  of  C^nnamic  Acid :  W.  H.  Perkio,    F.R.S.— On  Anethol 
and  its  Homologues:  W.  H.  Perkin,  F.R.S. — On  two  new  Methods  f^r 
estinating  Bismuth  Volumetrically  :  M.  M.  P.  Muir. 
PRIDA  K.  NovBMBBR  a. 
Gbologists'  AssoaATioN,  at  8.— President's  Inaugural  Address. 

SATURDAY,  Novembbr  3 
Physical  Society,  at  3.— Ice  as  an  Electrolyte:  Prcfessors  Ayrton  and 
Perry. 

SUNDAY,  NovBMBBR  4: 
Sunday  Lkcturb  Socibiy,  at   4.— The    ^'rncioles   of  the  System  of 
Reformatory  and  Preventive  Disdp'ine.  as  i^orlced  out  in  Theory  and 
PracUce  by  Mary  Carpenter :  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  F.R.S. 

MONDAY,  NOVBMBER   5, 

Royal  Institution,  at  a.>- General  Monthly  Meeting. 
TUESDAY,  Novembbr  6. 

Zoological  Socivty.  at  8.3a— Reports  on  the  Additions  to  the  Society's 
Menagerie  during  the  Months  of  June,  July,  Au^st,  and  September, 
1877:  ITie  Secretary. — Description  of  New  Repules  from  the  Madras 
Presidency:  Lieut. -Col.  R.  H.  Beddome,  C  M.Z.S.— Notes  on  a  Collec- 
tion of  Birds  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  £verett  in  the  Island  of  Luzon,  Phil- 
lipines:  The  Marquis  of  Tweeddale,  F.R  S. — A  Further  Contribution  to 
the  Knowledge  of  the  Exis.ing  Ziphioid  Whales,  Genus  Mesoplodon  : 
Prof.  W.  H.  Flower.  F  R.S. 

WEDNESDAY,  Novhmber  7. 

Royal  Microscopical  Socibtv.  at  8.-^An  Intioducticn  to  the  Study  of 
Evergreens  by  the  Micro-Spectroscope :  Thos.  Palmer. 

Horticultural  Society. — Scientific  Conunittee  at  x. 

Entomological  Society,  at  7. 

THURSDA  Y,  November  8. 
Mathematical  Society,  at  8.- Annual  Alceiirg.- Paper  by  Prof.Cayley. 

Watford 
THURSDAY,  November  8. 
NATintAL  History  Society,  at  8.— The  Birds  of  Our  District :  Jolm  E. 
Littleboy. 


DUPRE'S  APPARATUS 

For  the 

ESTIMATION     OF     UREA 

By  means  of  hypobromide. 

HOW    &    CO.'S     STUDENT'S     MICRO- 

SCOPE,  ^5  Sx. 

HOW  &  CO/S  MICROSCOPE    LAMP. 

HOW     &     CO.'S     GEOLOGICAL     DIA- 
GRAMS for  the  Lantern,  consisting  of  Sections  of  Strata, 
Groups  of  Fossils,  Restorations  of  Extinct  Animals,  &c. 
Catalogues  on  ApplicaHon, 

JAMES    HOW   AND    CO., 
5,  St  Bride  Street  (late  2,  Foster  Lane),  London. 


PATENT 
CORN  FLOUR 

Has  all  the  Properties 

OF    THE    FINEST    ARROWROOT 

And  is  recommended  for 

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BURGOYNE,  BURBIDGE8,  CYRIAX,&  PARRIES, 

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Manufacturers    of  every   description    of   Pure    Acids, 

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Sole  Agents  for  C.  A.  Kahlbaum,  Berlin. 

Price   Lists   and  Special    Quotations   upon    application. 

LIGHTNlNa    CONDUCTORS. 

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It  is  simple  in  its  application,  no  insulators  being  required,  and  it  costs 
only  one  shiiling  per  foot  for  the  standard  size,  which  is  safe  in  any  storm. 

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NA  7  URE 


[Nov.  I,    1877 


6 


A   PERFECT   BLOWPIPE 

FOR   ALL   PURPOSES. 

FLETCHER'S  PATENT,  1877. 

ILLUSTRATED  LIST  ON  APPLICATION. 


[I 


THOS.  l-LETCHEB, 

MUSEUM     STREET,     WARRINGTON. 


RUPTORES.— BY  ROYAL  LETTERS  PATENT. 

WHITE'S  MOC-MAIN   LEVER  TRUSS 

is  allowed  by  upwards  of  500  Medical  Men  to  be  the  mott  effec- 
tive invention  in  the  curative  treatment  of  Hernia.  The  use  of 
a  steel  spring,  so  often  hurtful  in  its  effects,  is  here  avoided  :^  a 
soft  bandage  being  worn  round  the  body,  while  the  requisite 
resistine-power  is  supplied  by  the  MOC-MAIN  PAD  and 
PATENT  LEVER,  fitting  with  so  much  ease  and  closeness 
that  it  cannot  be  detected,  and  may  be  worn  during  sleep.  A 
descriptive  drcuhur  may  be  had,  and  the  Truss  (which  cannot 
fail  to  fit)  forwarded  by  pest,  on  the  circumference  of  the  body, 
a  inches  below  the  hips,  being  sent  to  the  Manufacturer, 

JOHN  WHITE,  228,  PICCACILLT, 


Price  of  a  Single  Truss,  t6x.,  au.,  sfix.  6^.,  and  ^is.  6d.\ 
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PICK-ME-UP. 

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move*; wind,  palpitation,  pains  in  the  chest  and  stomach,  colic,  costiveness, 
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Recently  published  in  8vo,  xor.  td. 

The  GERM   THEORY  APPLIED   to   the 

EXPLANATION  of  th«  PHENOMENA  of  DISEASE.  By  T. 
MACLAGAN,  M.D. 

"  We  think  it  well  that  such  a  book  as  this  should  be  written.  It  places 
before  the  reader  in  dear  and  unmistakable  terms  what  is  meant  by  the  gerci 
theory  of  disease."— Zriwi^/. 

"  /a  able  and  exhaustive  inqiury."— Pa«3/(lr  Health, 

**  A  book  of  a  veiy  high  order  of  merit.  We  cordiallr  recommend  it  to 
all.  It  is  a  book  that  is  full  of  suggestions,  and  one  which  all  i^ysiciaiis  who 
daun  to  have  an  opinion  on  the  germ  theory  are  bomid  to  read  carefiiDy.— 
Medical  Examiner. 

**  Brings  before  us  in  a  simple  and  dear  form  what  the  fiacts  are  whidk 
must  be  accounted  for.  The  profeason  should  be  grateful  to  Dr.  Maclagan 
for  lowing  the  acttial  position  of  the  advocates  01  toe  germ  theory  at  the 
present  txaM."— London  Medical  Record, 

MACMILLAN  h.  CO.,  Londoa. 

THE    JOURNAL    OF    BOTANY, 

BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN. 

Edited  by  Hbmrv  Trimen,  M.B.,  F.L.S.,  British  Museum ;  assisted  by 

S.  le  M.  MocRB,  F.L.S.,  Royal  Herbarium,  Kew. 

Subscriptions  for  1877  {xu.  post  free  in  the  United  Kingdom)  payable  m 
advance  to  the  publishers^Messrs.  Ranken  and  G>., .Dniry  House,  & 


Mary<le>Strand,'London,  W.C,  of  whom  maybe  obtained  dievoloBefar 
Z876  (price  x6«.  &/.  bound  in  dothX  also  covers  for  the  vohmie  Cpnoe  i#.), 
and  bade  numbers. 

On  the  xst  of  every  Month,  price  One  Shilling. 

THE    ZOOLOGIST; 

A  MONTHLY  MAGAZINE  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

New  Series,  Edited  by 

J.  E.  Haktimg,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S. 

Original  Artides  by  well<knowa  Naturalists  in  every  branch  of  Zoology  ; 

Occastonal  Notes  on  the  Habits  of  Animals ;  Notices  of  the  Arrival  and 

Departure  of  Migratory  Birds  ;  Records  of  the  Occurrence  of  Rare  Birds 

in  the  Britirii  Isluads  \  Observations.on  the  Distribution  and  Migratioa  01 

British  Fresh-water  Fish  ;  Notices  of  the  Capture  off  the  British  Couts  of 

New  or  Rare  Marine  Fish  ;  Reports  and  Notes  from  Local  Aqaaria  ;  Coo- 

tributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  British  Reptiles ;    Local    Lists  of 

British  Land  and  Fresh>water  MoUusca,  with  Remarics  on  the  Haunts  aad 

Habits  of  the  Spedes ;  and  other  matters  of  general  interest  to  those  vdio 

delight  in  Natural  History.     Reports  of  the  Sdentific  Meetiiurs  of  the 

Lianean,  Zoological,  and  Entomological  Societies ;  Reviews  and  Notices  d 

Natural  History  Books. 

JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  x.  Paternoster  Row. 

FRENCH  HYGIENIC  SOCIETY,  40,  Hay- 

market. — ^Electro-Dosimetric  Institution.  Treatment  of  all  Cfaroiuc 
Diseases  pronounced  incurable  by  the  combined  therapoitic  medM>di 
of  Drs.  Bmggraeve  and  P.  A.  Desjardin.  Hours  of  Consultatton  firm 
3  to  «  r.M.  Treatment  by  correspondence.  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  I^ridairs,  consultatioos  free  from  xo.30  to  xa.  Chemical  and  Mech- 
cal  Analyses  made.  Depdt  for  Continental  Hygienic  ProductioDs, 
Medical  Belts,  && 

The  dosimetric  system  of  medicine  is  the  connecting  link  placed  by  Dr. 
B  jnjgraeve  between  the  old,  mr  Allopathic,  and  the  new,  or  Hahnetaaaiaa. 
or  Homeopathic  schools. 

This  system,  which  is  now  well  known  and  much  used  by  doctors  m 
Eturepe  and  South  America,  where  it  is  steadily  gaining  ground,  ^•^»««if5  of 
a  treatment  that  is  at  the  same  time  convenient,  agreeable,  aad  sore.  It 
depoids  -upon  the  purity  of  the  medicine  and  exactitude  of  the  doses, 
and  is  applied  to  the  nature  and  causes  of  diseases  both  chronic  and  acute. 
In  a  word,  it  is  the  realisation  of  the  hopes  and  researches  of  the  alchemists 
of  the  middle  ages. 

These  medicines  are  administered  in  the  form  of  granules,  which  are  takes 
by  all,  even  children,  easily  and  without  the  least  repugnance. 

This  system  rejects  the  ordinary  forms  of  the  old  Pharmacy— ^M»emes, 
potions,  opiates,  dectuaries,  &c.,  in  short,  all  the  complicated  mixtore  of 
drugs  of  nauseous  odour  and  taste,  respected  by  the  old  formularies, 
but  which  now,  in  the  face  of  the  progress  of  modem  sdence,  have  no  longer 
the  necessity  of  existence. 

It  is,  above  all,  in  chronic  diseases  (the  "non  possumus"  of  the  old 
schoolsX  rheumatism,  gout,  dyspepsia,  liver  complaints,  affections  of  the 
spleen  and  kidneys,  paralysis,  scrofula,  &c,  that  the  system  ot  Dr.  Buxg- 
graeve,  combined  with  Uut  of  Dr.  P.  A.  Desjardin,  gives  the  most 
remarkable  results. 

A  large  number  of  cures,  obtained  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  highly 
confirm  the  therapeutic  value  of  the  electro-dosunetric  system. 

If  we  consider  that  chronic  maladies  are  caused  by  a  diathesis,  which 
always  produces  a  change  in  the  vital  and  nutritive  organs,  and  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  consider  carefully  the  electro-magnetic  phenomena,  and  the 
subtle  nature  of  that  agent,  which,  if  it  be  not  lite  itsdtTis  one  of  its  most 
aaive  and  important  pnndples,  we  easily  percdve  the  therapeutic  value  of 
a  method  which  acts  directly  upon  the  vitality  of  the  patient,  by  employing 
those  agenu  whkh  are  essentially  vital 

It  is  thus  that  in  charging  the  dectric  currents,  which  penetrate  directly 
into  the  orgausm,  witn  molecules  of  iodine,  iron,  gold,  &&,  we  can,  almost 
instantaneously,  soothe  pains  and  spasms,  re-esubhsh  or  stimulate  the  drco- 
lation  of  the  fluids,  and  restore  that  equilibrium  of  which  health  is  the 
result. 

But  it  must  be  understood  that  for  a  treatment  of  this  kind  a  wide  experi- 
ence is  necessary  ;  the  usual  means  of  ordinary  medicines  are  utterly 
insuffident,  an  exdusive  attention  being  demanded  for  this  speciality. 

In  esublishing  the  "  Electro-Dosimetric  Institution  of  London,  w«  fill 
up  a  chasm,  and  thus  render  a  signal  service  to  all  doctors,  who  will 
and  with  us  the  readiest  and  most  active  concurrence  in  the  treatmcat  of 
Mut  ttnfortunately  large  dais  ef  persons  aflUc^by  chronic 

Jigitized  by 


Nov.  r,  1877]  NATURE 


vu 


NOW  READY,  PRICE    ^2s.  6d. 
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PATENT  WORKING  DRAWING 

OF 

TRUNK  ENGINE  MOTION. 

BY 

H.  AND  T.  C.  BATCHELOR. 

Upon  a  principle  entirely  new,  the  idea  being  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the 
working  of  the  Machine,  by  showing  it  in  Action  on  the  Drawing,  and  making 
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This  Drawing  is  intended  to  convey  a  general  idea  of  one  of  many  modes 
adopted  by  Engineers  for  applying  Steam  Power.  The  Engine  in  the  Drawing 
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the  passages  to  top  and  bottom  of  Cylinder,  and  the  Central  Passages  in  the 
Valve  and  Facing  for  exit  of   Steam  after  performance  being  clearly  indicated. 

The  Action  of  the  Slide  Valve,  as  operated  upon  by  the  Eccentric  and  its 
connections,  its  functions  of  distributing  the  Steam  above  and  below  the  Pistons, 
and  afterwards  allowing  it  to  escape ;  the  precise  points  of  **  admission  "  and 
"  cut-off,"  as  well  as  the  exact  period  at  which  the  Valve  opens  and  closes  its 
communication  with  atmosphere  or  condenser,  may  be  studied  to  very  great 
advantage  by  the  aid  of  the  Drawing  in  motion. 

To  the  Unprofessional  Man  or  Student  to  whom  perspicuity  is  an  object, 
this  Drawing  will  prove  invaluable.  The  Working  Parts  being  capable  of 
Motion,  may  be  manipulated  on  the  Drawing  with  the  greatest  ease,  placed 
in  any  position,  or  turned  continuously,  as  may  suit  the  purpose  of  the 
learner. 

LONDON:     MACMILLAN     AND     CO. 

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viii  NATURE  \Nov.  i,  1877 


PARKINSON    &    FRODSHAM, 

CHRONOMETER  AND  WATCH  MAKERS, 

4,  CHANGE  Al_L_EY,  CORNHIL.U  LONDON; 

Extract  from  the  Rqx>rt  of  the  Director  of  the  Portsmouth  Observatory  concerning  Parkinson'and  Frodsham*s  Chronometer  oa 
board  the  Discovery ,  in  the  Arctic  Expedition  of  1875-6. 

"  Nov.  7th,  1876.— Captain  Beaumont,  who  was  First  Lieutenant  and  Navigating  Officer  of  the  Discovery ^  informed  me  that 
your  Watch,  No.  5,838,  was  the  best  out  of  the  five  Pocket  Chronometers  that  they  had  on  board  that  vessel" 

MICROSCOPIC   SPECIALITIES. 


Series  I. — 24  Pathological  Preparations,  in  Case 


jf  2    2    o 


220 
220 
2  10  o 
I  II    6 


II. — 24  Physiological 
„  III.— 24  Educational  '„ 

„     A. — ^48  Diatomaceae  (selected) 

„     B.— 24  „  (very  rare)  

Series  I.,  II.,  III.,  complete  in  One  Case,  £$  los, 

Patholc^ical  and  Physiological  Preparations  in  great  and  constantly  increasing  variety,  and  of  most  valuable  descriptions.     151.  to 

3Qr.  per  dozen. 

Descriptive  Lists  and  fullPartic  ulars  on  application  to 

ARTHUR    C.    COLE    AND    SON, 

ST.  DOMINGO  HOUSE,  OXFORD  GARDENS,  NOTTING  HILL,  LONDON,  W. 

Late  of  62,  St.  Domingo  Vale,  Everton,  Liverpool 

MAOMILLAN  &  OO.'S  NEW  BOOKS. 

To  be  Published  in  November  and  December. 


Stargazing,  Past  and  Present.  Lectures  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  by  J.  NORMAN 
LOCKYER,  F.R.S.  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  G.  M.  SEABROOKE,  F.R.A.S.  With  nnmeroos  Illustnitions. 
Medium  8vo. 

Physiography.    By  Professor  HUXLEY,  F.R.S.    With  Illustrations  and  Coloured  Plates.     Crown  8vo. 

is,  6f/.  [Shortly, 

China :  a  History  of  the  Laws^  Manners^  and  Customs  of  the  People.  By  the  Venerable 

J.  H.  GRAY,  Archdeacon  of  Hong  Kong.     With  150  Full  Page  lUostrations,  being  Fac-slmiles  of  Drawings  by  a  Chinese 
Artist.     2  vols.    Demy  8vo. 

The  Voyage  of  the  "Challenger."  The  Atlantic,  a  Preliminary  Account  of  the  General 
Results  of  the  Exploring  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  "  Challenger,"  during  the  Year  1873  *nd  the  early  part  of  the  Year  1876.  By 
Sir  C.  WYVILLE  THOMSON,  F.R.S.  With  a  Portrait  of  the  Author,  engraved  by  C.  II.  Jeens,  many  Coloured  Maps, 
Temperature-charts,  and  Illustrations.  Published  by  Authority  of  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty.  2  vols» 
Medium  8vo. 

Ancient  Society;  or,  Researches  in  the  Lines  of  Human  Progress  from  Savagery 

through  Barbarism  into  Civilization.     By  LEWIS  H.  MORGAN.    8vo.     idr.  \jMst  reacfy. 

Studies  in  Comparative  Anatomy.    I.  The  SKULL  of  the  CROCODILE.  A  Manual  for  Students. 

y.  L,   <      \\\\\  T.,  iVofeioi  of  lUolu^y  in  the  Voflishirc  C'olicjje,  jiod  Curator  of  the  L^rds  Xlmeui^. 

On  the  Uses  of  Wine  in  Health  and  Disease.    By  FRANCIS  K  ANSTIE,  M.D.,  RR.CP^ 

Mc  riiy^ieian  to  Westminster  Uoapili],  and  Editor  of  the  Prfuiiti^fMr, 

Natural  Philosophy  for  Beginners,    By  l.  TODHUNTER,  M.A*,  F.R.S.    Pait  IL  SOUNJ 

LIGHT,  afjd  JIIAT,     iSma 

MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON. 


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NATURE 


[Nov.  8,  1 8] 


MICROSCOPIC  OBJECTS 

Of  th«  highMK  attainable  pwfectioii,  iUustnUing  Anacomj,  PhytioloffT, 
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Miller's  New  Typen  Plates  and  Objecu.  Nobert's  Lmei.  All  matfriels 
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popu 

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CASTLETON,  DEBYSHIRE.  | 

JOHN  TYM    is   now  enabled    to  offer  the 

following  rare  and  interesdng  Collections : — 
Palaeolithic.  30  Specimens  (iaduding  Teeth,  &c,  of  Rhinoceros,     jQ   i-  i 

Bisoo,  Rdndeer,  Hj^ena,  &c  ,  aod  CasU  of  Implements)^        x    .  . 

Cresswell  Ckves,  18  Specimens  ...        ».        ^        ox? 

Windy  Knoll  Fissure,  15  Specimens  ^        ...         «»        o    t  ' 

Pleistocene  Fauna  (a  splendid  het%  xoo  Specimens        ...         .^        5    ^    ■ 

Flint  Flakes  from  M.  each.  < 

Catalogues  post  free.  ' 

LONDON  CLAY  FOSSILS  from  SHEPPEY. 

Fruite,   Bones,  Shells.  Crustaceans,  Corals,  Starfish,  &c.      too  f^- 
Specimens  with  neat  label*  (50  or  more  SpectesX  xor. :  half  the  qec- 
tity,  5«.    Carriage  paid  to  London. 
The  fossils  of  vegeuble  origin,  being  liable  to  decay,  are  sulrfcctad  tss 
efficient  preservative  process. 

Specimen  Fruit,  and  Copy  of  Papers  on  "Geolo^  of  Sheppey,"  pss. 
free  for  three  penny  sumps.  List,  with  Copy  of  Testimonials,  tn  prepen- 
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GEOLOGY.— In  the  Preface  to  the  Students 

ELEMENTS  of  GEOLOGY,  by  Sir  Ch^-les  LyelL  price  oc,  be  sty\ 
— '*  As  it  is  impossible  to  enable  the  reader  to  recognise  rodcs  and  B»^ 
rals  at  sight  by  aid  of  verbal  descriptions  or  figures,  he  will  db  weS 
ed  collection  of  speamens,  sodi  s 
iT  (149.  Strand),  Teacher  of  Mil 


obtain  a  well-arraDsed  collection  of  speamens,  sodi  as  may  be  procsRi 
from  Mr.  TENNANT  (149.  Strand).  Teacher  of  Mineral»y  1      " 
CoUq^  London."    These  Collections  are  supplied  00   tEe  i 


rat  KJagi 


terms,  in  fdain  MahcHzan^  Cabineu: — 
100  Speamens,  in  Cabuet,  with  3  Trayt  •«•«•«  j^a  a  e 
eoo  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  5  Trays  ^  m,  —  s  5  o 
300  Speciihens,  in  Cabinet,  with  9  Drawers  ,-  •«  to  so  o 
400  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  13  Drawers  •«  —  tt  00 
More  extensive  Collections  at  50  to  5.000  Guineas  each. 

ECHIN0DERM8   FROM    MADAGASCAR. 

THOMAS  D.  RUSSELL  has  lately  received  a  magnificent  CoUectkw 
of  ECHINI  and  STAR-FISHES  from  Madagascar.  The  scries  indodR 
splendid  examples  of  Hetertcentroitts  trtianaria  and  H.  mnmtra/itru, 
biesides  other  rare  and  fine  species. 

A  Prise  Medal  was  awarded  few  this  Collection  at  the  Maritime  Kxhibitua, 
Royal  Aquarium,  Westminster. 

The  Collection  is  now  for  sale,  either  as  Single  Specimens  or  in  Sets. 

Cotleaions  of  Bntish  and  Foreign  Shells,  Fossils,  Mineral^  Rodcs, 
Microscopic  Objects,  &c. 

Catalogues  post  free. 

THOS.  D.  RUSSELL, 

48,   ESSEX   STREET,   STRAND,   W.C. 

THIN      GLASS      FOR      MICROSCOPIC 

MOUNTING  of  best  quality.  Circles.  3^.  6^  per  ounce ;  Squares, 
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nrepared  for  mounting.  >CH AS.  PETIT,  151,  High  Street,  Stoke 
Newington,  N. 


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Nov.  8,  1877] 


NATURE 


xi 


To  Geologists  and  Natonliats. 

ORFORD    CASTLE   FOSSILS. 

The  Cutdnc  neer  Oiford  Castle  in  which  these  rare  and  beantiliil  TossHs 
haTe  been  fotuid»  as  adreitisedin  Natuks  last  Tear,  is  still  open,  and  mora 
than  twelre  thousand  Specimens,  aL  carefully  determined  by  Mr.  Charles- 


worth,  have  been  distributed  among  the  Subsoribers.  Papers  containing  the 
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%$  Specimens  to  illustrate  Geikie's  "Geological  Primer,"  in  Cabinet, 
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CONTKNT8  rOK  NOVBMIBK  z. 

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3.— Duplex  Partial  Earth  Test.    (Illustrated.) 
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The  Flower  Garden. 
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GardoB  Structuret. 
Room  and  Window  GardeM 
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Market  Gardening. 
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THE  CHANNEL  ISUNDS'  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION  AND  MUSEUM  AND  INSTITUTE  OF 

PISCICULTURE  SOCIETY,  LIMITED. 

CAPITAL— dE5,000  IN  5,000  SHARES   OF  £1  EACH. 
(With  power  to  bcrease.) 

This  Society  is  established  on  an  entirely  scientific  baus,  with  the  object  of  fostering;  and  promoting  the  science  of  Economic  Hsdculture,  aad 
of  supplying  Enefish  and  other  naturalists  and  natural  history  students  with  facilities,  not  hitherto  accessible,  for  pursuing  Marine  Biological  Investigarion. 
The  aim  of  the  Society  is,  in  fact,  to  provide,  in  a  conveniently  accessible  and  suitable  locality,  an  institution  which  diall  fulfil  for  the  entire  north  di 
Europe  that  sphere  of  utility  which  the  well-known  Naples  Aquarium  and  Zoological  Station  now  does  for  the  south.  Mature  consideratioo  has  led 
to  the  selection  of  a  most  eligible  and  advantageous  »ite  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Heller's,  Jersey,  for  this  purpose. 

As  with  the  Naples  Institution  there  will  be  embodied  in  this  undertaking  the  following  several  features  of  utility  and  attraction  : — Firstly,  for  tkc 
entertainment  of  the  public,  and  as  a  source  of  income  for  the  defra^'ment  of  the  general  working  expenses,  a  Saloon  will  be  set  apart  for  the  pob&c 
dbptay  of  the  living  denizens  of  the  ocean,  and  of  which  it  may  be  said  that  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  produce  an  unparalleled  wealth  of  munbrrs 
and  var  ety.  Adjoining  the  Saloon  there  will  likewise  be  a  Museum,  available  both  as  a  Lecture-room  and  for  the  exhibition  of  a  typical  Natural  Htstory 
Collection,  more  especially  leprcsentative  of  the  luxuriant  Manne  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  more  important  Technical  Department  will  include  Laboratories,  with  al  1  suitable  Apparatus  and  Instruments.  Tanks  for  Experimcnta! 
Pisciculture,  and  a  Library  of  Standard  Scientific  Works  and  Setials  for  the  use  of  natxualists  and  students  who  shall  -repair  here  for  the  pwrposr 
of  prosecuting  Marine  Biological  Research.  With  the  Institution  will  also  be  associated  a  D^pot  for  the  supply  of  living  or  carefully-]»esenred 
marine  specimens  to  British  or  other  Universities,  Mu!»eums,  Science  Schools  and  Aquariai,  or  to  naturalists  that  may  require  the  same  for  museum  typea, 
class  demonstration,  or  for  private  investigation. 

Following  the  systrm  adopted  at  the  Penikese  Island  Station,  it  is  further  proposed,  for  the  full  development  of  the  scientific  lesouices  of  tins 
Institution,  to  inaugurate  Summer  Qasses  for  the  attendance  of  Students,  and  to  hold  out  sufficient  inducements  for  the  most  enuoent  authorities  oa 
various  biological  subjects  to  deliver  Lectures  and  a  Course  of  lostrucuon  to  these  Classes  upon  that  branch  of  Natural  History  with  which  their 
reputation  is  more  e<;pecially  associated.  In  view  of  the  Laboratories  and  Lecture  Arrangements  being  complete  by  the  Summer  of  1878,  those  proposag 
to  avail  themselves,  as  Students,  of  the  advantages  held  out,  are  re<)uested  to  communicate  with  the  Secretary. 

In  view  of  a  desire  already  expressed  by  many  wishing  to  assist  in  the  establishment  of  this  Institution  without  becoming  SharehoUers,  the  Society 
U  empowered  to  receive  Contributions  towards  the  establishment  and  further  development  of  the  Institution.  Such  moneys  contributed  will  be  devoted 
entirely  to  the  uses  above-mentioned,  and  will  not  be  applicable  for  the  purposes  ot  a  Dividend  or  otherwise  for  the  personal  advantage  of  the  ordinary 
Shareholders.  Fspecial  privileges  will  be  granted  to  all  such  Donors ;  Subscribers  of  J^xo  and  upwards  receiving  in  return  the  advants^  of  a  Life-naeaber- 
&hip  and  free  admission  to  the  Institution  upon  all  occasions  on  which  the  building  is  open  to  the  public. 

The  technical  control  of  the  Institution  will  be  undertaken,  as  Naturalist  Director,  by  Mr.  W.  SAVILLE  KENT.  F.L.S..  F.Z.S.,  &c,  fomerlT 
Assistant  in  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the  Britbh  Museum,  and  whose  experience  as  Naturalist  for  some  years  to  the  leading  Engliut  Aquam 
eminently  qualifies  him  for  this  position. 

In  registering  the  Memorandum  and  Articles  of  Association  of  this  Society,  special  care  has  been  taken  to  secire  for  the  tmdertaking  a  p*u«l7 
scientific  status,  and  to  permanently  exclude  from  it  all  those  supplementary  attractions  of  an  irrelevant  nature  usually  associated  with  public  exhibiti^s 
of  the  living  wonders  of  the  deep.     It  is  only  under  such  restrictions  and  reservations  that  patronage  and  subscriptions  are  here  invited. 

For  Prospectuses  and  further  particulars  apply  to  the  Secrrtary  or  to  the  Naturalist  Dirbctor,  16,  Royal  Square,  St.  HeUer's,  Jentv. 

Contributions  of  Books  and  Sferial  Literatuie  relating  to  Biological  Subjects  suited  for  the  Library,  of  Instruments  and  Apparatus  for  the  Labomory. 
or  of  Natural  History  Specimens  for  the  Museum,  will  be  most  gratefully  accepted 

An  especial  appeal  for  support  is  here  made  to  the  Fellows  and  Members  of  the  various  Metropolitan  and  Provincial  Sdentific  Societies,  and  «he 
have  DOW  placed  before  them  an  unprecedented  opportunity  of  advancing  the  prestige  and  interests  of  English  Marine  Biological  Science. 

DONATIONS  RECEIVED :— From  Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  F.R.S.,  j^aa 

All  further  Contributions  to  the  *'  Donation  Fund "  for  the  fotinding  of  the  Channel  Isbads'  Zoological  Stetioa  and  Museum  and  Instxtute  of 
Pisdculiure  will  be  duly  acknowledged  in  these  columns. 

W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  Hok.  S«c 


CONSUMPTION: 

Its  Proximate  Cause  and  Specific  Treatment  b^  the  HVPOPHOSPHITES 
upon  the  Principles  of  Stcechiological  Medicine,  by 

JOHN  FRANCIS  CHURCHILL,  M.D., 
With  an  Appendix  on  the  Direct  Treatment  of  Respiratory  Diseases 
(Asthma,  Bronchitis.  &c  )  by  Sioechiological  Inhalants.  And  Reports  ot 
neatly  Two  Hundred  Cases  by  Drs.  Churdiill,  Campbell,  Heslop,  Sterling, 
Bird,  Santa  Maria,  Gomez,  Maestre,  Parigot,  Reinvillier,  Galvez,  Len- 
verend,  Denobele,  Feldman,  Pfeiffer,  Vintras,  Bou^ard,  Tiri/ahv,  Land, 
Fabbri,  Pancgrossi,  Cerasi,  Gualdi,  Todini,  Ascenai,  R^noli,  Vadentini, 
Caaati,  Blasi,  Borromeo,  Fiorelli,  and  Fedeli 

London :  LONGMANS  ft  CO. 
Now  ready,  8vo,  2*.  6d. 

NOTES  on  EMBRYOLOGY  and  CLASSI- 
FICATION, for  the  Use  of  Students.  With  90  Illustrations.  By  E. 
RAY  LANKESTER.  M.A  ,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Geology  and  Com- 
parative Anatomy,  University  College,  I.ondoa. 

J.  ft  A.  CHURCHILL,  New  Burlington  Street 

THE     MICROSCOPE     IN     PRACTICAL 

MEDICINE.    By  LIONEL  S.  BEALK.  MB..  F.R.S. 
The  Fourth  Edition  will  be  ready  in  October.    Two  Hundred  Pages  and 
Thirty  Plates  have  been  added  to  this  Edidon,  and  the  woric  has  been 
revised  throughout. 

London :  J.  ft  A.  CHURCHILL,  New  Buriington  Street. 

Recently  published  in  8vo,  xor.  tO, 

The  GERM   THEORY  APPLIED  to  the 

EXPLANATION  of  the  PHENOMENA  ef  DISEASE.    By  T. 
MACLAGAN,  M.D. 

*'  We  think  it  well  that  svch  a  book  as  this  should  be  written.  It  places 
before  the  reader  in  clear  and  unmistakable  terms  what  is  meant  by  the  germ 
theory  of  disease."— Z.«ifr/. 

**  An  able  and  exhaustive  inquiry."— /*MM£r  Hemlik. 

'*  A  book  of  a  veiy  high  order  of  merit.  We  cordiallT  recommend  it  to 
all.  It  is  a  book  that  is  full  of  suggestions,  and  one  whi^  all  physicians  who 
daim  to  have  an  opinion  en  the  germ  theory  are  bonnd  to  read  carefully.  <•» 
MttUcml  Exmmi9ttr. 

*'  Brings  before  ns  in  a  slaple  and  dear  form  what  the  fiscts  are  whidi 
must  be  accounted  for.    The  profession  should  be  natefol  to  Dr.  Madagan 
for  showisg  the  actual  poMtioo  ol  the  advocates  of  tne  ga 
prvMnt  ^m^'^LmtUm  MmUeml  Rm^rd, 

MACMILLAH  ft  00., 


gcnn  theory  at  the 


GEMS  AND  PRECIOUS  STONES. 

MR.  BRYCE  M.  WRIGHT  begs  to  call  the  attention  of  CoUectonio 
his  Stock,  which  indudcs  White  Aquamarines,  Andalusites,  Cymophaae 
Cats'  Eyes,  Pink,  Velk>w,  and  White  Topazes,  the  new  Green  Garnets, 
Spodumenes,  Red  and  Blue  Ipinels^  Alexandntes  (green  by  day  and  red  br 
night).  Star  Sapphires,  Iphenes,  Diopkides,  Phenakites,  and  other  oiit-of> 
the- way  Gems. 

BRTCE    M.   WBIQHT,  F.R.Q.S.,  Ac., 

90,   GREAT  RUSSELL  STREET,   BLOOMSBURY, 

LONDON,  W.C. 

IN  8vo.  PRICE  6r. 

MUSICAL  INTERVALS  AND 
TEMPERAMENT, 

AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON. 

With  an  Account  of  an  Enharmonic  Harmonium  **l|ii^tt»d  at  the 
Collection  <^  Scientific  Instruments  at  South   Kensington.  1876  ; 
an  Enharmonic  Organ  exhibited  to  the  Musical  Assodatinn  of  ] 
May,  1875. 

BY  R.  H.   BOSANQUET, 

Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford. 
MACMILLAN  and  CO.,  London; 

In  Crown  8vo,  price  gf. 

SOUND  and  MUSIC:   a  Non-Mathemati. 

cal  TVeadse  on  the  Physical  Constitution  of  Musical  Sounds  and  Ha»> 
mony,  including  the  Chief  Acoustical  Discoveries  of  Prof.  HcfaakoliL 
By  SEDLKY  TAYLOR.  M JL,  late  FeUoir  o<  T^rfantT  CbOece.  C^a. 


also  of 


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London 

THURSDAY,  Novbmbkr  8. 

M  ATHKMATiCAL  SociBTY,  at  8.  -  Aonuatl  Meedng.  -  On  tiM  Foaction  ^  (x)  = 

ax  -k-b 


—J  ,  and  on  the  theta-FonctioDs :  Prot  Cayley»  F.R.S.— The  Cal- 

cx  +  « 

cuius  of  Equivalent  Statements :  H.  McColL — Progressive  Waves :  Lord 

Bayleigh,F.R.S. 

SUNDAY,  November  ii. 
Sunday  Lbctueb  SoaBTV,  at  4.— Mars  and  Saturn  :  R.  A.  Proctor. 

TUESDAY,  November  1%. 
AvTHROPOLOGtcAL  Ikstitutb,  at  &— The  Spread  of  the  Slavs :  H.  H. 

Howorth.— Mori  Castellteri :  Capt  R.  F.  Burton 
West  London  Scientific  Association,  at  8.— Comparative  Respiration : 

Dr.  Aveling. 
Institution  of  Cifii.  Enginbbxs,  at  8.— Review  of  the  Progress  of  Steam 

Shipping  during  the  Last  Quarter  of  a  Century :  Alfred  Holt. 

WEDNESDAY,  November  14. 
Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers,  at  8. 

THURSDAY,  November  15. 

Royal  Socibtv,  at  8.30.— Organisation  of  the  Fossil  Plants  of  the  Coal- 
Measures,  Part  IX. ;  Bakerian  Lecture  :  Pro£  W.  C  Williamson,  F.R.S. 

Linnean  Sooetv,  at  8.— Report  on  the  Insecta  (including  Arachnida) 
Collected  by  Ca^.  Feilden  and  Mr  Hart  during  the  Recent  Arctic  (Expe- 
dition :  R.  McLachlan. — On  the  Surface  Fatuia  of  the  Arctic  Seas  as 
observed  in  the  Recent  Arctic  Expedition :  Dr.  Ed.  L.  Moss. — On  the 
Annelids  of  the  English  North  Polar  £xi)edition  (X875-6) :  Dr.  W.  C 
Mcintosh. — On  Certain  Organs  of  the  Cidaridse  :  Chas.  Stewart. 

Chemical  SoaBTV,  at  8.— On  Gallhim  :  Prof.  Odling. —First  Report  to  the 
Chemical  Sodetv  on  some  Points  in  Chemical  Dynamics :  Dr.  Wright  and 
Mr.  Luff. — On  the  Influence  exerted  by  Time  or  Mass  in  certain  Reactions 
in  which  Insoluble  >alu  are  produced:  M.  M.  P.  Muir. — On  Two  New 
Fatty  Adds  of  the  Series  C„HflaOs  :  C  T.  Kingzett 

FRIDAY,  November  x6. 
QuBKBTT  Microscopical  Club,  at  8. 

SATURDAY,  November  17. 
Physical  Sooety,  at  3. 

Watford 
THURSDAY,  November  8. 
Natural  Histgkt  Socimr,  at  8.— The  Birds  of  Our  District :  John  S. 
Littleboy. 


OF 


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LIGHTNING    CONDUCTORS. 

Experience,  accumulated  since  the  time  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  proves 
conclusively  that  a  Conductor  made  of  Copper  of  adequate  size  is  the  best 
of  all  apipUances  for  the  protection  of  every  description  of  building  from  the 
destructive  effects  of  lightning. 

NEWALL  &   CO.'S 

PATENT  COPPER  LIGHTNING  CONDUCTOR, 

Is  applied  to  all  kinds  of  Buildings  and  Shipping  in  all  pans  of  the  worid 
with  unvarying  success,  is  the  most  Reliable,  most  Effect  ive,  and  Cheapest 
Conductor  ever  offered  to  the  public 

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R.  B.  NBWAXiXi  *  00.,  130,  STRAND.  W.C 

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BURGOYNE,  BURBIDGE8,  CYRIAX.A  PARRIES, 

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vPrize  Medal  Paris  Exhibition.  1867.) 

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'  luUwl  abroad  fr«a. 

Digitized  by  VpOOQ IC 


XIV 


NATURE 


\Nov.  8,  187? 


DUPRE'S 


APPARATUS 

For  the 


ESTIMATION     OF     UREA 

By  means  of  hypobromide. 

HOW    &    CO.'S     STUDENT'S     MICRO- 
SCOPE, ^5  5J. 
HOW  &  CO.'S   MICROSCOPE    LAMP, 
HOW     &     CO/S     GEOLOGICAL     DIA- 

GRAMS  for  the  Xjmtem,  consisting  of  Sections  of  Strata, 
Groups  of  Fossils,  Restorations  of  Extinct  Animals,  &c. 
Catalogues  on  AppHcation, 

JAMES    HOW    AND    CO., 
5,  St  Bride  Street  (late  2,  Foster  Lane),  London. 


W.    LADD    &    CO., 
Scientific  Instminent  Mannfacturera 

{By  Appmninunt  U  iJu  R9yml  ImHtuHoH  #/  Grtai  Britam.) 

II  &  12,  BEAK  STREET,  REGENT  STREET,  W. 

LADD'S  IMPROVED  SELF-CHARQINQ  HOLTZ  ELEC 
TRICAL  MACHINE,  with  4  to  12  Plates,  inclosed  in  a 
Mahogany  and  Glass  Case.  This  instrument  is  immediately 
ayailable  in  any  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 

TAe  abovi  improvenunis  can  be  applied  to  Holt%  Machines  oj 
old  jonn» 

MRS.  SPOTTISWOODE'S  POCKET  POLARISINQ  APPA. 
RATUS,  complete  in  Case,  post  free  siL  &.  6^. 

CRYSTALS,  showing  Axis,  Dichroism,  &c.,  mounted  for  above, 
in  fimii^r  case. 


Philosophioal  Apparatus  of  evety  Description. 


Ilhuiraitd  Caiahg^t  Sixpitue, 


FRENCH  HYGIENIC  SOCIETY,  40,  Hay- 

market.— ElectTO-Dosimetric  Insdtution.  Treatment  of  all  Chronic 
Diseases  pronomiced  incurable  by  the  combined  therapeutic  methods 
of  Drs.  Burgnaeve  and  P.  A.  Desjardtn.  Hours  of  Consultation  from 
3  to  K  P.M.  Treatment  by  correspondence.  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays,  consultations  free  from  10.30  to  xa.  Chemical  and  Medi- 
cal Analyses  made.  Depdt  for  Contmental  Hygienic  Productions, 
Medical  Belts,  ftc. 

The  dosimetric  system  of  medicine  is  the  connecting  link  jplaoed  by  Dr. 
Burggraeve  betwean  the  old,  or  Allopathic,  and  the  new,  or  Hahnemanian, 
or  HomeoiMtthic  schools. 

This  system,  which  is  now  well  known  and  much  used  by  doctors  in 
Europe  and  South  America,  where  it  is  steadily  guning  ground,  consists  of 
a  treatment  that  is  at  the  same  time  couYenient,  agreeable,  and  sure.  It 
depends  upon  the  purity  of  the  medicine  and  excurtitude  of  the  doses, 
and  is  applLed  to  the  native  and  causes  of  disease^  both  chronic  and  acute. 
In  a  word,  it  is  the  realisation  of  the  hopes  and  researches  of  the  alchemists 
of  the  middle  ages. 

These  medicines  are  administered  in  the  fonfi  of  granules,  whidi  are  taken 
by  all,  even  children,  easily  and  without  the  least  repugnance. 

This  system  rejects  the  ordinary  forms  of  the  old  Pharmacy— apozemes, 

Sotions,  opiates,  electuaries,  &c.,  in  short,  all  the  compUcated  mixture  <^ 
rugs  of  nauseous  odour  and  taste,  respected  by  the  old  formularies, 
but  which  now,  in  the  face  of  the  progress  of  modem  science,  have  no  longer 
the  necessity  of  existence. 

It  is,  above  all,  in  chronic  diseases  (the  "non  possumus"  of  the  old 
schools),  rheumatism,  gout,  dyspepsia,  liver  complaints,  affections  of  the 
spleen  and  kidneys,  paralysis,  scrofula,  &c ,  that  the  system  of  Dr.  Buig- 
graeve,  combined  with  that  of  Dr.  P.  A.  Desjardin,  gives  the  most 
remarkable  results. 

A  large  number  of  cures,  obtained  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  highly 
confirm  the  therapeutic  value  of  the  electro-dosimetric  system. 

If  we  consider  that  chronic  maladies  are  caused  by  a  diatheus.  which 
always  produces  a  change  in  the  vital  and  nutritive  organs,  and  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  consider  carefully  the  electro-magnedc  phenomena,  and  the 
subtle  nature  of  that  agent,  which,  if  it  be  not  life  itself,  is  one  of  its  most 
active  and  important  principles,  we  easily  perceive  the  Uierapeutic  value  of 
a  method  which  acu  directly  upon  the  vitality  of  the  patient,  by  employing 
those  agenu  which  are  essentially  viuL 

^  It  is  thus  that  in  charging  the  electric  currenU,  which  penetrate  directly 
into  the  organism,  wiia  molecules  of  iodine,  iron,  gold,  &c,  we  can,  ahnost 
instantaneously,  soothe  pains  and  spasms,  re-^stabhsh  or  stimulate  the  circu- 
lauon  of  the  fluids,  and  restore  that  equilibrium  of  which  health  is  the 
result.  ^ 

But  it  must  be  understood  that  for  a  treatment  of  this  kind  a  wide  experi- 
ence is  necessary  ;  the  usual  means  of  ordinary  medicines  are  utterly 
insuffiaent,  an  exclusive  attention  being  demanded 'for  this  wedality. 

In  establishbg  the  *'  Electro-Dosimetric  Institution  of  London,^'  we  fill 
JJP,»  chasm,  and  thus  render  a  signal  service  to  all  doctors,  who  will 
tod  with  us  the  readiest  and  most  active  concurrence  in  the  treatment  of 
that  unfortunately  large  class  of  persons  a01icted  by  chronic  discasec 


JAMES  WOOLLBY,  SONS,  ft  CO, 

69,  MARKET  STREET,  MANCHESTER. 

CHEMICAL  APPARATUS  AND  REAGENTS 

For  Lecture  and  Class  Demonstration,  Laboratory  Initroction,  A& 
SETS  OF  APPARATUS  AND  CHEMICALS 
For  the  varioiu  Public  Examinations. 
Portable  Chemical  Cabinets  adapted /or  Private  Shufy, 
Price  Lists  ob  Application. 

O.TlSLEY*Cb, 

OPTICIANS, 
17a,    BROMPTON     ROAD.    S.W. 

(Close  to  South  Kensington  Museum). 

FBOF.  DEWAR'S  NEW  ELECTBOlfETEB 

Fcr  davaloprng  and  measoring  mianta  quandtieB  of  ffiectroaoliTt  Fcr» 

OALTON'S  WHISTLES    ^ 

For  telling  tlM  limits  of  audible  sound,  not.  6d. 

TISLEY'S  HARMONOGRAPH,     ,^     . 

For  drawing  Lissajous'  and  Melde's  figures  (graphic  dravmgs  «  U»>"^ 
Vibradons)   oa   card    or  on    blackened  glass— most  attractive  nr  tus 
DcmonstratioB— from  £2  ^<>*'  ^  J^*'* 
Specimen  Curves  drawn  on  card,  post  free,  3$.  psrdoiea 

STEBEOSCOFIC  Ditto,      ^ 

Giving  visibly  solid  figures  of  wave  motioos,  each  u. 

J'rice  Lists  qfAcousiie  Apparatus,  with  Dramings  and  Dncri^^  (^* 
Harmomograpk,  Post  Fne,  %d, 

P  I  C  K  -  M  E  -  UT 

An  Infallible  Restorative. 

An  agreeable,  prompt,  and  effectual  tenic,  stimulant  and  ^^j^  ^ 
elegant  remedy  prevenu  and  removes  indisposition  arisbg  ^^"'"IV^.^^ 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  and  at  once  restores  and  imparts  tone  to  tne  «™y^ 
perfects  and  increases  the  action  of  the  liver  and  kidnevs,  I**^°^^je* 
moves  wind,  palpitation,  pains  in  the  chest  and  stomacD|  colic,  ctf^  ^ 
bilious  and  Uver  disorders,  gout,  rheumatisni,  dropsy,  diseasoi  »  «« 
neys,  apoplexy,  and  affections  of  the  heart,  &c. 

/»  BotiUs.prottcted  by  ik4  Gwtmment  Stamp,  s*.  6^-  an4{S-^^ 

PKBPAKXU  ONLY  BY  THE  PaOPMBTOS, 

G.    J.    ANDREWS. 
No.    1,    LITTLE    ST.    ANDREWS   STBBBT, 
UPPER  ST.  MARTIN'S  LANE,  W.C 

Set   Trtatise  on  the  tfficacy,  medicinnl  action^  ^nd  compa^tm  9 
*'Ptck  Me- Up,"  by  the  Proprittor, 


RUPTURES.-BY  ROYAL  LETTERS  PATENT. 

WHITE'S  MOC-MAIN   LEVER  TRUSS 

1;  It  is  allowed  by  upwards  of  500  Medical  Men  to  be  the  m»^  ^ 
P>mX  tive  invention  in  the  curative  treatment  of  Hernis.  ^  ■^- 1 
a  steel  spring,  so  often  hurtful  in  Its  effects,  »*.V*^i,*  ^qaisiK 
soft  bandage  being  worn  round  the  body,  "^I^T^v  vjsi  ^ 
resisting-power  is  supplied  by  the  MOC-MAIW  ^  ^^^ 
PATENT  LEVER,  fitting  with  so  much  ease  a°°^^ 
that  it  cannot  be  deteaed,  and  may  be  worn  dunjjjl  ^^ 
descriptive  circular  may  be  had,  and  the  Truss  v'^"  .  j^, 
faU  to  fit)  forwarded  by  pest,  on  the  circumference  of  tw  "*^ 
9  inches  below  the  hips  being  sent  to  the  Manufacturer, 

JOHN  WHITE,  228,  PICCADILLY, 

Price  of  a  Single  Truss,  x6r.,  «r*.,  261.  &/.,  *^lf  ^\  Ff 

Double    .,      31*.  6<i,  4«.,  »nd  5«- *»•       j '^ 

„        Umbilical  „    42X.  and  sax.  6^  •.-■•dilJt- 

Post  Office  Orders  to  be  made  payable  to  John  White,  Post  Office  V\ff*^ 


Postage  free.  , 

JOHN  WHITE,  Manufacturer,  228,  PiccsdiUr,  Londo  • 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Nov.  8,  1877] 


NATURE 


XV 


GURENDON  PRESS  PUBLICATIONS. 

Descriptive  Astronomy.  A  Handbook  for  the 

General  Reader,  and  also  for  practical  Observatory  work 
With  Illustrations  and  numerous  tables.  By  G.  F. 
Chambers,  F.R.A.S.    Third  Edition,  enlarged,  8vo.    28x. 

"There  is  much  in  this  handbook  to  interest  the  general  reader,  while 
the  practical  worker  will  find  an  invaluable  mass  of  infonnation  on  celestial 
subjects,  besides  ample  references  to  astronomical  authorities.'' — Pall  Mall 
Gasetie, 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat,  with 

numerous     Woodcuts    and     Diagrams.      By     Balfour 

Stewart,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy 

in  the  Owens  College,  Manchester.    New  Edition.     Extra 

Fcap.  8vo.     Price  *js,  6d, 

"The  publication  of  this  manual  is  exceedingly  well-timed:  it  includes 

within  narrow  limits  the  leading  facts  and  {mndples  of  this  younger-bom  of 

the  Sciences,  and  for  the  mastery  of  the  greater  portion  of  toe  contents  only 

requires  ordinary  mtelligence  on  the  part  of  the  TtaAtx.**— Spectator. 

Chemistry  for  Students.    By  A.  w.  Wil- 
liamson, Phil  Doc,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
University  Collie,  London,    Third  Edition.    Extra  Fcap. 
8vo.     Price  &f.  td. 
"A  too  rare  example  of  what  a  good  elementary  text-book  in  any  science 
ought  to  be :  the  language  brief,  sample,  exact ;  the  arrangement  logical, 
developing  in  lucid  order  principles  from  facts,  and  keeping  theory  always 
dependent  upon  observation ;  a  book  that  keeps  the  reason  of  the  student 
active  while  he  strives  to  master  details  difficult  but  never  without  interest." 
— Examiner, 

Exercises  in  Practical  Chemistry.    By  A. 

G.    Vernon    Harcourt,    M.A.,    F.R.S.,  and    H.    G. 

Mad  AN,  M.A.    Series  I.:  Qualitative  Exercises.    Second 

Edition.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.    Price  7^.  6</. 
"  To  the  numerous  classes  formed  throughout  the  country  for  the  study  of 
chemistry— with  especial  reference  to  the  Science  and  Art  and  the  University 
Examinations— we  strongly  recommend  thb  little  volume." — Atkenaum, 

Forms   of  Animal   Life,      illustrated  by  De- 
scriptions and  Drawings  of  Dissections.   By  G.  Rolleston, 
M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Linacre  Professor  of  Physiology,  Oxford. 
Demy  8vo,  cloth.    Price  idr. 
"To  students  attending  classes  in  our  Universities  and  elsewhere,  to  those 
woricing  in  their  own  studies,  to  ^11  interested  in  any  branch  of  Comparative 
Ahatomy,   we  most  earnestly,   and  with  the  confidence  which  comes  of 
experience,  colnmend  *  Forms  of  Animal  Life '  as  a  thorough  piece  of  work, 
and  certainly  the  best  book  on  Comparative  Anatomy  in  our  language." — 
Quarterly  Journal  0/  Microscopical  Science. 

Geology  of  Oxford,  and  the  Valley  of 

THE  THAMES.     By  John  Phillips,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 

Professor  of  Geolocy,  Oxford.    8vo,  cloth,     i/.  u. 

"  It  may  be  cordially  and  confidently  recommended  to  all  geologists  to 

whom  the  Secondary  rocks  of  EngUnd  are  a  subiect  of  mttxcUJ  ^Aca4iemy. 

*'  A  most  important  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  history 

of  the  earth,  and  supplies  a  need  which  happens  just  at  this  time  to  be 

keenly  felt."--A'a/ww. 

OXFORD,    printed    at    the    CLARENDON    PRESS,    and 

published  by  MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON,  Publishers 

to  the  University. 

DRAPER'S  INK    (DICHROIC). 

THE   NEW  BLACK    INK 

DIFFERING  FROM  ANYTHING  KLSK  BVSR  PRODUCXO. 
Writing  becomes  a 
by  the  pradpal  "^ 


IS  a  pleasure  when  this  Ink  is  used.    It  has  bean  adoDted 
Banks,  Public  Offices,  and  Raihrav  Cnmpaniw  throagnonl 


Ireland. 


It  writas 


instantly  Full  Bbck. 


_ayFulI 

Does  not  corrode  Steel  Fens. 
Is  cleanly  to  use,  and  not  Uable  to 
Blou 


Flows  easily  from  the  Pen. 
Blotting-paper  may  be  applied  at  the 
momeat  of  writung. 


Can  be  obtained  in  I^ondon,  through  Messrs.  Baxclat  ft  Sons,  Fairing- 
don  Street ;  W.  Edwards,  Old  Chsinge :  F.  Nbwbbkv  &  Sows,  Newgate 
Street ;  Wn.  Matmeji,  London  and  Manchester ;  J.  Austin  &  Ca,  Duke 
Street,  Liveipool ;  and  Stact  ft  Cook,  Pateraoeter  Row ;  and  to  be  had  of 
all  Stationen. 


HOLLOWAYS  PILLS 


THIS 
HEDICINE 


Ii  a  CtrUin  Cur*  for  All  Difordert  of  the  UVEB,  BTOXACH 
AHD  bowels,  a  Ortat  IVSIFISE  of  the  BLOOD;  a 
Powerful  Invigorator  of  Um  Syitem,  in  eaiei  of  WEAKHX88 
4Hp  DEBIUIT,  and  is  nneqnallod  in  Vomale  CompUiato. 


LATELY  PUBLISHED,  MEDIUM  8vo,  PRICE  21s. 
With  Three  Hundred  Illustrations, 

PERU: 

Incidents  of  Travel  and  Exploration  in  the 
Land  of  the  Incas. 

BY 

E.  GEORGE   8QUIER,    M.A.,    F.8.A. 

LATE  U.S.  COMMISSIONER  TO  PERU, 

•  AUTHOR  OF 

"Nicaragua,"  "Ancient  Monuments  of  Mississippi  Valley," 
&c,  &C.,  &c. 


r/Af£S. 

**  No  more  solid  and  trustworthy  contribution  has  been  made 
to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  what  are  amoog  the  most  wonder- 
ful ruins  in  the  world  than  the  work  just  published  by  Mr. 
Squier.  .  .  .  Mr.  Squier's  work  is  really  what  its  title  impUes. 
While  of  the  greatest  importance  as  a  contribution  to  Peruvian 
archaeology,  it  is  also  a  thoroughly  entertaining  and  instructive 
narrative  of  travel  .  .  .  Not  the  least  important  feature  of  Mr. 
Squier's  work  must  be  considered  the  numerous  (about  300) 
well-executed  illustrations." 

ATHENMUM, 

'*  It  is  not  often  that  a  traveller  brings  to  the  perfurmance  ot 
a  difficult  task  so  many  excellent  qnalihcations  as  we  find  in  Mr. 
Squier.  .  .  .  And  now  we  must,  somewhat  reluctantly,  take 
leave  of  what  we  do  not  meet  with  every  day — a  book  written 
by  a  man  thoroughly  competent  to  handle  his  subject,  and  a 
corresponding  power  of  expressing  what  he  wishes  to  say." 

ACADEMY. 

'*  For  the  first  time  we  have  a  complete,  and,  on  the  whole,  a 
thoroughly  trustworthy  and  conscientious  account  of  Peruvian 
ruins  executed  by  one  who  is  thoroughly  competent  to  undertake 
the  task.  .  .  .  Mr.  Squier  has  done  valuable  service  as  regards 
the  survey  of  the  arcniteCiUral  remains  of  Peiu.     His  bcx)k  is 

Xeeably  written  and  well  illustrated,  and  it  is  undoubtedly 
I  best  that  has  yet  been  published  on  that  branch  of  the 
subject  to  which  he  has  especially  directed  his  attention." 

GRAPHIC, 

"No  work  of  recent  years  about  Peru  can  compare  in  our 
judgment  with  this  in  general  scope  and  interest  Few,  if  any, 
have  ever  searched  the  country  so  thoroughly  and  well.  .  .  . 
The  Peru,  not  of  the  nitrate  and  guano  dealer,  but  of  the  his- 
torian and  romancist,  stands  out  from  his  pages  in  all  its  archaeo- 
logical and  geomphical  features.  .  .  .  It  is  a  volume  admirable 
in  all  respects,  for  its  vigorous  descriptions  of  scenes  that  every- 
where attest  the  past  experience  of  superior  civilisation." 

DAILY  NEWS. 

'*  Enriched  with  copious  and  well-executed  illustrations,  which 
add  sensibly  to  the  value  of  a  book  rich  in  suggestions  and 
surprises  for  students  of  archaeology  who  have  not  been  accus- 
tomed to  look  to  the  new  world  to  redress  tlie  balance  at  least 
in  antiquarian  discovery." 


MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LONDON, 

Digitized  by  VrrOOQ IC 


xvi       NATURE \Nov.  8,  1877 

TRUE    TIME    BY    OBSERVATIONS    OF    THE    SUN. 

DENT'S  PATENTED  DIPLEIDOSCOPE  Reflecting  Tiansit  Instroment)  in  its  simplert 'form 
(pnce  jfc3  3*.)  will  detennme  true  time  to  within  two  seconds.  Short  illustrated  Pamphlet  post  free  upon 
application. 

E.  DENT    &   CO. 

MANUFACTURERS   OF  CHRONOMETERS,  &c.,  TO    HER   MAJESTY, 

6x,  STRAND,  AND   34,  ROYAL  EXCHANGE,  LONDON. 

(FACTORY— GERRARD    STREET.) 


PARKINSON    &    FRODSHAM, 

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4,     CHANGE     AlLl_EY,     CORNHIl_L_,     LONDON; 

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NATURE 


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Offiee :  Aug.  Meyer  and  Dieckmann,  Hambur;^  Alterwall,n8.  Edited  \^ 
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THE    BEST    FARMERS'    NEWSPAPER. 

THE    CHAMBER    OF 
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of  Agriculture, 
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RxTiBW  OF  Twt  Malt  and  Hop  Tkadks  ;  and  Wine  and  Sraur  Txadb 

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PICK-ME-UP. 

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An  agreeable,  prompt,  and  effectual  tenic,  stimulant  and  stomachic  This 
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perfects  and  increases  the  action  of  the  liver  ana  kidneys,  prevents  and  re- 
moves wind,  palpitation,  pains  in  the  chest  and  stomach,  colic,  costiveness, 
bilious  and  fiver  disorders,  gout,  rheumatism,  dropsy,  diseases  o£  the  kid- 
neys, apoplexy,  and  affecdons  o£  the  heart,  &c. 

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XX 


NATURE 


{Nov.  15,  1877 


THE  CHANNEL  I8UND8'  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION  AND  MUSEUM  AND   INSTITUTE    OF 


PISCICULTURE  SOCIETY,  LIMITED. 


CAPITAL-dE5,000  IN  5,000  SHARES   OF  £1  EACH. 

(With  power  to  increase.) 

This  Society  is  e^abli»hed  on  an  entirely  scientific  bans,  with  the  object  of  fosterini;  and  promoting  the  science  of  Economic  Ptsdculrare,  aad 
of  supplying  EpRlish  and  other  naturalists  and  natural  history  students  with  facilities,  not  hithetto  accessible,  for  pursuing  Marine  Biological  1  n vestisatun. 
The  aim  of  the  Society  is,  in  fact  to  provide,  in  a  conveniently  acces^ble  and  suitable  locality,  an  institution  which  shall  fulfil  for  the  entire  north  of 
Europe  that  sphere  of  utility  which  the  well-known  Naples  Aquatium  and  Zoological  Station  now  docs  for  the  south.  Mature  consideration  has  led 
to  the  selection  of  a  mo$>t  eligible  and  advantageous  (iie  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Helier's,  Jersey,  for  this  purpose. 

As  with  the  Naples  Institution  there  uill  be  en  bodied  in  this  undertaking  the  following  several  features  of  utility  and  attract 'on  : — Firstly*  for  the 
entertainment  of  the  public,  and  as  a  source  of  income  for  the  defrayment  of  the  general  working  expenses,  a  Saloon  will  be  set  apart  for  the  pob^ 
ai.«play  of  the  living  denizens  of  the  ocean,  and  of  which  it  may  be  said  that  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  produce  an  unparalleled  weahh  of  otmben 
and  variety.    Adjoining  the  Saloon  there  will  likewbe  be  a  Museum,  available  both  as  a  Lecture-room  and  for  the  exhibition  of  a  typical  Natural  tiistsnr  , 
Collection,  more  especially  leprtsentative  of  the  luxuriant  Marine  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Channel  Islands.  * 

The  more  important  Technical  Department  will  include  Laboratories.  Mrith  al  1  suitable  Apparatus  and  Instruments,  Tanks  for  'EzpcruDestt? 
Pisciculture,  and  a  Library  of  Standard  Scientific  Works  and  Aerials  for  the  use  of  naturalists  and  students  who  shall  repair  here  for  the  purpote 
of  prosecuting  Marine  Biological  Research.  With  the  Institution  will  also  be  associated  a  D^pot  for  the  supply  of  living  or  carefally-proerrcd 
marine  specimens  to  British  or  other  Universities,  Museums,  Science  Schools  and  Aquaria,  or  to  naturalists  that  may  require  the  same  for  museum  types, 
class  demonstration,  or  for  private  investigation. 

Following  the  system  adopted  at  the  Penikese  Island  Station,  it  is  further  proposed^  fcr  the  full  development  of  the  scientific  resources  of  this 
InMitution,  to  inaugurate  Summer  Qasses  for  the  attendance  of  Students,  and  to  hold  out  sufficient  inducemenu  for  the  most  eminent  authorities  oa 
various  biological  subjecu  to  deliver  Lectures  and  a  Cotu^e  of  Instruction  to  these  Classes  upon  that  branch  of  Natural  Histonr  with  which  thev 
leputation  is  more  especially  asM>ciated.  In  view  of  the  Laboratories  and  Lecture  Arrangements  being  complete  by  the  Summer  of  18784  those  pvopoMBg 
to  avail  themselves,  as  Student5,  of  the  advantages  held  out,  are  recjuested  to  communicate  with  the  Secretary. 

In  view  of  a  desire  already  expressed  by  many  wishing  to  as»ist  in  the  e&tablishmtnt  of  this  Institution  without  becoming  Shareholders,  t^e  Sodcty 
is  empowered  to  receive  Contributions  towards  the  establishment  and  further  development  of  the  Institution.  Such  moneys  contributed  will  be  devoted 
entirely  to  the  uses  above  n  entiored,  and  will  not  be  applicable  for  the  purposes  ot  a  Dividend  or  otherwise  for  the  personal  advantage  of  the  ordinafy 
Shareholders.  Fspedal  privileges  will  be  granted  to  all  such  Donors ;  Subscribers  of  ;^io  and  upwards  receiving  in  return  the  advantage  of  a  Life-mcntber- 
ship  and  free  admission  to  the  Institution  upon  all  occasions  on  which  the  building  is  open  to  the  public 

The  technical  control  of  the  Institution  wiJ  be  undeitaken,  as  Naturalist  Director,  by  Mr.  W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  &c  ,  fonaerlr 
Assistant  in  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the  British  Museum,  and  whose  experience  as  Naturalist  for  some  yeari  to  the  leading  EoglLdi  Aquaria 
eminently  qualifies  him  for  this  position. 

In  registering  the  Memorandum  and  Articles  of  Association  of  this  Society,  special  care  has  been  taken  to  secure  for  the  undertaking  a  purely 
scientific  status,  and  to  permanently  exclude  from  it  all  those  supplementary  attractions  of  an  irrelevant  nature  usually  associated  with  public  exhlfaitMn 
of  the  living  wonders  ot  the  deep.     It  is  only  under  such  restrictions  and  reservations  that  patronage  and  subscriptions  are  here  invited. 

For  Pro$pecta<«e8and  further  particulars  apply  to  the  Secrktary  or  to  the  Naturalist  Dirbctor,  16,  Royal  Squve,  St.  Helier's,  Jersej. 

Contributir  ns  of  Books  and  Serial  Literatuie  relating  to  Biological  Subjects  suited  for  the  Library,  of  Instruments  and  Apparatus  for  the  Laboraxcry, 
or  of  Natural  Hisivy  Specimens  for  the  Museum,  will  be  most  gratefully  accepted 

An  especial  appeal  for  support  is  here  made  to  the  Fellows  and  Members  of  the  various  Metropolitan  and  Provincial  Scientific  Societies,  and  who 
have  now  placed  betore  them  an  unprecedented  opportunity  of  advancing  the  prestige  and  interesu  of  English  Marine  Biological  Science. 

DONATIONS  RECEIVED:— Mr.  Charles  Darwin.  F.R.S.,  ;Cao :  Prof  B.  O.  Cunnmgham,  F.L.S..  ;C5 ;  Dr.  J.  MUlar,  ;Ca  ;  C.  Le  Feuvre,  /a. 

All  further  Contributions  to  the  "Donation  Fund"  for  the  founding  of  the  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Station  and  Museum  and  Institute  of 
I^sciculture  will  be  duly  acknowledged  in  these  columns.  ' 

W.  SWILLE  KENT,  Hom.  Sic   * 


CON  SU  MPTION  : 

Its  Proximate  Cause  and  Spedfic  Treatment  by  the  HYPOPHOSPHITES 
upon  the  Principles  of  Stoechiological  Medicine,  by 

JOHN  FRANCIS  CHURCHILL,  M.D., 
With  an  Appendix  on  the  Direct  Treatment  of  Respiratory  Diseases 
(Asthma,  Bronchitis,  &c  )  br  Stoechiological  Inhalants.  And  Reporu  ot 
nearly  Two  Hundred  Cases  by  Drs.  Churchill,  Campbell.  Heslop.  Surlin^, 
Bird.  Santa  Maria,  Gomez,  Maestre,  Parigot,  Reinvillier,  Calves,  Leri- 
verend,  Denobde,  Feldman,  Pfeiffer,  Vintras,  Bou^:ard,  l*infahv,  Lanzi, 
Fabbri,  Pancgrossi,  Cerasi,  Gualdi,  TodinL  Asceoa,  Regnoli,  Valentini. 
Casati,  Blasi,  Borromeo,  Fiorelli,  and  FedelL 

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cal  Treatise  oatha  Physical  CoosdtutiMi  of  Musical  Sounds  and  Har^ 
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BRTCE    M.   WBIQHT,  F.R.aS.,  Ac, 

90,  GREAT  RUSSELL  STREET,  BLOOMSBURV, 

LONDON,  W.C. 

LINNEAN    SOCIETY. 

Now  ready,  TRANSACTIONS  of  the  LINNEAN  SOCIETY  <i 
LONDON  :  Second  Series,  " Zoology "  (vol.  i.  Part  5,  price  i8#.).| 

Sold  by  Longman,  and  Co.,  Paten.oster  Row ;  und  by  Mr.  Kipptst,  at  the 
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LINNEAN    SOCIETY. 

Now   ready,    TRANSACTIONS   of  the   LINNEAN    SOCIETY 
LONDON  ;  Second  Series,  '* Zoology  "  (vol  i.  Part  6,  price  ;Ct  «  X 

Sold  by  Longman  &  Co.,  Paternoster  Row  ;  and  by  Mr.  Kippist,  at  the 
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and  the  work  has  been"revised  throughout. 

London  :  J.  &  A  CHURCHILL,  New  Burlington  Street. 


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Nov.  15,  1877] 


NATURE 


XXI 


DIARY    OF    SOCIETIES. 


London 

THURSDAY,  Novbmbkr  15. 

RoVAL  SociBTV,  at  8.30.— OrjEanisation  of  the  Fossil  Plants  of  the  Coal- 
Measures,  Part  IX. ;  Bakerian  Lecture  :  Prof.  W.  C  Williamson,  K.R.S. 

LiNNBAN  SociBTV,  at  8. — Report  on  the  losecta  (including  Arachnida) 
Collected  by  Capt.  Fcildcn  and  Mr  Hart  diring  the  ►  ecent  Arctic  Expe- 
dition :  R.  McLachlan  — On  the  Surface  F^i  na  of  the  Arctic  Se  is  as 
observed  in  the  Recent  Arctic  I  xpediiion :  Dr  Ed.  L.  Moss. — On  the 
Annelids  of  the  English  North  Polar  Rxpediilon  (1875-6):  Dr.  W.  C. 
Mcintosh.— On  Certain  Organs  of  the  Cidarida: :  Chas.  btewart. 

Chkmical  Socibty.  at  8.— On  Gallium  :  Prof.  Odling. — First  Report  to  the 
Chemical  Sodety  on  some  Points  in  Chemical  Dynamics :  Dr.  Wright  and 
Mr.  Luff. — On  the.Influence  exerted  by  Time  and  Mass  in  certain  Reactions 
in  which  Insoluble  >a]ts  are  produced :  C  T.  Kin^^ett  and  Dr.  Paul — On 
Two  New  Fatty  Adds  of  the  Series  C„Han<^a. 

FRIDAY^  November  16. 
QUKKBTT  MiCSOSCOPlCAL  Club,  at  8. 

SATURDAY,  November  17. 
Physical  Socibty,  at  3. 

SUNDAY,  November  18. 

Sunday  Lecture  Society,  at  4.— Charles  Dickens :  Miss  Kate  Field. 
TUESDAY,  November  90. 

Zoological  Society,  at  8.3a— Contr-buiion.*  to  the  Ornithology  of  the 
Philippines.  No.  II.  On  the  Collection  made  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Everett  in  the 
I>land  of  Zebu  :  The  Marquis  ol  Twceddale,  F.R.S  —On  a  Collection  of 
Birds  from  Eoa,   Fiiencly  Islands:  Dr.  O.    Fmjch,  C.M.Z.S— On  the 

I  Taenia  of  the  Rhiboieros  of  the  Sunder  bunds,  riariotaenia  gigmntea: 
Prof.  Garrod,  F.R.K— On  the  Anatorav  of  the  Cliinese  Water  Deer, 
Hydropates  inermis :  Prof  Garrod,  F.R.S. 

Institution  op  CrviL  \  ncinbbrs.  at  8. 

South  London  Microscopical  Socibtv,  at  8. 

WEDNESDA  K,  November  21. 

Geological  Soasrv.  at  8.— The  Moffat  Series  :  C  Lapworth  — On  the 
Glacial  Deposits  of  West  Che>hire,  together  wiih  Lists  of  the  Fauna  found 
in  the  Drift  of  Cheshire  and  adjoinii  g  i:oi.ntics:  W.  Shone.— Notes  on 
the  Physical  Geology  of  the  Upper  Punjab,  India :  A.  B.  Wynne. 
Mbtborological  Society,  at?.— On  the  {>ei.f  ral  Character  and  Prindpal 
Sources  ol  Variation  in  the  Weather  at  any  Part  of  a  Cyclone  or  Anii- 
CYclone:  the  Hon.  Ralph  Abercromby,  F.  M.S.— The  "Arched  Squalls" 
ot  the  Neighbourhood  of  the  Trade  Winds :  Capt.  A.  Schflck.— On  a 
Remarkable  itarometric  Oscillatioti  on  January  30, 1876:  Robert  H.  Scott. 
F.R.S.  ' 

Society  op  Arts,  at  8.— Opening  Meeting. 

THURSDAY,  November  22. 
Royal  Socistt,  at  8.3a 

FRIDAY,  November  33. 
Quekett  Microscopical  Club,  at  8.— A  New  British  Sponge :  J.  G. 
Waller. 

Dublin 

MONDAY^  November  19. 
Royal  Society,  at  8.— Section  I. :  On  some  Remarkable  Instances  of  Com- 
pressed Crookes's  Layers  at  Ordinary  Atmospheric  Tensions:  G.  J. 
Stoney,  F.R.S.— On  hhenol-phthalein  as  a  Test  of  Alkalinity:  Prof. 
Emerson  Reynolds,  M.D  —On  the  Chemical  Coropo^ition  of  the  Coal  dis- 
covered by  the  Late  Arctic  Expedition :  R.  J.  Moss.— Section  II.  ;  On 
the  Limits  of  Geological  Time:  Rev.  Dr.  Haughton,  F.R.S.— Notes  on 
the  Chaiacter  of  the  Skeleton  of  the  Aboiigmes  of  Australia:  Prof. 
MacAlister,  M.D.  -On  a  Fragment  of  a  Human  Skeleton  from  8x»  42'N. 
latitude :  Dr.  Ed.  Moss,  R.Nr 

Croydon 

WEDNESDAY,  November  ai. 
Microscopical  Club,  at  8.3a 


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conclusively  Uiat  a  Conductor  made  of  Copper  of  adequate  size  u  the  bc»t 
of  all  aiypUances  for  the  protection  of  every  description  of  building  from  the 
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Is  applied  to  all  kinds  of  Buildings  and  Shipping  in  all  pans  of  the  world 
with  im varying  success,  is  the  most  Reliable,  most  Effective,  and  Cheapest 
Conductor  ever  offered  to  the  public 

It  is  simple  in  its  application,  no  insulators  being  required,  and  it  costs 
only  one  shilling  per  foot  for  the  standard  sue,  which  is  safe  in  any  storm. 

R.  ft.  NEWAXiXi  *  CO..  X30,  STRAND,  W.C. 

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NATURE 


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W.    L  A  D  D    &    CO., 
Scientific  Instmment  Mannfacturers 

{Bj  Ap/^HtnuHt  to  thi  Royal  IntHtuHen  of  Grtai  Briiain.) 

II  &  12,  BEAK  STREET,  REGENT  STREET,  W. 

LADD'S  IMPROVED  8ELF-CHARQiNQ  HOLTZ  ELEC* 
TRICAL  MACHINE,  with  4  to  12  Plates,  inclosed  in  a 
Mahogany  and  Glass  Case.  This  instrnment  is  Immediately 
available  in  any  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  above  improvements  can  be  applied  to  Holt*  Machines  cj 
old  form, 

MRS.  SPOTTISWOOOrS  POCKET  POLARISINQ  APPA- 
RATUS, complete  in  Case,  post  free  3/.  %s.  dd, 

CRYSTALS,  showing  Axis,  Dichroism,  &c.,  mounted  for  above, 
in  similar  case. 

ALSO, 

PhflcBOphxcml  Apparatus  of  every  Description. 


lUtuiratod  CatmUeue,  Sixpmei, 


MICROSCOPES.   OBJECTIVES,  &c. 

CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION,  PHILADELPHIA,  U.S.A. 


The  Medal  and  Highest  Award  has  been  given  for  Design, 
Conitmctioii,  Optical  Excellence^  and  Moderatioa  in  Price,  to 

HENRY   GROUCH, 

66,    BARBICAN,    LONDON,    E.C 


rnDy  nhiflnt.d  CuaJon.  .od  fiiJl  lubncllou  by  Pom.  <  SUmpt. 


Uol  alKrad  Ctm. 


DUPRE'S  APPARATUS 

For  the 

ESTIMATION     OF     UREA 

By  means  of  hypobromide. 

HOW    &    CO.'S     STUDENT'S     MICRO- 
SCOPE, ^f  5  5/. 
HOW  &  CO.'S  MICROSCOPE    LAMP. 
HOW     ft     CO.'S     GEOLOGICAL     DIA- 

GRAMS  for  the  Lantern,  consisting  of  Sections  of  Strata, 
Groups  of  Fossils,  Restorations  of  Extinct  Animals,  &c 

Catalogues  on  Application. 

JAMES    HOW    AND    CO., 

5,  St  Bride  Street  (late  2,  Foster  Lane),  London. 

RUFTURES.-BY  ROYAL  LETTERS  PATENT. 

WHITE'S   MOC-MAIN   LEVER  TRUSS 

is  allowed  by  upwmnJftof  500  Medical  Men  to  be  the  most  eflfec- 
tive  inveniion  in  the  curative  treatment  of  Hernia.  The  use  of 
a  steel  spring,  so  often  hurtful  in  its  effects,  is  here  avoided  ;  a 
soft  bandage  being  worn  round  the  body,  while  the  requisite 
resisting. power  is  supplied  b^  the  MOC-MAIN  PAD  and 
PATEN  r  LF.VER,  hfing  with  so  much  ease  and  closeness 
that  it  cannot  be  detected,  and  may  be  worn  during  sleep.  A 
descriptive  circular  may  be  had,  and  the  Trusi  (which  cannot 
fail  to  fit)  forwarded  by  pest,  00  the  circumference  of  the  body, 
s  inches  below  the  hips,  being  sent  to  the  Manufacturer, 

JOHN  WHITE,  228,  PICCADILLY, 

Price  of  a  Single  Truss,  16*.,  »m.,  a6*.  6</.,  and  iir  &/.k  p^ 
„  Double  .,  31/.  6«£.  4M.,  and  sa*.  6d.  \  ^** 
„        Umbilical  „    ^t.  and  53/.  6<^  )  *'*** 

Poet  OflSce  Orders  to  be  made  payable  to  John  White,  Post  Office  Piccadilly. 

ELASTIC   STOCKINGS,  KNEE-CAPS, 

&c,  for  Varicose  Vein*  and  all  cases  of  Weaknesa  and  Swelling  of  the  Legs, 
Sprain«,  &c.  They  4 re  porous,  light  in  teitturc,  and  inexpensive,  and  drawn 
on  i^yrx  an  on  wary  stocking.  Price  4#.  6(/.,  ^i.  6d.,  tos.,  and  i6r.  each. 
Puoage  free. 

JOHN  WHITE,  Manu&tctuKr,  aaS,  PiccadUly,  London. 


FRENCH  HYGIENIC  SOCIETY,  40,  Hay- 

market. — Electro-Desimetric  Institution.  Treatment  of  all  Chmac 
Diseases  pronotmced  incurable  by  the  combined  therapeutic  methods 
of  Drs.  Burgnaeve  and  P.  A.  Desjardin.  Hours  of  Conmltation  frcam 
3  to  5  P.M.  jTreatment  by  concspondeoce.  Mondays,  Wednesdays 
and  Fridays,  conmUations. free  from  10.3010  xa.  Chemical  and  Medi- 
cal Analyses  made.  DepAt  for  Continental  Hygienic  Productioaft, 
Medical  Belts,  &c. 

The  dosimetric  system  of  mediciDe  is  the  connecting  link  placed  by  Or. 
Buxggraeve  between  the  old,  or  Allopa-Jiic,  and  tbe  new,  or  Hahncimnian, 
or  Homeopathic  schools. 

This  system,  which  it  new  well  known  and  mudi  usrd  by  6ocfar%  in 
Eurepe  and  South  America,  where  it  is  steadily  gaining  ground,  coasutt  of 
a  treatment  that  it  at  the  same  time  conveiuent,  agreeable,  and  sure.  It 
depends  npoo  the  purity  of  the  medicine  and  exactitude  oT  the  dosea, 
and  is  appUed  to  the  nature  and  causes  of  diseases  both  chronic  and  acate. 
In  a  wora,  it  is  the  realisation  of  the  hopes  and  researches  of  the  alchemats 
of  the  middle  ages. 

These  medicines  are  administered  in  the  form  of  granules,  which  are  taken 
by  all,  even  children,  easily  and  without  the  least  repugnance. 

This  system  rejects  the  ordinary  forms  of  the  old  Pharmacy — apo^aass. 
potioiu,  opiates,  electuaries,  &c.,  in  short,  all  the  complicated  nuxiure  df* 
drugs  of  nauseous  odotir  and  taste,  respected  by  the  old  formularies, 
but  which  now,  tn  the  face  of  the  progress  of  modem  science,  have  no  Leaser 
the  necessity  of  exbtence. 

It  is,  above  all,  in  chronic  diseases  (the  "non  i>ossumus'*  of  the  oU 
tchoolsX  rheumatism,  gout,  dyspepsia,  liver  complaints,  afiectioat  of  the 
spleen  and  kidneys,  paralysis,  scrolula,  &c,  that  the  system  of  Dr.  Borg- 
graeve,  combined  with  tnat  of  Dr.  P.  A  Desjardin,  gives  the  aost 
remarkable  results. 

A  large  number  01  cures,  obtained  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  hig^ily 
confirm  the  therapeutic  value  of  the  elcctro-dosunetric  system. 

If  we  consider  that  chronic  maladies  are  caused  by  a  diaihesls,  vbich 
always  produces  a  change  in  the  vital  and  nutritive  organs,  and  if*  on  the 
other  hand,  we  consider  carefully  the  electro-magnetic  phenomena,  and  the 
subtle  nature  of  that  agent,  whtch,  if  it  be  not  life  itself,  is  one  of  its  ibo« 
active  and  important  principles,  we  easily  perceive  the  therapeutic  va^ac  of 
a  method  which  acts  directly  upon  the  vitality  of  the  patient,  by  employi^ 
those  agents  which  are  essentially  vital. 

It  is  thus  that  in  charging  the  electric  ciurentt,  which  penetrate  directly 
into  theorganitm,  wita  molecules  of  iodine,  iron,  f^old,  &c,  we  can,  alaotf 
instantaneously,  soothe  paint  andspasmt,  re-establith  or  stimtilate  the  orcs- 
lation  of  the  fluids,  and  restore  that  equilibrium  of  which  health  is  the 
resuk. 

But  it  must  be  understood  that  for  a  treatment  of  this  kind  a  wide  ezpa{« 
ence  is  necessary  :  the  usual  means  of  ordiiuury  medicines  are  otteriy 
insufficient,  an  exclusive  attention  being  demanded  for  this  speciality. 

In  establishing  the  "  Electro-Dosimetric  Institution  of  London,**  we  fiB 
up  a  chasm,  and  thus  render  a  signal  service  to  all  doctors,  who  wiD 
And  with  us  the  readiest  and  most  active  concurrence  in  the  treatment  of 
that  tmforttmately  large  class  of  persons  afflicted  by  chronic  diseasea. 


HOLIOWAYS  OINTMENT 


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HEMEDT 


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GOUT,  BHEUXATINC,  and  aU  Skin  Diseases  it  is  oneqnaUal 


IN  8vo,  PRICE  6r. 


AND 


MUSICAL   INTERVALS 
TEMPERAMENT, 

AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON. 

With  an  Accotut  of  an  Enhannonic  Harmonium  exhibited  at  the  Loan 

Collection  of  Scientific  Instruments  at  South   Kensington,  1S76  ;  alto  of 

an  Enharmonic  Organ  exhibited  to  the  Musical  Assooatioo  of  Loodoo. 

May,  1875. 

BY   R.  H.   BOSANQUET, 

Fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford. 
MACMILLAN  and  CO.,  London. 

Text-Book    of    Botany,    Morphological 

AND    PHYSIOLOGICAL.      By    Dr.    Julius   Sachs, 
Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Wiirzburg.     Trans- 
lated by  A.  W.  Bennett,  M.A.,  Lecturer  on  Botanv,  St 
Thomas's  Hospital,  assisted  by  W.  T.  Thisclton  Dyer,  Af .  A., 
Ch.  Ch.,  Oxford.     Koyal  8vo,  half  morocco.     31/.  6d, 
*'  The  want  of  a  good  text-book  of  Bouny,  one  that  would  give  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  present  state  of  botanical  science,  has  long  been  fell  by 
English  students.     We  therefore  heartily  welcome  the  appearance  of  thu 
translation,  because  we  feel  certain  that  it  will  supply  that  want  so  long  feh. 
and  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  both  teachers  and  siudents."--^Va/«rrr. 

OXFORD,    printed    at    the    CLARENDON    PRESS,    and 

publUhed  by  if  ACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON,  Publkbm 

to  the  University. 


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NATURE 


XXIU 


Messrs.  MAWSON  and  SWAN  desire  to  caU  the  atten- 
tion of  Physicists  and  others  to  the  merits  of  STEARN  & 
SWAN'S  COMPOUND  SPRENGEL  AIR  PUMP,  and  to 
notify  that  they  are  ready  to  supply  the  Instrument  The  new 
pump  is  a  combination  of  the  ordinary  Cylinder  and  Piston  Air- 
Pump  and  the  Sprengel,  and  unites  the  rapid  action  of  the  one 
with  the  thorough  exhausting  power  of  the  other.  It  possesses 
the  further  advantage  of  being  much  smaller  and  less  laborious 
to  work  than  the  Sprengel  ofthe  ordinary  construction. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  power  of  the  Pump  the  following 
experiment  is  given  : — A  small  vacuum  tube,  with  aluminium 
electrodes  3  mm.  apart,  was  exhausted  in  about  twelve  minutes,  so 
perfectly  that  an  induction  coil  giving  a  spark  of  half-an-inch  in 
air  would  not  cause  the  faintest  luminosity  in  the  tube  ;  and  with  a 
radiometer  of  about  33  c.c  capacity  atucbed,  the  same  result  was 
obtained,  after  the  contents  of  the  reservoir  (about  12  lbs.  of 
mercury)  had  passed  through  the  pump  four  or  five  times. 
These  results  were  obtained  with  an  instrument  having  a  single 
fall-tube ;  but  with  a  triple  fall-tube,  as  shown  in  sketch,  Sie 
radiometer  and  vacuum  tube  being  of  the  same  capacity,  the 
point  of  maximum  conductivity  for  the  induction  current  was 
reached  in  three  minutes,  and  in  five  minutes  the  tube  became 
non-luminous,  and  the  radiometer  rotated  rapidly  to  a  gas  flame 
at  a  distance  of  five  feet 

The  adjoined  drawing  represents  the  new  Pump,  and  is  about 
one-sixth  its  size. 

On  working  the  exhausting  syringe  (n)  at  the  beginning  of  an 
operation,  the  atmospheric  pressure  on  the  mercury  in  the  reser* 
voir  (b)  is  quickly  reduced  to  such  a  point  that  the  mercury  flows 
from  the  upper  reservoir  (a)  by  way  ot  the  triple  jet  and  fall  tubes, 
and  produces  all  the  effect  of  the  much  more  cumbrous,  trouble, 
some,  and  slow-acting  Sprengel  Pump. 

Every  instrument  is  thoroughly  tested  before  sending  out. 

Price  of  the  Instrument,  as  shown,  with  Triple  Fall  Tube- 
;f 9  ;  with  Single  Fall  Tube,  £^  lor. 

Directions  for  using,  and  any  other  particulars,  may  be  ob« 
tained  of  Messrs.  MAWSON  &  SWAN,  Newcrstle-upon-Tyne. 


PARKINSON    &    FRODSHAM, 

CHRONOMETER  AND  WATCH  MAKERS, 

4,  CHANGE  ALLEY,  CORNHILU  LONDON. 

Extract  from  the  Report  ot  the  Director  of  the  Portsmouth  Observatory  concerning  Parkinson  and  Frodsham's  Chronometer  on 
board  the  Discovery,  in  the  Arctic  Expedition  of  1875-6, 

"  Nov.  7th,  1876.— Captain  Beaumont,  who  was  First  Lieutenant  and  Navigating  Officer  of  the  Discovery ^  informed  me  that 
your  Watch,  No.  5,838,  was  the  best  out  of  the  five  Pocket  Chronometers  that  they  had  on  board  that  vessel." 


In  Two  Vols.,  royal  8vo,  with  numerous  Illustrations  by  Zwecker,  and  Maps,  price  42J. 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS, 

With  a  STUDY  of  the  RELATIONS  of  LIVING  and  EXTINCT  FAUNAS  as  ELUCIDATING  the  past  CHANGES 
^"""^  of  the  EARTH'S  SURFACE. 

BY    ALFRED    RUSSEL    WALLACE. 

The  Times  of  May  21st  says  : — "  Altogether  it  is  a  wonderful  and  fascinating  story,  whatever  objections  may  be  taken  to  theories 
founded  upon  it.  Mr.  Wallace  has  not  attempted  to  add  to  its  interest  by  any  adornments  of  style  ;  he  has  given  a  simple  and 
clear  statement  of  intrinsically  interesting  facts,  and  what  he  considers  to  be  legitimate  inductions  from  them.  Naturalists  ought  to 
be  grateful  to  him  for  having  undertaken  so  toilsome  a  task.  The  work,  indeed,  is  a  credit  to  all  concerned— the  author,  the 
publishers,  the  artist  (unfortunately  now  no  more)  of  the  attractive  iUustrations,  and  last,  but  by  no  means  least,  Mr.  Stanford's 
map-designer." 

By  the  same  Author. 

THE  MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO :   the  LAND  of  the  ORANG-UTAN  and  the  BIRD  of 

PARADISE.    A  Narrative  of  Travel,  with  Studies  of  Man  and  Nature.     With  Maps  and  Illustrations.      Fifth  Edition. 
Crown  8vo.     'js.  td, 

CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  THE  THEORY  OF  NATURAL  SELECTION.    A  Scries  of 

ESSAYS.    Third  EdiUon.     Crown  8vo.    8j.  6</. 


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XXIV 


NATURE 


{Nov.  15,   1877 


MESSRS.    CASSELL,    PETTER,    AND    GALPIN    WILL   PUBLISH    IN    MONTHLY    PARTS,    ^d., 

A  POPULAR  SERIAL  WORK  ON  SCIENCE, 

UNDER  THE  TITLE  OF 

SCIENCE    FOR    ALL. 

Edited  by  ROBERT  BROWN,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S.,  F.R.G.S., 

ASSISTED  BY  A  STAFF  OF  EMINENT  WRITERS. 

Abundantly  Illustrated  with  ENGRAVINGS  and  DIAGRAMS  specially  prepared  for  the  Work. 
PART  I.  ready  Nov-  26th,  price  7d. 

'  It  is  proposed  in  "SCIENCE  FOR  ALL"  to  take  the  every -day  incidents  of  life  and  the  commonest 
objects  which  snrronnd  ns,  and  show  in  simple  and  clear  language,  the  scientific  principles  which  underlie 
them  and  whose  operation  they  illnstrate.  The  flame  of  a  candle  will  serve  as  a  text  on  which  to  treat  of 
combustion— from  a  dead  leaf  picked  np  in  the  woods  can  be  taught  ttie  principles  of  vegetable  construction, 
and  life,  and  i^rowth— by  the  markings  in  the  marble  which  ornaments  our  chimney-piece  can  be  elucidated 
the  geological  formation  from  which  it  has  been  dug,  and  the  varied  processes  by  which  it  and  kindred 
formations  have  been  produced.  And  so  on  through  every  department,  some  familiar  object  or  some  well- 
known  fact  will  be  picked  out,  and  from  it  the  particular  branch  of  Science  to  which  it  belongs  will  bs 
illustrated  and  ^xpidAnbL— Extract  from  Prospectus, 

With  FART  I.  will  be  issued,  as  a  Frontispiece,  a  DIAGRAM  IN  COLOURS  shotving  the  Order  cf 
Succession  of  the  various  Rocks  tliat  compose  the  Crust  of  the  Earth,  with  more  especial  reference  to  those  found 
in  Englatui, 

CASSELL,  PETTER,  &  GALPIN,  Ludgate  Hill,  London. 


NOW  READY. 
COMPLETE  IN  THREE  VOLUMES,  Price  ;f3  3/. 

THE 

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"  The  want  of  such  a  Dictionary  has  long  been  felt  in  this 
country,  and  espedaUy  since  the  enormous  development  of 
aUnost  every  branch  of  mechanical  industry  within  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century.  The  articles  are  for  the  most  part  deverlj 
written,  full  of  the  most  useful  and  accurate  knowledge,  beauti- 
folly  and  profusely  illustrated,  and  quite  up  to  the  latest  develop- 
ments of  their  respective  subjects, — Letds  Afn'cttry, 

CASSELL,  PETTER,  &  GALPIN,  London ; 
and  all  Booksellers. 


An  ENTIRELY  NEW  NATUI^VL  HISTORY  for  the 
Student  and  General  Reader,  giving  in  the  Simplest  Language 
the  results  of  the  LATEST  RESEARCHES  of  the  beit 
Authorities. 

NOW  READY. 

THE  FIRST  VOLUME  OF 

CASSELL'S  NEW  NATURAL 
HISTORY. 

Edited  by  P.  MARTIN  DUNCAN,  M.B.  {Lond,\ 

F.R.S.,   F.G.S. 

Professor  of  Geology  in,   and    Honorary  Fellow  of.    King's 
College,  London. 

ILLUSTRATED  THROUGHOUT 

Extra  crown  4to,  3S4  pages,  cloth  91*. 

This  is  an  ENTIRELY  NEW  NATURAL  HIS- 
TORY under  the  Editorship  of  Dr.  DUNCAN. 
Among  the  Contributors  may  be  mentioned  : — 

H.  W.  BATES,  F.R.G.S. 

W.  S.  DALLAS,  F.L.S. 

\V.  BOYD  DAWKINS.  M.A..  F.R.S.,  F.G.S. 

Professor  A.  H.  GARROD,  F.R.S. 

Professor  T.  RUPERT  JONES,  F.R.S..  F.G.S. 

R.  MACLACHLAN,  F.L.S.,  Secretary  to  the  Entomo- 
logical Society. 

JAMES  MURIE,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 

Professor  W.  K.  PARKER,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S. 

Professor  HARRY  G.  SEELEY,  F.G.S. 

R.  BOWDLER  SHARPE,  F.US.,  F.Z.S.,  Zoological 
Department,  British  Museum. 

HENRY  WOODWARD,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  Nataol  Hh^ 
tory  Department,  British  Museum. 

CASSELL,  PETTER  &  GALPIN, 
and  all  Bookselleif. 


PrinUd  by  R.  Clav.  Sow.  awd  Tavu>«.  at  9  and  I,  Braad  Stnet  HiU,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  in  the  Otf  ol 
"'     " >  Co.,  at  th«  Office,  t^,  Bond  Street,  New  York.-THumsDAV,  November  t\ 


Macmillan  AJn>  i 


A  WEEKLY  ILLUSTRATED  JOURNAL  OF  'SCIENCE. 

«  To  the  solid  ground 
Of  Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  buiids  Jor  ayeJ* — Wordsworth 


No.  421,  Vol.  17] 


THURSDAY,  NOVEMBER  22,  1877        [Price  $5  per  Ann. 


Registered  as  a  Newspaper  at  the  General  Post  Office.] 


(AU  Rights  ara  RmmtvwL 


BEOWNING'S 
MICEOSCOPES. 


The  MODEL  MICROSCOPE,  made  ex- 
pressly for  class  demonstration,  has  rack  and 
fine  adjustments  to  the  body,  large  stage  fitted 
with  universal  stage  motions,  removable  stage 
fittings  for  apparatus,  revolving  diaphragm,  A 
or  B  eye-pieces,  and  i  in.  16°  and  \  in.  75* 
objectives  of  our  own  manufacture. 

PBICE  £5  10s.  Od. 


PRICE  LIST  OF  MICROSCOPES  FREE. 
Just  Ready,  Second  Edition, 

Illustrated  Catalogus  of  Microscopes,  with  35 
Illustrations,  eight  whole  page  engravings,  post  free^ 
83ven  stamps. 


JOHN    BROWNING, 

OPTICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  INSTRUMENT   MAKER  TO   H.M.  CiOVERNMENT   THE  ROYAL  SOCIE^^^ 
ROYAL   OBSERVATORY   OF   GREENWICH,  AND   THE   OBSERVATORIES   OF^^.^^I^v^^i?  ' 

MELBOURNE,    THE    U.S.    NAVAL   OBSERVATORY,   CAMBRIDGE  AND   HARVARD   . 
UNIVERSITIES,    HOBOKEN    COLLEGE,    &c.,  &c. 

63,     STBAND,    W.C.,    LONDON. 

FACTORY-SOUTHAMPTON    STREET    and    EXETER    STREET,    LONDON. 
PRIZE  MEDAL,  1862.  ESTABLISHED    '"^  r^^^r^^ 

Telescopes,  Spectroscopes,   Opna   Glasses,   vS-v.,  dr'C,      jigitized  by  VrrOOQlC 


XXVI 


NATURE 


[Nov.  22,   1877 


MODELS     OF     DIAMONDS. 


Facsimiles  of  28  of  the  most  celebrated  White  and  Coloured  Diamonds,  wrought  in  Crystal  Glass,  of  great  Instre. 


2. 


Models  of  Natural  Crystals  of  Diamonds,  with  other  Models  of  Crystals  of  Coloured  Precious  Stones,  some  from 

original,  in  R.  Damon's  Collection. 
The  above  are  artistically  and  beautifully  cut  in  imitation  of  the  originals  both  in  surface  and  colour. 

Each  Set  in  Handsome  Morocco  Case  with  descriptive  Catalogue. 

SUPPLIED  BY 

MR.     R.      DAMON,      WEYMOUTH 

*J^  Sets  of  these  have  been  admitted  into  the  Loan  Collections  of  Scientific  Apparatus,  South  Kensington  Miso^ 


ROYAL      INSTITUTION     OF     GREAT 
BRITAIN, 

ALBEMARLE  STREET,  PICCADILLY,  W. 

LECTURE  ARRANGEMENTS  BEFORE  EASTER,  1878. 

Lcctu-e  Hour,  Three  o'clock. 

Christmas  Lbcturbs. 

Prof.  Tykdall,  D.C  L.,  F.R  S.— Six  Lectures  adapted  to  a  Juvenile 
Auditory,  on  "  Heat,  Vbible  and  Invisible  ;**  on  December  mj  (Thursday), 
39.  »877  ;  January  i    1,  5,  8,  1878. 

Pro  Alpreo  H.  Gakrod,  MA.  F.R.S.— Twelve  Lectures  00  "The 
Protopltf  mic  Theory  of  Life  and  iu  Bearing  on  Physiology  ; "  on  Tuesdays. 
January  92  to  Aptil  9. 

James  Dkwak,  E*q.,  M.A.,  F.R.S  —Twelve  Lectures  on  "The  Chemis- 
try of  thr  Org mic  World  ;"  on  Thu'sdays,  January  34  to  Apnl  11. 

R.  BoswoRTH  Smith.  F.«q.,  M.A. — ^even  Lectures  on  "Carthage  and 
the  Carthaginian ■( ; "  on  Saturdays,  January  36  in  March  9. 

Rev.  W.  Houghton.  Three  Lectures  on  '*The  Natural  History  of  the 
Ancients;"  on  Saturday*.  March  16,  33,  )0. 

Ernst  Paurr,  Evq. — ^Two  Lectures  on  **  The  Clavecinistes  and  their 
Works  (England  and  lulv  ;  France  and  Germany);"  with  Musical  Ulus- 
trations  ;  on  Saturd^vs  April  6.  13 

ProC  TvNDALL  will  give  a  Course  of  Lectures  af'er  Ea*ter. 

Subscription  to  all  the  Ourses  in  »he  Season.  Two  Guineas  :  to  a  Single 
Course,  according  to  length.  One  Guine<,  or  Hai'-a-Guinea :  to  the  Christ- 
mas Course,  Children  under  Sixteen,  Half-a-Guinea.  Tidcets  now  issued 
daily. 

The  Friday  Evening  Meetings  will  begin  on  January  35,  at  6  p  m.. 
when  Prof.  TyiJall  will  give  a  Discourse  at  9  p.m.  Succeeding  Di.s- 
courses  will  probably  be  given  by  W.  H  Prcece,  Esq.  :  Maithew  Arnold, 
Esq.  :  Dr.  Philip  U  Sclater,  Or  Warren  De  la  Rue,  Dr.  R.  Liebreich. 
Prof.  Goldwin  Smith.  Lord  Paylei^h.  Professors  Huxley  and  Dcwar.  and 
Sir  Joseph  D.  Hooker.  To  ihes»e  Meetings  Members  and  their  Friends  (Mily 
are  admitted. 

Prions  desirous  of  becoming  Members  are  requested  to  apply  to  the 
Secretary  When  proposed,  they  are  admitted  to  all  the  Lectures,  to  the 
Friday  Evning  Mcetinifs.  and  to  the  Library  and  Reading  Rooms;  and 
their  Families  are  admitted  to  the  Lectures  at  a  reduced  charge.  Pay- 
ment :  First  Year ;  Ten  Guineas ;  afterwards,  Fivo  Guineas  a  Year ;  or  a 
comoosition  of  Sixty  Guineas. 

The  WINDS,    OCEAN   CURRENTS,   and 

TIDE<.— A  LEC'URE  on  the  above  subjects,  in  illustration  of  the 
new  Theory  of  Vis-Inertijc,  or  the  Confliciing  Action  of  Antral  and 
Te-restri*!  Gravitation,  will  be  delivered  by  WILLIA^t  LEIGHTON 
JORDAN,  Fsq.,  F.R  G.S..  at  Willis's  Rooms,  commencing  at  8  o'clock 
on  the  evening  of  THUKSDAY,  December  30.  Seats  $s  ,  as.  6</.,  and 
IS.  For  tickets  apply,  by  letter,  to  W.  LsioHTON  Jordan,  Esq., 
Scientific  Club,  No.  7,  Savile  Row,  W. 


To    LECTURERS    and     SCIENCE 

TEACH  ERS.  -DIAGRAMS  (Anatomical,  Physiological.  Microscopic) 
carefully  prepared  and  coloured,  of  any  size.  Inrices  moderate.  Saen- 
tifir  accuracy  guaranteed.  Specimens  sent. — A.  Redland,  9,  Bladud 
Buildings,  B-«th. 

ECHIN0DERM8   FROM    MADAGASCAR. 

THOMAS  D.  RUSSELL  has  lately  received  a  magnificent  Collection 
of  ECHINI  and  STaR-FISHES  ffom  Madagascar.  The  series  includes 
>plendi(1  examples  of  Hftercantrotu*  trigotioria  and  H,  tMammiilaris, 
wesii  cs  oiher  rare  and  fine  spe  les 

A  Pnze  Medal  was  awarded  for  this  Collection  at  the  Maritime  Exhibition, 
Royal  Aquanum,  Weftmmstcr. 

The  Collection  is  now  for  sale,  either  as  Single  Specimens  <»-  in  Sets. 

Co  lections  of  British  and  Foreign  Shells,  Fossils,  Minerals,  Rocks, 
Microscopic  Object*,  &c 

Catalogues  post  free. 

THOS.  D,  RUSSELL, 

48,   ESSEX   STREET,   STRAND,   W.C. 


MICROSCOPIC  OBJECTS 

Of  th«  highest  attainable  pertectioo,  ilhiacnanc  Aaacoaf 
Botany,  Eotonology,  and  etrery  bnuM:h  of  Microsoopical  S 

MoUer's  New  Typen  Plata  and  Objects.    Nobert**  Lines.    AU 

and  requisites  for  mountinc.     Unequalled  Stud'vt's  Microaoope,  with  tag- 
Ushi-inchandHn<^o^J®ctlves,  Five  Guineas.  Cata]ogae,MevB<fit>aB,iSi^ 

C-atis  and  post  free,  and  Obfecu  delivered  in  U.S.  A  and  Bridsh  Ctikmtn 
DMUND  WHEELER,  48N,  ToUington  RomU  HoUovay.  ~ 


SUNDAY   LECTURE    SOCIETY.— LEG- 

TURES  at  ST.  GEORGE'S  HALL,  LANGHAM  PLACF.,  e^ 
SUNDAY  AFI  ERNOON.  commencitg  at  Four  o'd.xrk  p  ccbdv  - 
Sunday,  November  as  — Charles  Walustsin.  £•«.,  Ph.D.,  00  *'  Tie 
Balance  of  Emotion  and  Iniellect  m  Mao.**— Menabers'  A-  ntt«I  &;> 
srript:on,  Ji\.  Payment  at  the  Door^One  Pcnuj,  Siapcaoe,  aai 
(Reserved  Seals)  One  Shilling. 


and 


UNIVERSITY  of  LONDON  ist  M.B. 

PRELIMINARY  SCIENTIFIC  EXAMINATIONS.— Cla>s«  biS 
the  subject*  required  are  now  being  formed  at  St.  Tnonut&'s  Ho«p±^ 
Medical  >chool,  which  are  not  confined  to  Students  of  the  Ho^p^^: 
For  particulars  apply  to  Dr.  Gillespie,  Seoeury,  at  the  UoeiicaL 

LANCASTER    SCHOOL. 

Head  Master -Rev.  W.  E  Pkvks.  M  A  ,  St    John's  CoUese,  Caailni^r. 

14th  Wrangler,  iZ6b, 

Second  Master— Rev.  W  T.  Nbwbold,  M  A  .  Fellow  of  St.  Jolav 

College,  Cambridge,  5ih  Cla^c,  1873 

Assistant  Masters— J.  H.  Flatmer,  Esq  ,  B  A,  Emmanuel  C6llr|re,  C»sr 

hridg<-,  14th  Classic.  1S76,  and  Light'oot   Modem  Hutory  Scholar  in  ifac 

Uoiveisiiy  ;  J.  C.  Witton,  Em?.,  BSc  Lond.,  Ac  ,  &c 

New  BuUdings,  including  a  LABORATORY,  were  opened  00  Seplem^ 
34.  by  the  Bishop  of  Manchester. 

There  are  University  Scholarships,  which  may  be  given  for  proficiency  k 
Science. 

For  Prospectus,  &c.,  address  Rev.  the  Head  Mastbk,  School  Hose. 
Lancaster. 

QUEENWOOD  COLLEGE,  near  STOCK- 
BRIDGE,   HANTS. 

Sound  General  Education  for  Boys. 

Special  attention  to  Science,  parttoularly  to  Ghemistry,  both  thaotcck^ 
and  practicaL 

References  to  Dr.  Debus,  F.R.S. ;  Dr.  Frankland,  F.R.S.  :  Dr.  Rosooe. 
F.R.S. :  Dr.  Angus  Smith,  F.R.S. ;  Dr.  TyndaU,  F.R.S. ;  I>r.  Voekkcs. 
F.R.S. :  Dr.  ^UTiamson.  FR-S. 

The  Autumn  Tens  aMomeaces  Tuesday,  September  asth. 

d  WILLMORB.  J 


ROYAL  POLYTECHNIC  and  BERNERS 

COLLEGE  in  conjunction.— The  Laboratories  and  Cbuia  rooas  for 
Private  and  Class  Study  are  Open  every  Day  and  Evening.  Gentle- 
men prepared  for  Matriculation,  Woolwich,  and  the  vanoos  Kramimng 


Boards.'  Fees  moderate.— Apply  to  ProC  Gakombb^ 
PolytechniCt  or  44,  Bemers  Sbeet,  W. 


"^^ 


The  TELEPHONE.— A  well-known  PRO- 

FESSOR  can  accept  a  few  ENGAGEMENTS  to  Lecture,  mith 
ExprrimentMl  Illustration*,  on  ihis  popular  and  intrresting  lnvetau«i. 
For  Terms,  &c,  address  OMICRON,  xio.  Cannon  Street.  £  C 

THIN      GLASS      FOR      MICROSCOPIC 

MOUNTING  of  best  quality.  Circles,  3*.  M  per  ounce;  Squares. 
9S  oi  ;  pose  free  ^,  extra  :  alsooth  r  Mounting  Materials  and  Objects 
prepared  for  mounting. -CHAS.  PETIT,  151.  High  Street,  btoke 
Newington,  N.  

WANTED.— Clean   Copies    of    NATURE, 

No.  s^— Andreas  Natvxb  OffioSf  99,  Bedlbfd  Stnet,  Strand,  W.C 


Digitized  by 


Google 


Nov.  22,  1877] 


NATURE 


xxvu 


i^alr^  be  ^urtf on. 


Scientific  and  Miscellaneous  Property. 

Mr.  J.  C.  STEVENS  will  sell  by  Auction  at 

his  great  Rooms  38,  King  Street.  Covent  Garden.  W.C,  on  FRIDAY, 
November  23,  at  hal  -past  zx  o'clock  precisely.  Dissolving- view  Lanterns 
and  blities,  Microscopes  aod  a  variety  of  objects  for  same.  Cabinet  of 
Mounting  Apparatus,  Stereoscopes  and  Slides,  Telescope* ;  also,  a  lot 
of  expensive  lilectrical  Apparatus,  the  property  of  ARTHUR  E. 
GREVlLLE,  Esq.,  of  Towce^ter,  inclnding  two  large  Engines,  Bunsen 
and  other  Batteries,  Vacuum  Tubes,  Induction  Coils.  &c  ,  &c. 
On  view  morning  of  Sale,  and  Catalogues  had. 

Valuable  Collection  of  Permanent  Autotypes  o^  Classical  Subjects,  from 
the  Works  of  the  Great  Masters. 

Messrs.    HODGSON   will  SELL    by  AUC- 

TIONat  their  Rooms.  115,  Chancery  Lane,  W.C  (Fleet  Street  en dX 


on  MONDAY.  December  3,  at  1  oclork  (by  order  of  the  Autotype 
Comjpan^),  a  Large  and  Interesting  Collection  of  PERMANENT 
AUTOIYPE^,  mounted  on  Cardboard  in  Portfolios,  and  in  Albums, 


comprising  Facsimile  Copies  of  the  Drawings,  and  Reproductions  in 
Monochrome  of  the  Paintings  of  the  Great  Masters,  illustrating  all  the 
remarkable  SchooU  of  Classic  Art,  from  the  most  Notable  Treasures  in 
the  (Galleries  of  Europe,  well  suited  for  Public  Libraries  or  Art  Collec- 
tions. 1  hree  OrigtnaJ  Drawings  by  W.  Cavb  Thoma<,  and  upwards  of 
ICO  Fiaroed  Autoiypes.  To  which  is  added  th«  Entire  Remaining 
Stock  (about  230  Copies)  of  Day  &  Son's  Chromolithographic  Facsimile 
of  DA  VINCrS  GREATEST  WORK,  •'THE  LAST  SUPPER" 
(pub.  6r.  6</). 
May  be  viewed  two  days  prior  and  morning  of  Sale,  and  Catalogues 
forwarded  on  application. 


LONDON  CLAY  FOSSILS  from  SHEPPE Y. 

F^to,   Bones,  Shells,  Crustaceans,  (morals.  Starfish,  ftc.      xoo  good 
Specimens  with  neat  labeL  (50  or  more  Species),  lor. ;  half  the  quan- 
tity^ 5X.    Carriage  paid  to  Ltnadon. 
The  fossils  of  vegeuble  origin,  being  liable  to  decay,  are  subjected  to  an 
efficient  preservative  process. 

Specimen  Fruit,  and  Copy  of  Papers  on  "Geology  of  Sheppey***  post 
free  for  three  penny  stamps.  List,  with  0>py  of  Testimonials,  in  prepara- 
tion.— W.  H.  Shxubsolb,  bheemesa-on-Sea. 

CASTLETON,  DEBYSHIRE. 
JOHN  TYM    is  now  enabled    to  offer  the 

following  rare  and  interesting  O>llecdons: — 
Palaeolithic.  30  Specimens  (indudbg  Teeth,  &c.  of  Rhinoceros,     £   s.  d. 

Bison,  Reindeer,  Hyaena,  &c  ,  aod  Casts  of  Implemenu)...        zoo 

Cresswell  Caves,  18  Sp^mens  o  so    o 

Windy  Knoll  Fissure,  15  Specimens 076 

Pleistocene  Fauna  (a  splendid  setX  zoo  Specimens       ...        ...       500 

Flint  Flakes  from  6d,  each. 

Oatnlogues  post  free. 


GEOLOGY.— In  the  Preface  to  the  Student's 

ELEMENTS  of  GEOLOGY,  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell.  price  or.,  ha  says : 
—"As  it  is  imponible  to  enable  the  reader  to  recognise  rocks  and  mme- 
rals  at  sight  by  aid  of  verbal  descriptions  or  figures,  he  will  do  well  to 
obtain  a  well-arranged  collection  of  specunens,  sudi  as  may  be  proem  ed 
from  Mr.  TENNAInT  (149,  Strand),  Teacher  of  Mineralogy  at  King's 
College,  London."    These  Collections  are  supplied  on  the  following 
terms,  m  plain  Mahoeany  Cabinets:— 
zoo  Specunens,  in  Cabmet,  with  3  Trayi    •«    •«    m.  ;Ca    •    o 
aoo  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  5  Traya    m.    •»    ~.     5    5    o 
300  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  9  Drawers       ^    ^  so  so    o 
400  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  13  Drawait     ^    .«  az    o   o 
More  extensive  Collections  at  50  to  5.000  (^nineas  each. 

THE  POPULAR  SCIENTIFIC  POCKET  CABINET 
SERIES, 

lUustradve  of  Mineralogy,  Palaeontology,  Petrology,  Conchology,  Metal- 
lurgy, &C.,  arranged  by  THOMAS  J.  DOWNING,  (Geologist,  &c.,  38, 
Whiskin  Street,  London,  E.a 
as  Specimens  to  illustrate  Geikie*s  "  (Geological  Primer,"  in  Cabinet, 
u.  6(^  ;  as  da  to  illustrate  the  Rev  T.  O.  Bonney's  "  Elementary  (Seology," 
91. 6<£  ;  as  do.  British  Fossils,  in  Crafaiaet,  ex.  6d. ;  •$  do.  British  Rocks, 
da,  ar.  &/. ;  as  da  Earthy  Minends,  da.  9t,  td. :  93  do*  Metallic  Minerals, 
da,  ar.  6/1 ;  •$  da  RecentShells,  do.,  ax.  6d,  ;a5-do.  Metals,  do .  ar.  6/. ;  35 
da  Rough  (^ems  and  Stones,  do  ,  ar.  6d,  Catalogues  free.  N.  B.  ^P.O.  O. 
or-Cheqne  must  invariably  accompany  all  orderi.    Trade  supplied. 

THE    TELiiGKAPHIC  JOUKMAL 

_  AMD 

ELECTRICAL   REVIEW. 

Fciklishtd  OB  He  ist  and  x^  brdi^  monklC  prite  4^ ;  Soteerfpdai  p«r 
Aanum,  post  fretf  in  Great  Britain,  gt. 

0>NTBNTS  FOX  NOVBMBBK  Z. 

T.— ElectrO'Magnetic  (^ckery.  .  . 

2.— Report  of  the  Trinity  House  on  the  CA>mpar;alve  Trials  of,  Electric 

Lights  at  the  South  Foreland.    (lUustratcd.)* 
3.-Duplex  Partial  Earth  Test     (Ulustrated.) 

4.— Influence  of  Light  on  the  Electric  State  of  Metals.         ;  ^    ' 

S.— Notes. 
6.-aty  Nites. 
7.— General  Science  Coltmins. 
8. '^Correspondence. 

London:  HAUGHTON  &  CO.,  ip»  PMenotlv  JUm,  ' 

To  whom  alio  CoamiDicatiQBi  for  tha  Editor  may  be  lent 


ROYAL  GARDENS,  KEW. 

THE    GARDENER'S    CHRONICLE     for 

NOVEMBER  17  conuins  a  large  Workbg  Plan  (t8  inches  by  13 
inche»),  illustrative  of  the 

NEW    HEATING    APPARATUS, 
Lately  erected  by  Mr.  E.  G.  Rivers,  CE.,  in  the 
PALM    HOUSE,    ROYAL    GARDENS.    KEW; 
Together  with  Illustrated  Articles  on  New  or  Interesting  PlanU.  Descrip- 
tive Notice  and  Illustration  of  the  Gardens  at  Pieneraont  House,  Darling- 
ton, the  seat  of  Henry  Pease,  Esq.,  &c. 

Price  5^.,  post  free,  s\d. 
W.  RICHARDS,  4r,  Wellington  Street,  Strand,  W.C 

"  That  excellent  periodical  Thk  Gardbm."— Professor  Owen. 

THE    GARDEN  :     A    Weekly    Illustrated 

Journal  of  Gardentog  in  all  its  Branches.  Founded  and  Conducted  by 
W.  ROBINSON,  F.L.S.,  Author  of  "Alpine  Flowers  for  English 
Gardens,"  &c. 

A  Coloured  Plate  is  now  issued  with  every  number  of  The  Garden. 
*'  Mr.  Robinson's  valuable  and  elegant  ^ttV\y.**—Saturday  Review, 
Aug.  zoth,  187a. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  regularly  treated  of  in  its  pages  :— 


The  Flower  Garden. 
Landscape  Gutleniog. 
The  Fruit  Garden. 
Garden  Structures. 
Room  and  Window  Gardens. 
Notes  and  (Questions. 
Market  Gardening. 
Trees  and  Shrubs. 


Hardy  Flowers. 

Town  (hardens. 

The  Contervatory. 

Public  Gardens. 

The  Greenhouse  and  Stove. 

The  Household. 

The  Wild  Garden. 

The  Kitchen  Garden. 


Professor  Asa  Gray  says :  "  It  seems  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  and 
tastes  of  gentlemen  who  are  interested  in  rural  aitairs.  By  such  we  hear  it 
highly  spoken  of;  and  we  think  we  do  a  favour  to  those  of  that  class  who 
know  it  not  as  yet,  by  calling  attention  to  it*' 

Price  6d  Weekly.    Specimen  Copy,  Post-free,  6^. 

Terms  of  Subscription. — Sent  direct  from  the  Office  in  London,  post  free, 
payable  in  advance— For  One  Year,  36r. ;  Half  a  Vear,  14^. ;  (garter  of  a 
Year,  jM.  Addres>  all  letters  concerning  Subscriptions  to — ^The  Publisher  of 
The  GardeMf  37,  Southampton  Street,  ^.x>veot  Garden,  London,  W.C 

NORTH     BRITISH     AGRICULTURIST. 

Is  the  only  Agricultiural  Journal  in  Scotland,  and  cuculatea  extensively 
amongst  landed  proprietors,  factors,  farmen,  Cum-bailif^  and  othm 
intereated  in  the  management  of  landed  property  throughout  Scotland  and 
the  Northern  OMmliea  of  England. 

Tha  AGRICULTU^ST  has  also  a  vary  considerable  drcolatioii  on  th« 
Continent  of  Europa,  America,  Australia,  and  the  O>lonies. 

The  AGRKHJCTCIRIST  is  pobSshed  every  Wednesday  afteniooa  la 
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NATURE 


[Nov.   22,   1877 


THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS'  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION  AND  MUSEUM  AND  INSTITUTE    OF 

PISCICULTURE  SOCIETY,  LIMITED. 

CAPITAL-£5,000  IN  5,000  SHARES   OF  £1  EACH. 

(With  power  to  increase.) 

This  Society  is  established  en  an  ertirely  scientific  basis,  with  the  object  of  focterinK  and  promoting  the  idenoe  of  Economic  Ptadcultut'*,  wanA 
of  supplying  Ei  gfish  and  other  naturalists  and  natural  history  »tuHents  with  facilities,  not  hithetto  accessible,  for  pumiing  Marine  Biological  InvcstisMvB* 
The  aim  of  the  Sotiety  is,  in  fact  to  providr,  in  a  conveniently  accrsoible  and  suitable  locality,  an  institution  which  shall  fu]61  for  the  entire  novdi  of 


Furope  that  splere  r  f  utility  w>  ich  the  vell-krown  Naple»  Aquatiuni  an>i   Zcolr-gical  Station  now  docs  for  the  south.     Mature  < 
to  the  seleaiot)  of  a  ro^^t  eligible  and  advsntt  gcous  site  in  the  neighbr>urhocd  of  St.  Heiier's,  Jersey,  for  this  purpose. 

As  with  the  Naples  Imtitution  there  >»ill  be  enibrdied  in  this  undertaking  the  following  several  featuns  of  utility  and  attraction  : — Firstly,  Ibr  tW 
entertauiivrnt  of  the  public,  ard  as  a  source  of  incrme  for  the  defragment  c>f  the  general  i^orking  expenfes,  a  Saloon  will  be  set  apart  fnr  the  pvbBc 
display  of  the  limine  ren  zrns  of  the  ocean,  ard  of  which  it  n  ay  be  >aid  (hat  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  produce  an  urparalleled  wealth  of  nu— bua 
and  vs-r  ety.  Acjoinine  the  Saloon  there  will  l*k(  wise  be  a  Museum,  available  both  as  a  Lecture-room  and  for  the  exhibition  of  a  typical  Naturml  Hncoiy 
Collectirn,  more  especially  leprrsetitative  of  the  luxuriant  Marine  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  more  important  Technical  Department  will  irdude    Laboratories,  with  al  I  suitable   Apparatus    and   Instruments.  Tanlcs  for    Kxper 
Pisciculture,   and  a  Library  of  Standard  Scientific  Works  and  ^et)a's  for  the  use  of  nsturalists  and  i^tudents  who  shall  repair  here  (or  the  ; 
of  prosecuting   Marire    biological   Research.      With  the  Institution  will  also  be  associated  a  Dtfpot  for  the  supply  of  living  or  carefuUy-p- 
manne  specimens  to  British  or  other  Universities  Museums,  Sdeoce  Schools  and  Aquaria,  or  to  naturalisu  that  may  require  the  same  for  1 
class  deiroDsttation,  or  (or  private  investigation. 

Following  the  sy>t' m  adopted  at  the  Penikese  Island  Station,  it  is  further  propoccd,  f<  r  the  full  development  of  the  sciendSc  resources  of  tks 
In<titi>tion,  to  inaugur.itr  Summer  Classes  for  the  attendance  of  Stt^dents,  and  to  hold  out  sufficient  inducements  for  the  mo»t  eminent  authorities  on 
>snous  biological  mi  Ejects  to  deliver  Lectures  and  a  Course  of  Instrucuon  to  these  Classes  upon  that  branch  of  Natwml  History  with  which  tbew 
icputaiion  is  more  epecially  ss*<ciated.  In  view  of  the  laboratories  and  Lecture  Arrangements  b«-it«g  a*mplete  by  the  Summer  of  187^  those  pro|inMig 
to  avail  themselves,  as  Studexits  of  the  advantages  held  out,  are  rc<]uested  to  communicate  with  the  Secretary. 

In  view  of  a  desire  aheady  expressed  by  many  wishing  to  as^i»t  in  the  otsbl^shmcnt  of  this  Institution  without  becoming  Shareholders,  the  Sooefy 

i«  empowered  to  receive  (oDtributicns  towards  the  establishment  and  further  development  of  the  Institution.    Such  moneys  contributed  will  be"* * 

entirely  to  the  uses  sbrve  n  entioned.  ard  will  ret  le  af^^plical  le  for  the  pui|os«s  oi  a  Dividend  or  othetw  se  for  the  personal  advantage  of  the  < 
Sharebolc'ers.     >  special  privileges  will  be  granted  to  all  such  Dorors :  Sub  oibers  of  £io9n6  upwards  receivii.g  in  return  the  advantage  M  a  Life-i 


Oft'iBary 


ship  and  free  admission  to  the  Institution  upon  all  occasions  on  which  the  building  is  open  to  the  public 

The  techi  ical  control  of  the  Ir.stitution  wi.l  be  undestaken,  as  Naturalist  Director,  by  Mr.  W.  SAVILLE  KENT.  P.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  &c  .  for«crlT 
Assistant  in  the  Natural  History  D«panment  of  the  British  Museum,  and  whose  experience  as  Naturalist  for  simie  years  to  the  leading  Eogiiah  Aquana 
eminently  qualifies  h'm  for  this  position. 

In  registering  the  Memorandum  and  Articles  of  Association  of  this  Society,  spedal  care  has  been  taken  to  secure  for  the  undertakmg  a  purdy 
scientific  status,  and  to  permanently  exclude  from  it  all  those  supplementary  attractions  of  an  irrelevant  nature  usually  assrciated  «rith  public  cxhibiBMai 
of  the  living  wonders  of  the  deep.     It  is  only  under  such  restrictions  and  reservations  that  patronage  and  subscriptions  are  here  invited. 

For  Prospectuses  and  furtner  particulars  apply  to  the  Skckktary  or  to  the  Naturalist  Directok,  r6,  Koyal  Square,  St.  Hclier't,  Jtnty. 

Cor  tiibiiiK  n>  rf  Pocks  ard  Serial  Literatue  relating  to  Fiological  SubjecU  suited  for  the  Library,  of  Instruments  and  Apparatus  for  the  Labomloty, 
or  of  Natura   Histcry  Fneciicens  for  the  Mt  seu***,  will  be  most  gratefully  accepted 

An  especial  appeal  for  suppoit  is  here  made  to  the  Fel'ows  and  Members  of  the  various  Metre po'.itan  and  Provincial  Scientific  Societics»  and  wha 
have  row  placed  before  tlem  an  unprecedented  e-pportunity  of  advancing  the  piestige  and  intercsu  of  £ngli>h  Marine  Biological  Science. 

DONATIONS  RECEIVED :— Mr.  Charles  Da.win,  LL.D.,  F.R.S..  £90:  Dr.  J.  Millar,  F.L.S.,  £9;  Prot  R.  O.  Cunnmgham,  F.L.S..  £5. 
Mr.  C.  Le  Feuvre,  j(,9  ;  Mr.  A.  de  Gruchy,  ;Cio  ;  Mr.  F.  Voism,  £to  ;  Mr.  J.  Macready,  £1. 

All  furtl  er  Contributior  s  to  the  *'  Ponatie  n  Fund "  for  the  founding  of  the  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Sutioa  and  Museiun  and  Inttituf  of 
Pisdcultute  will  be  duly  acknowledged  in  theae  columns- 

W.  SWILLE  KENT,  Hom.  S«c 


CONSUMPTION: 

Its  Pkoximate  Cause  and  Specific  Treatment  by  the  HYFOPHOSPHITES 
upon  the  Principles  of  Stoech'ological  Medicine,  by 

JOHN  FRANCIS  CHURCHILL.  M.D., 
>^'ith  an  Appendix  on  the  Direct  Treatment  of  Resp'ra  ory  Diseases 
(Asthma,  I'tot chilis,  &r  )  by  Sioechiological  Inhalartv  And  Kejporu  ot 
nearly  Ti»o  Purdred  Cases  by  Drs.  Chi<rch41,  Campbell,  Hesle>p.  Sterling, 
Bird,  Sj^ma  Maria,  Gcmez,  Maestro,  Pangoi,  Kemvillien  Calves.  Lrn- 
vercnd,  Denot  ele,  Feidman,  Pfeiffer,  Vintras,  Bougard,  Tirifahv,  Lanzi, 
Fabbri,  Panegrossi.  Cerasi,  Gualdi,  Tod<ai,  Aacenxi,  Regikoli,  Valentim, 
Casati,  Blasi,  Borromeo,  Fiorelli,  and  Fedeb. 

LONGMANS  A  CO. 


Jott  published,  8vo,  8r.  6d,,  with  Diagrams  and  Tables  of  Reiulu  in  Inches 
and  in  Metres. 

INDUCTIVE  METROLOGY ;  or,  The  Re- 

covery  of  Ancient  Measures  Irom  the  Mooiuiients.    By  W.  M.  FLIN- 
DERS  PETRIE. 

*'A  very  intcrestiiig  and  pregnant  book,  the  result  of  mudi  reading  and 
patient  research."— iw«A^. 

**  Through  these  almost  impeioeptibla  variatioos  there  may  be  foood  a 
unity,  reducing  the  chaos  of  existing  standards  to  something  like  order."— 
Smturday  Rtvitw. 

Loodoo :  HARGROVE  SAUNDERS,  %^  richbonie  Street,  PiccadiUy 
Circus. 

Now  ready,  price  One  Penny  each  Lecture. 

THE    BEGINNINGS   OP   LIFE    ILLUS- 

TRATED.    A  LECTURE  by  Prof.  P.  MARTIN  DUNCAN,  F.R.S., 
being  the  Fir»t  of  the  Manchester  Sdeoce  Lectures  for  1877. 

Manchester:  JOHN  HEYWOOD.     London:  F.  PITMAN. 
Now  ready,  price  6c  6i£ 

SOME  CHEMICAL  DIFFICULTIES  OF 

EVOLUTION.    ByJ.J.MACLAREN. 

**  The  author,  after  setting  forth  his  view  of  the  nature  of  dienical  action, 
first,  where  life  b  absent,  and  'next^  «rbere  living  beings  are  concerned  in 
inducing  the  changes  observed,  applies  his  reasoning  to  the  doctrine  of  cto> 
lution,  and  deduces  the  difficulties  that  occur  to  hiaEL** 


THE  "  BRYCE-WRIGHT  "  DIAMONDS. 


These  MagniScent  Gems,  forming  the  largest 

SUITE     OF    DIAMONDS 

In  the  World,  are  at  present  on  View. 


BRTCE    M.   WRIGHT,  F.R.aS.,  te., 

90^   GREAT  RUSSELL  STREET,   BLOOMSBURY, 

LONDON,  W.C. 


THE 


This  day,  sir.    Fourth  Edition. 

MICROSCOPE     IN     MEDICINE. 


pp.  550,  nearly  600  Figures     By  LIONEL  S.  BEALE,  ]il.B.,_F  R  S. 
Two  Hundred  Pages  and  lliirty  Plates  have  been  added  to  this 
and  the  work  has  been  revised  throughout 

London  r  J.  &  A  CHURCHILL,  New  BnHirgtoo  Street. 


Loadoal:  EDWARD  BUMPUS,  5  ud 6^Uolbon  B«s,  B  C 


FOREIGN  BOOKS  AT  FOREIGN  PRICES. 

WILLIAMS  and  NORGATE'S  FOREIGN 

SCIENTIFIC  BOOK  CIRCULAR.  No.  34.  Post  fre<».  One  Scaafw 
(Natural  History,  Physics,  Astronomy,  Chemistry,  Medtdni^  aad 
Surgery.) 

14,  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London  ;  and  ao.  South  Fiedeikk 
Street,  Edinburgh. 

Text-Book    of    Botany,    Morphological 

AND   PHYSIOLOGICAL.     By   Dr.   Julius  Sa 
Professor  of  BoUui  j  in  the  University  of  Wiirzburg.    Tisok- 
lated  by  A.  W.  Bennett,  M.A.,  Lecturer  on  Botany,  Sc 
Thomas's  Hospital,  assisted  by  W.  T.  Thiselton  Dyer,  M.A^ 
Cb.  Ch.,  Oxford.     Royal  8vo,  half  morocco.    31/.  6(/. 
**  The  want  of  a  good  text-book  of  Botany^  one  that  would  gire  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  present  state  of  botanical  science,  has  long  been  iek  bj 
English  students.    We  therefore  heartily  welcome  the  appearance  of  tlss 
translation,  because  we  feel  certain  that  it  will  supply  that  want  so  long  firil. 
•ad  be  of  the  greatest  valtie  to  both  teachers  and  students. ''—AWamK. 

OXFORD,    printed   at    the    CLARENDON    PR£SS»    aad 

pablisbed  by  MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON,  1 

to  the  Univtnity* 


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Nov.   22,  1877] 


NATURE 


XXIX 


DIARY    OF    SOCIETIES. 


London 

THURSDA  y,  NovBMBBR  aa. 
BovAi.  Socirrv,  mt  8.30  — Remarks  oq  the  Attributes  of  the  Gcrmiiul  Par- 
tide*  of  Bacteria,  in  reply  to  Prof.  Tyndall :  Dr.  Sanderson,  F.R.S.— 
Obaervatioiis  on  Hermetically- sea  ed  Flasks  oi  ened  in  the  Alps  :  Dr. 
Txndall,  F.R  S.— Researches  on  the  Effect  of  Light  upon  Bacteria  and 
o«her  <  >rganisms :  Drs  Downes  and  T.  P.  B<unt— On  tLe  Tides  at  Bialta : 
The  Astronomer-Royal,  F.  R,  S. 

FRIDAY,  NovKMBBK  aj. 
QvBKSTT  MiCKOSCOPiCAL  Club,  at  8.— A  New  British  Sponge :  J.  G. 

^*""'  SUNDAY,   NoVBMBBR  9$ 

Sunday  Lbctukk  Socibtv,  at  4.— The  Balance  of  Emotion  and  Intellect  in 

Man:  Dr.  Waldstein. 

MONDAY^  NovBMBBK  ad 
SocivTY  ow  AKTtt  ax  S.— Cantor  Lectuz*  ;  Maaufacture  of  Pkper :  Wm. 

Amot,  F.CS.  TUESDAY,  Novbhbeji  ay. 

Amthkopouwical  TNSTrrtnrB,  at  8. — Notes  on  Socotra :  F.  M.  Hunter. 

— Notes  on  the  Z&paros :  AUnd  Simson.— On  the  Malays  and  Polynesians : 

Rev.  S  J.  Whitmee. 
West  London  SciawTtnc  AssoaATioH,  at  8. -The  Age  of  the  Hills: 

J.  L.  Lobley. — Geolofrv  of  HuosU'  ton  :  The  Hoo.  Libnuian. 
Institution  of  Ovil  snginbbks.  at  8. 

WEDNESDAY,  NovBMBSit  aS. 
Socirnr  or  Arr*.  at  8.  ^     .  ^ 

Royal  Socirrv  or  Litbratukb,  at  a— Oa  Roman  Wax  tablets  recently 

found  at  Pompeii :  Mr.  Vaux. 
Socibty  op  Tblbgkaph  Encimbbrs,  at  8. 

FRIDAY,  NoVBMBBR  30. 
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LIGHTNING    CONDUCTORS. 

Expmeoce,  accumulated  since  the  time  of  Banjamin  Franklin,  ptoras 
conclusiYely  that  a  Conductor  made  of  C<^>pcr  of  adequate  sin  is  the  batt 
of  all  appliances  for  the  protection  of  every  descripdoo  of  building  fr«m  the 
destructiye  effects  of  lightning. 

NEWALL  &  CO.'S 

PATENT  COPPER  LIGHTNING  CONDUCTOR, 

Is  applied  to  all  kinds  of  Btnldings  and  Shipping  in  all  pans  of  the  world 
with  unvarying  success,  is  the  moikt  Reliable,  most  Effectnre,  and  Cheapest 
Conductor  ever  offered  to  the  public. 

It  is  simple  in  iu  application,  no  insulat<vs  being  required,  and  it  coats 
only  one  shillbg  per  foot  for  the  standard  size,  which  is  safe  in  any  stonn. 

B.  •.  MBWAXJb  *  00..  X30,  STRAND,  W.C. 

._  36,  W A1 E  RLOO  ROAD,  LIVERPOOL. 

68,  ANDERSTON  QUAY,  GLASGOW. 
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BURGOYNE,  BURBID6ES,  CYRiAX, ft  PARRIES, 

MAKUFACTURING  AND  OPERATIVE  CHEMISTS, 

16,    COLEMAN    STREET,    E.G. 

(Prixe  Medal  Paris  ExhibitioB.  1867.) 

Manufacturers    of  every   description    of  Pure   Acids, 

Chemicals,  and  Reagents  for 

Analytical  Purposes  and  Scientific  Research. 

Sole  Agents  for  C.  A.  Kahlbaum,  Berlin. 
Prici   Lists   and   Special   Quotations   upon   application. 


PATENT 
COEN  FLOUE 

Has  aU  the  Properties 

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And  is  recommended   for 

CUSTARDS,  PUDDINGS,  BLANCMANGE,  AND 

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MICROSCOPES,   OBJECTIVES,   &c. 

CENTENNIAL  EXHIBITION.  PHILADELPHIA,  U.SJL 


The  Medal  and  Highest  Award  has  been  given  for  Deilgii, 
Cooitniction,  Optical  F.Tcellfnfir,  and  Moderation  in  Price,  ts 

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folly  Uustrstod  Cualofue  and  foil  fnatnicdoM  by  Po«.  6  StMsps. 
If  aUed  abfftwd  fn^ 


W.    LADD    &    CO., 
Scientific  Instrument  MannfacturerB 

{Bf  Appiimtmtn*  U  tks  R^jfml  ImHttMm  9f  Qrtmi  Britmim,) 

II  &  12,  BEAK  STREET,  REGENT  STREET,  W. 

LADD'S  IMPROVED  SELFCHARQtNQ  HOLTZ  ELEO- 
TRICAL  MACHINE,  with  4  to  12  Plates,  indoMd  in  a 
Mahogan^f  and  Glass  Case.  This  instrument  is  immediately 
aTailaUe  in  any  condition  of  the  atmosphere. 

The  akoue  imprautmetUs  can  he  applied  to  HoU%  Machines  #/ 
old  form, 

MRS.  SPOTTISWOODE'S  POCKET  POLARISING    APPA- 

RATU8,  complete  in  Case,  post  free  3/.  8f.  6d, 
CRYSTALS,  showing  Axis,  Dichroism,  &&,  moonted  for  abore, 

fa  fjywil^f  CISC* 

ALSOk 

PhUotophical  Apparatus  of  every  Detcription. 
libutmt^  C^tml0pte,  Sixfmu^ 

jigitized  by  VrrOOQ IC 


XXX 


NATURE 


[Nov.  2  2,    1877 


READY. 

Crown  8vo,  wikb  Maps  and  Illustrations,  cloth,  6r.| 

THE  HEROES   OF    YOUNG  AMERICA. 

By  ASCOTT  R.  HOPE.  Author  of  "  A  Peck  of  Trcubles,"  "  A  Book 
about  Boys,"  "  A  Book  about  Dominies,"  &c.,  &c. 


Crown  8vo.  with  numerous  IllustraUons,  cloth,  dr. 

ADVENTURES     IN     THE     AIR;     being 

Memorable  Experiences  cf  Great  Aeronauts.      From  the  French  of 
M.  DE  FONVIELLE.  TVanslated  and  Edited  by  JOHN  S.  KELTIE. 


Tenth  Edition,  with  54  Folio  Coloured  Plates,  js.  6d. 

THE   INSTRUCTIVE  PICTURE   BOOK, 

No.  I :  OR.  LESS  >NS  FROM  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF 
ANIMALS.  By  ADAM  WHITE,  late  Assistant,  Zoological  Depart- 
ment, British  Museum. 


Secrnd  Edition,  with  48  Frlio  Coloured  Plates,  7*.  6d. 

THE  INSTRUCTIVE  PICTURE   BOOK, 

No.    4.-SKETCHES    FROM    NATURE;   or.    PICTURES    OF 
ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  LIFE  IN  ALL  LANDS. 


Seventh  Edition,  with  36  oblong  Folio  Coloured  Illustrations,  ys.  6d. 

RECREATIVE  INSTRUCTION.  —  THE 

NEW  PICTURE  BOOK  ;  or.  PICTORIAL  LESSONS  ON  FORM. 
COMPARISON,  AND  NUMBER.  For  Children  under  Seven  Years 
of  Age.    Wtth  Explanations  by  NICHOLAS  BOHN  Y. 


Second  Edition,  fcap.  8vo,  with  Map,  cicth,  ax. 

ROUND    ABOUT   LONDON:   Historical, 

Archaeological,  Architectural,  and  Picturesque  Notes,  suiuble  for  the 
Tourist,  wtthin  a  Circle  cf  Twelve  Miles.  To  which  are  added  speci- 
mens of  Short  Walking  Excursions  and  Visits  to  Hatfield.  Knole.  St. 
Albans,  and  Windsor.  By  A  FELLOW  OF  THE  SOCIETY  OF 
ANTIQUARIES. 
"Too  much  can  scarcely  be  said  in  praise  of  the  accuracy  and  complete* 

ness  of  thb  little  guide  with  its  Index  and  Map So  useful  a  vadt 

mecum  should  not  he  overlooked  even  by  the  well-informed  Londoner,  while 
to  the  stranger  it  will  prove  a  mine  of  information.  "—^««w«. 

One  sheet,  size  36  inches  by  as ;  coloured,  v.;  m:>unted  in  case,  5^. 

DARDANELLES    AND    BOSPHORUS 

STANFORD'S  Large  Scale  MAP  cf  the  DARDANELLES  and 
TROAD.  scale,  3  nules  to  z  inch :  and  of  the  BOSPHORUS  and 
CONSTANTINOPLE,  scale,  il  miles  to  i-inch. 


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FIFTEEN  THOUSAND  MILES  ON  THE 

AMAZON  AND  ITS  TRIBUTARIES.  By  C.  BARRINGTON 
BROWN.  Assoc.  R.S.M.,  Author  of  "Canoe  and  Camp  Life/' 
••  British  GuUna,"  and  WILLIAM  LIDSTONE,  CE.       {Next  week. 


Large  pott  8vo,  with  x6  Maps  and  Diajsrams.  Ethnological,  Appendix,  and 
many  Illustrations,  cloth. 

COMPENDIUM  OF  GEOGRAPHY  AND 

TRAVEL  IN  AFRICA,  for  General  Reading.  Based  on  Helwall's 
"Die  Erde  und  Ihre  VOlker."  Edited  and  extended  by  KEITH 
JOHNSTON,  F.R.G.S. 
In  the  press  uniform  in  size,  &c.,  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AME- 
RICA.  In  preparation,  EUROPE,  ASIA,  NORTH  AMERICA,  and 
AUSl'RALASfA. 


Post  8vo,  with  Maps  and  Illustrations. 

THE  PHYSICAL  GEOLOGY  AND  GEO-J 

GRAPHY  OF  IRELAND.  By  EDWARD  HULL,  M.A,  F.R.S.. 
Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ireland :  Author  of  "  The  Coal 
Fields  of  Great  Britain." 


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HOLD  SCIENCE.    Adapted  for  Home  Education,  and  for  School 
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Specimen  Cunres  drawn  on  card,  post  free,  y.  per  dotc& 

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Nov.  22,  1877] 


NATURE 


XXXI 


PICK-ME-UP. 

An  Infallible  Restorative. 

An  agreeable,  prompt,  and  etfectual  tonic,  stimulant  and  stomachic.  ,  This 
elegant  remedy  prevents  and  removes  indisposition  arising  from  the  efTecrft 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  and  at  once  restores  and  imparrs  tone  to  the  stomach, 
perfects  and  increases  the  actioD  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  prevents  and  re- 
moves wind,  palpitation,  pains  in  the  chest  and  stomach,  cnlic,  costiveness, 
bilious  and  hvcr  dis<M'ders,  gout,  rheumatism,  drop<«y,  diseases  of  the  kid- 
neys, apoplexy,  and  affections  of  the  heart.  &c 

In  BctiUs,  protected  by  the  Ccvernment  Stamp,  ax.  dd  and  \s,  td.  each, 

PBBPARBi>  ONLY  BY  THB  PROfRIKTOR, 

G.     J.     ANDREWS, 

No.    1,    LITTLE    ST.    ANDREW'S    STREET, 

UPPER  ST.  MARTINIS  LANE,  W.C 

See  Treatise  <m  the  eflUcacy,  mediant  I  action,  and  compceitien  of  the 

**  Pick  AfeUpr  by  the  PropHetor, 

FRENCH  HYGIENIC  SOCIETY,  40,  Hay- 

market.— Electro-Dosimetric  Institution  Treatment  of  all  Chronic 
Diseases  pronounced  incurable  by  the  combined  therapeutic  methods 
of  Drs.  Burgpaev  and  P.  A.  DesjarHin.  Hours  of  Consultation  from 
3  to  ^  p.  M.  ^Treatment  by  correspoiKlence.  Mondays,  Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays,  consultations  free  from  ro.soto  ta.  Chemical  and  Medi* 
cal  Analyses  made.  Depdt  for  Continental  Hygienic  Productions, 
Medical  Belts,  &c 

The  dosimetric  system  of  medicine  u  the  coimecting  link  placed  by  Dr. 
Barggraeve  between  the  oldk,  or  Allopathic,  and  the  new,  or  Hahncmanian, 
or  Homeopathic  srhools. 

This  system,  which  is  now  well  known  and  much  us<>d  by  doctors  in 
Europe  and  South  Amevi'-a.  where  it  is  hteadily  gaining  ground,  conswu  of 
a  treatment  that  is  at  the  s  me  time  convenient,  agreeable,  and  sure.  It 
depends  upon  the  pumy  of  the  medicine  and  exactitude  of  the  doses, 
and  is  applied  to  the  luture  and  causes  of  diseases  both  chronic  and  acute. 
In  a  word,  it  is  the  realisation  of  the  hopes  and  researches  of  the  alchemists 
of  the  mitidle  ages. 

1  hesc  medicines  are  administered  in  the  form  of  granules,  which  are  taken 
by  all,  even  children,  rasilv  and  without  the  least  repugnance. 

This  system  rejects  the  ordmary  forms  of  the  olcl  Fhau-macy— apozemes, 
potions,  opiates,  electuaries,  &c,  in  short,  ail  the  complicated  mixture  of 
drugs  of  nau>eous  odour  and  taxte,  respected  by  the  old  formularies, 
but  which  now,  m  the  face  of  the  progress  of  modem  science,  have  no  longer 
the  necessity  of  existence. 

It  is,  above  all,  in  chronic  diseases  (the  "non  i}o«sumus''  of  the  old 
schoolsX  rheumatism,  gout,  dyspepsia,  liver  complaints,  affections  of  the 
spleen  and  kidney>,  paralysis,  sirofula,  &c«  that  the  system  ot  Dr.  Burg- 
gr^ieve,  combined  with  thuit  of  Dr.  P.  A  Desjardin,  gives  the  most 
rema*  kab>e  re«(nlts. 

A  large  number  ot  cures,  obtained  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  highly 
confirm  the  therapeutic  value  of  the  eleccro-dosimeiric  system. 

If  we  consider  ih^t  chronic  maladies  are  caused  by  a  diathesis,  which 
always  produces  a  chai>ge  in  the  vital  and  nutritive  organs,  and  if,  on  the 
other  hand  «e  consider  CMre'uUy  the  electro-masnetic  phenomena,  and  the 
subtle  na  ure  ot  that  agent,  wh*ch,  if  it  be  not  Ufe  irsclf.  is  one  of  its  most 
active  and  important  principles,  we  easily  perceive  the  therapeutic  va'ue  of 
a  method  which  acts  directly  up  >n  the  vitality  of  the  patient,  by  employing 
tho>e  agcDU  which  are  e-»eiitial)y  viuL 

It  is  thu«  th^t  in  charg'U/  the  electric  currents,  which  penetrate  directly 
into  theoiganism,  wii.i  molecules  of  iodine,  iron,  gold,  Ac.,  we  can,  almost 
irstanuneously,  soothe  pains  and  ^pasms,  re-estabiish  or  stimulate  the  circu- 
lation of  the  fluids,  and  restore  that  equilibrium  of  which  health  is  the 
result. 

But  it  must  be  undersood  that  for  a  treatment  of  this  kind  a  wide  experi- 
ence is  neces(sary  ;  the  usual  mean«  of  ordinary  medicines  are  utterly 
insuflkient,  an  exclusive  attention  being  demanded  for  this  speciahtv. 

In  establishing  the  "  Elect ro-Dosi met- ic  Institution  ot  London,"  we  fill 
up  a  chasm,  and  thus  render  a  signal  service  to  all  doctors  who  will 
ind  with  us  the  readiest  and  most  acfve  concurrence  in  the  treatment  of 
that  onfortunately  Urge  cla^r  of  persons  afflicted  by  chronic  disease*. 


RUPTURES.— BY  ROYAL  LETTERS   PATENT. 

WHITE'S   MOC-MAIN    LEVER   TRUSS 

is  allowed  by  tipwards  of  t/oo  Medical  Men  to  be  the  most  effec- 
tive invention  in  the  curative  treatment  of  Hernia  The  use  of 
a  steel  spring,  so  often  hurt''ul  in  its  effects,  is  here  avoided  :  a 
soft  bandage  being  worn  round  the  body,  while  the  requisite 
resisting-power  is  supplied  by  the  MtiC-MAIN  PAD  and 
PATEN  r  LEVER,  hting  with  so  much  ease  and  closene&s 
that  it  cannot  be  detected,  and  may  be  worn  during  sleep.  A 
descriptive  circular  may  be  haH,  and  the  Trust  (which  cannot 
fail  to  fit)  forwarded  by  post,  on  the  circumference  of  the  body, 
a  inches  below  the  hips,  being  sent  to  the  Manufacturer, 

JOHN  WHITE,  228,  PICCAOILLT, 


Price  of  a  Single  Truss,  i6r.,  ai/.,  a6r.  6(/.,  and  31^.  6d,\ 
„  Double  .,  31X.  6<^.  49f-,  andsaf.  M,  > 
„         Umbilical  „    49X.  and  5&r.  6d,  ) 


Post 
free. 

Post  Office  Orders  to  be  made  payable  to  John  White,  Post  Office  Piccadilly. 

ELASTIC    STOCKINGS,  KNEE-CAPS, 

&c,  for  Varicose  Veint  and  all  cases  of  Weakness  and  Swelling  of  the  Legs, 
Sprains,  &c  They  Are  porous,  lifbt  in  texture,  and  inexpensive,  and  drawn 
on  over  an  ordinary  slocking.  Arice  4^.  6«^,  j».  ftd.,  zor.,  and  i6r.  each. 
Postage  free. 

JOHN  WHITE,  Manufacturer,  228,  Piccadilly,  Londou. 


To  Gctdo^sts  and  Natwwltitt. 

ORPORD    CASTLE    FOSSILS. 

The  Cutting  naar  Orford  Castle  in  which  theta  rare  and  beautiln]  Foasfls 
have  been  found,  as  adTer^^sedin  Natuki  last  year,  is  stiD  open,  and  mora 
than  twelve  thotvand  Specuneni,  aL  carefully  determined  by  Mr.  Charlea- 


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61,  STRAND,  AND   34,  ROYAL  EXCHANGE,  LONDON. 

(FACTORY-ifGERRARD   STREET.) 

PARKINSON    &    FRODSHAM, 

CHRONOMETER  AND  WATCH  MAKERS, 

4,  CHANGE  Al_l_EY,  CORNHIUU  LONDON; 

Extract  from  the  Report  ot  the  Director  of  tlie  Portsmouth  Obterratory  conoerdng  Parkinson  and  Frodsham's  Chronometer  e 
board  the  Discovery,  in  the  Arctic  Expedition  of  1875-6. 

"  Nov.  7th,  1876. — Captain  Beanmont,  who  was  First  Lieutenant  and  Navigating  Officer  of  the  Discovery,  informed  ne  thit 
your  Watch,  No.  5,838;  was  the  best  out  of  the  five  Pocket  Chronometers  that  they  had  on  board  that  vessel." 

THIS  DAY,  IN  2  VOLS.,  MEDIUM  8vo,  PRICE  45^,  THE 

VOYAGE    OP    THE    "CHALLENGER" 

'       THE    ATLANTIC; 

A    PRELIMINARY    ACCOUNT    OF   THE    GENERAL    RESULTS    OF    THE    VOYAGE    OF    H.M.S. 
||_CHALLENGER"  DURING  THE  YEAR   1873  AND    EARLY   PART   OF  THE   YEAR    1876. 

By   Sir  C.   WYVILLE    THOMSON,   F.R.S,, 

Director  of  the  Scientific  Staff  of  the  Expedition, 

With    a    Portrait  o    the  Author  engraved  by  C.   H.    Jebns,    numerous  Coloured  Maps,  Temperature  Charts,   and  othc 

Illustrations. 

PubtisJud  by  Authority  of  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty, 


UNIFORM  WITH  THE  ABOVE,  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR, 

THE    DEPTHS    OF    THE    SEA. 

AN    ACCOUNT    OF    THE    GENERAL    RESULTS    OF    THE    DREDGING    CRUISES    OF    H.M.SS. 
•' LIGHTNING"  AND   "PORCUPINE/'  DURING   THE   SUMMERS    OF   1868-69-70. 

Under  the  Scientific  Direction  of  Dr.  CARPENTER,  F.R.S.,  J.  GWYNN  JEFFREYS. 
F.R.S.,  and  Sir  WYVILLE  THOMSON,  F.R.S. 

With  numerous  Illustrations,  Coloured  Maps,  &c.     Second  Edition.     Mtdium  8vo.    31J.  6</. 

"  It  b  not  too  much  to  sav  that  all  who  wish  to  follow  what  the  Challenger  does  must  be  acquainted  with  what  has  been  dose 
by  the  other  vessels  pieviousfy  lent  by  the  Admiralty.  ....  When  the  Challenger  Expedition  is  over  we  shall  be  better  able  to 
approach  the  consideration  of  the  theories  which  are  advanced  or  quoted  by  Sir  Wyville  in  this  copiously  illustrated,  roost 
intere^tipg,  and  valuable  record  of  invaluable  research.'' — Standard, 

MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON. 

Printed  by  R.  Clay,  Sons,  and  Taylok,  at  7  and  8,  Bread  Street  Hill,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  in  the  City  of  London,  and  pnbUshed  bv 
Macmillan  and  Co.,  at  the  OflBcc,  33,  Bond  Street,  New  York.^THVSSDAY,  November  22,  1877- 

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"  To  thi  solid  ground 
Of  Nature  trusts  the  mind  which  hmlds  Jor  aye.*^ — Wordsworth 


No.  422,  Vol.  17] 


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Registered  as  a  New5paper  at  the  General  Post  Office.] 


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Silvered  Glass  REFLECTING  TELESCOPE  with 
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lactic Stand  for  following  the  heavenly  bodies  with  one 
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OPTICAL  AND  PHYSICAL  INSTRUMENT  MAKER 
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AND  THE  OBSERVATORIES  OF  KEW,  CAM- 
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VATORY,  CAMBRIDGE  AND  HARVARD  UNIVER- 
SITIES, HOBOKEN  COLLEGE,  &c.,  &c. 

63,  STBAND,  ^V7.C.,  LONDON. 

Factory — Southampton  Street  and  Exeter  Street j  London, 

Prize  Medal  1862.  Established  100  Years. 

MICROSCOPES,  SPECTROSCOPES,  OPERA 
GLASSES,  &>€,,  £-r.  Z 

O 


XXXIV 


NA  TURE 


\^Kcn:  29,  i8;7 


MICROSCOPIC  OBJECTS 

Of  the  highest  attaiiuible  perfection,  illustrating  Anacomy,  Physiology, 
Botany,  Entomology,  and  erery  branch  of  Microscopical  Soence.  J.  D. 
MdUer**  New  Typen  Plates  and  ObjecU.  Nobert's  Lines.  All  materials 
and  requisites  for  mounting.  Unequalled  Stud^mt's  Microscope,  with  £ng- 
lish  x4adi  and  ^-Loch  objectsves,  Five  Guineas.  Catal<>gue,  New  Edition,  1876, 

E-atis  and  post  free,  and  Objects  delivered  in  U.S.A.  and  British  Colonies. 
DMUND  WHEELER,  48N,  Tollington  RomU  HoUoway,  London,  N* 

QUEEN'S  COLLEGE,  IRELAND. 

The  Pr  'fet«M>rs^ip  of  Materia  Med'tca  in  the  Queen's  College,  Gal  way, 
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ward  th  ir  Testimonials  to  the  Under-Secretary,  Dublin  Castle,  on  or  before 
the  15th  DECEMBER,  proximo,  in  order  that  the  same  may  be  submitted 
to  his  Grace  the  LorJ  Lirutenant. 

The  Candidate  who  may  be  selected  for  the  above  Professorship  will  have 
to  enter  upon  his  duties  at  the  commencement  of  the  next  Term,  the  7th  of 
January,  1878. 

Dublm  Castle,  34th  November,  1877. 

PHYSICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON. 

Prof.  GRAHAM  BELL  will  exhibit  and  describe  the  TELEPHONE  at 
the  Meeting  of  the  Society  on  SATURDAY,  the  ist  of  December,  at  3  p.m., 
in  the  Science  School.^,  South  Kensington  Mustum.  Strangers  who  wish  to 
be  present  are  requested  to  apply  to  either  of  the  Secretaries,  who  have  a 
limited  number  of  seats  at  their  disposal. 

A.  W.  REINOLD,  M  A.,  Royal  Naval  College,  Greenwich. \  Hon. 
W.  CHANDLER  ROBERTS,  F.RS.,  Royal  Mint,  E.        /  Sees. 


UNIVERSITY  of  LONDON  ist  M.B.  and 

PRELIMINARY  SCIENTIFIC  EXAMINATIONS.— Classes  in  aU 
the  subjects  required  are  now  being  formed  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital 
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TURES  at  ST.  GEORGE'S  HALL,  LANGHAM  PLACE,  each 
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scription, ;Ci.  Payment  at  the  Door— One  Penny,  Sixpence,  and 
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LANCASTER    SCHOOL. 

Head  Master-Rev.  W.  E.  Pryke,  MA.  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
14th  Wrangler,  1866. 
Second  Master— Rev.  W.  T.  Nkwbolo,  M.A  .  Fellow  of  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge,  5th  Classic,  1873. 
Assistant  Masters— J.  H.  Fij^thbr,  Esq  ,  B.A,  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge, Z4th  Classic  1876,  and  Lightfoot  Modem  History  Scholar  in  the 
University ;  J.  C.  Wittom,  Esq.,  B.Sc.  Lond.,  &c  ,  &c 

New  Builduigs,  includbg  a  LABORATORY,  were  opened  on  September 
94,  by  the  Bishop  of  Manchester. 

There  are  University  Scholarships,  which  may  be  given  for  proficiency  in 
Science. 

For  Prcspectus,  &c.,  address  Rev.  the  Head  Mastbk,  School  House, 
Lancaster. 

QUEENWOOD  COLLEGE,  near  STOCK- 
BRIDGE,  HANTS. 

Sound  General  Education  for  Boyv. 

Special  attention  to  Science,  partioularly  to  Chemistry,  both  theoretical 
ind  practical. 

References  to  Dr.  Debus,  F.R.S. ;  Dr.  Frankland,  F.R.S. ;  Dr.  Roscoe, 
F.R.S. ;  Dr.  Angus  Smith,  F.R.S. ;  Dr.  Tyndall,  F.R.S. ;  Dr.  Vodcker. 
F.R,&  ;  Dr.  Williamson,  F.R.S. 

The  Autumn  Tenn  commences  Tuesday,  September  95th. 

C.  WILLMORS,  Principal. 

ROYAL  POLYTECHNIC  and  BERNERS 

COLLEGE  in  conjunction.— The  Laboratoriot  and  Class-rooms  for 
Private  and  Class  Study  are  Open  evei^  Day  and  Evening.  Gentle- 
men  prepared  for  Matriculation,  Woolwich,  and  the  various  Examining 
Boards.  Fees  moderate.—Apply  to  Prof.  Gardnbb^  at  the  Royal 
Poljrtechnic,  or  44,  Bemers  Street,  W. 

The  REV.  L,  HENSLEY,  Vicar  of  Hitchin, 

Herts,  formerly  Fellow  and  Assistant  Tutor  of  Trmity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, receives  four  PUPILS  to  read  for^Cambridge,  and  has  now  one 

Vacancy. 

GEOLOGY. 

JOHN  TYM'S  CoUections  to  illustrate  Text-Books  are  carcfuUy  telected 
Wii  h  a  view  to  following  the  method  taken  by  each  author. 

To  illustrate  Bonney's  '*  Geology,"  advanced  Collection  of  150  Specimens, 
X3;  Elementary  of  54,  \^.  To  illustrate  Skertchleys  •'Elements  of 
Ot&ology,'  advanced  CollecUon  of  140  Specimens,  ^z  xw. ;  Elementary  of 
04,  \^t.  6fi, 

Catalogues  post  free« 
Addrcss-CASTLETON  vtd  SHEFFIELDi 


GEOLOGY.— In  the  Preface  to  the  Students 

ELEMENTS  of  GEOLOGY,  by  Sir  Charles  LyeU.  price ot, he taji: 

—**  As  it  is  impossible  to  enable  the  reader  to  recognise  rocxs  and  wm- 

rals  at  sight  by  aid  of  verbal  descriptions  or  figiir^  he  will  do  veil  ts 

obtain  a  well-arranged  collection  of  specimens,  such  as  may  be  prooffed 

from  Mr.  TENNANT  (149,  Strand),  Teacher  of  Mineralogy  at  Ki^'i 

College,  London."    These  CoUectioas  are  aupplied  on  the  fbOoviic 

terms,  in  plain  Mahoganj  Cabmets:— 

100  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  3  Trays    ^    »-    m,  £t  t  0 

aoo  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  5  Trays     .^    ~    •-    5   S  0 

900  Specmens,  in  Cabinet,  with  9  Drawers       .^     «.  10  10  0 

400  ^pac  mens,  in  Cabinet,  with  13  Drawers      ^    ^  sx   e  0 

More  extensive  CoUections  at  50  to  s,ooo  Guineas  eadt 

THE   POPULAR  SCIENTIFIC   POCKET  CABDOt 
SERIES, 

Illustrative  of  Mineralogy,  Palseontolosy,  Petrology,  Concholcgy.  )tot 
lurgy,  &c.,  arranged  by  THOMAS  J.  DOWNING,  Geobgist,  &&,  j^ 
Whiskin  Street,  London,  E.C 
95  Spedmens  to  illustrate  Geikie's  *'  Geologic^  Primer,"  in  Qbi 
a*.  6d. ;  as  do.  to  illustrate  the  Rev  T.  G.  Bonney's  "  Elementary  Gaisr' 
a*.  6<i  ;  as  do.  British  Fossils,  in  Cabinet,  •*.  6il,  ;  »$  do.  Britidi  to 
do.,  a/.  6d,  i  9$  da  Earthy  Mmerals,  da,  ar.  6if,  :  95  do.  Metallic  Mno^ 
da,  a«.  6A  :  95  da  Recent  Shells,  do.,  u.  6d. ;  as  do.  Metals,  do ,  st.  6^ ;  r. 
da  Rough  Gems  and  Stones,  do.,  a*.  6rf.  Catalogues  free.  N.B.  -P^'-- 
or  Cheque  must  invariably  accompany  all  orders.     Trade  snppBwl. 


LONDON  CLAYFOSSILS  from  SHEPPEY 

Fruits,   Bones,  Shells,  Crustaceans,  Corals,  Starfish.  Ac.     wo  P*^ 
Specimens  with  neat  labels  (50  or  more  SpeciesX  «or. ;  half  the  <r» 
tity,  sr.    Carriage  paid  to  l<f>ndftWi 
The  fossils  of  vegeuble  origin,  being  liable  to  decay,  are  ■aluectedttn 

efficient  preservative  process.  , 

Specimen  Fruit,  and  Copy  of  Paper  on  **  Geology  of  ShCTpej*  p» 
free  for  three  penny  stamps  — W.  H.  Shkubsol^  SheeraeaS'-on-Sea.      _ 

THIN      GLASS       FOR       MICROSCOPIC 

MOUNTING  of  best  quality.  Circles,  3*.  6^  per  ounce;  Sqojre 
ax.  gd  ;  post  free  2d.  extra  :  also  oth-r  Mounting  Materials  and  Ug^ 
prepared  for  mounting. -CHAS.   PETIT,    151,   High  Street,  buB 

Newington,  N. ,— — 

To  Geologists  and  Natunduta. 

ORFORD    CASTLE    FOSSILS. 

The  Cutting  near  Orford  Castle  in  which  these  rare  and  ***"*^  J^ 
have  been  found,  as  advertisedtn  NxTints  last  year,  is  abll  open,  *J>JJ^ 
than  twelve  thousand  Specimens,  aL  carefully  determined  by  Mr.  .y^ 
worth,  have  been  distributed  among  the  Subscriben.  P>P«'|L?'°  r^ 
particulars  of  Subscription  may  be  obtamed  by  wiitinc  «o  TBOKAijf  "^ . 
Esq.,  Sussex  House,  Howard  Road,  South  Norwood,  S^.i  tBdoanl^ 
dressed  envelope. ^ 

THE    BEST    FARMERS'    NEWSPAPER. 

THE    CHAMBER    OF 
AGRICULTURE    JOURNAL 

AND    FARMERS'    CHRONICLE, 
Editsd  by  Jomi  Algsxmom  CiAitm,  Secretary  to  the  Ceotial  O**** 
of  Agriculture,  n.— Aaj 

Devotes  special  attention  to  the  discussions  and  proceedings  of  ^  ^^^gZ 
of  Agriculture  of  Great  Britain  (which  now  number  op^***^    JSti 
members),  beudes  ^ving  original  papers  on  mmctical  fanning,  and  a  iw 
intelligence  of  parucular  value  to  the  agriculturist.  ,  ^.^..  m 

The  London  Com,  Seed,  Hop,  CatUe,  and  other  Markets  of  H^^m^,! 
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THE    ZOOLOGIST; 

A  MONTHLY  MAGAZINE  OF  NATURAL  HISTORi- 

New  Series,  Edited  by 
J.  E.  Hakting,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.  .^f^lotfi 

Original  Articles  by  well-koewn  Naturalisu  in  every  brandi  «J  *Wy 
Occasional  Notes  en  the  Habiu  of  Animals  :  Notices  of  the  ^^^ 
Departure  of  Migratory  Birds  ;  Records  of  the  Occurrence  otWJ'.j, 
in  the  British  Islands  ;  Observations. on  the  Distribution  and  ."^jCr^ol 
British  Fresh-water  Fish  ;  Notices  of  the  Capture  off  the  Bntisft  w«^ 
New  or  Rare  Marine  Fish  ;  Reports  and  Notes  from  ^^ocal  M^^^^Lf^  ^ 
tributions  to  the  Natural  Histoiy  of  British  Reptiles ;  Local  *^^ 
British  Land  and  Fresh-water  Mollusca,  with  Remarks  on  the  n*^  ^ 
Habiu  of  the  Species ;  and  other  matters  of  general  interest  ^®.*JTf  ti« 
delight  in  Natural  History.  Reporu  of  the  Scientific  ^^^,saif^ 
Linnean,  Zoological,  and  Entemelogical  Societies ;  Reviews  sad  stou^ 
Natural  History  Books. 

JOHN  VAN  VOORST.  1.  Paternoster  Row^ 


Geology  of  Oxford,  and  the  VaUey  f 

THE  THAMES.     By  John  Phillips,  M.A.,  r.^^'* 

Professor  of  Geology,  Oxford.    8vo^  cloth,    i^-  '"^'.^istj  w 

**  It  may  be  cordially  and  confidently  recommended  to  ^J^ji^ttif' 

whom  the  Secondary  rocks  of  England  are  a  subject  of  interest.  7^  ^^j^ 

'*  A  most  important  contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  '^*  ?"*^Se  to  ^ 

of  the  earth,  and  supplies  a  need  which  happens  just  at  this  tun 

keenly  (cit." -^Nature. 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LONDON. 


Digitized  by 


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Nov.  29,  1877] 


NATURE 


XXXV 


NORTH    BRITISH    AGRICULrTURIST. 

Is  the  only  Agricuhunl  Jotmial  in  Scotland,  and  drculatet  cztensiirdy 
anumgst  landed  proprietors,  fiactors,  farmerSi  fam-baOiffB,  and  others 
interested  in  tlie  management  of  landed  piupeity  thiougfaoiit  Scotland  and 
the  Northern  Counties  of  England. 

Th«  AGRICULTURIST  has  also  a  Tcry  ootisiderable  drculatioll  on  tha 
Continent  of  Europe,  America,  Australia,  and  the  Colonies. 

TIm  AGRICULTURIST  is  published  every  Wednesday  afternoon  In 
time  forthe  Evening  Mails,  and  contains  Reports  of  all  the  principal  British 
and  Irish  Markets  Of  the  waek*  bsaldes  talegraphic  reports  of  those  held  on 
the  day  of  puUication. 

The  Veterinary  Department  is  edited  hy  one  of  the  leedtng  Veterinarians 
in  the  country,  and  is  invaluable  to  the  breeder  and  feeder  as  a  guide  to  the 
rearing  of  animal%  and  their  treatment  when  labouring  under  disease. 

FullReports  are  given  xA  the  Meetings  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Sodety 
of  England,  the  Re^  Acricultural  Society  of  Ireland,  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  the  Scottish  Chamoer  of  Agriculture, 
and  all  the  principal  Agricultural  Associations  throughout  Grmt  Britain 
and  Irdand. 

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THE     ENTOMOLOGIST: 

AN  ILLUSTRATED  JOURNAL  OF  BRITISH  ENTOMOLOGY. 
Edited  fay  Johm  T.  CAaaiNCTON, 
Withthei    ' 


Pkbdekick  Smith. 


J.  Jbnmkk  Wkix,  F.L.S. 
F.  Bu 


FxBOKxicK  Bond,  F.Z.S. 

Edwakd  a.  Fitch.  ,     w  ^  *  -     -  - 

John  A.  Powbs,  M.D.  1     F.  Buchanan  Whits,  M.D. 

During  the  year  1877  it  is  intended  to  publish  an  Epitome  df  Novelties 
and  Rareties  which  have  occurred  since  1871.  Also  freouent  Biographical 
Notices  accompanied  by  Photographic  Portraits.  Many  interesting  articles 
on  all  branches  are  promised  by  ceding  Entomologists.  There  will  be 
numerous  Woodcuts. 

SIMPKIN,  MARSHALL,  ft  CO..  SutJoncrs*  Hall  Court. 

'*  That  excellent  periodical  Thb  Gardbn."— Professor  Owen. 

THE    GARDEN  :    A    Weekly    Illustrated 

Journal  of  Gardening  in  all  its  Branches.  Founded  and  Conducted  by 
W.  ROBINSON,  F.L.S.,  Author  of  *' Alpine  Flowers  for  EngUsh 
Gardens,"  &c 

A  Coloured  Plate  is  now  Issued  with  every  number  of  The  Garden. 
"  Mr.  Robinson's  valuable  and  elegant  weelcly."— JTa/wn/a/  Review, 
Aug.  lotb,  187a. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  subjects  r^(ularly  treated  of  in  its  pages  :— 
The  Flower  Garden. 
Landscape  Gtrdeniog. 
The  Fruit  Garden. 


Garden  Structures. 
Room  and  Window  Gardens. 
Notes  and  Questions. 
Market  Gardening. 
Trees  and  Slmibs. 


Hardy  Flowers. 

Town  Gardens. 

The  Coniervatory. 

Public  Gardens. 

The  GrcenhAuse  and  Stove. 

The  Household. 

lie  WiJd  Garden. 

The  Kitchen  Garden. 


Professor  Asa  Gray  says :  "  It  seems  admirably  adapted  to  the  wants  and 
tastes  of  eentlemen  who  are  interested  in  rural  affairs  By  such  we  hear  it 
highly  spoken  of;  and  we  think  we  do  a  favour  to  those  of  that  class  who 
know  it  not  as  yet,  by  callbg  attention  to  it." 

Price  6d,  Weekly.    Spechnen  Copy,  Post-free,  ^. 

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MATURE 


\Nov,  29, 1877 


THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS'  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION  AND  MUSEUM  AND   INSTITUTE  OF 

PISCICULTURE  SOCIETY,  LIMITED. 

CAPITAL— £5,000  IN  6,000   SHARES   OF  £1  EACH. 

(With  power  to  increase.) 

This  Society  is  establUbed  on  an  entirely  scientific  basis,  with  the  object  of  fostering;  and  promoting  the  science  of  Economic  Pisdculuire,  ad 
of  supplying  Enefish  and  other  naturalists  and  natural  history  students  with  facilities,  not  hitherto  accessible,  for  pursuing  Marine  Biological  lnvtstifiti<s. 
The  aim  of  the  Society  is,  in  fact  to  provide,  in  a  conveniently  accessible  and  suitable  locality,  an  institution  which  shall  fulfil  for  the  entire  noni  ^ 
Europe  that  sphere  of  utility  which  the  well-known  Naples  Aquarium  and  2^logical  Station  now  does  for  the  south.  Mature  consideiatiao  bai  It. 
to  the  selection  of  a  most  eligible  and  advantageous  fite  in  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Helier's.  Jersey,  for  this  purpose. 

As  with  the  Naples  Institution  there  will  be  embodied  in  this  undertaking  the  following  several  feattuts  of  utility  and  attraction  '.—Firstly.  f(v  tk 
fTitertainment  of  the  public,  and  as  a  source  of  income  for  the  defragment  of  the  g«neral  working  expenses,  a  Saloon  will  be  set  apart  for  tbeimy- 
oi'play  of  the  living  denizens  of  the  ocean,  and  of  which  it  may  be  said  that  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  produce  an  unparalleled  weahh  ofntoebcD 
»T.d  variety.  Adjoining  the  Saloon  there  will  likewise  be  a  Museum,  available  both  as  a  Lecture-room  and  Utr  the  exhibition  of  a  t3rpical  Natural  H^ 
(  I  Uection,  more  especially  representative  of  the  luxuriant  Marine  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  more  important  Technical  Department  will  include  Laboratories,  with  al  1  suiuble  Apparatus  and  Instruments,  Tanks  for  Cxpoiocii 
Pifdculture,  and  a  Library  of  Standard  Scientific  Works  and  Serials  for  the  use  of  naturalists  and  students  who  shall  repair  here  for  the  purps^ 
of  prosecuting  Marine  Biological  Research.  With  the  Institution  will  also  be  associated  a  D^pot  for  the  supply  of  living  or  carefallT-praemii 
irarme  specimens  to  British  est  other  Universities,  Miueums,  Science  Schools  and  Aqtuuria,  or  to  nattualists  that  may  require  the  same  for  massmvi^ 
class  demonstration,  or  for  private  investigation. 

PoUowb^  the  system  adopted  at  the  Penikese  Island  Station,  it  is  further  proposed,  fcr  the  full  development  of  the  scientific  resourca  cf  •b 
Inttitution,  to  inaugurate  Summer  Qasses  for  the  attendance  of  Students,  and  to  hold  out  sufficient  inducements  for  the  most  eminent  authcrim '~^ 
xarlous  biological  subjects  to  deliver  Lectures  and  a  Course  of  Instruction  to  these  Classes  upon  that  branch  of  Natural  History  wttn  vhich  i^ 
lepulation  is  more  especially  associated.  In  view  of  the  Laboratories  and  Lecture  ArrangemenU  being  complete  by  the  Summer  of  1878,  thoee  propose: 
to  avail  themselves,  as  Students,  of  the  advantages  held  out,  are  requested  to  communicate  with  the  Secretary. 

In  view  of  a  desire  already  expressed  by  many  wishing  to  astist  in  the  establishment  of  this  Institution  without  becoming  Shareholders,  t>e  Soo^f 
is  empowered  to  receive  Contributions  towards  the  establishment  and  further  development  of  the  Institution.  Such  moneys  contributed  will  bedtrmA 
entirely  to  the  uses  above- n^entioned,  and  will  not  be  applicable  for  the  purposes  of  a  Dividend  or  otherwise  for  the  personal  advantage  of  theordmrr 
Shaieholders.  Especial  privileges  will  be  granted  to  all  such  Donors ;  Subjcribers  of  ;Cioand  upwards  receiving  in  return  the  advantage  of  a  Life-menijs- 
»hip  and  free  admission  to  the  Institution  upon  all  occasions  on  which  the  building  is  open  to  the  public. 

The  technical  control  of  the  Institution  will  be  undertaken,  as  Naturalist  Director,  by  Mr.  W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  &c..  formeiT 
Assistant  in  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the  British  Mtiseum,  and  whose  experience  as  Naturalist  for  some  years  to  the  leading  Engliui  A*j>^'^ 
eminently  qualifies  him  for  this  position. 

In  registering  the  Memorandum  and  Articles  of  Associatitm  of  this  Society,  special  care  has  been  taken  to  secure  for  the  trndertakiog  j^.P"^ 
scientific  status,  and  to  permanently  exclude  from  it  all  those  supplementary  attractions  of  an  irrelevant  nature  usually  associated  with  public  exhiau^ 
cf  the  living  wonders  of  the  deep.    It  is  only  under  such  restrictions  and  reservations  that  patronage  and  subscriptions  are  here  invited. 

For  Prospeauses  and  further  particulars  apply  to  the  Sbcrrtaky  or  to  the  Naturalist  Director,  16,  Royal  Square,  St.  Helier's,  Jers^. 

Contributions  of  Books  and  Serial  Literatuie  relating  to  Biological  Subjects  suited  for  the  Library,  of  Instruments  and  Apparattis  for  the  Laborat:^' 
or  of  Natural  Histary  Specimens  for  the  Museum,  will  be  most  gratefully  accepted  .   •        j  ^ 

An  especial  appeal  for  support  is  here  made  to  the  Fellows  and  Members  of  the  various  Metropolitan  and  Provincial  Scientific  Societies,  aaa  *» 
have  now  placed  before  them  an  unprecedented  opportunity  of  advancing  the  prestige  and  interests  of  English  Marine  Biological  Sdence.  ^    ^ 

DONATIONS  RECEIVED :— Mr.  Charles  Darwin,  LL,D.,  F.R.S..  ;^2o;  Dr.  J.  MUlar,  F.L.S.,  £,%',  ProC  R.  O.  Cunningham,  F.LS.  i: 
Mr.  C.  Le  Fcuvre,  i^i ;  Mr.  A.  de  Gruchy,  ;C»o  ;  Mr.  F.  Voisin,  Zio ;  Mr.  J.  Macready,  £»\.  ,    •  »  V 

All  further  Contributions  to  the  *'  Donation  Fund  "  for  the  founding  of  the  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Station  and  Museum  and  lostuote  a 
Pisciculture  will  be  duly  acknowledged  in  these  columns. 

W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  Hos.  Sif 


NEW  SCHOOL  BOOKS  BY  CUNNINGHAM  GEIKIE,  D.D.        |    THE    **  BRYCE-WRIGHT  "   DIAMONDS. 


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N^i  TURE 


XXXVll 


DIARY    OF    SOCIETIES. 


London 

THURSDAY,  Novembhr  99. 

8*^1  mr  OF  Antiquabibs,  at  8.1a — Churchwardens'  Accounts  of  Stratlon  : 
K.  Peacock,  F.S.  A.— Alleged  Tomb  of  John  Baltol,  the  Competitor  fortlic 
Crown  of  Scotland  :  C  K.  Watson,  M.A.,  F.  and  Sec  S.A. 
FRIDAY^  November  30. 

Royal SocisTT,  at  4— Anniversary. 

SATURDAY,  Decbmbsr  i 

Physical  Society,  at  3.— The  Telephone  :  Prof  Graham  Bell. 
SUNDAY,  Dhcember  2. 

SuNOAV  Lhctube  Sociei'Y,  at  4. — Jesuitism  and  the  Priest  in  Abscluii  n  : 
Dt,  G.  G.  Zcrffi. 

MONDAY,  December  3 

Royal  iNSTrrUTiON,  at  2. — General  Monthly  Af  eettn;?. 

Society  of  Arts*  at  8.— Cantor  Ltcture ;  Manufacture  of  Paper :  W. 
Arnott 

Victoria  Institute,  at  8. 

TUESDAY,  December  4. 

Zoological  Society,  at  8.3a— On  Additions  to  the  Menagerie  in  November, 
1877:  The  Secretary— Exhibition  of  .ind  Remarks  upon  a  Series  of  Rare 
Egg<  and  Birds  from  Northern  Siberia:  H.  Scebohm. — On  the  Capture 
of  a  Specimen  of  Risso's  Grampus  at  hidtesham,  near  Chichester :  H.  Lee, 
F.Z.S. 

Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  at  8. 

WEDNESDA  K,  December  5. 

Society  of  Arts,  at  8. 

Horticultural  Society. — Scientific  Committee  at  i. 

Entomological  Society,  at  7. 

Geologists'  Association,  at  8. 

Roy  A  I.  Microscopical  Society,  at  8. 

Geological  SoasTV.  at  8.— On  the  Buildhig  up  of  the  White  Linler 
Terraces  of  Roto-MJihinJi,  New  Zealand  :  The  Rev.  R.  Abbty.— 
Additional  Notes  on  the  Dimettan  and  Pebidian  Rocks,  Pembrokeshire  : 
H.  Hicks.  With  an  Appendix  by  W.  H.  HudUston— On  some  Pre- 
Cambrian  (Diuietian  and  Pcbif^ian)  Rocks  in  Carnarvonshire  :  H.  Hicks. — 
On  the  Pre-Cambrian  Rock^  of  Bangor :  Prof.  T.  McK.  Hughes. 
THURSDA  K,  December  6. 

Royal  Society,  at  8.30. 

Linnban  Society,  at  8.— Observations  on  the  Genus  Pandanus  with  an 
Enumeration  of  all  Species  hitherto  described,  Habiut,  itc. :  Dr.  I  Bailey 
Balfour. — On  Certain  Organs  of  the  Cidaridae  :  Chas.  Stewart  — Notes  on 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Crombie's  Paper  on  the  Lichens  of  the  Chollen^er  Expedi« 
lion  :  Dr.  f.  Stirton. — On  Insects  obtained  by  Dr.  J.  C*  Pidem  in  Java  : 
Chas.  O.  Waterhouse. 

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xxxviii 


NATURE 


[Nov.  29.   1877 


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Nov.  29,  1877] 


NATURE 


XXXIX 


LATELY   PUBLISHED,  MEDIUM  8vo,  PRICE  2Lr. 
With  Three  Hundred  Iliusirations. 

PERU: 

Incidents  of  Travel  and  Exploration  In  the 
Land  of  the  Incas. 

BY 

E.  GEORGE   SQUIER,    M.A.,   F.S.A. 

LATE  U.S.  COMMISSIONER  TO  PERU, 

AUTHOR  OF 

"Nicamgua,"  "Ancient  Monuments  of  Mississippi  Valley," 
&c,  &C.,  &c. 


TJMES. 

**  No  more  solid  and  trustworthy  contribution  has  been  made 
to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  what  are  among  the  most  wonder- 
ful ruins  in  the  world  than  the  work  just  published  by  Mr. 
Squier.  .  .  .  Mr.  Squier's  work  is  really  what  its  title  implies. 
While  of  the  greatest  importance  as  a  contribution  to  Peruvian 
archaeology,  it  is  also  a  thoroughly  entertaining  and  instructive 
narrative  of  travel  .  .  .  Not  the  least  important  feature  of  Mr. 
Squier's  work  must  be  considered  the  numerous  (about  300) 
well-executed  illustrations." 

A  7HENMUM. 

"  It  b  not  often  that  a  traveller  brin^  to  the  performance  ot 
a  diflficult  task  so  many  excellent  qualifications  as  we  find  in  Mr. 
Squier.  .  .  .  And  now  we  must,  somewhat  reluctantly,  take 
leave  of  what  we  do  not  meet  with  every  dav — a  book  written 
by  a  man  thoroughly  competent  to  handle  his  subject,  and  a 
corresponding  power  of  expressing  what  he  wishes  to  say.'' 

ACADEMY. 

"  For  the  first  time  we  have  a  complete,  and,  on  the  whole,  a 
thoroughly  trustworthy  and  conscientious  account  of  Peruvian 
ruins  executed  by  one  who  is  thoroughly  competent  to  undertake 
the  task.  .  .  .  Mr.  Squier  has  done  valuable  service  as  regards 
the  survey  of  the  architectural  remains  of  Peiu.  His  b(x>k  is 
agreeably  written  and  well  illustrated,  and  it  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  that  has  yet  been  published  on  that  branch  of  the 
subject  to  which  he  has  especially  directed  his  attention." 

GRAPHIC. 

"  No  work  of  recent  years  about  Peru  can  compare  in  our 
judgment  with  this  in  general  scope  and  interest  Few,  if  any, 
have  ever  searched  the  country  so  thoroughly  and  well.  .  .  . 
The  Peru,  not  of  the  nitrate  and  guano  dealer,  but  of  the  his- 
torian and  romancist,  stands  out  from  his  pages  in  all  its  archaeo- 
logical and  geographical  features.  .  .  .  It  is  a  volume  admirable 
in  all  respects,  for  its  vigorous  descriptions  of  scenes  that  every- 
where attcit  the  past  experience  of  superior  civilisation." 

DAILY  NEWS. 

"  Enriched  with  copious  and  well-executed  illustrations,  which 
add  sensibly  to  the  value  of  a  book  rich  in  suggestions  and 
surprises  for  students  of  archaeology  who  have  not  been  accus- 
tomed to  look  to  the  new  world  to  redress  the  balance  at  least 
in  antiquarian  discovery." 


MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LONDON. 


Text-Book    of    Botany,    Morphological 

AND    PHYSIOLOGICAL.      By    Dr.    Julius   Sachs, 
Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Wiirzburg.    Trans- 
lated by  A.  W.  Bennett,  M.A.,  Lecturer  on  Botany,  St. 
Thomas's  Hospital,  assisted  by  W.  T.  Thiselton  Dyer,  M.  A., 
Ch.  Ch.,  Oxford.     Royal  8vo,  half  morocco,     "^is.  td, 
"  The  want  of  a  good  text-book  of  Botany,  one  that  would  give  an 
accurate  idea  of  the  present  state  of  botanical  science,  has  long  been  felt  by 
English  studenta     We  therefore  heartily  welcome  the  appearance  of  this 
translation,  because  we  feel  certain  that  it  will  supply  that  want  so  long  felt, 
and  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  both  teachers  and  students."— iVb/wrv. 

OXFORD,    printed    at    the    CLARENDON    PRESS,    and 

published  by  MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON,  Publishers 

to  the  University. 

IN  8vo.  PRICE  6x. 

MUSICAL   INTERVALS  AND 
TEMPERAMENT, 

AN  ELEMENTARY  TREATISE  ON. 

^^th  ap  Account  of  an  Enharmonic  Harmonium  exhibited  at  the  Loan 

Collection  of  Scientific  Instruments  at  South  Kensington|  1876  ;   also  of 

an  Enharmonic  Organ  exhibited  to  the  Muncal  A^tooation  of  London, 

May,  X875. 

BY  R.  H.   BOSANQUET 

Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford. 
MACMILLAN  and  CO.,  London. 

Recently  published  in  8vo,  xot.  6d, 

The  GERM   THEORY  APPLIED  to  the 

EXPLANATION  of  the  PHENOMENA  of  DISEASE.  By  T. 
MACLAGAN.  M.D. 

*'  We  think  it  well  that  such  a  book  as  this  should  be  written.  It  places 
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*'  An  able  and  exhaustive  inquiry."— /'w^&V  Htaitk. 

**  A  book  of  a  vecy  high  order  oi  merit  We  cordially  recommend  it  to 
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daui  to  have  an  opinion  on  the  germ  theory  are  bound  to  read  carefully.— 
Medical  Examiner. 

**  Brings  before  us  in  a  simple  and  clear  form  what  the  facts  are  which 
must  be  accounted  for.  The  profession  should  be  grateful  to  Dr.  Madagan 
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present  time.**— L#>m^  Medical  Record, 

MACMILLAN  &  CO..  London 

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SOUND  and  MUSIC:   a  Non-Mathemati- 

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By  SKDLfiY  TAYLOR,  M JL,  lata  FaUow  of  Trinity  CoUege,  Cam- 
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MACMILLAN  anj  CO..  LONDON. 


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xl  NATURE  fiViw.  29,  1877 

PARKINSON    &    FRODSHAM/ 

CHRONOMETER  AND  WATCH  MAKERS, 

4,  CHANGE  ALLEY,  CORNHILL,  LONDON: 

Extract  from  the  Report  ot  the  Director  of  the  Portsmonth  Obsenratofy  concerning  Parkinson  and  Frodsham's  Chronometer  aa 
board  the  Vitemery,  in  the  Arctic  Expedition  of  1875-& 

"  Nov.  7th,  1876.— Captain  Beaumont,  who  was  First  Lieutenant  and  Navigating  Officer  of  the  Ditcovtry,  iofonaed  me  that 
your  Watch,  No.  5,838,  was  the  best  out  of  the  five  Pocket  Chronometer*  that  they  had  on  board  that  vessel" 

JUST  PUBLISHED,  IN  CROWN  8vo,  PRICE  -js.  &/. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY  : 

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BY 

T.     H.     HUXLEY,    F.R.S. 

WTTH  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  COLOURED  PLATES. 
LONDON:   MACMILLAN    AND   CO. 

MAOMILLAN  &  OO.'S  NEW  BOOKS. 

To  be  Published  tn  November  and  December. 


Stargazingi  Past  and  Present.  Lectures  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  by  J.  NORMAN 
LOCKY£R,  F.R.S.  With  Notes  and  Additions  by  G.  M.  SEABROOKE,  F.R.A.S.  Widi  nnmerons  IHostntkiDS. 
Medinm  8to. 

Physiography.  By  Professor  HUXLEY,  F.R.S.  With  Illustrations  and  Coloured  Plates.  Crown  8va 
V'  ^.  \Sk4fnh. 

China :  a  History  of  the  Laws,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  People.  By  the  Venerable 

J.  H.  GRAY,  Archdeacon  of  Hong  Kong.    With  150  Full  Page  lUustiationai  being  Fac-similcs  of  Drawings  bj  a  Chinese 
Artist.     2  vols.    Demy  8vo. 

The    Voyage  of  the   ''Challenger."    The  ATLANTIC.    A  Preliminary  Account  of  the  General. 
Results  of  the  Exploring  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  *<  Challenger,"  daring  the  Year  1873  and  the  early  part  of  the  Year  1876.     By 
Sir  C  WYVILLE  THOMSON,  F.R.S.    With  a  Portrait  of  the  Author,  engraved  by  C.  H.  Jeens,  many  Coloured  Maps, 
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Ancient  Society;  or,  Researches  in  the  Lines  of  Hrunan  Progress  from  Savagery 

through  Barbarism  hito  Civilization.     By  LEWIS  H.  MORGAN.    8vo.     idr.  VJust  read/. 

Studies  in  Comparative  Anatomy,   i.  The  skull  of  the  crocodile,  a  Manual  for  students. 

By.  L.  C.  MIALL^  Professor  of  Biology  in  the  Yorkshire  College,  and  Curator  of  the  Leeds  Museum. 

On  the  Uses  of  Wine  in  Health  and  Disease.    By  francis  k  anstib,  m.d.,  f.r.c.p., 

late  Physician  to  Westminster  Hospital,  and  Editor  of  the  PractUumer. 

Natural  Philosophy  for  Beginners.    By  1.  TODHUNTER,  M.A.,  f.r.s.    Part  ii.  sound, 

LIGHT,  and  HEAT.     i8ma 

MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LONDON. 

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ish  x4nch  and  l-inch  objectives,  Five  Guineas.  Catalogue,  New  Edidoo,  iSt^^ 
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The  LORD  BISHOP  of  EDINBURGH. 

Prof.  BIRKS,  Cambridge  University. 

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of  Geology  at  Cambridge  University. 
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University. 
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Prof.  NOAH  PORTER,  Pic  Jdent  of  Yale  College,  United  Sutcs, 
Prof  M*COSH.  New  Jersey  College.  Princetown,  United  Sutes. 
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LANCASTER    SCHOOL. 

Head  Master    Rev.  W.  E  Prvkb,  M  A  ,  St.  John's  CoUege,  Cambridge, 

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0>nege^  Cambridge,  5th  Classic,  1873. 

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bridg  ,  X4th  i  lassie.  IB76.  and  Light'oot   Modem  History  Scholar  in  the 

vJuivcrsiy  :  J.  C.  Wittom,  Esq.,  B.Sc  Lond.,  &c  ,  &c 

Newr  Buildings,  including  a  LABORATORY,  were  opened  on  September 
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BAR  MAGNETS,  4  x  f  in.,  ax.  Gd.  per  pair. 

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To  Geologists  and  NatonOists. 

ORPORD    CASTLE   FOSSILS. 

The  Cutting  near  Orford  Castle  in  which  these  ran  and  beantifiil  Fw^ 
have  been  foimd,  as  advertised  in  NxTtnts  last  year,  is  stSl  open,  nj"^ 
than  twelve  thousand  Specimens^  aL  carefully  deterouaed  by  Mr.  v^an» 
worth,  have  been  diatribtited  among  the  Subscriben.  Papers  oontsfani » 
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MUSEUMS  AND  OOLLECTORS. 
Mr.  DAMON,  of  WEYMOUTH,  wiU  forward  it 
abridged  Catalogue  of  his  Collections  in  SHELLS 
(British  and  Foreign),  FOSSILS,  MINERALS,  and 
other  NATURAL  HISTORY  Objects,  recent  and  fossil, 
and  of  which  he  has  typical  and  other  sets  in  the  Loan 
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GEOLOGY.— In  the  Preface  to  the  Student's 

ELEMENTS  of  GEOLOGY,  by  Sir  Chsrles  LyeH  price  ofc,  hefT^ 
— ••  As  it  is  impossible  to  enable  the  render  to  reoogniie  rock* «»«J^ 
nds  at  sight  by  aid  of  Terbal  descriptions  or  figures,  he  will  do*;^^ 
obtain  a  weU-arrang ed  collection  of  specimens,  such  as  may  be  P^o^ 
from  Mr  TENNANT(.49,  Strand),  Teacher  of  Minerak«y  ««  ^nij 
CoUege,  London.**    These  CoUections  are  mppKed  on  the  fouovW 
terms,  in  plain  Mahonny  Cabinets:— 
too  Specunens,  in  Gsbuiet,  with  3  Tkayt    ^    «•    •«  ;Cs   •  • 
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300  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  9  Drawers       ^    •«  10  10  0 
400  Specimens,  in  Cabinet,  with  13  Drawers     •»    ^  n   ^  ^ 
More  ejctensive  CoUections  at  50  to  5,000  Onineas  each. 

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inustimtiye  of  Mineralogy,  PaUeoniology,  Petrology,  Conchology.  »•*; 
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Whiftkin  Street,  London,  E.C 
S5  Specimens  to  illustrate  Geikie's  **  Geological  Primer,"  >n  ^^ 
as.  ()d, ;  »s  <)o.  to  illustrate  the  Rey  T.  G.  Bomiey's  "  Elemeotsry  ^^ 
sx.  &/. ;  S5  do.  British  Fossils,  in  Cabinet,  sr.  &^  ;  S5  do.  British  Ro**. 
do.,  «.  6d, ;  MS  da  Earthy  Minerals,  da,  «*.  U, :  m$  da  Metallic  1^^ 
da,  s*.  6d, ;  9$  da  Recent  Shells,  do.,  s*.  6d. ;  95  do.  Metals,  ^**^^do 
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THE  CONTEMPORARY  REVIEW. 

I  CONTBNTS  FOR  DeCBMBBR. 

RiL<;sian  Aggression.     By  Louis  Ko&suth,  Ex-Governor  of  Hungary. 

Mr.   Herbert  Spencer  and  Mr.  G.  H.   Lewes  :  Their  Application  of  the 

Doctrine  of  Evolution  to  Thought     By  T.  H.  Green,  M.  A. 
Are  the  Clergy  Priests  or  Ministers?    By  the  Rev.  Canon  Perownc,  D.D. 
On  the  Hygienic  Value  of  Plants  in  Rooms  and  the  Open  Air.     By  Prof. 

Max  von  Pettenkofer. 
'William  Law.  the  English  Mystic.     By  Julia  Wedgwood. 
The  Ninety  Years'  Agony  of  Prance.     By  Goldwin  Smith. 
Ethical  Aspects  of  Development.    By  Prof.  Calderwood. 
Hereditary  Pauperism  and  Pauper  Education.     Dy  Francis  Peek. 
The   Greek  Mind  in   Presence  of  Death    interpreted  from    Reliefs  and 

Inscriptions  on  Athenian  Tombs.     By  Percy  Gardener. 
John  Stuart  Mill's  Philosophy  Tested      By  Prof.  W.  Stanley  Jevons. 
Contemporary  Life  and  Thought  in  France.    By  Gabriel  Monod. 
fUsays  and  Notices. 

STRAHAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED,  34,  Paternoster  Row. 


Now  Ready. 

The  JOURNAL  of  the  ANTHROPOLOGI- 

CAL  INSTITUTE  of  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND,  No. 
8  7,  November,  1877.  Illustrated,  price  sr.,  containing  Papers  on  Rude 
Stone  Monuments,  in  North  Wales,  by  A.  L.  Lewis. — Curious  Coin- 
cidences in  Celtic  and  Maori  Vocabulary,  by  Rev.  W,  Ross. — Eskimo 
Migrations,  by  Dr.  John  Rae  —Earthworks  at  Portsmouth,  Ohio,  U  S., 
by  R.  B.  Holt.— Objects  Found  in  the  Neighbourhood  of  Smyrna,  by 
R.  B.  Martin. — Rude  Stone  Monument  in  Kent,  by  A.  L.  Lewis. — On 
Eskimo  Skulls,  by  Dr.  John  Rae. — The  Aborigiaesof  Central  Queens- 
land, by  "Dr.  John  Beddoe. — The  Present  {Siotc  of  the  Question  of  the 
Antiquity  of  Man,  by  Dr.  Johi  Evans. — The  Evidence  Afforded  by  the 
Caves  of  Great  Biitain  as  to  the  Antiquity  of  Man,  by  Prof.  Boyd 
Dawkins  — ^1  he  Evidence  Afforded  by  the  Gravels  and  British  Earth, 
by  Prof.  S.  McKenny  Hughes  —The  Age  of  the  Hyaena-Bed  at  the 
Victoria  Cave,  Settle,  and  i^  Bearing  on  the  Antiquity  of  Mao,  by  R. 
H.Tiddeman,  with  Exhibitions,  Discusaioos,  and  Miscellanea. 
London :  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  Ludgate  HiU. 


THE   TELEGRAPHIC  JOURNAL 

AlfD 

ELECTRICAL    REVIEW. 

Published  on  Uve  itt  and  x5th  of  the  mmith,  ^ce  meU  \  Sttbacription  per 

Annum,  post  free  in  Great  Britain,  9c 

Contents  for  Novbmbbh  x. 

I.— EIcclro-Magnetic  Quackery. 

>.->  Report  of  the  Trinity  House  on  the  Comparative  Trials  of  Electric 

Lights  at  the  South  Foreland     (Illustrated.) 
3.— Duplex  Paitial  Eirth  Test     (Illtistrated.) 
4.— Influence  of  L«ght  on  the  Electric  Sute  of  Metals. 
5.— Notes. 
6.~City  Notes. 
7.— General  Science  Columns. 
8.  -  Correspondence. 

London:  HAUGHTON  ft  CO^  xo^  Pateniotter  Row, 
To  whom  also  Conununicatioas  for  the  Editor  may  be  sent 

THS    BEST    FARMERS'    NEWSPAPER. 

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AND    FARMERS'    CHRONICLE, 
Edited  by  John  Algsrnon  Ct.ARKR,  Secretary  to  the  Central  Chamber 

of  Agriculture, 
Devotes  special  attention  to  the  discu^ions  and  proceedings  of  the  Chambers 
of  Agrictilture  of  9^*5^^  Britain  (which  now  number  upwards  of   18,000 
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THE    ZOOLOGIST; 

A  MONTHLY  MAGAZINE  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

New  Series,  Edited  by 
J.  E.  Harting.  F.L.S.,  F.ZS. 
Orij^inal  Articles  by  well-known  Naturalists  in  every  branch  of  Zoology  : 
Occasional  Notes  on  the  Habits  of  Animals  :  Notices  of  the  Arrival  and 
Departure  of  Migratory  Birds  ;  Records  of  the  Occurrence  of  Rare  Birds 
in  the  British  Islands  ;  Ob; ervatioos  on  the  Diaributiou  and  Migration  ot 
British  Fresh-water  Fish  ;  Notices  of  the  Capture  off  the  British  Coasts  of 
Newer  Rare  Marine  Fish  ;  Reports  anl  Notes  from  I.ocal  Aquaria  :  Con- 
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In  the  pre^s  unif.  rm  in  ?i/e.  8:c.,  CENTRAL  AND  S;")UTH  AME- 
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DOMESTIC    ECONOMY    AND    HOUSE- 

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bodies  on  a  plane.  In  educating  the  eye  to  a  correct  perception  of  the 
superficial  features  cf  the  land  it  is  necc^Kary  to  use  a  symbol  as  nearly 
repre  cntinj^  nature  a ,  the  c  nditi  n  of  art  will  all  .w,  which  is  accomplished 
thrcu-jh  thi  i  melh  d  by  imitating  vertical  relief  and  producing  up.n  the  eye 
the  imprev;ion  of  a  m-dtl. 

LONDON:   EDWARD  .STANFORD,  55,  CHARINi3  CROSS.  S.W. 

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THE  CHANNEL  ISLANDS'  ZOOLOGICAL  STATION  AND  MUSEUM   AND   INSTITUTE  OF 

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(With  power  to  increase.) 

Tbis  Society  i«  estabH^hed  on  an  entirely  scientific  basis,  with  the  object  of  fostenni;  and  promoting  the  science  or  Economic  Pisdcnltore,  x': 
of  ftupplyinf  English  and  other  naturalists  and  natural  history  students  with  facilities,  not  hitherto  acce«sible,  for  pur«uinfr  Marine  Biological  Im-esti^t  1 
The  aim  of  the  Society  is,  in  fact  to  nrovioe,  in  a  conveniently  accesMble  and  suitable  locality,  an  institution  which  shall  fulfil  for  the  entire  noni 
Europe  that  sphere  of  utility  w>  ich  the  v ell-known  Naples  Aquaiium  and   Zcological  Station  now  does  for  the  south.     Mature  considetatiaa  Im  u 
to  the  selection  of  a  mc^t  ebpHe  and  advantageous  ^itc  in  tie  neighbourhood  of  St.  Helier's,  Jersey,  for  this  purpose. 

As  with  the  Naple«  Institution  there  will  be  en^ bodied  in  this  undertaking  the  following  several  features  of  utility  and  attraction  :— Fir^y.fw  \t 
cntertainv ent  of  the  public,  ard  as  a  source  of  ioccme  for  the  defragment  cf  the  g»neral  working  expen5C5,  a  Salooti  will  be  set  apart  fnr  the^sLl 
display  of  the  living  denizens  of  the  ocean,  and  of  which  it  nay  be  &aid  that  the  shores  of  the  Channel  Islands  prodi'cc  rn  unparalleled  wealth  of  niff;:^'^ 
and  varety.  Adjoining  the  Saloon  there  will  likewise  be  a  Museum,  available  both  as  a  Lecture-room  and  for  the  exhibition  of  a  typical  Natural  Hi>^;r 
Collection,  more  especially  teprrsentative  of  the  luxuriant  Marine  Fauna  and  Flora  of  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  more  important  Techiical  Department  will  include  Laboratories,  with  all  suitable  Apparatus  and  Instruments.  Tanks  for  Ex-ericier^ 
Pisdculturej  and  a  Library  of  Standard  Scientific  Works  and  J'eiials  for  the  use  of  naturalists  and  students  who  shall  repair  here  for  the  m^ 
of  prosecuting  Marine  Biological  Research.  With  the  Institution  will  also  be  associated  a  Ddpot  for  the  supply  of  living  or  carefully-i>rTxm-- 
marine  ipedmens  to  British  or  other  Universities,  Mu&eums,  Scitnce  Schools  and  Aquaria,  or  to  naturalists  that  may  require  the  same  for  muscuisn?^. 
class  den  onstration,  ot  for  private  investigation. 

Fotlowirg  the  sy»t(m  adopted  at  the  Penikese  Island  Station,  it  is  further  proposed,  frr  the  full  developrrcnt  of   the   scientific   re(Otirces;'r' 
Imlitution,  to  maugurot^  Summer  Classes  for  the  attendance  of  Students,  and  to  hold  out  sufficient  inducements  for  the  most  eminent  aothon^' 
various  biological  subjects  to  deliver  Lectures  and  a  Course  of  Instruction  to   these  Clashes  upon  that  branch  of    Natural  History  with  whicii  i-' 
leputation  is  more  especially  as»cciated.     In  view  of  the  Laboratories  and  Lecture  Arrangements  b^ing  complete  by  the  Summer  of  1878,  those  propii:: 
to  avail  themselves,  as  Stuaentf,  of  the  advantages  held  out,  are  re()uested  to  communicate  with  the  Secretary.  . 

In  view  of  a  desire  already  expressed  by  many  wishing  to  as»bt  in  the  establishment  of  this  Institution  without  becoming^  Shareholders.  tkeSoo? 
is  empowered  to  receive  Contributions  towards  the  establis-hment  and  further  development  of  the  Institution.  Such  moi.eys  contributed  will  bede^' 
entirely  to  the  uses  abrve-n  entior.ed.  ard  will  rot  I e  applical  le  for  the  putposts  ol  a  Dividend  or  otheiwse  for  the  personal  advantage  of  the onJir^ 
Shareholders.  F  special  privileges  will  be  granted  to  all  such  Dcpors  ;  Subciibers  of  ;Cioand  upwards  receiving  in  return  the  advantage  of  a  Life-B>«a«" 
thip  and  free  admission  to  thr  Institution  upon  all  occasions  on  which  the  building  is  open  to  the  pnblic. 

The  techrical  control  of  the  Institution  wi.l  be  unoettaken,  as  Naturalist  Director,  by  Mr.  W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  F.L.S..  F.Z.S.,  &c..fonn;fT 
Assistant  in  the  Natural  History  Department  of  the  Britbh  Museum,  and  whose  experience  as  NaruralLtt  for  some  years  to  the  leading  English  Aqj^"- 
eminently  qualifies  him  for  this  position. 

In  registering  the  Memorandum  and  Articles  of  Association  of  this  Society,  special  care  has  been  uken  to  secure  for  the  undcrtakinz  apjf* 
scientific  status,  and  to  permanently  exclude  frcm  it  all  those  supplementary  auractions  of  an  irrelevant  nature  usually  a<;sociated  with  public  exbuc-^ 
of  the  living  wonders  ot  the  deep.     It  is  only  under  such  restrictions  and  leseivations  that  patronage  and  subscriptions  are  here  invited. 

For  Prospectuses  and  further  particulars  apply  to  the  Secrrtary  or  to  the  Naturalist  Lurpctor,  16,  Foyal  Square,  St.  Helier's,  J«***>*  .^ 

Contribuiir  n<  cf  Books  and  Serial  Literaiu>e  relating  to  tiologtcal  Subjects  suited  for  the  Library,  of  Insuumcnts  and  Apparatus  for  the  Laboratcr, 
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An  especial  appeal  for  suppott  is  here  made  to  the  Fellows  and  Members  of  the  various  Metrrpo^itan  and  Provincial  Scientific  Sodeties.aod*'^^' 
have  now  olaced  before  t)  em  an  urprecedented  cpportunity  of  advancing  the  piestige  and  inietestk  of  Engli.*h  Matine  Bological  Science.  ,  _     . 

DONATIONS  RECEIVED:— Mr.  Charles  Da.win,  LL.D.,  F.R.a,  lio\  Dr.  J.  MiHar,  F.L.S.,  C^',  Prof  R.  O.  Cunningham,  F.LS,  i\ 
Mr.  C.  Le  Feuvre,  ;6a  ;  Mr.  A.  de  Gruchv,  £,10  ;  Mr.  F.  Voism,  £xo  ;  Mr.  J.  Macready.  £1.  .       , 

All  further  Contributions  to  the  "  Donation  Fund  "  for  the  founding  of  the  Channel  Islands'  Zoological  Station  and  Musetim  and  Institute  a 
Pisciculture  will  be  duly  acknowledged  in  these  columns.  ^ 

W.  SAVILLE  KENT,  Hoj«.  Sic 


L.  REEVE  &  CO;S  NEW  WORKS. 

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BRYCE    M.    WRIGHT,   P.R.G.S.,  &c., 
90,    GREAT   RUSSELL  STREET,   BLOOMSBURY, 
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Now  ready,  8v  o,  7S.  6(/. 

NOTES  on  EMBRYOLOGY  and  CLASSI- 
FICATION, for  the  Us-  of  Snu'ents.     With  co  Il!u5tratiors  ^\ 
RAY  LANKESTLR,  M  A  ,  F.R.S  .  Profc5sor  of  Geology  and  ^- 
paraiive  Anatomy,  Uiiivcr.-ity  College,  London. 

J.  &  A.  CHURCHILL.  Nc»^  Burlington  Sfeet 


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A    THEORY    of   GRAVITY    and    of 

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BASIL  MONTAGU  PICKERING,  196,  Piccadilly^J^^^^^^^ 

Rccenily  publisKcd,  Evo,  c'olh,  he  ord*^,  price  los  6tf. 

The  THEORY   of    SCREWS:    a  STUl^J 

in  the  DYNAMICS  of  a   RIGID   RODV      Fy  ROBT  STAW^' 
BALL,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  At.drcv;'s  Prof  cf  Astronomy  in  vli«  ^  " 
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Dublin:  HODr.ES.  FOSTER,  &  CO. 
London:    SIMPKIN.    MARSHALL,   &    CO 


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LINES  OF  ANIMAL  LIFE, 
LINES   OF   VEGETABLE   ^^^^^.^ 

The  first  being  a  P.i per  read   bcfcre  the  Microsc'pical  Society  5     ^^at 
pool,  December  2,  1876,  and  the  latter  the  Inaugural  Adf'ressden     ^^^j. 
the  Annual  Meeti-  g  of  the  Society,  J.  nuary   19,  1877,  by  the  Kev- 
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Price  One  Shilling. 
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DIARY    OF    SOCIETIES. 


London 

THURSDA  K,  Decrmbrr  6. 
Royal  Socibtv,  at  8.30.— On  theTide^at  Malta:  Sir.  G.  Airy,  F.R.S.— 

On   Hcrmetically-R«aled  Flasks  opened  in  the  Alps  :  Di.  Tyndall,  F.R  S. 

— Researches  on  the  Effect  of  Lieht  upon  Bacteria  and  othtr  f>rganisms  : 

Dr.  Downesand  T.  P.  Blunt— On  Points  of  Rcsemb'ancc  between  ih? 

Suprarenal  Bodies  of  the  Horse  and  Dog,  and  certain  Occasional  Structures 

in  the  Ovary  ;  C.  Creighton,  M .  B. 
Socirrv  or  antiquakiks,  at  8.30 — Antiquarian  Dlsoverics  in  Sus«x  : 

F.    H.  Wil'ett.— On  the  Fate  of  Henry  Brook,   Tenth  and  Last  Lord 

Cobham :  J.  G.  Waller. 
LiNNBAN  Socibtv,   at  8. — Observation?  on  the  Gtnw^  Pandanus  with  an 

Enumeration  of  all  Species  hitherto  described,  Habitat,  &c. :  Dr.  I    Bailey 

Balfour.  —On  Certain  Organs  of  the  Cidaridae  :  Chas.  Stewart  — Not--^  on 

the  Rev.  Mr.  Crombie's  Paper  on  the  Lichens  of  the  CkalUni^er  Expedi- 
tion :  Dr.  J.  Siirton. — On  Insects  obtained  by  Dr  J.  C.  P-Sem  in  Java : 

Cha«.  O.  Watcthouse. 
Chemical  Socibtv,  at  8.— On  Gallium  :  Prof.  Odling. — On  the  G>nstitution 

of  the  Tcrpetesand  of  Camphor:  Dr.  Armstrong  — On  Potable  Waters: 

Dr.  Mills. 

FRIDAY^  December  7. 
Geologists*  Associatiok,  at  8.— The  Cha'k  of  Yorkshire :  J.  F.  Blake. 

SUNDAY^  Dbcbmbbr  9 
Sunday  Lrcture  Socfetv,  at  4.— Meteorites  and  Shooting  Stars  :  Channell 

L^w. 

MONDAY^  Dbcbmbsr  10. 
OKOGRAratCAL  SociBTV.  at  8  30  — On  the  Formation  of  the  Main  Masses 

of  the  Land  :  Prof.  P.  Martin  Duncan,  F.R.S. 
Socibtv  or  Arts*  at  8.— Cantor  Leaure  ;  Manufacture  of  Paper  :   Wm 

Arnot. 

TUESDAY,  December  ii. 
Antmropolooical  Institittb,  at  8  —Flint  Itnplements  from  Egypt :  A,  J. 

Jukes  Browne  —Galleries  of  the  Cave  Pit,  Cissbury :  J.  Park  Harrs.n. 
Institution  of  Civil  Encinbhrs.  at  8. 
Wf.st  Li>NDON  SciBNTinc  Association,  at  8.— Freshwater  Poljzoa:  W. 

M.  Old 
Metropolitan  Scibntific  Association,  at  7. 

WEDNESDAY,  DECfMBER  X2. 
Sociktv  of  Telegraph  Engineers,  at  8  —Annual  Meeting. 
Socibtv  or  Art.s  at  8.— FrecdonJ  in  the  Giowih  and  Sale  of  the  Ciops  01 

the  Farm  considered  in  its  bearinss  upon  the  Interest  of  Landovmers  and 

Tenant  Farmers  :  J.  B.  Lawes,  F.R.S. 

THURSDAY,  DhcbmbER  13. 
Royal  Society,  at  8.30. 

Mathematical  Socibtv,  at  8.— Notes  on  Normals:  S.  Roberts 
Watford  Natural  Hibtojry  Socibtv,  at  8. 

SATURDAY,  December  15. 

Physical  Society,  at  3. 

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THIS  DAY,  IN  2  VOLS.,  MEDIUM  8vo,  PRICE  4$/.,  THE 

VOYAGE  OF  THE  "  CHALLENGER."  THE  ATLANTIC : 

A    PRELIMINARY    ACCOUNT    OF    THE     GENERAL    RESULTS     OF    THE    VOYAGE    OF     H.M.S. 
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By    Sir   C.    WYVILLE   THOMSON,   F.R.S,, 

Direct jr  of  the  Scientific  Staff  jjf  the  Expedition, 
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Illustrations. 
PublisJud  by  Authority  of  the  Lords  Commissiotuts  of  the  Admiralty, 
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knowledge.  No  one  can  be  more  competent  than  the  accomplished  scientific  chief  of  the  expedition  to  satisfy  the  public  in  thti 
respect.  .  .  .  The  paper,  the  printing,  and  especially  the  numerous  illustrations,  are  of  the  highest  quality.  ,  .  .  We  have  rareij, 
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admiration  for  the  skill  of  the  artist  of  the  expedition,  Mr.  Wild,  in  his  delineation  of  these  forms  ;  and  Mr.  Cooper  well  desfms 
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drawings.  .  .  .  The  work  contains  a  mass  of  information  of  hi^h  value,  and  is  a  contribution  of  the  first  rank  to  our  knowledge  0^ 
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UNIFORM  with"  THE  ABOVE,  BY  THeT  SAME  AUTHOR. 

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Under  the  Scientific  Direction  of  Dr.    CARPENTER,    F.R.S.,  J.  GVVYNN  JEFFREYS,    F.U.S.,   and    Sir    WYVILLL 

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FIFTH  AND  CHEAPER  EDITION,  CROWN  8vo,  6s. 

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TELEPHONIC  ELECTRICITY. 

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PICTURESQUE  EUROPE 

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Volume,  comprising  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
Complete,  containing  Twenty-six  exquisite  Steel 
Plates,  from  Original  Drawings,  and  nearly 
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Descriptive  Letterpress. 

"  It  would  not  be  too  much  to  say  that  it  is  the  finest  work  that  has  yet  been 
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Now  ready,  Fourth  Edition  of  part  I,,  prior  *^ 

THE   SEA. 

With  ITnmeroas  Orlstnal  ZUustrationi, 

The  "toilers  of  The  Sea"— the  fijhcrn-A 
whalers,  pearl-tHver*,  and  coral-gathefcrs — togei^i* 
with  the  inexhaustible  resources  of  The  Set 
developed  and  in  process  of  development  will  f.-a 
a  prominent  feature  of  this  Work. 

The  terrors  of  The  Sea— its  storms,  harricc  - 
whirlpools,  waterspouts,  impetuous  ami  irearhcr  -  * 
currents — will  all  demand  their  due  Nhare  of 
attention.     Then  the  inhabitants  of  The  Sea  » 
be  considered,  from  the  tiniest  germ   of  life  r*^  •  ^ 
great   leviathan,   or  even    the  questionake  «<  - 
serpent  race.      And  our  record    of     the  pj-t-* 
depths  of  ocean,  with  their  moontains,  "vijry, 
plains,  and  luxurious  marine  vegetation,  wili  \< 
found  full  of  interest ;  while  at  the  same  time  "^ 
shall  be  drawn  irresistibly  to  speak  of  the  p: 
merged  treasure  ships  of  days  gone  by,  and  the  <:- 
marine  cables  of  to-day. — Extract  from  Pro^jeui. 

I     Cassell,  Pdter,  iSr*  Calpin,  LudgaU  Hill,  LonJ- 


«•  An  entirely  New  Natural  History  for  the  STUDENT  and 
GENERAL  READER,  giving  in  tbe  Simplest  Language  the 
Results  of  the  Latest  Researches  of  the  best  Authorities. 

Messrs.  CASSELL,  PETTER,  &  (JALPIN.  encouraged  by  the  very  great 
great  success  which